PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

Modern Concepts in Artificial Intelligence is primarily intended for use in an

undergraduate course. Due to its comprehensive coverage and a number of detailed

algorithms, it is useful as a primary reference volume for Artificial Intelligence (AI)

graduate students and professionals wishing to branch out beyond their own subfield.

The only prerequisite is familiarity with basic concepts of computer science

(algorithms, data structures, complexity, etc.) at a sophomore level. AI is a big field;

the main unifying theme is the idea of an intelligent agent. In this book AI is defined as

the science and engineering of making intelligent agents. Each such agent implements a

function that maps percept sequences to actions.

The book is divided into five chapters. Chapter one which introduces the course offers

an overview of AI and traces the history, from the gestation through the emergence of

intelligent agents. Chapter two centred on intelligent agents: systems that can decide

what to do and then do it, and compares the two approaches – human centred and

rationalist – in determining the intelligence of and intelligent agent. Chapter three

focuses on the essential concepts of expert systems and knowledge engineering as it

relates to AI while chapter four considers the commonly used programming languages

for AI: Prolog and Lisp; stating the basic concepts and essentials of programming

through the use of carefully chosen sample programs. The sample programs are

arranged to guide the student through the development of Lisp and Prolog programs

that are constructed in a top-down, declarative fashion which also gives an outlined

view of the major built-in predicates.

ii Modern Concepts in Artificial

Chapter five describes that part of the intelligent agent responsible for reaching

decisions, ways to represent knowledge about the world--how it works, what it is

currently like, and what one's actions might do--and how to reason logically with that

knowledge; examining the fundamental concepts of logical representation and

reasoning. It also considers constraint satisfaction problems, which provides a natural

connection to the material on logic; propositional logic, which was presented as a

stepping-stone to first-order logic as well as the natural language processing

M. S. Okundamiya

February, 2009.

iiiM. S. Okundamiya

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

As a result of further research undertaken by the author it has now been found possible

to provide a new edition of Modern Concepts in Artificial Intelligence incorporating

additional topics and three new chapters for wider undergraduate course coverage in

science and engineering.

The additional topics and three new chapters in this second edition are as follows: the

inclusion of classes of intelligent agents and problem solving as search for goal-based

agents, and symbolic and non-symbolic representations respectively to existing chapter

two and three. Chapter six considers fundamental concepts, methods and algorithms of

constraint satisfaction problems, which provide a natural connection to the material on

logic. Chapter seven deals with natural language processing while chapter eight

presents general overview of genetic programming comparing, its attributes with other

approaches of artificial intelligence. Advantage has also been taken during the revision

of the book to a number of minor points in other parts of the text as well as changing

the format and resetting of the whole pages of the text to provide improved learning

potential for the reader.

I sincerely appreciate God Almighty for His infinite mercy, wisdom, favour and

protection over my family. I would also express my gratitude to the reviewer(s) for

their inputs to this edition. The author would welcome your suggestions, feedback,

criticism or any other comments that will enable me improve the next edition of

Modern Concepts in Artificial Intelligence. Please, send your comments to

st_mico@yahoo.com

M. S. Okundamiya

May, 2011.

iv Modern Concepts in Artificial

CONTENTS

Preface iii

Dedication vi

Contents vii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 General Overview 1

1.1.1 Artificial Intelligence as Science 3

1.1.2 Artificial Intelligence as Engineering 4

1.2 Goals of Artificial Intelligence 5

1.3 History of Artificial Intelligence 6

1.3.1 The Gestation of Artificial Intelligence (1943-1956) 7

1.3.2 Early Enthusiasm, Great Expectations (1952-1969) 8

1.3.3 A Dose of Reality (1966-1974) 9

1.3.4 Knowledge-Based Systems: Key To Power (1969-1979) 9

1.3.5 Ai Becomes an Industry (1980-Present) 10

1.3.6 Ai Becomes A Science (1987-Present) 11

1.3.7 The Emergence of Intelligent Agents (1995 - Present) 12

1.4 Branches of Artificial Intelligence 12

1.5 Applications of Artificial Intelligence 21

CHAPTER TWO: INTELLIGENT AGENT

2.1 Overview 24

2.2 Acting Humanly: The Turing Test Approach 28

2.3 Thinking Humanly: The Cognitive Modelling Approach 29

2.4 Acting Rationally: The Rational Agent Approach 30

vM. S. Okundamiya

2.5 Thinking Rationally: The Laws of Thought Approach 31

2.6 Agents and Environment 33

2.6.1 General Assumption 33

2.6.2 Properties of Task Environments 35

2.7 Classes of Intelligent Agents 37

2.7.1 Simple Reflex Agents 37

2.7.2 Model-Based Reflex Agents 37

2.7.3 Learning Agents 38

2.7.4 Goal-Based Agents 39

2.7.5 Utility-Based Agents 41

2.8 Problem Solving as Search 41

2.9 State of the Art 46

CHAPTER THREE: EXPERT SYSTEMS

3.1 Overview 49

3.2 Knowledge Engineering 50

3.3 Expert System Shells 51

3.3.1 Tree-Based Logic 53

3.3.2 Forward Chaining 53

3.3.3 Backward Chaining 55

3.3.4 Bayesian Belief Networks 58

3.3.5 Neural Networks 59

3.3.6 Fuzzy Logic 59

3.3.7 State Machines 61

3.3.8 Case-Based Reasoning (CBR) 62

3.3.9 Object Oriented Design 62

vi Modern Concepts in Artificial

3.4 The Building Blocks of Expert Systems 63

3.4.1 Knowledge Base 63

3.4.2 Inference Engine 64

3.4.3 Interface 64

3.5 Applications of Expert Systems 65

3.6 Benefits to End Users 67

CHAPTER FOUR: INTRODUCTION TO LISP AND PROLOG

4.1 List Processing 69

4.1.1 Definitions 69

4.1.2 Basic Functions 70

4.1.3 How to Write Functions 72

4.1.4 The Logic of Functions 73

4.1.5 Built-In Functions 77

4.2 Programming in Logic 81

4.2.1 PROLOG Data Structures 83

4.2.2 Unification 86

4.2.3 Operators 87

4.2.4 Applications of PROLOG 88

CHAPTER FIVE: LOGICAL AGENTS

5.1 Introduction 89

5.2 Knowledge-Based (KB) Agents 90

5.3 Logic 96

5.4 Symbolic and Non-Symbolic Representations 102

5.5 Propositional Logic 104

viiM. S. Okundamiya

5.5.1 Syntax 104

5.5.2 Semantics 107

5.5.3 Inference 110

5.5.4 Equivalence, Validity, and Satisfiability 111

5.5.5 Effective Propositional Inference 114

CHAPTER SIX: CONSTRAINT SATISFACTION PROBLEMS

6.1 Introduction 118

6.1.1 Standard Search Formulation 118

6.1.2 Varieties of Constraint Satisfaction Problems 119

6.1.3 Varieties of Constraints 120

6.1.4 Real-World Constraint Satisfaction Problems 122

6.2 Algorithms for Constraint-Satisfaction Problems 122

6.2.1 Constraint Propagation 123

6.2.2 Backtracking 123

6.2.3 Local Search 125

6.3 Intelligent Backtracking and Truth Maintenance 126

6.4 Variable Ordering and Value Instantiation 127

CHAPTER SEVEN: NATURAL LANGUAGE PROCESSING

7.1 Introduction 131

7.2 Natural Language 131

7.2.1 Significance of Natural Language Study 132

7.2.2 Areas of Natural Language 133

7.2.3 Minimality of Natural Language 134

7.3 Computer Language Understanding 134

viii Modern Concepts in Artificial

7.4 Problems in Understanding Language 135

7.5 Natural Language as Artificial Intelligence Problem 136

7.6 Applications 136

CHAPTER EIGHT: INTRODUCTION TO GENETIC PROGRAMMING

8.1 Introduction 138

8.2 Genetic Operators 139

8.3 Operational Principles 139

8.4 Differences between Genetic Programming and other Approaches to

Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence 140

8.5 Attributes of a system for Automatic Programming 150

8.6 The Human-Competitive Results 153

8.6.1 An Automatically Created Solution to a Problem is Competitive with

Human-Produced Results 154

8.6.2 Criteria for an Automatically Created Result to be Human-Competitive 154

References 156Index 170

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