Chapter 1Organizing a Program

The goal for a delegation attending a Model United Nations conference remains the same: to gain an understanding of international relations and to learn means for negotiated, rather than forceful, solutions to conflict.

In this modern and globalizing world, developing this set of skills is essential to becoming a modern citizen and active problem solver in the world.

The extracurricular Model United Nations Club is often the most common model schools use to start a Model UN program. This is because this is the easiest format to get up and running, requiring only an Advisor/Teacher and several interested students.

Students should be prepared to be real leaders and form the active leadership of the club and its ongoing organization, to be able to attract a teacher who has little prior experience with Model UN but is interested in world issues and excited by the students initiative.

One of the greatest educational aspects of Model United Nations is that it is naturally set up as a learn-through-doing model. This means that anyone can begin learning Model UN at any step and gain expertise as one goes along and participates. Students should not be too worried about having never attended or participated in a Model UN conference. The consensus-reaching approach of the UN assures that there is never an ability threshold to begin Model UN, and there are many ways for even a beginner to become involved.

ADVANTAGES

Motivated Participation The major advantages of an extra-curricular club are the opportunities it gives an enthusiastic and dedicated group for self-leadership and suppor-tive teamwork. The club format ensures that only those interested in Model United Nations will participate and attend the conferences on the clubs agenda. With effective student leadership, senior members of the club are generally able to train new members in the social and substantive skills needed for a successful conference performance. Reduced Faculty Burden Ideally, student leadership efforts remove much of the administrative burden that a class-based Model United Nations program places on a faculty advisor. This allows the advisor to concentrate more on substantive preparation for the con-ference; a task that should be his or her first priority.

Maintaining Interest One of the greatest challenges of a club is to keep interests high during the year. Commitment tends to wane particularly when position papers are due, right after a conference, and at the end of the year. The student leadership and the faculty advisor should anticipate this and take steps to prevent it; interest must be kept up at these times so next years program comes off successfully. Additional activities, such as having a party or social event, sponsoring a speaker, holding a fundraiser, and/or attending a local conference should be held to keep the membership involved and to sustain the unity and purpose developed during a conference. Other excellent international education opportunities such as international doc-umentary film festivals, UN visiting speakers and dignitaries, interviewing international students from the high school or nearby university are often available. These are great educational ex-periences, as well as team building opportunities.

DISADVANTAGES

Cliques Cliques often form within clubs which are detrimental to the team spirit. Delegates will naturally want to work and socialize with their closest friends, but the leadership must stress the teamwork of the whole membership above all else. If at all possible, people who are not members of the same social group should be encouraged or assigned to work together.

Chapter 2Conference PreparationThere are two main areas of preparation:

Substantive preparation: Country/committee topic research, position papers

Skills building: Building student skills needed to participate effectively in committee. These skills are dealt with in detail in Chapters 4, 5 and 6.

This chapter shows how these preparation activities can be integrated into a two month time-line, leading up to a conference. In addition, this chapter offers some suggestions about running delegation meetings to help plan for the conference.

It does not cover the details of substantive preparation and skills-building, but rather references the chapters of the manual which contain this information in a logical timeline.

Conference Preparation Timeline The preparation process includes substantive and skills preparation concurrently. The following is a typical timeline for conference preparation. (Preparation time may vary depending on registration deadlines and country/committee assignments). It shows the integration of the two types of preparation.

8 weeks prior to conference: Assign delegates to committees; Begin preliminary research on topics.

7 weeks prior to conference: Conduct Country background research.

6 weeks prior to conference: Organize delegation meeting to discuss guidelines for Position Papers.

5 weeks prior to conference: Run mock sessions at delegation meeting; Develop preliminary country policies

4 weeks prior to conference: Turn in first draft of Position Papers to Faculty Advisor and/or Head Delegate.

3 weeks prior to conference: Final edits on Position Papers completed; Review parliamentary procedures; Practice delivering prepared speeches.

2 weeks prior to conference: Run mock committee session; Develop impromptu speaking skills.

1 week prior to conference: Run mock committee session; Generate ideas for working papers/resolutions.

Suggested Activities for Preparation There are many ways to ensure that preparation remains on track, research is done and the participation skills outlined in Chapter 5 are polished.IMPLEMENTING A CALENDAR Establishing a time-line similar to that presented above is critical to keep preparation on schedule. Examine your schedule and accordingly assign deadlines and activities to keep delegates on task.

ARRANGING LIBRARY VISITS Arranging an appointment with the school or local public library is also a very important early task to expose delegates to a variety of research materials. A list of local UN depository libraries around the US can be found in Appendix D.

ASSIGNING NEWS SUMMARIES Assigning weekly news summaries from different media sources (newspapers, magazines, and television) is one way to keep the delegation up-to-date. Another possible activity is the creation of a UN scrapbook. The focus of this scrapbook should be developments in the assigned country and in the UN.

PANEL DISCUSSIONS & MOCK DEBATES Later in the research schedule, participatory preparation activities are helpful. There are numerous ways to test and broaden the delegation's knowledge. One way is to hold a panel discussion on topics which have particular importance to your country.Hold a mock committee session, using one of the topics to be addressed by the conference. This provides an excellent way to familiarize delegates with the rules of procedure and other countries' positions.

Use conference topics for the mock session to enable the delegates to see exactly what discussions at the conference will be like. It will also focus attention on preparation and teamwork. Refer to the mock committee session and simulation sections included in Chapters 6 and 7.

The advisor and leadership should encourage students to come prepared to these sessions. Mock sessions provide the primary means of evaluating both new and experienced members of the program, between the conferences. These simulations allow advisors and students the chance to see where improvements can be made, as well as help to keep interest high between the conferences.

POSITION PAPERS AS PREPARATION Most conferences require delegates to prepare brief policy statement papers written from the perspective of the assigned country on the topics slated for committee discussion. The preparation of these papers is probably the best way to make sure that research is completed and the knowledge assimilated.

Delegation Meetings Meetings are the working environment of a Model United Nations program and, as such, set the tone for its success or failure. The organized gatherings should be professional, serious, intelligent and purposeful. Meetings must accomplish a variety of tasks, including communicating the organization's goals to the student; resolving the administrative and logistical concerns of the club, ensuring that the research and preparation of the delegation is thorough; and educating students in rules of procedure.

Suggestions for Conducting Meetings The method for running any meeting varies according to each organization's structure. Even though there is no clear way to conduct the ideal meeting, there are several suggestions that will ensure that the meeting will run smoothly. Some of these ideas are discussed below.

Attendance and Publicity: Attendance is a first priority. Especially in a club-based program, publicity measures must be aggressively pursued. Flyers should be posted, announcements made during the school's morning/afternoon announcements and any other permissible measures taken to make the dates and times of meetings known.

Advance Planning: The meeting must be well-planned as well as well-publicized. Organizing the meeting will entail making the necessary attendance and sign-up sheets, figuring out what announcements need to be made to the club, determining any decisions that the group must make and preparing a presentation on an aspect of an upcoming conference. It is recommended that club leadership prepare an agenda before each meeting that encompasses these points. The meeting itself should start with announcements. Any attendance or sign-up that you may keep should be passed around at this time.

Lesson Plans: Try to develop presentations that can effectively impart pivotal concepts to the students. These presentations can include lectures on rules of procedure, discussions with international relations experts, or panels that are assembled to discuss designated topics. Presentations will provide the students with a tangible learning experience at each meeting and bring in new members whose interest have been kindled by a subject in which they are interested. Meetings also serve as a place to hone delegates' skills through countless practice sessions.

Chapter 3Conducting ResearchConducting ResearchGood research and preparation are essential to effective participation in any Model United Nations conference. Poorly prepared delegates gain little from the conference and bring down the quality of the simulation.

Most conferences require written indication that delegates have done their preparatory research in the form of Position Papers. Writing the Position Paper is a valuable opportunity to gather all of the delegates research in one document and set forth the countrys policy in a clear and well-supported manner. Carefully preparing the Position Paper will allow the delegate to participate fully in the simulation and formulate country policy on the basis of his or her knowledge base. Adequate research and preparation will not only make the entire conference more enjoyable, but will also leave the delegate with a base of knowledge on a topic that will last long after the conference. Appendix D of this guide provides a list of resources and links to some of todays best research tools for Model UN as well as international issues in general, while Appendix F and Appendix G give someadditional information about the UN and UN documents.

Writing Position PapersThe purpose of Position Papers is to ensure that debate in committee is highly substantive and to give delegates an opportunity to assemble their research into an organized policy statement. These papers should present the position of your country and should be written from the viewpoint of the government of that country.

Some conferences require that specific questions be addressed in the Position Papers. These papers should be concise, accurate, well-written and directly address the questions posed by the committee Director. Even if no specific questions are asked by the Director, a good position paper should: clearly outline the countrys policies and what factors contribute to them integrate indigenous national factors into the responses refer to domestic and international documents and correctly cite them deal with the in-depth issues of the topic areas provide resolution suggestions that address the problem areas

A well-written policy paper also requires the use of the following skills: original and critical thinking thorough understanding of the dynamics of your nation functional and applied knowledge of the topicsEach paper should be edited carefully. A good idea is to give the paper to a group of peers to have it reviewed for content, grammar and spelling.

Types of Research NeededPosition papers are the core preparation for delegates before attending a Model United Nations conference. In order to write a comprehensive and well-researched Position Paper, delegates must endeavor to familiarize themselves with several distinct areas:

The United Nations itself The country being represented The countrys position on the topics to be discussed in committee General World opinion on the committee topics

THE UNITED NATIONSGeneral Knowledge and Committee History: In general terms, delegates should know what the United Nations is and how it works. More specifically, delegates must be familiar with the history and organization of the UN and the history of their assigned committees. The history of a particular committee can help set the tone of the debate.

Past Actions of the UN on the Issue: Most importantly, the delegate should be familiar with the past actions of the United Nations on the topics to be run in his or her committee as well as the present status of those topics in the United Nations system. If a delegate is well versed on previous efforts of their committee, they are more likely to develop original and new solutions rather than propose repetitive efforts.

UN Research Sources: Numerous sources exist for these research areas. Actual UNdocuments are often the most informative resources because they show delegates the work the UN produces in reality. A good starting point is the Annotated Agenda of the General Assembly which can be found online or at the UN Information Office (Appendix D). This Annotated Agenda provides a brief history of each agenda item and lists what resolutions, reports, and documents were adopted and when. While the Annotated Agenda does not analyze why something happened, it serves as a helpful guide to the documents on the issues.

Most conferences distribute their own background papers or guides containing summaries of past United Nations actions on the topic areas as well as their current status. The papers also contain useful bibliographies on the specific topic areas to aid in the delegates research process. Note that these papers are merely a starting point for a delegates research but should always be utilized.

COUNTRY RESEARCHBackground: Concurrent with United Nations research, delegates should investigate the country they are representing. Country knowledge is important so that a delegate understands national interests and concerns. This allows a delegate to represent his or her country intelligently, and to remain on policy, even when specific information about a topic may not be available. A good starting point is often a country profile, provided by an international body (Appendix D).

Delegates should pay particular attention to the decision-making structure within the country in an effort to understand the actual, rather than theoretical, process of political decision-making. The key is to understand the way the domestic situation influences the formulation of international policy. The entire delegation should participate in this research and analysis process.

Some conferences require a country background statement, in addition to committee specific Position Papers, to demonstrate that a delegation has a firm grasp of the situation in their own country.

Country research should generally include:Geography: size and description, location, natural resources, and neighboring states and regions;

Vital statistics: population, population density and growth rate, life expectancy, infant mortality, literacy rate;

Culture: majority and minority components, religions and their influences, languages, customs and traditions;

Economy: type of economy, gross national product (GNP), historical and projectedeconomic growth, debt owed, average per capita income, major imports andexports, and trading partners;

Government: type of government, leaders, political parties, allies and enemies,membership of political and economic organizations, role in international politics;

History: general history, reasons and philosophy behind present-day foreignpolicies;

Foreign Policy and International Relations: allies, bloc alignment, critical foreignpolicy concerns (e.g., trade, territorial disputes), membership and activity ininternational organizations, including the UN.

These examples are not the only items necessary to formulate accurate national positions.Each country has specific problems that only it deals with and these are very important in influencing its decisions, both domestically and internationally. As delegates research each of these components of their country, they should also critically examine how that component will influence their countrys stance on a particular topic.

COMMITTEE TOPIC RESEARCHWith basic country background and UN research accomplished, the delegate can begin formulating a policy for his or her country on the issues to be discussed in the Model United Nations committee.

The most important aspect of research is understanding the topics the committeeaddresses. The committee background paper sent out by the conference summarizes the issue from a broad perspective. Understanding the issues includes knowing what international policies exist (in the UN and other international institutions) to address the issue. Bibliographies are usually included in conference background papers for further delegate research, but these sources should be supplemented by further research conducted by the delegates.

It is also important to begin finding out what current country policy is on the issue. See the following section on research sources. Often, this information may be unavailable, incomplete, or inconclusive. In those cases, delegates should still continue to compile all the information they can find on a given topic, which will help them inform whatever policy they choose to adopt. Delegates may also find it helpful to expand their research regionally in an effort to deduce their national policy on specific issues.

Research culminates in the formulating a countrys policy. Even if a delegate is unable to find information specifically addressing his or her countrys policy on a particular topic, the delegate should be able to make an educated guess informed by their research. While it might feel like a guess, this is actually the process of making an informed decision based on the information the delegate has gathered.Formulating policy, or making an educated guess, starts with asking why or how a topic is important to the country being represented. The delegate should look at the various groups in the country with distinct views on the issue. The delegate must realistically consider how much access to power these groups have and how much they are able to influence their government. By weighing the power and access of the different groups, a delegate can extrapolate probable policy decision in the country on the issue.

In some cases, if there is limited information about the countrys decision-making process or interest groups, the delegate may only be able to determine some of the variables involved. If this occurs, he or she will have to rely on the ideology of government, power of the individual and their rights upheld by the country in order to make an educated and defensible guess about the countrys policy on that particular issue.

Another possible approach to take when information is lacking is to look at the policies of countries with similar ideologies and regional interests. This technique should be used carefully however. For example, it would be a grave error to assume that Thailand and Vietnam always agree simply because they are both in the same region of the world.

Finally, delegates should examine their national policies and determine if a conflict exists.These areas of conflict will most certainly affect committee debate during the conference.

WORLD OPINIONOnce delegates have completed the research on the United Nations, their own country, and the topics to be discussed, they must turn to the allies of their country and various geopolitical blocks (i.e., groups of nations with similar interests). The delegates should know which countries can be expected to support their position, as well as the position of other blocks in the committee. Every delegate should know which of these countries will be represented in the committee.

It is important to know the variations of policies that will be represented by different blocks in a committee. Knowing these variations allows a delegate to work toward a solution that meets the needs of all of the blocks. On questions of development and economics, two broader blocks generally form: the Developed block and Lesser-Developed block.

Research ResourcesLocating information can be a source of frustration. Some topics are obscure and some countries receive very little press coverage. On other topics and countries, the amount of information available can be overwhelming. This section outlines some of the best sources available and indicates where they may be found.

INFORMATION ABOUT THE UNDevising practical recommendations and country policies for a committee require that delegates begin with a broad research base. The following preparatory materials serve well as a quick introduction to the UN system and to a historical overview of the topic areas. The United Nations Cyber School Bus website provides excellent Model United Nations resources, especially for new clubs:http://cyberschoolbus.un.org/modelun/index.asp

The ideal situation for any Model United Nations club is to have a library of UN materials at its disposal. The UN fortunately makes many of its resources available online. There are a number of UN publications that a club should try to obtain or review for their library, many of which are not accessible on the web (Appendix D):

Charter of the United NationsThe founding document of the United Nations, akin to the Constitution of the U.S., which sets the purpose and goalsof the organization.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights, International Covenant on Civil & Political Rights & International Covenant of Economic, Social, and Cultural RightsThese three documents (two treaties & one General Assembly resolution) are informally called the International Billof Rights. Even topics outside the human rights spectrum refer to the rights embodied in these documents.

Annotated Agenda of the General AssemblyUN document published every June for each session of the General Assembly. This document describes each agendaitem with a brief historical background and citation of relevant documents.

Basic Facts About the United NationsA paperback outlining the basic work of the United Nations and its family of organizations.

Information regarding the priorities of the current Secretary-GeneralEach Secretary-General will have certain goals and priorities that help shape the focus and direct the work of theorganization. Transcripts of speeches and official statements from the office of the Secretary-General are readily available online.

TOPICAL GUIDESPoliticalAnnual Editions: Global IssuesThis annual publication identifies the key issues and declines arising from the changes in world politics each year.

The Oxford Companion to Politics of the WorldA comprehensive guide to recent contemporary politics from an international perspective.

Human RightsThe United Nations and Human Rights

Development/EnvironmentHuman Development Report, UNDP World Development ReportWorld Development Reports of recent years are equally insightful and can be found on the World Bank website.

Bulletin of the World Health OrganizationThe Bulletin examines the developmental strategies in a number of sectors and their impact on health and the environment. It also discusses policies and approaches towards confronting these issues.

RefugeesThe State of the Worlds Refugees (UNHCR)This book describes current problems and their causes with informed analyses, charts and discussions of policy alternatives.

DisarmamentThe United Nations and Disarmament 1945- 85: A Fortieth Anniversary ReviewAn excellent general source on the background & history of the topic.

Disarmament YearbookAdditionally, the Department of Disarmament publishes a series of fact sheets that may be obtained free of charge.

EconomicWorld Economic Survey, UNWorld Bank Annual Reports, IMF

The United Nations: The United Nations has a great deal of publications available on the website. Titles there are organized in the following topics: Peace & Security; Environment & Urban Issues; Development & Millennium Development Goals; Human Rights; Humanitarian Affairs and International Trade. Most resolutions should also be available on the online resource, Official Document System of the United Nations (ODS). This system allows a searcher to locate documents and preliminary versions of UN resolutions.

Chapter 5Building Skills

Building Skills Delegates must acquire the skills necessary to participate successfully in a Model United Nations committee. These skills allow the delegates to translate national policy and desired goals into concrete measures and actions. Participation skills include:

Ability to role play Using the Rules of Procedure correctly Effective Communication & Public speaking; Negotiating and consensus building Diplomacy between delegates from blocs and throughout the committee. Formulating written documents

Defining Effectiveness in Committee The objective of every delegate is to be effective in committee. Being effective means forwarding the goals and interests of ones country to arrive at a realistic response or solution to the committees topic of debate. To do this, a delegate must be knowledgeable about his or her own country, the topic areas, and the proceedings of the UN.

In addition, a delegate must also be able to work well with others. Delegates cannot be effective in committee if they alienate other participants by mistaking assertiveness for condescending behavior and/or rude treatment of fellow delegates. The experienced delegate chooses to further his or her aims through perceptive and tactful diplomacy. This ability to communicate effectively and diplomatically with others to resolve difficulties is a key skill and one that can be taught, practiced and developed to make your committee experience even more rewarding.

Working well with others often means cutting through the national policies to finding creative solutions to problems that meet the interests of all nations. Herein is the root of true negotiation finding consensus policy solutions that do not alienate the national interests of any members of the committee. Delegates should always keep in mind their countrys best alternative to a negotiated agreement. In the context of a Model UN committee session, a delegate should consider whether the proposed resolutions address the situation in a way that is better than the UN not addressing the issue at all.

Role Playing Delegates are expected to effectively act as representatives of their assigned countries throughout the duration of the conference. This must be demonstrated both in the delegates conduct as UN officials and by the delegates aptitude in representing the interests of their countries. Delegates will frequently be challenged to think on their feet and should therefore be well-versed in their national positions and in the reasons behind those positions.

Delegates must also be able to distinguish between their national policies and their fundamental national interests. A national policy is the stance a country takes on an issue and the positions a delegate presents when negotiating with other delegates. A national interest is what a country deems vital to its existence. To illustrate this difference one need only consider the United States relationship with the Philippines. The US supported both the Marcos regime and its usurper, the Aquino government.

This course of action by the US was largely due to the fact that the US benefits strategically by having a military base on Philippine soil. Thus, the policy of the United States changed from supporting Marcos to Aquino but its strategic interests remained the same.

A national position can be compromised for the sake of a greater good, especially if it achieves long-range interests or if it can be translated into direct benefits for the nation. A national interest cannot be compromised. Delegates should not blindly or uncritically follow the stated positions of their country. Rather, they should identify the reasons behind those positions and extrapolate on the national interest of their country. To learn more about negotiating generally, and the difference between policies and interests, delegates may review a classic text in the field of negotiation called Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In by Roger Fisher and William Ury.

By recognizing the difference between a national position and a national interest, delegates will be freer to actively participate in the negotiating process while accurately representing their country. Delegates can be creative in their approaches to problem-solving and can thus get more out of their Model UN experience.

Rules of Procedure The committees at each Model UN conference work within the rules of procedure formulated by the conference staff. Effective use of the rules is essential to a smooth-running, effective and functional committee. IMUNA conference Rules and Procedures are covered in Chapter 6, and these tend to be similar in most conferences or at least have a great deal of overlap with standard Parliamentary Rules of Procedure. (Also see Appendix A for a full list of these Rules and Appendix B for a shorter quick reference).

Effective Communication & Public Speaking Verbal communication is fundamental for the delegate. The delegate must be able to verbalize ideas and support arguments clearly and concisely to a single person as well as to large groups. Delegates should learn to speak from prepared notes as well as extemporaneously.

The two keys to a successful speech are brevity and relevance. All speeches, whether stating national polices or extemporaneously reacting to new ideas proposed to the committee, should be clear and concise. They should address the issue at hand, whether it is substantive or procedural, and remain germane to the point throughout the entire speech. Written speeches will help to ensure that delegates do not leave important points out and it is particularly helpful, and effective, to refer specifically to main points raised by other delegates that are germane. This demonstrates that you are able to utilize another very important skill in conflict resolution listening well to others issues and incorporating them into to your discussion.

WRITING SPEECHES Although most of the speeches that a delegate gives will be delivered extemporaneously, there are occasions when formal speeches can be given. These usually occur during general debate on a specific issue or during opening policy statements. Formal speeches should be well-written and well-practiced so that their delivery will be as effective as possible. Even these prepared statements, however, may need to be altered in the course of the general debate in order to respond to points made by other delegates.

KINDS OF SPEECHES Policy Speeches: General debate speeches outline the countrys policy on a wide range of issues. The first speech on a given topic should state national policy on that issue. Such a speech should include: Broad introduction to the countrys goals on the specific issue; Specific positions on various aspects of the issue at hand; Supporting arguments; A conclusion summarizing your case.

Extemporaneous Speeches: These spur-of-the-moment speeches are the primary vehicle for a delegate to communicate his or her ideas about a specific topic. A few minutes of planning will make the speech much more effective, as a rambling delegate will quickly lose the attention of the committee. The following tips on different extemporaneous speeches are helpful:

Substantive Speeches These speeches deal with issues related to the topics, and should incorporate the following suggestions: Make notes on opposing viewpoints while they are being given and then answer each point directly; Keep notes on allies speeches, bringing out points which have been omitted and re-emphasizing concepts which may still be unclear; Highlight important sections of the resolutions and state why they are important; Keep notes so that you do not omit important points.

Procedural Speeches These are speeches regarding the pros and cons of a motion before the committee, and should include the following suggestions: Speak only to the procedural matter at hand; Explain your viewpoint as to what should or should not happen; Be concise and complete.

DELIVERING SPEECHES Good speaking skills are necessary in Model UN because both formal and informal meetings require that the delegates message reach a large audience. Because many delegates have had practice speaking to small groups, this section focuses on large group speaking skills. The points made, however, can easily be applied to a small group situation. The following tips are helpful:

Know what to say before saying it; even extemporaneous speakers should have an idea of the point they want to get across.

Speak loudly and clearly; take advantage of the microphones that are available in most committee rooms.

Speak slowly; allow the words to sink in. Do not, however, fill the spaces between words with monosyllables like um and like.

Practice delivering your policy points in an active and engaging manner. Other delegates will not pay attention to a speech delivered in a monotone manner;

A delegate should also add some illuminating facts about his or her country in the speech. This will make it more interesting and delegates will likely pay closer attention.

Negotiation and Consensus-Building Delegates must develop negotiating skills so that they may attain their countrys aims, whatever they may be. This includes adopting a strategy and using the proper tactics to accomplish the desired goal. To be an effective negotiator, delegates must be tactically as well as substantively prepared before the conference begins. In researching their country, committee and issues, they should -- for each agenda item -- formulate an objective, strategy, and tactics. Students objectives should address such questions as: does my country have a specific position on this issue; does it wish to see concrete action taken?

Once a delegate has thought through the objectives of his or her country in the debate, he or she should prepare a strategy and tactics for reaching that objective. Examples range from delaying debate through procedural means to utilizing speeches in order to persuade fellow delegates. Obviously, a delegate should develop a strategy that achieves as many of his or her countrys objectives as possible without losing sight of the overall goal in negotiating any one point.

A last note: To negotiate is to practice diplomacy. It is a careful balancing of the ideological against the practical, of the necessity of compromise against the policy and priorities of the nation one represents. This is not always easy, but in many ways it is one of the most rewarding aspects of the conference.

TACTICS The following is a list of negotiating tactics and the merits and possible drawbacks of each: Anger: Anger, real or feigned, draws attention to a point and signals the seriousness of a negotiators position, while raising doubts about the validity of an opponents position. This tactic could, however, stimulate an equally angry response, creating unneeded problems.

Aggression: Delegates may aggressively emphasize errors and flaws in an opponents argument to weaken confidence in his or her position. Unfortunately, an aggressive stance might cause a fellow delegate to react in such a way that he or she becomes more stubborn on the issue and can eventually lead to a breakdown in diplomacy within the committee.

Assuming a Reasonable Stance: This strategy is the most common and effective tactic. In other words, induce and adhere to a spirit of compromise and consensus. Compromise is usually the key to a successful negotiating session. Thus learning to negotiate in good faith is often the most successful, as others usually respond to it with a reciprocal sense of trying to forge resolution and compromise. This style depends on your countrys actual policies and national interests, as it may not be the best tactic for that countrys actual goals.

Demanding More in a First Offer: Demanding more than one is ultimately hoping to get is an excellent strategy for beginning negotiations. On the other hand, the demand could be viewed as so outrageous that its proponent might be seen as not really interested in negotiating. Use this tactic cautiously in committee, but do not ignore its effectiveness.

False Demand: This is another good negotiating tactic. By posing a demand and then yielding on it, a delegate convinces others that his or her country is reasonable and sincere in its negotiations. This action also sets an example for others to follow and reciprocate. It may however mislead an opponent into thinking that the negotiators position is weak. A related tactic is to convince an opponent that a pending offer is ones bottom line.

Playing One Against Another: This action is sometimes useful. By comparing different interests between two opponents, the delegate will sometimes gain the upper hand against a stronger opponent by letting him or her direct his or her energies in the wrong direction. In some cases, an opponent will not take the bait and the delegate may find him or herself in a weaker rather than a stronger position. Surrendering: This can sometimes limit potential damage and enable a delegate to appeal to their opponents sense of ethics and fairness. However, an opponent may not take pity if this tactic is used too late in the negotiating process, opting instead to go for the kill.

Negotiating With Authority: Using this tactic, a delegate attempts to convince others that he or she is most knowledgeable on a particular subject. The opinion of a delegate who negotiates from a position of strength will be given a greater weight in the formulation of resolutions. The delegate who appears to be the leader will attract followers and gain support for his or her actions. Of course, having established such a position, being proven wrong can be disastrous.

Diplomacy During the course of the conference, delegates may find themselves working in different blocs groups of nations which vote and/or caucus together due to a set of similar interests and common views. The reasons for this unity can be historical, political, ideological, military, geographic, or economic in nature.

Strength Through Unity These blocs unite on issues of importance, polling their combined strength to press for opposition or support of resolutions, amendments or concessions primary to their national interests. Nations acting together in blocs can accomplish things that they might be unable to achieve as individual nations. During caucus periods, blocs interact with one another and negotiate to further their goals agreeing, for instance, to eliminate an unfavorable clause to gain support for their resolution, or promising to vote in favor of another blocs position if t that bloc agrees to defeat the proposal of another, opposing bloc.

Examples of Blocs Examples of regional blocs are the African or Latin American blocs; ideological blocs include the non-aligned and the Eastern blocs; a bloc formed for military (and political and strategic) reasons is the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). There are also broader classifications of blocs such as East, West, and underdeveloped nations; even more simplified is the North/South (Developed/Developing) division. The breakdown of blocs will vary from committee to committee and from issue to issue depending on the nature of the topic under discussion and the blocs the delegates find most useful. The more politically oriented committees tend to split along regional lines (i.e., Western, African, Middle Eastern, Eastern, Asian, Latin American); however, this is not universal the non-aligned bloc tends to draw many underdeveloped and developing nations away from their geographical bloc. One must note that regional or ideological interests are not always paramount. Israel, for example, while a Middle Eastern state, traditionally votes with the Western bloc. States that were formerly part of the British Commonwealth often form blocs with one another.

Written Documents The products of UN committees, like other deliberative bodies, are written documents: treaties, resolutions, declarations, etc. Delegates must understand the process by which such documents develop and acquire the skills to participate in this process.

DRAFTING Creating a written statement of aims, goals and a means of effective action is the ultimate goal of debate on any topic. The process that generates such a document is termed drafting. Drafting as a process is the written result of compromise and consensus built in debate and caucus. Drafting is a continual process of revision, and delegates should never view any draft as the finished product that the entire committee should accept.

Drafting involves building agreement through accommodating other delegates concerns. This accommodation takes place by changing the document. These changes are sometimes as extensive as altering the content, or sometimes as minute as substituting an alternate word choice. As said above, a draft goes through many revisions as it gains support. While certain countries may play the key roles in writing a resolution, many nations will want to have input. A bloc, for example, may designate certain countries to be part of the drafting group, but all countries expect to review the document before it comes up for a vote. Many will try to make changes at that time. In the end, all the actions of the United Nations appear in written form. If a delegate cannot write well, he or she is forced to rely on the ability of others to promote his or her ideas. But writing skills, like all skills, improve with practice and especially by learning what seems to work well in other delegates writing, so it is in the delegates best interests to develop this skill.

WORDING Negotiations over revisions usually take the form of disputes over wording. At times, an argument over semantics will be one that is essential to the meaning of the document. Consider, for example, the difference between calling a group a terrorist organization and a collection of freedom fighters in your resolution. The tone of the document would be very different. Thus, delegates need to be aware of the implication of using certain crucial words and what wording would generate the most desired support.

Precision of Meaning: Most seasoned diplomats argue for more precision and clarity. They reason that a hard-fought agreement deserves to be written so that it means just what the parties have verbally accepted. In this way, misunderstandings and false interpretations can be avoided. Once an issue is settled verbally, it should not be reopened in a dispute over language.

Intentional Ambiguity: The ideal of clarity cannot always be achieved. On occasion, particularly controversial or petty points are written in ways that leave room for several interpretations. Usually this occurs to allow progress on the more important aspects of the issue. A classic case of this constructive ambiguity is found in Security Council Resolution 242 that established a framework for peace after the 1967 Arab-Israeli War. It called for withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from territories occupied in the recent conflict. The text leaves unclear whether Israel should withdraw from some or all territories (and if not all, then which?). The principal sponsors maintained that the ambiguity was unavoidable and necessary in order to pass a resolution acceptable to everyone that would help to reduce tensions in the Middle East.

Unavoidable Ambiguity: Another reason resolutions are often vague is that details of implementation cannot always be spelled out. Later specific detail work almost always remains to be done, subject to further negotiations. It is important when leaving language vague to make the intent of a resolution clear; questions over the implementation of a resolution are better than ones over the main purpose or goal.

STYLE To be understood, the draft document must be free of grammatical errors and utilize proper punctuation. To prepare for the drafting process, delegates should carefully read the resolutions, reports and other texts relevant to their topics. This preparation method will help develop a feel for the style to be used. Reading summary records and speeches, comparing draft resolutions with final ones and examining the portions of resolutions voted on separately are all good ways to focus on language. Best of all, a delegate can use this opportunity to learn from other delegates either more skilled or more familiar with resolution writing to develop their own resolution writing skills.

TYPES OF WRITTEN DOCUMENTS

Working Papers Before composing a formal resolution to deal with the topic problems, delegates may wish to transfer their general ideas into a working paper, or rough draft. Working papers are usually formed by a group of nations from the same geographic bloc or of similar ideological persuasion. Working papers need not be written in formal resolution format and may be simply a few major points jotted down on paper. The purpose of a working paper is to have something in writing to serve as a starting reference point during caucus and formal debate. Though not formally introduced to the committee, working papers may be copied and distributed in committee depending on the rules of the particular Model UN conference and generally only with the committee Chairs approval. Working papers serve to help delegates identify the different views of the countries in the committee and facilitate the negotiation process. Resolutions are usually formed by combining several working papers. A printable guide to writing these papers is found in Appendix C.

Resolutions Resolutions are the desired end-product of debate on a topic area. They represent a course of action or policy endorsed by the international community in response to the issue at hand. The formatting of resolutions is thoroughly discussed in the following section of this chapter.

RESOLUTION FORMATTING A resolution is one (very long) sentence. It begins with the committee or subject (The World Health Organization for example), which is indented by five spaces, underlined, and followed by a comma.

The Preambulatory Clauses After the subject, come the preambulatory clauses. The preambulatory clauses comprise the preamble of the resolution. While they set the tone of the resolution and often give some of the history regarding the issue, for operational purposes the perambulatory clauses hold little weight. Formally, these are participle or adjectival phrases modifying the subject. Informally, they describe the committees intent, motivation, and frame-of-mind in writing the resolution. Preambulatory clauses are followed by a comma and begin with an underlined participle or adjective which is capitalized. Examples of these first words include:

Affirming Alarmed by Approving Aware of Believing Bearing in mind Confident Considering also Contemplating Convinced Declaring Deeply concerned Deeply conscious Deeply convinced Deeply disturbed Deeply regretting Desiring Emphasizing Expecting

Expressing its satisfaction Expressing its wish Fulfilling Fully aware Fully alarmed Fully believing Further deploring Further recalling Guided by Gravely concerned Having adopted Having considered Having considered further Having devoted attention Having examined Having studied Having heard Having received Keeping in mind

Noting further Noting with approval Noting with deep concern Noting with regret Noting with satisfaction Noting with zest Observing Reaffirming Recalling Recognizing Referring Reiterating Seeking Taking into account Taking into consideration Taking note Viewing with appreciation Welcoming Whereas

The Operative Paragraphs The operative paragraphs, which follow the perambulatory clauses, formally make the predicate of the sentence. More informatively, they contain the action of the resolution, or the operations that the committee hopes occur once the resolution is adopted and implemented. Each operative clause begins with a capitalized present tense verb in the third person singular. Each paragraph formed by a new operative verb is indented five spaces, numbered, indented to the tenth space, and finally ended with a semicolon. The last paragraph ends with a period. The following are representatives of operative verbs:

Accepts Affirms Appeals Approves Authorizes Calls Calls upon Commends Condemns Congratulates Confirms Considers Decides Declares accordingly Demands*

Deplores Designates Draws the attention Emphasizes Encourages Endorses Expresses its appreciation Expresses its hope Further endorses Further invites Further proclaims Further reminds Further recommends Further resolves Further requestsHas resolved Notes Offers Proclaims Reaffirms Recommends Reminds Renews Requests Solemnly affirms Strongly condemns Supports Trusts Takes note of TransmitsUrges

Resolution Committee: World Health Organization Topic: Global Health and Poverty Sponsors: Bolivia, Libya, Germany, Netherlands, Nigeria Signatories: Brazil, Czech Republic, Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea, Egypt, France, Mexico, Phillippines, Poland, Syria, United Kingdom, United States, The World Health Organization Realizing the growing urgency to address problems related to poverty, development and health, Noting the success of the pre-established WHO regional offices, and their importance in dealing with poverty-related ill health,

Desiring to come to accordance with the global community concerning what services these centers should provide,

Acknowledging that each nation has its own diverse problems, Encouraging existing centers to re-evaluate their efficiency in education and prevention, Seeking that all proposed plans must only be implemented upon consent of each respective nation,

Guided by the goals set out in the Health for All by the Year 2000, 1. Recommends that the regional centers continue to address problems at hand such as:a. necessity for vaccinations, b. sanitation in water as well as hospitals and other public areas, c. facilitating public hygiene, d. providing immunizations;

2. Further recommends that these centers provide an open exchange of research amongst all of the regional centers;

3. Encourages that WHO allocates funds to provide basic health care to regional centers to use at their discretion;

4. Advises the WHO to support joint programs with other UN agencies concerned with development,a. developed nations generally have longer life expectancies and better health care than the underdeveloped nations on the basis of economic standards, b. economic growth allows for better decisions in health care and also better options for food, clothing, and shelter which improve health;

5. Instructs that WHO will provide basic health care to regional centers to use at their discretion;

6. Urges the expansion of already existing educational programs so that they specifically include: a. citizens of all rural areas, b. children and poverty stricken families c. adults d. medical experts and interms that will be trained by WHO;

55 7. Suggests the importance of national education through 56 a. media 57 b. Portable Education Transport Systems (PETS); 58 59

8. Designates that these educational methods address: 60 a. symptoms and prevention of communicable disease, 61 b. sanitary and hygienic practices, 62 c. where and how to seek medical assistance, 63 d. the importance of regular vaccinations, 64 e. STDs; 65 66

9. Hopes that nations make the establishment or improvement of health care systems a 67 priority; 68 69 10. Invites nations, under contracts requiring return, of their localized health technicians 70 through voluntary intern exchange programs; 71 72 11. Urges nations to cooperate with each other as well as WHO regarding the clean-water to 73 all segments of their populous; 74 75 12. Understands that all of the afore-mentioned clauses be implemented at the discretion of 76 each respective nation; 77 78 13. Calls upon the specific WHO, Egos, and local organizations to give aid; 79 80 14. Recommends that regional centers incorporate the principles of the Medicinal Office 81 Bank of Asian Health (MOBAH) as follows: 82 a. to improve health benefits for all, 83 b. to supply funds for these matters, 84 c. to create an environment conducive to sharing information, 85 d. to provide funding for education and training; 86 87

15. States that nations may participate in both the MOBAH offshoots and regional offices; 88 89 16. Encourages nations to set a level of medical care which is consistent with indigenous 90 cultures as established under the Declaration of Ixtapa.