AP Psychology

Unit 14: Social Psychology

Mod.76 – Group Behavior:

I. Social Facilitation:

A. Social facilitation – improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

1. Occurs when tasks are simple or well-learned, but not when they are difficult or unfamiliar.

2. When observed by others, people become aroused. Arousal facilitates (helps) the most likely response: the correct

one on an easy task, an incorrect one on a difficult task.

B. Social Facilitation is closely related to Yerkes-Dodsen Law :

1. Yerkes-Dodson Law: optimum levels of arousal, too high or too low and performance will be low, high arousal

then we perform well on easy tasks, but high arousal on difficult tasks will make our performance worse

2. Yerkes Dodson Law states that an optimum level of arousal needs to be present if we want to perform our best.

a. Too little arousal means performance is half-hearted.

b. Too much arousal leads performance to be sloppy.

C. Social Facilitation & Test Anxiety:

1. Although some people experience anxiety any time they take a test, most only do so if they are not prepared for

an assessment

2. Edward Thorndike’s Law of Readiness – states in part that if a person is not ready for a performance, he or she

will feel frustrated and actively seek to avoid it

3. If the person is prepared, then he will be willing and ready to perform!

D. Social Facilitation also helps explain a funny effect of crowding:

1. Comedians know a “good house” is a full one

2. Crowding triggers arousal, which strengthens other reactions, too! – Comedy routines seem funnier in a packed

room.

E. Presence of others can arouse people! Social Facilitation

II. Social Loafing:

A. Social Loafing – tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when

pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually

accountable; phenomenon of people making less effort to achieve a goal when

they work in a group rather than when they work alone

B. Social Loafing occurs when people who work anonymously as part of a group

exert less effort than those individually accountable for performance – more

common among men in individualistic cultures

C. Real World Example: “Social loafing affects performance. Leah works hard on a project when she has to do it

herself, but if she’s involved in a group project, she lets the others do most of the work.”

D. Causes of Social Loafing:

1. People acting as part of a group feel less accountable, therefore worry less about what others think

2. Group members may view their individual contributions as dispensable - people believe that their contribution to

the collective effort is neither appreciated nor important

3. When group members share equally in the benefits, regardless of how much they contribute, some may slack off

(ex: group assignments) – unless highly motivated & strongly identified with the group, people may free ride on

others’ efforts - people will “get a free ride” since it will be difficult to assess their contribution to the team or

group

E. Examples of Social Loafing:

1. An art teacher divides his class into group s and assigns each group the task of preparing an oral report on

a famous Renaissance artist. Each group will select one member to present their report. Since all members

of the group will receive the same grade, the method invites social loafing.

2. The local animal shelter previously published a report listing the names of individual contributors. However,

the new shelter director switched to a report that simply listed the total contribution. The change in

reporting made contributors feel less appreciated and important, thus inviting social loafing and a decline in

individual contributions.

F. Presence of others can diminish people’s feelings of responsibility! Social Loafing

FRQ Tips: Social Loafing

What it is: What it’s NOT: Social Loafing:

Student must link the presence of other(s) to low or diminished effort

Group AND low or diminished effort are required

“Their friends all slack off in the packing because they assumed someone else would do the work”

Social inhibition (low effort due to anxiety, distraction, etc.)

Division of labor resulting in less work per individual (e.g. “Because they had so many friends helping them pack, it was easier for everyone”)

Brainstorm:

If social loafing in group work is such a problem, why do teachers still assign group work?

1) Should teachers stop assigning group projects altogether?

2) If group members must evaluate each other, will that help minimize social loafing?

3) Would assigning roles minimize social loafing?

4) How can group members motivate each other to their hardest during group work?

III. Deindividuation:

A. Deindividuation – the loss of self-awareness & self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal &

anonymity

1. Deindividuation is the process of losing self-awareness and self-restrain, often occurs when group participation

makes people both aroused & anonymous

B. Deindividuation occurs when group participation makes individuals feel aroused, anonymous, and less self-

conscious.

1. The uninhibited and impulsive behavior of mobs may occur as a result of this deindividuation

2. Depersonalizing, anonymous, less self-conscious, less self-aware, less self-restraint, arousal w/group

C. Examples of Deindividuation: food fights, vandalism, rioting, mobs,

D. Deindividuation & Group Roles: Zimbardo’s Prison Study / Stanford Prison Experiment:

1. 1971- Philip Zimbardo converted the basement of Stanford University’s psych building into a mock prison

a. Placed ads in local papers offering volunteers $15/day to participate in 2 week “prison simulation”

b. 24 middle-class, educated young men- they were randomly assigned to either “guard” or “prisoner”

2. Deliberately promoted the deindividuation:

a. “Guards”- identical khaki uniforms, mirror sunglass (so no one could see their eyes or read their emotions),

carried billy clubs, whistles, handcuffs (makes them look and feel their assigned role)

b. “Prisoners”- stocking caps, and hospital dressing gowns, identified by numbers sewed on to their gowns

3. Zimbardo called off the experiment in only 6 days b/c some guards became sadistic, verbally & physically abusing

prisoners

4. Zimbardo Prison Experiment- shows the powerful effects of deindividuation.

a. As guards became immersed in their roles, they developed a strong group cohesion that reduced their

sense of personal responsibility.

b. As they stopped viewing the prisoners as individual human beings, the guards’ behavior became increasingly

aggressive.

E. Presence of others can arouse people & diminish their feelings of responsibly, resulting in uninhibited behavior!

Deindividuation

IV. Group Polarization:

A. Group Polarization – the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

1. Refers to the enhancement of a group’s prevailing (dominant/main) tendencies that occurs when like-minded

members discuss issues and attitudes

2. Beliefs and attitudes we bring to a group grow stronger as we discuss them with like-minded others!

3. Tendency for a group’s predominant opinion to become stronger or more extreme after an issue is discussed

4. If a group is likeminded, discussion strengthens its prevailing opinions - Talking over racial issues increased

prejudice in a high prejudice group of high school students and decreased it in a low prejudice group

B. Effects of Group Polarization:

1. Group polarization amplifies a sought-after spiritual awareness or reinforces the resolve of those in a self-help

group

2. When high-prejudice students discussed racial issues, they became MORE prejudiced!

3. Low prejudiced students become more accepting when they discuss racial issues together.

4. Group polarization fuels extremism and suicide terrorism

a. Terrorist mentality usually begins to develop slowly, among people who share a grievance, as they interact in

isolation, their views grow more and more extreme. - They categorize the world as “us” against “them”

5. Ideological separation + deliberation = polarization b/w groups

6. Like minded echo chamber will continue to polarize people

C. Group Polarization in Virtual Groups: separation + conversation = polarization

D. Examples of Group Polarization:

1. Myers & Bishop (1970) discovered that discussing racial issues decreased prejudice in a low-prejudice group

of high school students & increased it in a high –prejudice group

2. Discussions among a stop-smoking self-help group increase the members’ resolve to quit smoking

Group Polarization is NOT Conformity!!

Group Polarization Group polarization is an intensification of group’s prevailing opinion

Conformity Conformity occurs when an individual changes his/her attitude to become more like the group’s attitude.

Concept Connections:

Group polarization & Deindividuation:

Being part of a group can release people from individual responsibility and often discourages critical

thinking. Group polarization is fueled by deindividuation.

V. Groupthink:

A. Groupthink – the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a

realistic appraisal of alternatives; harmonious but unrealistic group thinking;

1. Groupthink - The unrealistic group decision making that occurs when the desire for group harmony outweighs

the desire for realistic thinking.

2. Groupthink – tendency for a cohesive decision-making group to ignore or dismiss reasonable alternatives

B. Groupthink is fueled by:

1. Overconfidence

2. Conformity

3. Self-justification

4. Group polarization

C. Examples of Groupthink:

1. In early 1961, JFK & his team of national security advisors approved an ill-conceived plan to allow 1200

anticommunist exiles to invade Cuba in an attempt to overthrow Fidel Castro. Castro’s forces easily repelled

the invasion, handing JFK a humiliating defeat.

a. Bay of Pigs - JFK wondered in hindsight, “How could we have been so stupid?”

Soaring morale of the new president and his advisers fostered undue confidence

To preserve the good feeling, group members suppressed or self-censored their dissenting views,

especially after JFK voiced his enthusiasm for the scheme

Since no one spoke strongly against the idea, everyone assumed the support was unanimous

This harmonious but unrealistic group thinking = groupthink

2. In 2003, President Bush & his team of national security advisors approved an invasion of Iraq designed to

overthrow Saddam Hussein and locate his presumed arsenal of weapons of mass destruction. The US

successfully defeated Saddam Hussein’s forces, but failed to find any weapons of mass destruction.

a. …the Iraq War was launched on the false idea that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction

3. “One of the dangers in the White House, based on my reading of history, is that you get wrapped up in groupthink

and everybody agrees with everything, and there’s no discussion and there are no dissenting views” –Obama, 2008

a. Blame Groupthink:

Failure to anticipate the 1941 Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor;

Escalation of the Vietnam War

US Watergate cover-up

Chernobyl nuclear reactor accident

US space shuttle Challenger explosion

Cuban Missile Crisis

Bernie Madoff scandal

D. “None of us is as smart as all us!” “2 heads are better than 1!” but only when…

1. Suppressing dissent & opposition bends a group toward bad decisions; open debate

shapes good ones!

2. In diverse groups, varied perspectives empower creative or superior outcomes

E. Groupthink is prevented when…

1. A leader welcomes various opinions - dissenting opinions (nonconforming/ rebellious ideas)

2. A leader invites experts’ critiques of developing plans - invites criticism

3. A leader assigns people to identify possible problems

F. Leaders can counteract groupthink by:

1. Encouraging divergent views

2. Consulting outside experts

3. Assigning people to play the role “devil’s advocate”

VI. Power of Individuals:

A. Affirming the power of social influence, we must not overlook the power

of individuals:

1. Social control (power of the situation) and personal control (power of

the individual) interact

2. When we feel coerced/forced, we may react by doing the opposite of

what is expected, reasserting our sense of freedom!

B. Committed individuals can sway the majority and make history!

1. Examples: Communism, Christianity, Rosa Parks

2. Innovative minorities overcome the majority’s resistance to change

a. Examples: Railroad, steamboat (“Fulton’s Folly”), printing press, telegraph,

incandescent lamp, typewriter

C. Minority influence- a form of social influence, it takes place when a member of a minority group, like an individual,

influences a majority to accept the minority's beliefs or behavior.

1. Minority Influence - the power of 1 or 2 individuals (the minority) to sway majorities (everyone else)

2. In groups in which 1 or 2 individuals (the minority) consistently express a controversial attitude or an unusual

perceptual judgment, one finding repeatedly stands out:

a. When you are the minority, you are far more likely to sway the majority if you hold firmly to your position &

don’t waffle - won’t make you popular but it will make you influential!

b. Self-confidence stimulates others to consider why you react as you do

c. People may privately develop sympathy for the minority - even before the his/her influence is visible

Groupthink is NOT Conformity!!

Groupthink: Occurs when people suppress their own opinions – aka self-

censoring – in order to maintain perceived group harmony.

In a groupthink situation, someone does not want to become the “odd one out”

Reflects the presence of a charismatic leader – everyone in the group seems to be going along w/the leader, making it difficult for an individual to speak out

Conformity:

When an individual changes his/her attitude to become more like the group’s attitude.

Occurs simply when people don’t want to be different – they’re not necessarily self-censoring – they’re going along due to normative social influence or informational social influence

Famous people who stood up to the majority to enact positive change:

What qualities & beliefs did they have that enabled them to stand firm?

Martin Luther King, Jr. Che Guevara Joan of Arc

William Wallace (story of Braveheart) Galileo Galilei Martin Luther

“Never doubt that a small group

of thoughtful, committed citizens

can change the world; indeed, it's

the only thing that ever has.”

- Margaret Mead

VII. Cultural Influences:

A. Culture – the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and

transmitted form one generation to the next; transmits the customs & beliefs that enable us to

communicate, to exchange money for things, to play, to eat, and to drive with agreed-upon rules &

without crashing into one another.

1. Supports our species’ survival and reproduction by enabling social and economic systems that give us an edge.

2. Our mastery of language allows us to enjoy preservation of innovation – thanks to culture, posit it notes,

google, digital devices

3. Enables an efficient division of labor

4. David Matsumoto: Culture is not nationalities or ethnic groups; culture is shared experiences. Factors for

determining & distinguishing cultures are…

a. Relative Affluence - relative wealth of people in a culture

b. Population Density - conditions under which people live (crowded apartments, wide open prairies)

c. Technology Access – how accessible technology (computers v. hand tools)

d. Climate – climate conditions determine cultural practices – arid, humid, hot, or cold

B. Variation Across Cultures:

1. We see our adaptability in cultural variations among our beliefs & values:

a. Riding along w/a unified culture is like riding with the wind – as it carries you along, you hardly

notice it… but when we try to ride against the wind, we feel its force! Faced w/a different culture,

you become aware of the culture winds

2. Norms- rules for accepted & expected behavior; an understood rule for accepted & expected behavior;

norms prescribe “proper” behavior

a. Humans in varied cultures do share some basic moral ideas but each cultural group has its own norms

3. Culture Shock – when we don’t understand what’s expected or accepted (the norms)

C. Ethnocentrism – tendency to consider other cultures, customs, & values as inferior to one’s own

1. European explorers & Native Americans frequently expressed ethnocentric judgments toward each other’s

cultures: Amerigo Vespucci insisted that the Native Americans’ “manner of living is very barbarous b/c they do not

eat at fixed times, but as often as they please”

2. Ethnocentrism & Groupthink can lead to inaccurate perceptions & conclusions.

D. Ethnic & cultural stumbling blocks:

a. Language & nonverbal communications

b. Ethnocentricity

c. Culture-related & class-related values

d. Racism & stereotypes

E. Variation Over Time:

1. Cultures (like biological creatures) vary & compete for resources, and thus evolve over time

2. Cultures change rapidly – things that were once the norm would be weird & outdate now – i.e. woman working,

etc.

FRQ PRACTICE:

(Source: 2015 AP Psych FRQ #2):

Chandler and Alex were transferred to a new city and needed to find a new home. They carefully considered every house within their price range and finally purchased one that met all their criteria.

One month before the move, Chandler and Alex asked friends to help them organize and pack their belongings. One week before the scheduled moving day, they learned that they needed to move out within 48 hours, so they quickly finished packing.

A. Explain how each of the following concepts could be related to their moving process.

Social loafing

B. Provide an example that explains how each of the following concepts could be related to life in their new home and new neighborhood.

Normative social influence

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PART A: To score this point, student’s response must apply to the moving process.

Social Loafing: Student must link the presence of other(s) to low or diminished effort (group AND low or diminished effort are required)

Part B: Student’s response must include an example that illustrates the concept in the context of life in the new home or neighborhood.

Normative Social Influence: Student’s example must refer to a specific behavior (or attitude/opinion) that is in agreement w/the group AND motivated by the desire to fit in or be liked.

Score: “after living in their new neighborhood for a while, Chandler and Alex see that their neighbors all have flags out, and because they want to be accepted, they put one out too.”

Score: examples with either actual or perceived group expectations.

Do Not Score: “Conformity” by itself

Do Not Score: “norm” or “normal” without a stated desire to fit in or be liked

Do Not Score: compliance (obeying a direct request or command)

Do Not Score: behavior influenced by the desire to be correct or accurate (informative social influence)

FRQ PRACTICE:

(Source: 2012 AP Psych FRQ #1):

A. Annabelle is planning to apply to college but has not yet decided where she will apply. Describe how the following psychological concepts and terms relate to her choice.

Compliance

B. Explain how the following psychological concepts could relate to how well Annabelle adapts when she begins her college career.

Ethnocentrism

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Part A: Responses must explain the concepts in the context of Annabelle’s decision-making and choices about college

Compliance: Students must explain that a demand, request, or rule from another person, group, or institution influences Annabelle’s decision-making processes or her choices about college, or both. Responses may also reflect the perspective of compliance by the college with Annabelle’s requests.

•Note: The “request” must either be directly communicated or reasonably inferred by the use of terms such as “encourage,” “want,” or “persuade.” “Advice” or “suggestion” will not score.

Score: “Annabelle’s parents tell her to go to State U, so she goes there.”

Do Not Score: References to conformity or a simple mention of “peer pressure” will not score, as they imply a change in behavior owing to implicit group pressure, not a direct request.

“Annabelle thinks her friends want her to go to State U, so she goes there.”; “I am going to apply to State U because everyone else is.”

Part B: Responses must explain the concept in the context of how Annabelle adapts to college life. This adaptation, or change, must be an experience or behavior that might plausibly relate to college

Ethnocentrism: To earn this point students must demonstrate how Annabelle’s belief that her own ethnic group is superior to others impacts her ability to adapt to college life OR that Annabelle’s understanding, appreciation, or increasing knowledge of different ethnic groups impacts her ability to adapt to college life.

Note: Responses must include a reference to ethnicity. Terms such as “culture,” “ethnicities,” “language,” “religion,” “nationality,” or “races” can also be used for “ethnic group.” References to “any group,” such as a “group of friends,” “club,” or “sports team” cannot be used to describe an ethnic group.

Score: “Annabelle meets students from different cultures but doesn’t think they are as smart as people from her culture, so she doesn’t study with them.”

Score: “Because Annabelle is exposed to so many different ethnic groups at school, she becomes less ethnocentric and interacts more with other students.”

Do not score: “Annabelle believes that her group is best so it stops her from meeting new people.”