Mistakes Writing English How to Avoid Them

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MISTAKES

WRITING ENGLISH,

AND HOW TO AVOID THEM.

FOR THE TJS OF ALL WHO TEACH, WRITE, OR SPEAK

THE LAKOUAGR

BY

MARSHALL T. BIGELOW,

AUTHOR OP punctuation, AND OTHBB

TTPOOKAPHICALMATTERS.

THIRD EDITION.

BOSTON:

LEE AND SHEPARD, PUBLISHERS.

NEW YORK:

CHARLES T. DILLINGHAM.

1891.


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Copyright, 1886,

Bt Marshall T. Bioelow.

Uniyebsitt Pbbss:

John Wilson and Son, Cambbidoe.


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PREFACE.

A WRITER inBlackwood once said that, *'with

the exception of Wordsworth, there is not one

celebrated author of this day who has written two

pages consecutively without some flagrant impropri-ty

in the grammar. This may have been an ex-ggerated

statement, nevertheless it is very near the

truth in reference to the present time.

While mere slavish following of therules of

gram-ar

does not necessarily constitute elegant English,

and while all great writers have peculiarities f their

own, it must be admitted that no writer, however

brilliant, should be excused for grammatical errors

that might be avoided.

It may be a sufficient reason for publishing an-ther

work on a subject on which so much has been

written, to say that the object of it is entirely differ-nt

from that of most works which have appeared

within recent years, which seem to have been written


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iv PREFACE,

,mainly for the purpose of picking every flaw possible

in the author criticised.

It is hoped that this work may be of use to the

teacher or scholar, y pointing out, in an orderly r-angement

the errors to which the best writers of

English are liable. It is so arranged that any partic-lar

subject may readily be found, and is so briefthat a full knowledge of all the points treated may

be easilyacquired. No space has been wasted on

mere vulgarisms which every one with any claim to

education is supposed to know and avoid, but such

errors as my experience as shown to be common to

all authors have received particular ttention.

A large number of the ungrammatical sentences

given were observed in proof-reading, nd were cor-ected

by their writers before the works in which

they occurred were published. Others have been

appropriated rom any source whenever they served

my purpose. It must be borne in mind, that, in

the correction of erroneous sentences, the mainobject

ia clearly o show the error ; and in merely correcting

the grammar, the sentence may often be left inelegant,

and in many cases should undoubtedly be entirely

reconstructed.

In the examples cited, all the words printed in

Italics are either ungrammatical, autological, r super-


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PREFACE. V

fluous. The words inserted in brackets are to take

the place of the preceding Italic words, or are neces-arily

added to make the sentence correct.

Where an author's name is given for an erroneous

sentence, it is done for the purpose of showing that

the best writers are not infallible, no even those

who are consideredstandard authorities in matters

relating o grammar.

The grammatical errors in the language of the Bible

and of Shakespeare re not pointed out with any idea

that they ought to be corrected, ut to show that in

writing modem English we are not to follow archaic

forms.

The short chapter entitled Construction of Sen-ences

might lead one to expect more than is there

given ; but as that is precisely he matter to which it

relates, t is so entitled, hough a thorough treatment

of the subject would of itself require volume.

In the Appendix are given rules for the formation

of the plural, n which I have ventured topropose

a

change which simplifies his matter very much, and

which I have no doubt will be generally pproved,

as in the line of true spelling eform. I have also

given some rules as to compound words, together ith

remarks on some typographical atters with which

authors ought to be acquainted.


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vi PREFACR

Besides the Grammars of Murray, Goold Brown,

^

Professors Whitney and Tweed, and others, I have

made frequent use of Prof. A. S. Hill's Principles

of Rhetoric, Prof. A. P. Peabody's Conversation,

its Faults and its Graces, the various publications of

Mr. Richard Grant White, and Professor Mathews's

Words, their Use and Abuse, and to all these

works I am greatly indebted.

M. T. BIGELOW.

Cambridge, October 5, 1886.


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CONTENTS.

CHATTIB PAOI

I. Use of ths Abticlb

9

II. The Nominative Case akd the Verb. .

13

III. The Possessite Case21

IV. The Objective Case 24

y. ' Pronoun and Antecedent 25

VI. The Subjunctive Mood 30

VII: The Infinitive Mood 31

VIII. Tense, or Time 34

IX. Shall and Will, Should and Would. .

.36

X. Lie and Lay. Set and Sit....

42

XI. Use Opthe

Participle 45

XII. Adjectives and Adjective Pronouns. .

48

XIII. Adverbs 55

XIV. Relative Pronouns 60

XV^ Double Negatives 64

XVI. Correlatives '66


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VIU CONTENTS.

CHAPTER PAGI

XVII. CONJtTNCTIONS 69

XYIII. Prepositions 72

XIX. Construction of Sentences.....

76

XX. Tautological and Superfluous W(irds.

78

XXI. Miscellaneous Words and Phrases.

.81

APPENDIX.

I. Formation of the Plural 89

n. Compound Words.....

93

III. Some Ttpographical Matters. . .

.100

INDEX1 7


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MISTAKES

IN WRITING ENGLISH.

CHAPTER I.

USES OF THE ARTICLE.

1. A ov an ia the indefinite article, and cannot be

used with a plural noun. It can be used, however,before a noun of multitude ; as,

an army, a hun-red,'*

a fleet, etc. ; and also with a plural significa-ionin phrases like many a man, many a gem,

many a flower, etc.

2. ^ is used before all words beginning with a

consonant, or a consonant sound; an, before all words

beginning with a true vowel or a silent h; as, a man,

a woman, a youth, a European, a unit,such a one, a harpoon, a harangue, a hypo-ritica

an angel, an Indian, an hour, an

honest. The words unit, European, really begin with

the consonant sound of y, and one begins with the sound

of w; they therefore require a, and not an, which isoften erroneously used before these and other words

beginning with similar combinations.

There is an exception to the rule for the use of abefore a consonant as to words beginning with h, of


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10 MISTAKES IN WRITING ENGLISH.

more than two syllables, hich have either a primaryor a secondary ccent on the second syllable, n which

case an is used; as, an historian, an historiog-apher,an harpooner, an hypothesis. ^

3. The definite article the may be used before anynoun, whether singular r plural, xcept abstract terms,or names of virtues, ices, r sciences.

4. The omission of the articlewhere it should beused is very common ; as,

**The metaphorical nd [the] iteral meaning of words shouldbe distinguished.

**But the French pilfered rom both the Greek and [the]Latin.

'* A red and [a] blue star may produce photographicmagesof equalintensity.

**The president nd [the] ecretary ere elected.The indebtedness of the English to the French, [the] atin,

and [the] reek is disclosed in almost every sentence.These terms are uttered by the artist, he mechanic, and

[the] husbandman.Nouns in the English language have three cases ; the nomi-ative,

[the] ossessive, nd [the]objective.

*The treasurer and secretary' eans one personwho holds two offices; the treasurer and the secre-ary'

means two officers. *A black and white dog'means one parti-colored nimal ; * a black and a white

dog ' means two dogs, ne black and one white. * The

1 Worcester's rule for the use of an before h is defective, s well

as^Webster's and each of them violates his own rule. Worcester

says that an should be used before allwords beginning with h whichare accented on the second syllable; ebster, that it should be usedbefore all words banning with h which are accented on any syllablebut the first. Yet both write, very properly, a hotel, a har-oon,

and Worcester even gives **a hxirpooner hich is wrongaccording o either rule.


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USES OF THE ARTICLE. 11

honest and intelligent are those who are both honestand intelligent; the honest and the intelligent' retwo classes :

one, composedof those who are honest

;the other, of those who are intelligent. he follow-ng

sentence is therefore defective : * The council and

[the] synod maintained that the unity of the personimplied not any unity in the consciousness.' Thecontext shows that tha council was one body, the

synod another. ^

5. Wlienever the present participle s followed

immediately by o/, it should be preceded by thedefinite article; s,

'*It is [the] drawing of a conclusion which was before un-nownor dark.

Prompted by extreme vanity, e persisted n [the] writingof bad verses.

** In [the] framing of his sentences he was very exact.From [the] alling f names he proceeded o blows.

But if the article and the of are both omitted, these

sentences will be equally orrect.

6. Articles are also often inserted erroneously, sin the followingxamples :

That is the kind of a man of whom we are speaking.** What sort of a charm do they possess ?

** What species f a reptile s this?

Men to whom this kind of an oi^nization as been givengenerally ave active minds. Ayres, Verbalist, . 192.

He is entitled to the appellation f a gentleman.The one styled he Mufti is the head of the ministers of law

and religion.** He was a better mathematician than a linguist

The article should not be used between the posses-ive

case and the noun which it governs; as,

1 Hill's Principles f Rhetoric, . 104.


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**Prescott*s * Th6 Conquest of Mexico/ and his * The Con-uest

of Peru.'

*'

Howells's *A Chance Acquaintance.'

Cushing's *A Year in Spain.'

This* is equivalent to saying his the book. The

foregoing examples are all wrong, and the Italicized

articles should be omitted in all the examples in this

section.

7. The definite and the indefinite article are some-imes

improperly used together : as,

**An [the] eagle is the emblem of the United States.** A diphthong is the [a] combination of two vowels in one

syllable.

8. Where two or more adjectives qualify the same

noun, the article must precede each adjective if the

noun is put in the singular, but only the first if the

noun is made plural; as,

The nominative and the objective case.

The nominative and objective sases.

But a plural verb must be used in either case, as the

noun is to be understood after each adjective ; as,

**In a sonnet, the'firat, the fourth, the fifth, and the eighthline usually rhyme ; so do the second, third, sixth, and seventh

lines, the ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth lines, and the tenth,

twelfth, and fourteenth lines.

The Old and the New Testament are both believed byChristians generally to be inspired.'


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THE NOMINATIVE CASE AND THE VERB. 13

CHAPTER II.

THE NOMINATIVE CASE AND THE VERB.

9. The noun or pronoun which is the subject f a

sentence, or the nominative, always governs the verb,both in number and person. Very common violationsof this rule in conversation are the use of You 2^a ,for You were, and of He donX' for He does n't.The rule is often carelessly iolated in writing, lthoughin

manycases it is difficult to

determinethe

actualnominative. The following re examples of incorrect

usage :

The steamer, with the crew and passengers, were [was]lost.

What signifies signify] ood opinions, hen our practice

is bad ?

In piety and virtue consist [consists] he happiness f man.A conformity of opinions and qualities repare [prepares]

us for friendship.Day after day pass [passes] way.

**Tlie Legislature, ith the Governor, decide [decides] owthe State taxes shall he expended.

The whole scope of these provisions how [shows] hat theobject f the Legislature as.

Nothing less than murders, rapine, nd conflagrations m-loy

[employs] heir thoughts.One economist after another have [has] protested gainst

some one or other of the articles of the old Ricardian creed.

The second book of the ^neid is one of the greatest aster-ieces

that ever was [were] xecuted by any hand.This letter is one of the best that has [have] een written

about Lord Byron.


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H MISTAKES IN WRITING ENGLISH.

To these precepts are [is] subjoiued copious selection ofrules and maxims.

** The authority f Addison in matters of grammar, of Bentley,who never made the English rammar his study, of Bolingbroke,Pope, and others, are [is] nothing. Harrison, he EnglishLangiiage,

The conduct of the Administration towards the Colo-ies,and of the Commissioners at Boston, were [was] wamily

attacked.

Better, perhaps, The conduct of the Administration to-wai*ds the Colonies, s well as that of the Commissioners atBoston, was warmly attacked.

Or, The conduct of the Administration towards the Colo-ies,and that of the Commissioners at Boston, were warmly

attacked.

That moment the world, and its falsestandards and prizes,recedesand falls into its

place.Con'ect as follows: That moment the world, with its false^standards and prizes, ecedes and falls into its place.

10. Two or more nouns or pronouns in the sin-ular

number, in the nominative case, or two or more

clauses, hether connected by and or without any con-ecting

particle, equire plural erb. As, Art, empire, earth itself, o change are doomed.

Reason, virtue, nswer one great aim.

Virtue, honor, even self-interest, onspire to recommendthe measure.

Patriotism, orality, very public nd private onsideration,demand our submission to lawful government.

The followingxamples are therefore erroneous :

Tranquillity nd peace dvoells [dwell] here.By whose power all good and evil is [are] istributed.For woman's fear and love holds [hold] uantity. Hamlet,

Man, woman too, craves [crave] ife, nd life is action, eel-ng,

variety.The purpose and the only direct effect of the evidence is

[are] o show that the witness is not to be believed.The letter and the spirit f the statute is [are] efeated.


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11. When two or more nominatives stand for the

same person or subject, he verb governed must be inthe singular; s,

'* This prodigy f leamiDg, this scholar, critic, nd antiquary,was entirely estitute of breeding nd civility.

The philosopher nd jioet as banished from his country.** Such a Saviour and Redeemer is actuallyrovided or us.

Whose icy current and compulsive ourseNe'er feels retiring bb, but keeps due on.

**The said deed and conveyance is now recorded in the regis-ryof deeds, and at the time said deed and conveyance was re- orded,

etc.** Truth, and truth only, is worth seeking or its own sake.** In this mutual influence there is a wisdom, a wonderful

wisdom, which we cannot fathom.

This self-command, this exertion of reason in the midst of

passion, as a wonderful effect, oth to please nd to persuade.A purpose, a design, n intention, s evident in everything.

** You create a fastidiousness, craving for the ideal, hich

compels many of the sons of rank and fortune to become wearywanderera in foreign ands.

12. Where two or more nominatives, hether con-ected

by a7id or unconnected, re qualifiedy every,each, no, or not, the verb must be singular as,

** Every man, woman, and child knows this to be so.Each soldier, eaman, and ofScer receives his allotted share.No glaring halk, no grim sandstone, o rugged flint, utface

[outfaces] t.

Not a bird and not a beast, not a tree and not a shrub, asto be seen,

13. WTiere two or more singular ominatives are

separatedby or, nor, as well as, or other disjunctive,the verb must be in the singular; s,

The Principia f Newton, or the M^canique Celeste of La-lace,were [was] ot the outcome of any thought whatever.

Not a weed nor a blade of grass loere [was] to be seen.** Prescott as well as Ticknor make [makes] this statement.

f*


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** Nor eye, nor listening ar, an object wd [finds].** Neither character nor dialogue ere [was] yet understood.* * No monstrous height, r breadth, r length appear [appears].** Either one or the other of them are [is] n the wrong.

14. But where either of two or more nominatives

separatedby a disjunctive, s in the foregoing ection,is plural, he verb should also be plural. The follow-ng

sentences are incorrect :

Neither riches nor poverty affects affect] man*s happi-ess.

It is not his exceptionaleauty, r gifts, r culture, hat

gives [give] im this distinction.** In case of the death of any such children, he shai*e or

shares of such deceased children is [are] o be divided amonghis or her brothers and sistei-s.

They fawn upon every one whose faults or negligence nter'rupts or retards their lessons. (Change faults to fault, nd thesentence is correct.)

An example or two is [are] ufficient to illustrate the gen-ralobservation.

The entire mass remains undisturbed except where erosion,

earthquakes, r the hand of man, lias [have] mutilated it. ^

15. A word in the singular umber indicatingmany persons or things, called a collective noun or

1 Some grammarians say, that, in cases where a singular nd aplural nominative are separatedby a disjunctive, he verb must

agreewith the nominative nearest to

it; as, Neither the

servantsnor the master is respected; Neither the writings or the authoris in existence.

Goold Brown says, farther, But where the remoter nominativeis the principal ord, and the nearer is expressed parenthetically,the verb agrees literally ith the former, and only by implication ^with the latter, nd cites the following xamples: One exampleor ten says nothing against it (Leigh Hunt) ; A parenthesis, rbrackets, onsists of two angular strokes, r hooks, enclosing ne or

'^ore words. I think,however, that all such sentences are un-immatical.


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noun of multitude, r a word indicating portion ofsuch a noun, requires plural verb or pronoun wherethe idea of

pluralitys conveyed. As,

The troop which followed Crastinus were volunteers.''Dana believes that a part of the Achsean rocks are fossil-

iferous.

**The greater part of philosophers ave acknowledged heexcellemje of this government.

** A number of men and women were present.

The following entences are therefore incorrect :

The assembly was [were] ivided in Us [their] entiments.A portion of the assembly was [were] opposed to the

measure.

**By not attending o this rule many errors have been com-itted,a number of which is

[are] subjoined,s a further

caution and direction to the learner. Murray* s ChraminarfRule XX.

Yet a potent fraction of the noblesse was [were] lso of thenew faith.

Butler, in his History, mentions the fact that there wa^[were] large umber of persons of that name in the town.

But where the idea of the collective noun is singular,a singular erb must be used. As,

** The troop which followed Crastinus was made up of vol-luiteers.

The court of Rome were [was] ot without solicitude.The House of Lords were [was] much influenced by these

reasons.

An army of many thousands were [was] assembled.

16. The intransitive verb to he having the nomi-ative

case after the verb as well as before it, where

one nominative is singular, nd the other is plural, r

consists of two or more singular ouns, or two or moreclauses, he nominative preceding r following he verb

may govern it, according o the more natural meaning,


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or to the more immediate proximity of the verb, asfollows :

** Thewages

of sin is death.** Whatever we have, and whatever we are, above the level of

barbarism, is a matter of growth.To be moderate in our views, and to proceed emperately n

the pursuit f them, are [is] he best way to insure success.** To do justly, o love mercy, and to walk humbly with God,

is a duty [are duties] f universal obligation.'*

An offer to sell and actually elling s but one offence.*'The only objection o the present halls is [are] he cross

lights hich fall upon some of the wall cases.This dwelling-house nd the land under it is the property

sought to be divided.** His illness was pleurisy nd rheumatism.

17. A sum of money, in the plural form, is usuallyfollowed by a singular erb ; as,

Twenty dollars was subscribed by him.

Fifty thousand pounds was lost in this speculation.''Three hundred thousand dollars is to constitute the capital

of the company.

The title of a book in the

pluralumber should be

followed by a singular erb. As,

Dr. Holmes's 'American Annals' was published t Cam-ridge,in 1805.

Mrs. Jameson's 'Memoirs of the Early Italian Painters*comprises upwards of thirty biographies.

18. Several words in English which are plural inform are used in the singular umber, and with a sin-ular

verb. Such are the names of sciences ending in

ics^ s ethics^ athematics, hydraulics, ptics, tc.; also

news, means as an instrument or objectby which toattain an end or purpose, and pains in the sense oftoilsome effort or severe labor. ^

I See infra, age 49.


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The word whereabouts as a noun is often erroneouslyused in newspapers with a plural erb ; as,

The whereabouts of the child were[was]

unknown to him.

Acquaintance s a better form for the plural than

acquaintances and folk is better than folks. As,''And theysought him among their kinsfolk and acquaint-nce.

Luke u. 44, '** Behold two thirds of our company safe at home, telling heir

strange adventures to relatives and acquaintance.As the words cherubim and seraphim are plurals,

the terms cherubims and seraphims, s expressing he

plural, re quite improper. ^The plural effluvia s often used as if singular; s,

a disagreeablejluvia.'*

Mussulmen is often used for the proper plural us-sulmans,^

The titles Mr., Mrs., and Miss in the plural re re-pectivel

Messieurs,Mesdames, and Misses ; as. Mes-ieurs

Eothschild, Mesdames Barrett and Thompson,Misses Smith. The surname should never be made

plural after a title.

19. A very common error in writing a decimalnumber is to use the plural fter it; as, .0048 grains,.025 miles, .38 yards. This is wrong, as any decimal

number, no matter of how many or how few figures t

consists, s less than the whole number one, and there-orecannot be plural. The above expressions ean

48 ten-thousandths of a grain; 25 thousandths of amile ; 38 hundredths of a yard ; and consequently he

singular number should be used in all three cases,

grain, mile, yard.

1 Dr. Campbell'sPhilosophy of Rhetoric.3 For the formation of the plural, ee Appendix L


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20. The words alternative aud dilemma iu their

correct use must be iu the singular number, as each of

these words indicates a position in which one of two

things, and of two only, can be done or can happen.

The following examples of the use of alternative are

contrary to the true signification.

** Not a mouthful of food was left, and the alternatives [alter-ative]

nowbefore

us were [was] atwelve-mile

paddle or nosupper.

** Unless the reference is credited as inconsistent with the pre-eding

statement, we are driven to the only other alternative.

**An argument which presents an antagonist with two or

more alternatives^ but is equally conclusive against him, which- '

ever alternative he chooses. Webster's Dictionary, under

Dilemma.

*'Mr. Gladstone's manifesto does not offer a single argument

to prove that coercion is the only alternative policy to home rule

for Ireland. Mr. Chamberlain gave one alteniative other than

coercion, and Mr. John Morley suggested a fourth, by admitting

that it was possible to govern Ireland as a Crown colony. . . .

It must be made clear that there is another alternative, namely,

to give Ireland local control of her local affairs. London

Times, June 14, 1886 (cable despatch).

The expression either horn of the dilemma is fre-uently

seen, showing the true signification of the word.

The following example shows the correct usage ;

*' A strong dilemma in a desperate case.To act with infamy or quit the place. Swift.


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THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 21

CHAPTER III.

THE POSSESSIVE CASE.

21. All nouns in the

singularnumber, and all

nouns in the pluralending with any other letter than

, form the possessive ase by the addition of the apos-ropheand the letter s; as, man's, men's, child's, hil-ren's,

Charles's, elix's, astings's, itness's, uchess's.When the singular oun ends in , sh, ch soft, e, se, or x,

the addition of the possessive postrophe nd s makesanother syllable as, James's, countess's, ackintosh's,church's, ustice's, orse's, ox's. It is therefore justas proper to omit the plural s in Charleses, ountesses,horses, oxes, jttstices, r churches, s to omit the ' in the

posses^ve cases above given, or in any proper name

ending either with s or any other of the letters or

digraphs mentioned.The only exceptions o this rule are that in poetry

the additional s may be elided for the sake of the meter ;and that a few phrases, ike for righteousness' ake,

for conscience' sake, for goodness' ake, for Je-

^^^fius^-eake, ave become from long usage established asidioms. The following examples are consequentlyerroneous, and require the addition of s after the

apostrophe. Moses' minister.

Phinehas'wife.

Festus came into Felix' room.

These answers were made to the witness' questions.


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A large company attended the countess* party.The administratrix' sale.

** Burns' Poems.**

Mr. James' novel of Philip Augustus.22. All plural nouns ending in s form the pos-essive

by the addition simply of an apostrophe afterthe 8; as, boys*, horses*, ameses', countesses',oxes',churches'.

23* .Personal pronouns in the possessive ase nevertake the apostrophe, ut are written kera, its^ urs, yours,theirs. The indefinite pronouns 07ie and other, owever,form the possessive n the same way with nouns ; as,

** One is apt to lose one's self.** Your littlehands were never made

To tear each other's eyes.''Shine with such lustre as the tear that flows

Down Virtue's manly cheek for others' woes.

24. Where two or more nouns in the possessivecase are connected by and, and refer to the same

noun, the sign of the possessive s annexed to thelast one only; as,

John and Eliza's books.

This was my father,other, and uncle's advice.** Men, women, and children's shoes for sale here.

The Farmers and Mechanics' Bank.

''Henry and William's teacher is a man of more leaniiiig han

James's or Andrew's.

But where a disjunctive ord or words are used, the

sign must be annexed to each word ; as, They are John's or Eliza'shooks.

* ' She had thie physician's, he surgeon's, s well as the apoth-cary'sassistance.

They relieve neither the boy's ior the girl's istress.Without any impediment ut his own, his parents', r his

guardian's ill.


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THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 23

Where two nouns are in apposition, r constitute a

title, he possessiveign is annexed to the last ; as, For David my servant's sake.

Give me John the Baptist's ead.** It is the Queen of England's prerogative.'

The Mayor of Boston's address.

25. In some cases, having a peculiar ignificatiothe possessive ign may be used after the objective aseand the possessive f; as,

It was a discovery f Dr. Franklin's.This picture of my friend's.

A subject f the emperor's.A fiiend of General Grant's.

Meaning, It was one of Dr. Franklin's discoveries.

This picture belonging to my friend.One of the emperor's subjects.

~

One of General Grant's friends.

26. The sign of the possessive s often omitted in

cases like the following *'A photographic ens of seven vMihes aperture and thirty-

seven mckcs focus was procured.They arrived weary and fatigued fter a twenty 'milts walk.

Either the apostrophe should be used in these cases,or the expression varied so as to put the Italicized

words in the objective ase.

27. Anybody else^s is often seen in print ; it should

be anybody's else. We might as well say, anybird else's nest, any boy else's hat, etc.

For the incorrect use of the article before the pos-essive

case, see ante, pages 11, 12.

The use of the possessive efore the participle sshown infra, ages 45, 46.


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CHAPTER IV.

THE OBJECTIVE CASE.

28. Errors in the case of thepronoun

are often

made which cannot occur in the noun, the nominative

and objective ases in pronouns having different forms.

E.g.:

Through the ensuingdialogue, hose two, no matter who

spoke, or whom [who] was addressed, ooked at each other.Dickens.

Let the sea roar, and the fulness thereof; the world, and

they [them] that dwell therein. Psalm xcviii. 7.** This life has joys for you and / [me],

And joys that riches ne'er could buy. Bums. It was not the work of so eminent an author as him [he] to

whom it was imputed.For the benefit of those whom [who] he thought were his

friends.

Who [whom] should I see but my old friend **Thou [Thee], ature, partial ature, I arraign. Burns. Between you and /[me].

He can read better than me [I]. ceuvi. ^^'*' It was him [he].

Whom [who] do you think I am ?

W?u) [whom] do you take me for ?

I saw a lady whom I supposed to be she [lier].** It might have been him [he] who did it.

Let ?ie [him] who made thee answer that. Byron.

,

Let they [them] who raise the spell eware the fiend.

Itmust

beremembered that the neuter verb has the

same case after as before it, and that the imperativemood requires he objective ase after it.


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PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT. 25

CHAPTER V.

PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT.

29. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent ingender, number, and person. Consequently pluralpronoun cannot agree with a singular ntecedent, ora singular ronoun with a plural antecedent. The

following xamples are accordingly ncorrect : No one will answer, as if I were their [his] riend or com-anion.

Everybody nowadays publishes inemoirs; everybody hasrecollections which they think [hethinks] worthy of recording.

Every Colony has snch pecaliarities f their [its] wn thatthey are [itis] so fond of, that, if we had numbers and wealthsufficient, he Colonies would never unite.

There is flatcontradiction here between the narrative of the

Jesuit and those of contemporary English writers. (Put thenarratives for those.)

The Council suggest that the action of the New York

Society be iipitated by those [the Societies] f Boston andBaltimore.

But if a customer wishes you to Injure their [his] foot, rto

disfigure t, you are torefuse tlieir

[his] pleasure. Rnskin. She studied his countenance like an Inscription, nd de-iphereeach rapt expression hat crossed it, and stored them, [it]

in her memory.

30. There should not be a mixture of *thou'and 'you' in the same passage. Thus Thackeray:'

So, as thy sun rises over the'humble house-tops oundabout your home, shall you wake many a day to dutyand labor.* So Cooper: *Tkou hast both master and


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26 MISTAKES IN WRITING ENGMSH.

mistress: you have told us of the latter, ut wewould know something of the former. Who is thymiasterr ^

31. Where the antecedent consists of two or morenouns in the singular umber, whether connected byand or not, the pronoun must be in the plural. As,

** Did ever Proteus, Merlin, any witch,Transform themselves so strangely s the rich ?

**

Faith, justice, eaven itself, ow quit their hold.**Both minister and magistrate re compelled to choose be^

tween his [their] uty and his [their] eputation.'* Such unconunon generosity nd goodness was [were] n iJts

[their] ature liable to misconstruction, nd we accordingly indU has [they have] been misconstrued.

But where the two or more nounsconstituting

he

antecedent refer to the same person or subject, he

pronoun must be singular. As, This great philosopher nd statesman continued in public

life tillhis eightiethear.The said deed and conveyance is now recorded in the regis-ry

of deeds, and at the time it was recorded, tc.

32. A plural antecedent, r one consisting f two

or more nouns, if qualifiedy each^ every^ noy or not^requires pronoun in the singular.

Each of them, in their [his] turn, received the reward towhich they were [hewas] entitled.

Every plant and every tree produces thera after their [its]kind.

Both sisters were uncomfortable; each felt for the other,and of course for (AewweZfe* [herself].

No policeman, o employee, and no citizen dared to lifttheir [his] and.

Not an officer, ot a soldier, nd not a camp-follower s-aped

permanent injury to their [his] ealth.

1 Bain^s Composition rammar.


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33. Where an antecedent consists of two or morenouns separated y or, vxiVy as well as, or any other

disjunctive,he

pronounmust be singular. As,

*' When you press a watch, or pull a clock, they answer [itanswers] your question with precision.

Neither Venice nor Genoa retain [retains] he rank they [it]once held.

There is no evidence that either Charles I. or Charles II.

deemed it worth their [his] hile to consult the happiness ftheir [his] subjects.

When do we ever find a well-educated Englishman or French-anembarrassed by an ignorance f the grammar of their [his]

respective anguages? They first learn it practically nd un-rringly

; and then if they chose [choose] o look back and smileat the idea of having proceeded by a number of rules, ithout

knowing one of them by heart, or being conscious that they hadany rule at all, this is a philosophical musement ; but who everthinks of learning the grammar of their [his] wn tongue before

they are [he is a] very good grammarians [grammarian]

Sydney Smith.

34. Where an antecedent is a collective noun, ornoun of multitude, he pronoun must be plural r sin-ular

according o the sense intended to be conveyed.In many cases, either the singular r plural may be

employed, but both cannot properly e used together.A report of a committee is hardly ever made withoutviolation of this rule. E. g. :

A board of selectmen are [is] ot required o keep records,and their [its] lerk, if they appoint [itappoints] ne, is not acertifying fficer.

The Council desire^ in the name of the Institute, o expressits [their] ratitude o the individual subscribers for their gen-rous

gifts.'*** If the investing ommittee leaves to an officer, n violation

of the duty imposed upon them [it], he authority o make in-estmenetc.


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35. The use of a pronoun without any properlyexpressed ntecedent is a very common error ; as,

** I desired him topostpone

theformality

f aresignation

ill

I should return to America ; which was then, and has been eversince, expected o take place ery soon. For

** I should return,read my return.

Nor will anything further than the preparations havementioned be resolved upon before Parliament meets, }ohich is

now fixed for the 4th of January. For Parliament meets,

read the meeting of Parliament. The man opposed me, which was anticipated.

Be attentive, without which you will learn nothing.A tremendous fall of snow rendered his departure mpossible

for more than ten days. When the roads began to become alittle practicable, hey successively eceived news of the retreatof the Chevalier into Scotland, then that he had abandoned the

frontiers, tc.

In this quotation rom Scott's Waverley, the hisin the first sentence correctly efers to Waverley in the

preceding sentence ; the he in the last clause stands

correctly or the Chevalier ; but thep has no antecedent

whatever. Read news was successively eceived, or

theysuccessively eceived news.

When Germanicus proposed to Tiberius to subjugate jler-

many, he was right, nd the Emperor was wrong in opposing it,'*Here it has no antecedent ; change to subjugate to ^ stcbju-gation of.

The purchaserilledthe blank

in the certificate, nd sent itto the corporation, emanding that the transfer be recorded anda new certificate be issued, hicJi was refused. For demand-ng,

read vrith a demxi7id. Governor Winthrop tells us of visiting gawam, and spend-ng

the Sabbath with t?iem [whom?], as they were without aminister.

36. Sentences are often so constructed that the

antecedent of a pronoun is doubtful, r so that the


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pronoun grammatically refers to an antecedent not

intended by the writer. As,

He [i. . Philip] wrote to that distinguished philosopher

[i. e. Aristotle] in terms polite and flattering, begging of him

to come and undertake his [Alexander's] education, and bestow

on hirn. those useful lessons of magnanimity and virtue which

every man ought to possess, and which his [i. e. Philip's] nu-merous associations rendered impossible for him [Philip].

Goldsmith, History of Chreece,

Montcalm had passed a troubled night.. . . Troops lined

the intrenchments till day, while the Genei-al walked the field

that adjoined his head-qua]:;ters ill one in the morning, accom-anied

by the Chevalier Johnstone and Colonel Poulariez.

Johnstone says that lie [Montcalm] was in great agitation, andtook no rest all night. At daybreak he heard the sound of

cannon, etc.

Here he grammatically refers to Johnstone, though it

is evidently intended to stand for Montcalm.

Mr. Smith consulted the spirits, and they rapped out the

answer that he must make the best settlement he could with

Mr. Ingalls, or he would infallibly lose all his fine estate, not

only that which Mr. Ingalls had originally held, and which he

[Mr. Smith] had obtained for almost nothing from the heirs of

Benjamin Pai'sons, but also the adjoining parcel, for which

he had paid its full value.*'

Here the Italicized he grammatically refers to Mr.

Ingalls, and would be so understood by the reader

taking the sentence by itself; but from the whole

article in which the sentence appears, it is evident

that he is meant to refer to Mr. Smith.


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CHAPTER VI.

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

37. Where a future contingency, r doubt or in-ecisi

or a wish, is expressed, he verb should be in

the subjunctive ood; as,** Od condition that he comes [come], will consent to stay.

* We may live happily, hough our possessions re [be] small.** And so would I, if I was [were] he.

A certain lady whom I could name if it vxls [were] necessary.He will not be pardoned, nless he reperUs [repent].

**The word * heirs* appears to have been used by the testa-oras if it was [were] general ord.

** I wish that he were here.

Would that it might be so

But where a conditional circumstance which is not

future is expressed, he verb should be in the indica-ive;as,

** If he know [knows] he way, he does not need a guide.If art become [becomes] px)arent, t disgusts he reader.

** Whether the translation loere [was] ever published, amwhollyignorant

**

If a man have [has] uilt a house, the house ish is.38. The verb in connected clauses should not be

put in dififerent moods; as,** If there be but one body of legislators, t is [willbe] no

better than a tyranny; if there are [be] only two, there willwant a casting voice.

But \fî|.climb, ijh your assisting ands,The Tt^îÎ^ ind in the city staiids

* *Dryden's TiT^.


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THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 31

CHAPTER VII.

THE INFINITIVE MOOD.

39. The particle o, as the sign of the infinitive

mood^ is often improperly mitted ; as,** It is necessary to act with more vigor or with greater mod-ration,

to conciliate them completely, r [to] subdae them

altogether.'* Please [to] nsert points o as to make sense.'**' But it would tend to obscure, rather than [to] elucidate the

subject.So as neither to embarrass nor^[to] eaken the sentence.

** He was made [to] elieve that neither the king's eath norimprisonment ould help him.

It is necessary for the lawyer to have a clear conception fthe governing rules of law, and [to] be able to present decisiveauthority r [to] give satisfactory easons for establishing herules.

The sign, however, is properly mitted in sentenceslike the following ^

*' Of me the Roman people have many pledges, hich I muststrive with my utmost endeavors to preserve, defend, confirm,and redeem.

''Many authors expect the printer o point,spell, nd digesttheir copy, so that it may be intelligible o the reader.

To shake the head, relent, nd sigh, and yield.The most accomplished ay of using books at present is,

to serve them as some do lords, le^m their titles, nd thenbrag of their acquaintance.

The active verbs hidf dare, feel, ee, and some otheis,usually ake the infinitive fter them without the to; as,

If he bade thee depart, ow darest thou stay?


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The to is erroneously sed in the following xampleswherever it is Italicized

**I dare not to proceed ohastily,

est I shouldgive

offence.'* I dare to say he has not got home yet. ' I felt a chilling ensation to creep over me.'* It cannot but be a delightful pectacle, o see a person be-ieged

by temptations n every side to acquit himself gloriously,and resolutely o hold out against he most violent assaults.

** Who bade the mud from Dives' wheel

To spurn the rays of Lazarus ?

40. The particle o should not be separated romthe verb by any intervening ord, as in the followingexamples :

The student must not expect to alvmysfind [always o find]studyagreeable.

A sufficient number and variety f cases to fully illustrate[fully o illustrate] he rule.

It seems probable hat this portion was filled with somesubstance to better adapt [the better to adapt] it to the hand.

A right to exclusively exclusively o] make and sell anarticle rests, tc.

To thoroughly [Thoroughly to] cleanse and purify garmentswithout injury, tc.

But to point out only one example of this dog-English, ome of our writers have taken lately o ill-

using our neat and compact verb by ramming anadverb into its midst. They will say, *to apprecia-ively

drink bottled stout';*to

energeticallyalk

to Paddington'; *to incessantly hink'; *to ablyreason.' Where was this dog-English helped 1 You

should say, *to think incessantly'; to reason ably.'Let us suppose that

* bow-wow ' means to drink. Do

you ever hear your dog say, *Bovv wagging mytail wow? 'i

1 Jean Ingelow, John Jerome,(Boston,1886,) p. 211, 212.


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THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 33

This order, however, is sometimes changed in poetryfor the sake of rhythm ; as,

** Who dared to nobly stem tyrannic pride. Barns.

41. The infinitive cannot properly be understood

by the sign to at the end of a sentence, referring o a

foregoing verb in the sentence. E. g. :

** He has not done it, nor is he likely to [doit].'* Can a man arrive at excellence who has no desire to [do so] ?** I have not written, and I do not intend to [write].

When an auxiliary, r efo, is used with an ellipsis,

or instead of the verb, care should be taken that it is

such as can properly be used with the form of the verb

elsewhere given. ^

I did not say, as some have done [said].'*I am surprised that he should leave things as he has

done [left thtm].** These relations cannot be pictured. All attempts to do so

[so to picture them] rest upon a false foundation.The reduction of unrelated phenomena to order is pleasing;

the inability o do so [ao to reduce them] is displeasing.

42. Such expressions as Try and think, Tryand make, Try and do it, etc. are erroneous. Say, Try to think,'* Try to make, Try to do it, etc.

1 L. R. Williston, Manual prepai*ed for a Private School^ (Cam-ridge,1865,) p. 17.

8


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k

CHAPTER VIII.

TENSE, OR TIME.

43. Errors are very common in the tense, r time,of the verb. E. g. :

I drunk [drank] is health.** I begun [began] o feel sleepy.

You done well. Say, You did well, r You havedone welL

** I saw him when he done [did] t.I intended to have written [write] o him on the subject.

I feared that I should have lost [lose] t before I arrived atthe city.

Remember that you mig?U [may] fail.** I will not speak of it, ven if I shvuld [shall] e asked.^''^o have prevented [prevent] heir depreciation, he proper

course, it is affirmed, ould have been to have made [make] a

valuation of all the confiscated property.** By charging n annuity upon the specific roperty, e has

shown an intent that the annuitant should [shall] eceive itwhenever it amid [can] be realized therefrom.

No sooner had the nobility et their doom in the Wars ofthe Roses, and the hands of royalty ere [had been] untied,than a determined effort was made to uproot every national

Uberty.Had we been writing or the English ublic, e would give

[should ave given] t but a paragraph and the quotation romMacaulay given below would constitute [haveconstituted] hesubstance of what we said [should ave said].

The witness testifiedthat he vjos [hadbeen] chairman ofthe selectmen since 1880.

The general conclusions of the judge are correct, and the


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TENSE, OR TIME. 35

only error therein consisted [consists] in the improper use of the

tenn * trade-mark.'**

'*One who should make [had made] a study of him at that

time would ^crfic^ Qiave predicted] a steady, not swift growth.

It would have been worth yourwhile to have heard [hear]

them.

The act granting the pension was not passed until long

after the war was over and the service rendered [had been

rendered].

44. The imperfect tense or preterite, in irregular

verbs, is ollben erroneously used for the perfect par-iciple.

As,

When an interesting story is hroke [broken] off in tlie

middle.

He hath bore[borne]

witness to his faithful servants.

Philosophers have often mistook [mistaken] the source of

true happiness.

I have chose [chosen] to follow the common arrangement.

They were verses torote [written] on glass.

He is uovf forsook [forsaken] by every one.

I have shook [shaken] off the regal thoughts wherewith I

reigned.

And it would become necessary to contradict one day what

I had u?rote [written] on the other.


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CHAPTER IX.

SHALL AND WILL, SHOULD AND WOULD.

45. The fundamental distinction between shall and

will is that shaU indicates what is involuntary^ r com-ulsory,

and wiU what is volwitaryy r the result of

the will.

^' Shall means originally owe, be under obligation';and toill means * wish,resolve, etermine.* The phrases

reallyignify, hen, * I owe, am bound or obligated o,the act of giving ; and * I intend, m determined on,giving.' Out of this difference in the original eaningof the words has grown a diflferencebetween the form

of the future expression n the first person on the one

hand,and the second and third

personson the other

hand. To denote simply something that is going totake place, e ordinarily se shall in the first person,and wiU in the others. *

The diflference between should and w mZ^ is in gen-ralthe same as that between shall and mil, and they

are in like manner confused by inaccurate speakers.

Will in the first person expresses assent or a promise,or a determination ; as,

I will go ' (if it is asked of me).

I will go (whatever ay oppose).

^ Whitney's Essentials of English Grammar, page 119.s Ibid., age 121.


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SHALL AND WILL, SHOULD AND WOULD. 37

Will in the second person foretells ; as,

If you come at twelve o'clock, ou will find me athome.

You will soon be twenty.

Sometimes it expresses a command ; as, You will learn the next lesson to-morrow.

On receipt f this, ou will immediately report at

head-quarters.In questions n the second person, mil expresses a

wish or desire on the part of the speaker as, Will you go to-morrow r* =

I wish you to go to-orrow

WiU you let me know if you can come 1

Will in the third person simply foretells what is

known or thoughtby the speaker; as, He will be at home to-morrow.

I think it will rain to-day.We will have dinner at six o'clock, . e. We will

order it to be ready at six o'clock.

In questions n the third person, tvill inquires on-erningthe pui'pose of another, or asks what the

speaker has no means of knowing; as, Will they be willing o receive us ?

When will our troubles be at an endl

Shall in the first person expresses a determination,or merely announces future action ; as,

I shall go to town to-morrow.

We shall set out early, nd shall try to arrive by

noon.We shall have dinner at six o'clock, . e. Dinner

is to be ready at six o'clock.


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Shall in interrogative entences in the first personasks permission, r inquires s to the intention oropinion of

another; as, Shall I go with you T = Do you wish me to gowith you 1

When shall we see you again? When shall we get there %

ShaU in the second or third person expresses a prom-se,a determination, command, or a threat ; as,

You shaU have these hooks to-morrow.

He shall go, I promise that he shall go.'* He shaU go/* i. e. whether he wishes to go or not Thou Shalt not steal.

You shall hepunished

for this.

In the third person it is sometimes also used condi-ionally;

as, If he shall obey, it will be well for him.

46. The difference between should and tooidd, hich

are the past forms of sliaU and tvill, s mainly the sameas in the present forms ; would referring o an exerciseof wiU, and should implyingcontingent, ependent ac-ion,

or obligation. . g. : ^' I would as readily o it myself as persuade nother

to do it.

I should like to go to town, and would go if Icould.

I hoped that I should not be leftalone.I know I should dislike the country.

Shotdd and would are both often used to express a

conditional assertion; as,

I should go, if I could get away.He would give, f he had the means.


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If he should come, you would see him.** I should not do so, if I were in your place.

I would not do so, if I were in your place.Should they not agree to* the proposals, hat am I

todol

Would is often used to express a wish; as, Would I were home again

I would have you think of these things.Would God I had died for thee, 0 Absalom

Would thou hadst hearkened to my words 1

Also to express a custom ; as, He would often talk about these things.

She would weep all day.

Would also sometimes expresses determination ; as^ He would go, I could not stop him.

He would persist n his course, in spite of all Icould say.

Should often has the meaning of ought, nd expresses

duty; as, He should go by all means, but he will not.

You should not allow such conduct in school.

47. The following re examples of the correct useof these words :

** They that fear the Lord will seek that which is well pleas-ngunto him ; and they that love him shall be filled with the

law. Ecclus, ii. 16. He that honoreth his father shall have a long life ; and he

that is obedient unto the Lord shall be a comfort to his mother.

He that feareth the Lord will honor his father and will do ser-

vice unto his parents, as to his mastera. Ecclus, iii. 6, 7.

*Mf I might see you at my honse, it should go hard but Iwould have a bottle of wine and a pipe of tobacco for you.Beaumont and Fletcher.


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If she love me, then believe

I will die ere she shall grieve. George Wither.

If she hateme,

then believe

She shall die ere I will grieve. B^n Jonson.

This child I to myself will take :She shall be mine, and I will makeA lady of my own.Myself will to my darling eBoth law and impulse ; and with meThe girl, n rock and plain.In earth and heaven, in glade and bower,Shall feel an overseeing owerTo kindle or restrain.

Wordsworth, Toems of hnagiMdwa^ X.

And at the end or determination of this lease shall and will

deliverup

thepremises

nto thelessor,

tc. Modem Lease.

48. The words Italicized in the following xamplesare erroneous :

We toill issue this paper as occasion demands. The next

edition will be issued early in the spring. The size of the sheetwill be very much enlai^d, and we vrUl circulate between fifteenand twenty thousand copies. We will have considerable adver- ising

space, which will be allotted to i;he business men of this

vicinity n very reasonable terms. Newspaper Prospectus.** If we found such a system of writinghistory e would pro-ounce

the division of labor in it unnatural.

We wUl soon be able to answer this pertinent uestion.Unless

theycan intervene to

preservethe creditof the

mark,all faith in its integrity hall soon be destroyed.An order was made that supplemental ails to all European

steamers vnll be despatched o the steamer from the main officeafter the close of the regular ail.

Were we writing for the English public, e would give itbut a paragraph.

Compel me to retire, nd I shall be fallenindeed ; I wouldfeel myself blighted n the eyes of all my acquaintance I would

''vermore lift ui my face in society I would bury myself in the


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oblivion of shame and solitude ; I would hide me fix m the world ;

I would be overpowered by the feelings of my own disgrace ; the

torments of self-reflection would pursue me.*' Chalmers.'

** Perchance I will be there as soon as you. Com, oj

Errors, iv. 1.

'* I tDill sooner have a beard grow on the palm of my hand

than he shall get one on his cheek. .2 Henry IV,, i. 2.

'*But if we look into the English comedies above mentioned,

we would [should] think they were formed upon quite a contrary

maxim. Addison.

** If this passion were simply painful, we would [should] shun

with the greatest care all persons and places that could excite

such a passion. Burke.

'^ Let us, then, should we make a slip, possess our

souls in patience, and not bewail ourselves that we are

utterly lost to English idiom. For he must be an in-ufficien

informed critic of English literature who

does not know that even the most thorough-bred Eng-ish

writers themselves have not always been able to

use shall and tmU, and particularly skotild and would^

withoutsome shilly-shallying

between them. *

1 Richai-d Grant White, Every-Day English, pp. 357, 358.


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CHAPTER X.

LIE AND LAY. SET AND SIT.

49. In order to understand the

properuse of these

verbs, the form of their principal arts should first ofall be thoroughly earned.

In lie and /ay these are as follows, iz. :

The main thing to be borne in mind is that lay (inevery sense in which it can be misunderstood) s a tran-itive

or active verb, and lie is an intransitive or neuterverb. What adds to the confusion between the words

is that the imperfect f lie is lay.

Present

I lie down to sle^p. A book lies upon thetable.'* Guilt lies heavy on his mind. The sea

lies between the two countries.I lay myself down to sleep. I lay a book upon

the table. We lay a foundation. The rain laysthe dust.

Imperfect,

I lay down to sleep. A book lay upon thetable. Guilt lay heavy on his mind. The sea

y between the two countries.


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LIE AND LAY. SET AND SIT..

43

** I laid myself down to sleep. I laid a book uponthe table. We laid the foundation. Tlie rain

laid the dust.

Present Participle, A book is lying upon the table. Guilt is lying

heavy on his mind.** We are laying the foundation. The rain is lay-ng

the dust.

Perfectarticiple,

I had lain down to sleep. A book had lain

upon the table. The sea had once lain between

the two countries.

I had laid myself down to sleep. I had laidthe book upon the table.

We liedown to-night, e lay down yesterday, urstudies have lain in certain directions; ut we lay abook down io-night, e laid it down yesterday, ehave laid aside our studies. A ship lies to, not lays to.The same distinction applies o compounds ; as, to un-erlie,

to overlay ^

50. The principal arts of set and sit are as fol-ows

:

PRES. PART. PERF. PART.

Setting Set

Sitting Sat

Set is in most sigiiifications n active verb; but we

say, The sun sets, nd The tide sets.

We set about, set apart, et aside, anything.

We set out on a journey, et down in writing.

1 Hill's Principles f Rhetoric, pp. 54, 55.


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44.

MISTAKES IN WRITING ENGLISH.

Sit is in most senses n neuter verb. It is active,

however, in the expression, A man sits a horse.

We sit down in a chair, we sit up late at night.

We sit for a portrait. A coat sits welL

Congress or a court sits.

We set a hen, but a hen sits on eggs. We should

say, therefore,

a sitting hen, not a setting hen.

We sit in a sitting-room, and not in a setting-

room.


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USE OF THE PARTICIPLE. 45

CHAPTER XI.

USE OF THE PARTICIPLE.

51. Where the article is used before a present ar-iciplethe preposition f is necessary after it ; but in

many cases either the omission of both articleand prep-sition,

or the substitution of a noun of equivalentsignification, s better. E. g. :

An act for the better regulating of] government in Massa-husetts.

'* An act for better regulating overnment in Massachusetts.An act for the better regulation f government, tc.

** To the introducing of] uch an order of things.** To introducing uch an order of things.** To the introduction of such an order of things.**

Byth

establishing of] goodlaws, we secure our

peace.By estabUshingood laws, we secure our peace.'* By the establishment of good laws, etc.

52. But o/ should not be used after the participlewhere the article is not used before it. It should there-ore

be omitted in the following xamples :

From calling names they proceeded o blows.In forming q/* is sentences he was very exact.

** In breaking of bread from house to house.

They set about repairing /the walls.** Teaching o/ children is a pleasant mployment.

53. The participleequires he possessive ase be-ore

it where the noun itself is the active agent ; butif the noun is a peissive ubject, he possessive houldnot be used. E. g. :


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Lady Macbeth [Macbeth's] alking in her sleep is an inci-entfull of tragic orror.

Much will depend on the pupil [pupil's] omposing fi'e-

quently.T^ie vent of Maria [Maria's]oving her brother.

** The fact of Jaines [James's]lacing imself on his side.**The paper then discusses the probable result of England

[England's] ollowing he policy indicated by Mr. Chamberlain'sspeeches.

** When they speak of a monosyllable* [monosyllable r mono-yllableas] having the grave or the acute accent.

** The daily instances of men*s [men] dying around us.

54. The use of the active, participle n English in a

passive ense is well established, nd cannot be ques-ioned,as in the following xamples : The house is

building, Wheat is selling, The work is nowpublishing, tc. Many writers have contended thatthis form is erroneous, and that the passive orm should

always be used instead; while others have as strenu-uslymaintained that the passive orm should never be

used, and that the active form is the only correct one.But there is no doubt that in many cases the passiveform is decidedly better than the active; as in the

followingxamples : **For those who are being educated in our seminaries.

Southey.** It wfis being uttered. Coleridge. It signifies roperly, hough in uncouth English, ne wlio

is being beaten. Whately.*' The foundation was being laid.

In the following assage it must be admitted thatthe passive orm would be infinitely referable

'*I saw one dragging [beingdragged] nto light, s I passedby the ruins. . . . Whether she was taking [being taken] to

'^count by some disappointed otary, I will not pretend toAVer.


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USE OF THE PARTICIPLE. 47

In the following example, on the contrary, the active

form is certainly better :

The law is annulled in the very act of its being made

[making].

55. The passive participle is sometimes imprbperly

and awkwardly used instead of the active or impersonal

form. As,

** Butgs soon as the whole body is attempted to he carved^ a

disproportion between its various parts results, which is most

disagreeable to the eye.

Correct so as to read, ^* But as soon as an attempt is made to

carve the whole body, etc.

'* The offence attempted to be charged should be alleged under

another section of the statute.

Correct, **The offence which it is attempted to charge, etc.

The seeds of the umbrella pine, which previous to his visit

had been difficult to be obtained^ he procured in great quantities.

Correct to it had been difficult to obtain.

The storm was unfortunate in selecting a district poorly rep-esented

by observers, and thus lost the opportunity of being

carefully observed.

Correct, The storm unfortunately occurred in a district

poorly represented by observers, and thus the opportunity for

its careful observation was lost.


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CHAPTER XII.

ADJECTIVES AND ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.

56.

Adjectives implying unityor

pluralityust

agree in number with the nouns which they qualify.The following examples are therefore erroneous : -*-

** Tfiese sort of fellows are very numerous.** This twenty years have I been with thee.** He thought tJiesekind of excesses indicative of greatness.

The standard being more than two foot above it.** Three pound of gold went to one shekel.** Most of the churches had one or more ruling lder [elders].'*The nature of that [those] iches and [that] long-suifeiiug s

to lead to repentance.** By reflecting n that which is myself now, and that which

was myself twenty yeai-s ago, I discern that they are not two,

but one and the same self. Butler's Analogy, (Insert selves after two.)

**For this among other reasons the contract was executed.

(Correct, * For this reason, among others, etc.)** In this and most of our large cities. (Insert city after

this.) Between the fourth and ninth day [days]. Or, Between

the fourth and the ninth day. ^ From the fifteenth up to the nineteenth centuries [cen-ury].

An adjective ronoun in the plural, owever, maysometimes be properly ssociated with a singular oun ;as,

our desire, your intention, their resignation,

etc.

1 See ante, page 12.


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ADJECTIVES AND ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 49

As meam may be either singular r plural, he twofollowing xamples are correct:

*'He livedtemperately,

ndby

this meanspreserved

his

health.

**The scholars were attentive, ndustrious, nd obedient totheir teachers, nd by these means acquired knowledge.

For By some means or another put By one meansor another, r By some means or other. ^

57. The expression ach other must be used if onlytwo subjects re spoken of, one another if more than two.The following re examples of erroneous use :

Two iie ::atives n English destroy 7ie another j or are equiva-entto an affirmative. Murray s ChramrruvTy ule XVI,

**Both orators take great libertieswith mie another,'*

Teachers like to see their pupilspolite o each other** In the classification f words, almost all writera differfrom

each other.*** * A strobile is a pericarp ade up of scales which overlie each

otJier

Prayers, masses, and confessions followed each other withan edifyingregularity.

58. After other^ otherwise, lse, r any adjective nthe comparative degree, han is usually required. As,

* * The mind no sooner entertains any ])roposition ut [than] t

presently astens to some hyi othesis o bottom it upon.**No other resource but [than] his was allowed him.

Mybehavior has, I fear, been the death of a man who had

no other fault hit [than] hat of loving me too much.** A metaphor is nothing else but [than] shoit comparison.

Architecture and gardening annot otherwise entertain themind but [than] by raising ertain agreeable motions or feel-ngs.

The -jwlicy ontained no other reference to an assignment

except [than] he following.1 See ante, page 18.

4


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He was selling ickets for two other railroads in addUicni to[than] hose before mentioned.

This is none other hiU [than] he house of God, and this is

the gate of heaven.

After else and other the preposition esides is some-imesused ;

other. . .

than is exclusive of those

mentioned, whereas other . . . besides is inclusive ofthose mentioned. E. g. :

** Other words besides thepreceding ay begin

withcapitals.Other materials besides lead are used in the house service.

** Pain must here signify omething lse besides warning.

59. Where comparisons re made, care must betaken to exclude from and include in both terms pre-isely

what is intended, by the use or omission of otiier,

or an equivalent ord. As,** Iron is more useful than all the [other] etals.

A fondness for show is of all other follies the most ridicu-ous.

** No [other] ritings hatever so abound with bold and ani-ated

figures s the sacred books.** This was less his case than

any [other]an's that ever wrote.

The temple of Cholula was deemed more holy than any[other] n New Sxmin.

Of all other beings, an has certainly he greatest easonfor gratitude.

It Is of all others [things] hat which most moves us.I think it superior o any [other] ork of that nature we

have yet had.No [other] overeign as ever so much beloved by the

people.Nothing [else] elights e so much as the works of nature.

He celebrates the Church of England as the nearest perfec-ionof all otliers [churches].

60. Either andneither, These words

werefor-erly

considered to apply properly nly to two personsr things taken separately, nd to signify ne or the


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other, and that is strictly heir trae usage. But goodauthority as established the use of both words in rela-ion

toany

indefinite number. As,** Either of several provinces.

Our alphabet as no letter to represent ither of five simpleconsonant sounds.

Wonis not reducible to either of the three preceding eads.

**Dryden, Pope, and Wordsworth have not scrupled o lay a

profane hand upon Chaucer, a mightier genius than either.

George P. Marsh. Neither of these five verbs can be neuter.

Neither of the ten was there.

61. One as the antecedent of his : One ought toknow his own mind. It has been contended by manythat this construction is wrong, and contrary to Englishidiom. It seems to me, however, to be right, oth logi-ally

and grammatically; t is more euphonious than

using one^s for Aw, is sanctioned by good usage, and iscorrect according o the principle y which the mascu-ine

pronoun is used where the antecedent is indefinite

as to gender ; as,

A person can never do anything atvariance with his own nature. This sentence, and

others like it, would be equally orrect if One *' weresubstituted for A person.

62. NonCy although literally eaning no one, maybe used with

a plural verb, havingthe

signification fa noun of multitude. As,

In at this gate none pass the vigilance ere placed. Milton.** Terms of peace were none vouchsafed. Ibi l.

None that go unto her return again. Prov. ii. 19. None of their productions re extant. Blair. None of them are varied to express the gender.

63. The adjectives hole and less are properly p-liedin relation to quantity; all q.u^ fewer, in relation


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to number. The following re examples of erroneous

usage :

Almost the whole [all he] inhahltants were present.The Red cross Knight runs through tlie whole [all he] steps

of the Christian life.

There are no less [fewer] han twenty diphthongs n theEnglishlanguage.

There were not less [fewer] han fifty r sixty personspresent.

All is sometimes incorrectly sed for the whole, ndsometimes for onlt/ as,

The disease spread ver all the [the whole] country.Cynthia and Mary were all the [the only] children of their

parents.

64. The use of two first, hree last, tc., for first

two, last three, etc., is incorrect. As, The two last [last wo] chapters ill not be found deficient

in this respect.The six first ooks of the ^Eneid are exceedingly eautiful.The nine first chapters f the Book of Proverbs are highly

poetical.

Analytical otes on the First and TTiree Last of the MinorProphets. By the Rev. \Vm. Randolph, M. A. Cambridge.

It has been attempted to defend the usage of two

first, tc., by authority. But every error in grammarmight be established if frequent sage or the occasional

slips f good authors are to be accepted s final author-ty.

Goold Brown says, The ordinal adjectives r ^,sjecond, ext, last, ay qualify he cardinal numbers, but

they cannot very properly e qualifiedy them,'* andthe weight of authority s overwhelmingly n supportof this statement.

The ordinals second, third, etc. shouldnot

beused

~'' adverbs, for secondly, hirdly, tc.; and first, s an

^erb, is preferable o firstly.


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65. Adjectives re often used where adverbs areTequired; s,

**

Agreeable [Agreeably]o

my promise,now write.

He acted in this business bolder [more boldly] han wasexpected.

** I can never think so very mean [meanly] of him.** How remarkable [remarkably] eavy it is * He was exceeding [exceedingly] ind to me.** I called on his lordship revious^ to my leaving England.

Endeavor to live hereafter suitable [suitably] o yourstation in life.

In like manner, adverbs are sometimes used for ad- ectiv

as,

The arrows of calumny fall hamdessly [harmless] t thefeet of virtue.

.

This construction sounds rather harshly [harsh].The returns of the election, fficial or otherwimy are now

all in.

^Q, There is sometimes a question whether to

use an adjective r an adverb after certain verbs. The

principle eems to be, that when the limiting ord ex-ressesa quality r state of the subject r the object,

rather than the manner of the action, n adjective s

proper. This construction takes place with the verbs

he, look, taste, smell, feel, seem, etc. ^ Briefly, f theverb is intended to be qualified, he adverb should be

used ; if the noun is intended to be qualified, headjective. Kg.:

The berry tastes sour. The flower smells sweet.The man felt bad about it.

The woman looked beautiful.

She looks cold. He feels warm.

* Although this use of previous iov previously is objected to bygrammarians, yet it has been used by many good writers.

2 Tweed's Grammar for Common Schools, page 111.


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In the following examples the adverb is correctlyused ; as,

** She lookscoldly

n him.

**He feels warmly the liisult yffered o him.

Then and now are sometimes improperly ade toserve as adjectives; s,

**Even in the then rigorous iimate and other hard condi-ionsof Europe. (Omit then, and insert at that time after

Europe. )** The then King of France was engaged in waging war with

England.The now [existing r present] opies f the original ext are

entire.

67. Where only two persons or subjects re com-ared,the

adjectiveust be in the

comparativedegree,not, as is often the case, in the superlative but if morethan two are included in the comparison, the superla-ive

must be used. E. g. :

This is the best [better] f the two.Her mother seemed the younrfcd [younger] f the two.Of

two evils choose the lecist [lesser].68. Former and latter, eing adjectives f the com-arative

degree, should not be used for first and last,after a specitication f three or more different subjectsor persons ; as,

The tvx) latter [last wo] localities are much older than thepueblos of Cholula.

The court-yard s forme l hy two decayed mounds, themound of worship, and a hill, the latter [last] f which is aregular terrace.

Our road lay by Lou vain, Thirlemont, Liege, Aix-la-Cha-pelle, and Juliers, o the Rhine. The former [first] f thesetowns, etc. J. Fenimore Cooper.

69. When the adjective ronouns this and that, orthese and those, efer to contrasted antecedent terms, this


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or these should represent the latter, and that or those the

former term ; as,

** And reason mise o'er instinct as you can,

In this 't is God directs, in that *t is man. Pope.

** Farewell my friends farewell my foes

My peace with these, my love with those Bums.

The pronounthat is often omitted where it is neces-ary

to show reference to an antecedent term; as,

** If the corporation was carrying on its operations under the

charter of 1792, or [that] of 1794, the argument would be con-lusive.

** Notice the difference between the effect of this volatile acid

and [that] of a strong fixed acid when both are equally dilute.

He certainly preceded the coming of the tribes that formed

the valley confederacy, as well as [that] of the later tribes of

Tlascala.

70. Other errors are the vulgar use of them for

tJiose; and also the application of degrees of compari-on

to adjectives which are superlative in primary sig-ificat

as cJiief,extreine,

perfectf riglU, universal,

supreme, etc. It is incorrect to say o perfect, o

universal, etc.; but we can say, nearer perfection,

nearer right, **less extreme, less perfect, etc.


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CHAPTER XIII.

ADVERBS.

71. Adverbs are frequentl}^ iven a wrong positionin the sentence. No absolute rule can be laid down

for their proper position.They should generally e

placed before the words they qualify sometimes, how-ver,after verbs, or between the auxiliary nd the

verb, but never between to and the infinitive.^ The

adverb only is especially pt to be misplaced. The

following re examples of wrong position:** We must not expect to find study agreeable lways [always

agreeable].** Instead of looking cmiteinpttwusly ozen [down contemptu-usly]

on the crooked in mind or body, we should look up thank-ullyto God, who has made us better. *

** Everything avored by goml usage is not on that accoimt tobe retained. (Place not at the beginning f the sentence. )

** By hasty composition e shall acquire certainlycertAinly

acquire] very bad style.*' The comparisons re short, touching n one point only [only

on one point] f resemblance.'* Having had once [once had] some prominent object et be-ore

lis.** The positive eems improperly o 6e [to be improperly] alled

a de rree.

'*In some phrases the genitive s only [only the genitive s]used.

1 See ante, 40.* Murray Jiorrects look tip thankfully to thankfully look

up

; but I think the order of the first clause as corrected, lookingdown contemptuously, hould be followed in the second one.


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ADVERBS. 57

** This blunder is said actually to have [to have actually] c-urred.

*' But every man is not called James, nor every woman Mary.'*

(Place 7Mrf after But. )** Most men dream, but all do not [not all].** We have often [oftenhave] occasion to speak of time.

The words must be generally [generally e] separated romthe context.

But it is only so [soonly] when the expression an be con-ertedinto the regular oim.

For sinners also lend to sinners to receive a^ much again

[again s much].He was about to go on, when he perceived rom her quiver-ng

eye and pallid heek that nothing less than imposture wasintended. Scott, Old Mortality. (Say, ** nothing was less in-ended

than imposture. ) Meister is

broughtto realize thai he is not only [not

onlythat he is] a social and moral being,^and apable of developmentas such, but that he is also a religious eing.

72. The adverb should not be unnecessarily ntro-ucedin the middle of a clause at the beginning of a

sentence, thus multiplying auses, but should be placed

at the end of the clause ; as, 0

It remains, then,undecided, [undecided, hen,] hether theeffect of heredity is to transmit these characteristics.

We may define, therefore, he cause of a phenomenon to bethe antecedent, n which it is invariably onsequent. (Put therefore after phenomenon. )

For the erroneous placing of the adverb between theparticle o and the infinitivey ee ante, 40.

73. Misuse of adverbs is very frequent. Some ofthe more common cases are the following.

^Like I did,' is a gross Western and Southern vul-arism

for*

as I did.' *

1 Mathews*8 Words, their Use and Abuse.


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This use of like for as is by uo lueane a peculiarity fthe South and West. I have known Englishmen who

constantly sed the expression, nd the following x-mples,which might be multiplied indefinitely, re

taken from recent English works: ** It must be very jolly o travel like he does. Hagh Con-ay,

Living and Dead,** So few are placed like I was, that my audience who would

understand and enter into ray feelings ust be too limited totrouble about. Ibid., and so^mm..

*'It is like it was to be a king when men struggled mongthemselves who should be a king. Anthony TroUope.

'* And sometimes, passing through the ground-floor assage,he would see her ironing, iX;e that first time. Vernon Lee,Miss Brown,

Such is often improperly used for the adverb so,E. g.:

*' In such a [so] mild and fruitful [a] region.** With all due deference to such a high [so high an] authority

on siicti a [so] very important [a] matter. Moon, Dean'sEnglish,

**Such a [so] lovely [a] woman,**

Sucli a [so] eautiful [a]flower, tc.

^^ Quite should be used in the sense of * entirely,never for * rather ' or * very.' }

** Wounded quite [very] everely.** Mr. John Redman flattered himself he was quite the gentle-an.

Say, a perfect entleman.''The conclusions drawn from a casual view are frequently

quite different from the results of a complete investifi^tion.** The acquisition f the power of speech is in all probability

a quite recent occurrence.

Equally as tffells often used for equally well, or

a.s well.

1 Hill's Principles f Rhetoric, . 58.


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ADVERBS. 59

How should not be used before that, or instead of

it ; nor for lest. E. g. :

He said how [that] he would go.

Ye see hoyr that not many wise men are called. (Omit

that.)

Be cautious how [lest] you offend him.

No is often used improperly for not

; as,

1 do not know whether they are out or no. Byron. Whether he be a sinner or no, I know not. John ix. 25.

Can I make men live, whethej they will or mo?

I shall not ask Jean Jaques Rousseau

If birds confabulate or no Cowper.

Ever and never are very often confused ; as,

In some parts of the country, it seldom or ever [never] rains.

We seldom or ever [never] see those forsaken who trust in

God. (Or correct to seldom if ever. ]

Many grammarians consider expressions like ** never

so good, never so well, never so wisely, as er- oneous,

and that never should be ever in such pbmses.

But Professor Hill, speaking of never so go

Mistakes Writing English How to Avoid Them

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