MISSION-WIDE AGRICULTURAL PESTICIDE EVALUATION REPORT … · 2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide...

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO (DRC)

MISSION-WIDE AGRICULTURAL

PESTICIDE EVALUATION REPORT AND

SAFER USE ACTION PLAN (PERSUAP)

JANUARY 2017

This document was produced for the United States Agency for International Development (USAID).

Cover photo: Vegetable production for supply of Kinshasa; Photo by Prof. Theodore Munyuli

2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) i

USAID/DRC Mission

INITIAL ENVIRONMENTAL EXAMINATION

USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report and Safer Use Action Plan (PERSUAP)

PROGRAM/ACTIVITY DATA

Activity Location:/Country Code DRC

Activity Name: ALL USAID/DRC PROGRAMS

Activity Number: MULTIPLE

Life-of-Activity Funding: Various

Period Covered 5 years

IEE Amendment Prepared by: Cadmus Group Inc.

Current Date: 2017

Expiration Date: 2022

IEE Amendment (Y/N): YES – amends all current USAID/DRC IEEs covering activities with potential pesticide use

Including Food Production, Processing & Marketing Activity (FPPM) PERSUAP AID-623-C-11-00008

SUMMARY OF ENVIRONMENTAL THRESHOLD DECISION (Place X where applicable)

Categorical Exclusion [ ] Deferral [ ] Positive Determination [ ] Negative Determination [X] Negative Determination w/ Conditions [X] Exemption [ ]

SCOPE AND PURPOSE

This mission-wide Pesticide Evaluation Report Safer Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) addresses the requirements of 22 CFR 216.3(b) (“Pesticide Procedures”) regarding the procurement, use and support for use of pesticides on USAID/Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) programs. As such, it (1) establishes the set of pesticides for which procurement, use or support for use is authorized across all USAID/DRC programs; and (2) establishes the conditions under which the authorized pesticides may be procured, used, or their use supported to best ensure user, consumer and environmental safety. It amends all USAID/DRC IEEs covering activities that may involve the use of pesticides.

2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) ii

This PERSUAP covers programs under Development Objective 2 (DO2): Lives Improved through Coordinated

Development Approaches in Select Regions of the DRC Country Development Cooperation Strategy (CDCS.)

The PERSUAP covers the following programs:

Feed the Future (FTF)

Central Africa Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE)

Food for Peace (FFP)

Other programs to be developed that do not differ in programmatic substance and have the same

or similar requirements for use of pesticide active ingredients (AIs) registered for the same or

similar uses by USEPA

These programs have the potential to include the following activities that may require pesticide use:

Crop Production;

Agricultural Research;

Seed Multiplication;

Post-Harvest Storage and Processing; and,

Livestock and Aquaculture production.

Crop production activities addressed by this PERSUAP include:

Food Crops including grains (sorghum, millet, maize), pulses (groundnuts, beans, soybean,

cowpeas), tubers (yams, sweet potatoes, cassava, Irish potato), Musaceae (banana and plantain);

Tree crops (coffee, oil palm, cocoa, chinchona/quinquina bark, rubber tree, citrus, mango, avocado)

and plantation crops (cotton, sugar cane and pyrethrum flowers).

Vegetables (tomatoes, cabbage, onions and other vegetables)

Livestock production activities covered in this PERSUAP include production of cattle, small ruminants

(goat and sheep), pigs, rabbits and guinea pigs, and poultry (chickens and ducks), as well as aquaculture.

This PERSUAP supersedes and replaces the following PERSUAPs:

Tuendelee Pamoja (Moving Forward Together) DFAP PERSUAP (expired July 31, 2016),

addressing food commodity protection by fumigation and contact pesticides;

Jenga Jamaa II (Building the Strength of Communities II) DFAP PERSUAP (expired June 30,

2016), addressing food commodity protection by fumigation and contact pesticides; and,

Simama (RISE) DFAP PERSUAP (expired August 31, 2016), addressing food commodity

protection by fumigation and contact pesticides.

THRESHOLD DECISION/ACTION TAKEN

A Negative Determination with Conditions is issued for procurement, use and support to the use of pesticides across the USAID/DRC portfolio, subject to compliance with the SAFER USE ACTION PLAN that comprises Section 6 of the document.

This PERSUAP addresses the conditions of the USAID/DRC Initial Environmental Examination (IEE)

Negative Determination regarding the potential use of pesticides, following 22 CFR 216.3 (b) Pesticide

Procedures. This PERSUAP will closely inform the technical assistance and capacity building for

USAID/DRC supported activities, as well as for any partners/sub-grantees and beneficiaries.

2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) iii

The PERSUAP establishes requirements for safe pesticide use, particularly the support and use of personal

protection equipment (PPE) by any and all pesticide promoters, trainers and users. It identifies additional

measures required within the framework of a Safer Use Action Plan (SUAP)/Environmental Mitigation and

Monitoring Plan (EMMP). The conditions presented in the body of this PERSUAP are highlighted and

summarized below. The requirements come into effect upon approval of this PERSUAP:

As such:

Upon approval of this PERSUAP, pesticides containing AIs listed in Table 1 below are permitted for procurement/use/support by USAID supported programs in the DRC. Procurement, use of or support for the approved pesticides must be in compliance with (1) the AI-specific uses and conditions in Table 1, and (2) the safer use conditions enumerated in the SUAP section.

Summary of Compliance Requirements: In summary, the conditions for Implementing Partners (IP) require that:

Only pesticides approved by this PERSUAP can be supported by USAID funded programs in the DRC. Upon approval of this PERSUAP, the pesticide AIs listed in Table 1 are permitted for use/support/promotion with USAID/DRC funds of agricultural activities. This approval is subject to compliance with any conditions listed for each AI.

IPs will promote only pesticide products containing AIs approved by this PERSUAP. Pesticide use is broadly defined by USAID as procurement, transportation, storage, mixing, loading, application and disposal. It includes demonstrations, promotion and technical assistance, provision of samples, special payments, donations, subsidies and other forms of financial support including credit provision or guarantee of this credit for purchase of pesticides. USAID funded activities must not support AIs rejected by this PERSUAP or banned in DRC.

Those AIs rejected for support with USAID funding are listed in Table 5. Reasons for each rejection are

also listed. Pesticides banned in DRC are listed in Tables 6 and 7.

Allowed Pesticides

ONLY pesticides specifically approved by this PERSUAP are permitted for procurement/use/support by USAID supported programs in the DRC. Table 1 lists these AIs and any conditions or limitations specific to the subject AI that emerge from the Pesticide Evaluation Report (PER) analysis.

As described in the following section, procurement, use and support to any use of pesticides is subject to these AI-specific conditions AND to the conditions for IPs and USAID set out in sections 6.3 and 6.4. These conditions likewise emerge or follow from the PER analysis.

Notwithstanding an AI’s “approved” status, Class I products (i.e. those labeled with skull and crossbones, the word DANGER and/or POISON or equivalent) may only be used by operators with restricted use pesticide (RUP)-level training and appropriate PPE, as certified by the Ministry of Agriculture (at such time as a professional pesticide applicator certification program may exist), an appropriate US or EU certification, or by the USAID MEO.

Upon approval of this PERSUAP, pesticides containing AIs listed in Table 1 below are permitted for procurement/use/support by USAID supported programs in the DRC. Some of these pesticides have an identified use within an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) scheme provided in Annex A. All of them are registered by the EPA and, to the best of our ability to ascertain, listed by the DRC Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Livestock; and are chosen conservatively with respect to their environmental and human health risk profiles, with specific risk-reducing conditions specified as appropriate in Table 1 (This Table 1 also appears in the body of the PERSUAP as Table 5).

2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) iv

This PER does not evaluate artisanal pesticides and their ingredients, however in some cases IPM suggests use of artisanal solutions that are already commonly used by farmers in DRC. Artisanal pesticides are often prepared using variety of plant materials and organic and inorganic chemicals that may present health and environmental hazards. Notably, in addition to health and eco-system hazards, physical hazards can be

associated with each chemical used. It is important to know the hazard classification of each chemical used in preparaton of artisanal pesticide in order to determine many different aspects of safely handling that chemical. Some of the possible physical hazard classifications include: flammable and combustible liquids, oxidizers, explosives, corrosives, irritants, sensitizers, flammable solids, and more. Further informton about hazards presented by pesticide active ingredients, including those used in artisanal pesticides are found in the SUAP.

The regulatory status of all pesticides approved as well as detailed human health and ecological toxicological summaries are given in Annex B, Table B.3.

TABLE 1. PESTICIDES (ACTIVE INGREDIENTS) APPROVED FOR PROCUREMENT/USE/SUPPORT BY

ACTIVITIES IN THE DRC.

ACTIVE INGREDIENT (AI) USES AI-SPECIFIC CONCERNS

2,4-D Herbicide Has acid, amine salts and ester forms

with variable ecotoxicity from practically

non-toxic to highly toxic depending on

the form.

Some products are Acute Toxicity

Category I for irreversible eye damage

(particularly acid and salt forms);

Possibly Carcinogenic to humans

Do not use products that have signal word

Danger and skull and crossbones on

pictogram,

Reported found in provincial stores in DRC.

IPs must confirm registration status in DRC

before procurement of products with this AI.

Abamectin Insecticide,

acaricide and

Antiparasitic

Microorganis

m derived

Products over 1.9% are RUP

It is incompatible with many commonly

used pesticides.

Highly Toxic: Bees, birds, amphibians,

zooplankton

Smallholders should not use products with

concentration over 1.9% as such products can

be used only by properly trained and

qualified professionals with access to

necessary PPE.

Where products contain this AI in addition to

other AIs, product procurement must be

approved by the MEO

2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) v




Acetamiprid Insecticide Potential pollutant of underground

waters

Highly toxic to birds

Like other neonicotinoids it is suspected to

be involved in honeybee colony collapse

disorder, even if generally considered safer

than other chemicals belonging to the same

chemical group. Should not to be applied

during or close to flowering.

Aluminum Phosphide Fumigant All products are RUP

Fatal by inhalation

Highly toxic tobees

Can be used only by professional fumigators

for FFP activities

Implementers must refer to

USAID Programmatic Environmental

Assessment (PEA) for

phosphine fumigation of stored agricultural

commodity available at

http://www.usaidgems.org/fumigationpea.ht

m

Amitraz Acaricide,

Insecticide Potential neurotoxin

Possible Reproducive/Development

toxin

Possible endocrine disruptor

Possible carcinogen

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Insecticide Only strains approved and registered in

DRC should be used

Found in stores in DRC such as

http://www.savana-france.com/en/table-

products.aspx?p=CD, must confirm

registration in DRC before procurement

Bifenthrin Insecticide

Acaricide

Many products are RUP

Suspected endocrine disruptor

Potential development/reproductive

toxin

Possible carcinogen

Products with this AI should not be used by

smallholders. IPs must receive MEO approval

for use of products containing this AI.

Bispyribac-sodium Herbicide Potential groundwater contaminant

http://www.savana-france.com/en/table-products.aspx?p=CD


https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwju0P294-XQAhXKQyYKHeMfDAAQFggjMAE&url=https%3A%2F%2Fpubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fcompound%2FBispyribac-sodium&usg=AFQjCNFnZhgmHlSfBeCaCbqg2Oyb_nK60w&bvm=bv.141320020,d.eWE

2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) vi




Copper hydroxide Fungicide Use products < 50% a.i. and possibly

granular or flowable formulations

Very persistent water, soil, sediment

Very toxic to aquatic organisms

Very hazardous in case of skin and eye

contact, slightly hazardous if inhaled

Do not use products that have DANGER

and/or oskull and crossbones on the label

Copper oxide Fungicide Moderately toxic

Copper oxychloride Fungicide Suspected endocrine disruptor


and/or skull and crossbones on the label

Cypermethrin Insecticide Many agricultural use products are RUPs

due to toxicity to fish and aquatic

invertebrates.

Highly Toxic to bees




Deltamethrin Insecticide Restricted for use in cotton, some EC

products are RUP due to toxicity to

aquatic organisms

Potential endocrine Disruptor

Highly toxic to some aquatic organzisms

such as crustaceans and to amphibians

Highly toxic tobees

IPs must receive MEO approval before

procurement and use of products containing

this AI.

Difenoconazole Fungicide Potential endocrone disruptor

Possible carcinogen

Highly Toxic toooplankton

Dimethoate Insecticide Few products are RUP

Potential pollutant of underground

waters

Potential carcinogen, neurotoxin,

edocrine disruptor,

reproductive/developmental toxin

2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) vii




Esfenvalerate Insecticide Most products are RUP

Highly toxic to aquatic organisms and

amphibians

Highly toxic to bees

Potential endocrine disruptor



for use of products containing this AI

Ethofenprox Insecticide Likely carcinogen


Approved for veterinary use

EPTC (S-ethyl dipropyl

thiocarbamat) Herbicide Not approved in EU

Likely developmental toxin

Likely neurotoxin

Fenitrothion Insecticide Suspected endocrine disruptor

Fipronil Insecticide Many products are RUP

Possible carcinogen



waters


fishcrustaceans, zooplankton

Highly toxic to beesees




Fluazifop-p-butyl Herbicide Potential Reproductive or

Developmental Toxin

Fluroxypyr Herbicide Found in some RUP products

Glyphosate Herbicide Some products are Acute Toxicity

Category I for irreversible eye damage;

do not use products that have signal

word Danger

Probably Carcinogenic to humans


waters

2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) viii




Imidacloprid Insecticide Implicated in possible impacts to bee

population (colony collapse disorder),

not to be used during flowering stage or

when bees are actively foraging


waters

Potential Reproductive/Development

toxin,

Potential Neurotoxin

Indoxacarb Insecticide Moderately to very highly toxic to

freshwater and marine/estuarine fish

and invertebrates





Lambda-cyhalothrin Insecticide Most products are RUP

Highly toxic to fish and other aquatic

organisms.

Highly toxic to bees.





Mancozeb Fungicide Likely Carcinogen (USEPA)

Potential Endocrine Disruptor


waters

Highly Toxic to amphibians

Mefenoxam (Metlalxyl M) Fungicide Potential groundwater contaminant

Metalaxyl Fungicide Potential pollutant of underground

waters

Metaldehyde Molluscicide Potential ground water contaminant

Potential carcinogen





Metsulfuron-methyl Herbicide Potential ground water contaminant





2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) ix




Nicosulfuron Herbicide Do not use when in products containing

Atrazine, these products are RUP


waters

Oxadiazon Herbicide Likely Carcinogen (EPA)


Toxin

Highly toxic to zooplankton

Penoxsulam Herbicide Possible carcinogen

Potential groundwater contaminant

Permethrin Insecticide Most are RUP

Not registered products in EU

Probable carcinogen

Hightly toxic to bees

IPs must receive MEO approval for

procurement and use of products containing

this AI.

Pirimiphos-methyl Insecticide Potential neurotoxin

Higly toxic to bees


To be used only for stored products and

healh applications

Sulfur Fungicide and

miticide Human health risks include eye, skin and

inhalation

Elemental sulfur is not toxic, but it’s

derivatives are

Thiamethoxam Insecticide Highly toxic to bees

Implicated in possible impacts to bee


not to be used during flowering stage or

when bees are actively foraging.


waters

Thiophanate-methyl Fungicide Potential carcinogen


Potential reproductive toxin/mutagen

https://www.google.com/search?q=thiophanate%20methyl&start=0&spell=1

2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) x




Thiram Fungicide Included in the Rotterdam Convention

Highly toxic to fish, zooplankton,

amphibians, worms,

In the US and Europe used in

concentration below 15%, particularly

for seed treatment


Potential reproductive/development

toxin

Approved for use only as treated seed

Triadimenol Fungicide Possible carcinogen


Possible neurotoxin

Potential reproductive/developmental

toxin

Use only when in treated seed

Triadimefon (parent of

Triadimenol)

Fungicide Possible carcinogen


Likely developmental and reproductive

toxin


Triclopyr Foliar

herbicide and

fungicide

Few products are RUP

Some products are Category I for irreversible

eye damage; do not use products that have

signal word Danger or skull and crossbones

on the pictogram

Pesticides Considered but Rejected

Synthesizing across the foregoing PER analysis, Table 5 lists those AIs whose use by USAID projects was specifically considered but rejected. The grounds for rejection are also listed. This list includes not only candidate pesticides as listed in Section 5, but other chemicals whose importation into the DRC is banned in compliance with international agreements or which are believed might be available in the region and illicitly imported (See Tables 6 for the pesticides specifically banned by the Stockholm Convention and the Rotterdam Convention and Table 7 for products banned in DRC). This information is provided to support evaluation of future requests for amendment of this PERSUAP.

The rejected AIs are in some cases registered by USEPA, but are rejected for use or support in USAID/DRC programs for a variety of reasons such as prevalence of these AIs in products designated by USEPA as Restricted Use Products (RUP) due to high human or ecological toxicity.

https://www.google.com/search?q=triadimefon&start=0&spell=1

2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) xi

In addition to these and other restrictions set out in Table 1 (Table 5 in the body fo the PERSUAP),

approval of the AIs listed is SUBJECT to conditions enumerated in the Safe Use Action Plan &

Compliance Tracker (“SUAP Tracker”) provided in Section 6.5. In summary these conditions are as

follows:

Commercial pesticide products procured, used or recommended for use must be properly labelled

in the national language and include specified essential information. Training in reading and understanding

of labels is one of the topics to be addressed under the mandatory requirement for understanding pesticide

risks and safe pesticide use.

Projects must assure use per the label instructions, including the correct use of appropriate PPE

(per label) for all pesticide use under their direct control. Otherwise, projects must assure access to, proper

use and maintenance of appropriate PPE and use per label to the greatest degree practicable.

Projects must require the use and maintenance of appropriate PPE—as well as safe pesticide purchase, handling, storage and disposal practices; See Annex C.

Pesticide support must be governed by a set of locally adapted, crop- and pest-specific IPM-based pest management plans and observe enumerated use restrictions. (The PERSUAP provides key information for IPs to develop these plans.) IPs must utilize preventive IPM tools and tactics, examples of which are provided in Annex A. IPs will develop more extensive and detailed IPM plans that address major pests of their respective value chains and preventive non-chemical IPM tools/tactics recommended to be used before using PERSUAP-approved pesticides. These pesticides should be used only as the last resort after all preventive tools have been exhausted. Pesticides for plant protection must be part of an IPM scheme governed by crop- and pest-specific IPM-based pest management plans.

Appropriate project staff and beneficiaries must be trained in safe pesticide use and pesticide first aid. Mandatory requirement for understanding pesticide risks and safe pesticide use training. IPs must provide basic training to their staff and beneficiaries, including those using, selling, financing or providing extension services or demonstrating pesticides with USAID funding. Advanced training is required for certain AIs and products. Training must be reported to the agreement officer representative/contracting officer representative (AOR/COR). IPs must use appropriate training materials and must build awareness about human health and ecological risks of pesticides and promote safer pesticide use through promotion of pesticide best practices and safety use training. Training must include all topics listed in Annex C.

IPs must take necessary steps to prevent the development of pest resistance by using tools recommended by this PERSUAP such as rotating among different classes of each type of pesticide with different modes of action and monitoring and record keeping for detecting development of resistance. Projects must be systematic in their pesticide-related record-keeping and monitoring.

Projects seeking approval to purchase pesticides must certify that such procurement is compliant with this PERSUAP and provide other specified information for AOR/COR review and clearance.

Pass-down requirements. Prime contractors must include pesticide compliance requirements as set out

above into each grant or sub-contract that will involve support for pesticide use. Sub-contractors or

grantees will be responsible for reporting on risk and risk reduction to the prime contractor. Record-

keeping, reporting on compliance with the above conditions as part of regular project implementation

reporting, and pass-down of all above requirements to subcontractors, grantees and sub-grantees is required.

SUAP conditions must be implemented, and their implementation must be monitored and

reported. To the greatest degree practicable, projects must require use and maintenance of appropriate PPE

– as well as safe pesticide purchase, transportation, handling, storage and disposal practices. SUAP

2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use Action Plan (PERSUAP) xii

implementation must be monitored and reported using the “SUAP Tracker” tracking tool provided in

Section 6.5.

Mandatory use of the “SUAP Tracker.” Any project subject to this PERSUAP must submit a completed

SUAP Tracker to its AOR/COR and MEO 30 days before the implementation of the activity and must

update it annually. The tracker is a mandatory tool for assigning responsibilities and timelines for

implementation of PERSUAP requirements, and for tracking compliance

Note: With respect to pesticides, the SUAP Tracker satisfies the requirement for an EMMP. Project

EMMPs should simply incorporate the SUAP Tracker by reference.

General conditions for USAID/DRC Mission require that:

1. USAID/DRC will put in place effective internal procedures to review pesticide use plans and pesticide procurement requests submitted by IPs. The MEO must review and approve all procurement requests.

2. Per ADS 204.3.4, AORs/CORs must assure that the requirements established by the IP Conditions summarized above are funded, implemented, and monitored.

3. Technical Offices must ensure that contract and award language requires compliance with the conditions established by this PERSUAP for each relevant project.

4. USAID/DRC must assure that all relevant mission staff receive an internal short-format (~1–2 hour) training on the requirements established by this PERSUAP.

5. At such time that pesticides are registered under the DRC Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, Livestock’s List of Approved Pesticides, USAID/DRC must update this PERSUAP.

Responsibilities

Primary mission responsibility for environmental compliance over life-of-project (LOP) rests with AORs/CORs, Activity Managers and Team Leaders. The MEO and REA play key roles as compliance advisors and quality reviewers and gatekeepers of Reg. 216 documentation. IPs have responsibility for field implementation of environmental mitigation and monitoring measures, typically via the Compliance Tracker that satisfies the requirements of an EMMP, and periodic reporting.

Signed: __________________________ Date: 08/02/2017

08/02/2017Cleared.

Erika J. Clesceri

Cleared. Available on request. 03/16/2017

2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF ACRONYMS ................................................................................................. XVIII

1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Purpose and Scope ...................................................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 USAID’s Pesticide Procedures ................................................................................................................................................... 1 1.3 Definition of Pesticides ................................................................................................................................................................ 2 1.4 Integrated Pest Management ....................................................................................................................................................... 2 1.5 Methodology of persuap development............................................................................................................................................ 3 1.6 Structure of this PERSUAP ..................................................................................................................................................... 3

2. USAID/DRC PROGRAMMING ................................................................................... 5

2.1 USAID Programs ..................................................................................................................................................................... 5 2.2 Identification of Target Activities ............................................................................................................................................... 5

3. ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT ................................................................................ 7

3.1. DRC Country Background ....................................................................................................................................................... 7 3.2 Environmental regulations .......................................................................................................................................................... 8 3.3 Agriculture in the DRC ............................................................................................................................................................. 9

4. PER PART 1—BASELINE: PEST MANAGEMENT NEEDS AND MANAGEMENT CAPACITY ........................................................................................... 12

4.1 Agricultural Extension in the DRC ........................................................................................................................................12 4.2 Inputs value-chain ....................................................................................................................................................................12 4.3 Farmers use of pesticides ...........................................................................................................................................................13

5. PER PART 2—CANDIDATE PESTICIDES AND THE 12-FACTOR ANALYSIS .. 15

5.1 List of Candidate Pesticides ......................................................................................................................................................15 5.2 The 12-Factor Analysis ...........................................................................................................................................................18

6. SAFER ACTION USE PLAN (SUAP) ..........................................................................32

6.1 Introduction ..............................................................................................................................................................................32 6.2 Allowed Pesticides ....................................................................................................................................................................32 6.3 Pesticides Rejected and Banned .................................................................................................................................................40 6.4 Summary of Compliance Requirements .....................................................................................................................................44 6.5 Pesticide Safer Use Action Plan & Compliance Tracker .........................................................................................................48

ANNEX A: PESTS AND DISEASES OF TARGET CROPS AND AVAILABLE AND RECOMMENDED CONTROL METHODS ..................................................................56

Grains ............................................................................................................................................................................................56 Maize .............................................................................................................................................................................................64 Rice 72 Legumes/Pulses – Groundnuts, Cowpeas, Beans, Soybeans ............................................................................................................82 Tubers ............................................................................................................................................................................................89 Vegetables (Tomatoes, Onions, Cabbage, Other Vegetables) ...........................................................................................................97 Tree Crops (Coffee, Oil Palm, Cocoa, Chinchona/QuinQuina Bark, Rubber Tree, Citrus, Mango, Avocado) ........................... 107 Plantation Crops (Cotton, Sugar Cane and Pyrethrum Flowers) .................................................................................................. 118 Livestock ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 121

ANNEX B. PESTICIDE TOXICOLOGICAL PROFILES............................................ 122

Toxicity to humans ...................................................................................................................................................................... 122 Ecotoxicology ............................................................................................................................................................................... 123

ANNEX C. MANDATORY ELEMENTS OF TRAINING AND PESTICIDE SAFER USE ................................................................................................................................... 130

Training in Safer Use .................................................................................................................................................................. 130 Training in IPM ......................................................................................................................................................................... 130 Understanding Pesticide Labels and Material Safety Data SheetS ............................................................................................... 131 Protective Clothing and Equipment .................................................................................................................................... 134


Proper Spray Technique: Protecting Against Pesticide Spray Drift ............................................................................................... 135 Pesticide Transport and Storage ................................................................................................................................................... 136 First Aid for Pesticide Poisoning .................................................................................................................................................. 137 Proper Pesticide Container Disposal ............................................................................................................................................. 138 Monitoring and Data Record Keeping .......................................................................................................................................... 139

ANNEX D: POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................. 140

REFERENCES AND RESOURCES .............................................................................. 142

TABLE OF TABLES

Table 1. Pesticides (Active Ingredients) Approved for Procurement/Use/Support by Activities in the

DRC .............................................................................................................................................................................. iv

Table 2. Information Gathered by Consultants from Representative Locations in the DRC .......................... 3

Table 3. Pesticides (Active Ingredients) Evaluated for Procurement/Use/Support by USAID Funded

Activities in the DRC ............................................................................................................................................. 15

Table 4. Pesticides (Active Ingredients) Approved for Procurement/Use/Support by Activities in the

DRC .................................................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Table 5. Pesticides (Active Ingredients) Rejected for Procurement/Use/Support by Activities in the DRC

........................................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Table 6. Hazardous chemicals and pesticides Prohibited for importation into DRC listed in Annex III of

the Rotterdam Convention ..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Table 7. Phytosanitary products whose use is prohibited in DRC Congo due to their carcinogenic,

mutagenic, toxic or ecological effects ........................................................................................................... 44

Table 8. IPM/Safe Use Requirements and Relevant Resources ................................................................................ 47

Table A.1. Sorghum and Pearl Millet Integrated Pest Management Plan………………………………………...56

Table A.2. Maize Integrated Pest Management Plan ................................................................................................... 64

Table A.3. Rice Integrated Pest Management Plan ....................................................................................................... 72

Table A.4. Legumes/Pulses - Groundnuts, Cowpeas, Beans, Soybeans Integrated Pest Management

Plan .............................................................................................................................................................................. 82

Table A.5. Tubers (Yams, Sweet Potatoes, Cassava, Irish Potato) Integrated Pest Management Plan ..... 89

Table A.6. Vegetables (Tomatoes, Onions, Cabbage, Other Vegetables) Integrated Pest Management

Plan .............................................................................................................................................................................. 97

Table A.7. Tree Crops (Coffee, Oil Palm, Cocoa, Chinchona/QuinQuina Bark, Rubber Tree, Citrus,

Mango, Avocado) Integrated Pest Management Plan ........................................................................ 107

Table A.8. Plantation Crops (Cotton, Sugar Cane and Pyrethrum FLowers)

Integrated Pest Management Plan .............................................................................................................. 118

Table A.9. Livestock Integrated Pest Management Plan .......................................................................................... 121

Table B.1. EPA System of Classification of Acute Toxicity ....................................................................................... 122

Table B.2. WHO System of Classification of Acute Toxicity .................................................................................... 123

Table B.3. Assessment of the Acute and Long-Term Toxicity of the Pesticides ............................................. 124

Table C.1. Handler PPE for Worker Protection Standard Products ...................................................................... 134

Table C.2. Pesticide Poisoning First Aid .......................................................................................................................... 137

Table C.3. Proper Methods to Dispose of Pesticides and Their Empty Containers ....................................... 138

Table C.4. Example of Monitoring and Record Keeping Chart .............................................................................. 139


TABLE OF FIGURES

Figure 1. DRC Political Map ...................................................................................................................................................... 8

Figure 2. DRC Agro Ecological Zones ................................................................................................................................... 9

Figure 3. DRC Land Use/Cover .............................................................................................................................................. 10

2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) xviii

LIST OF ACRONYMS

AI Active Ingredient

AOR Agreement Officer Representative

BEO Bureau Environmental Officer

CARPE Central Africa Regional Program for the Environment

CDCS Country Development Cooperation Strategy

CFR Code of Federal Regulation

COR Contracting Officer Representative

DPPV Direction de la Production et Protection des Végétaux

DFAP Development Food Assistance Program

DGDA Direction Générale des Douanes et Accises

DMEO Deputy Mission Environmental Officer

DO Development Objective

DRC Democratic Republic of Congo

EA Environmental Analysis

EMMP Environmental Mitigation and Monitoring Plan

FFP Food for Peace

FIFRA Federal Fungicide, Insecticide, and Rodenticide Act

FTF Feed the Future

GUP General Use Pesticide

ICCN Congolese Nature Conservation Institute

IEE Initial Environmental Examination

IPAPEL Inspection Provincial à l'Agriculture, Pêche et Elevage

IPM Integrated Pest Management

MECNT Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation and Tourism

MEO Mission Environmental Officer

MSDS Materials Safety Data Sheet

NGO Non-governmental Organization

OCC Office Congolais de Contrôle

PER Pesticide Evaluation Report

PHI Pre-Harvest-Interval

POP Persistant Organic Pollutant

PPE Personal Protective Equipment

REO Regional Environmental Officer

RUP Restricted Use Pesticides

SADC Southern African Development Community

SAPReF Southern Africa Pesticide Regulators Forum

SENAFIC Service National des Fertilisants et Intrants Connexes

SENASEM Service National de Semences

SUAP Safer Use Action Plan

2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) xix

SNV Service National de Vulgarisation

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency

USFDA U.S. Food and Drug Administration

WHO World Health Organization

2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) xx

2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural Pesticide Evaluation Report & Safe Use action Plan (PERSUAP) 1

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 PURPOSE AND SCOPE

In compliance with USAID’s Pesticide Procedures (22 CFR 216.3(b)), this PERSUAP:

Establishes the set of pesticides for which procurement, use or support for use is authorized across all USAID/DRC programs.

Establishes the conditions under which the authorized pesticides may be procured, used, or their use supported to best ensure user, consumer and environmental safety.

These requirements come into effect upon approval of the PERSUAP.

The set of authorized pesticides and requirements

for safe use are established through the first sections

of the document, the Pesticide Evaluation Report

(PER), which culminates with an assessment of the

12 pesticide risk evaluation factors (a through l)

required by 22 CFR 216.3(b) (See Box 1).

The Safe Use Action Plan (SUAP) in Section 6 provides a succinct, stand-alone statement of compliance requirements, synthesized from the 12-factor analysis. It also provides a template for assigning responsibilities and timelines for implementation of these requirements. Each project subject to this PERSUAP must complete this SUAP template and submit to its Agreement Officer Representative/Contracting Officer Representative (AOR/COR), Deputy Mission Environmental Officer (DMEO) and Mission Environmental Officer (MEO).

This PERSUAP supersedes and replaces the following PERSUAPs:

Tuendelee Pamoja (Moving Forward Together) DFAP PERSUAP (expired July 31, 2016),

addressing food commodity protection by fumigation and contact pesticides;

Jenga Jamaa II (Building the Strength of Communities II) DFAP PERSUAP (expired June 30,

2016), addressing food commodity protection by fumigation and contact pesticides; and,

Simama (RISE) DFAP PERSUAP (expired August 31, 2016), addressing food commodity

protection by fumigation and contact pesticides.

1.2 USAID’S PESTICIDE PROCEDURES

Procurement or use of pesticides on USAID-funded or managed activities requires compliance with the Agency’s pesticide procedures, 22 CFR 216.3(b). In summary, this US federal regulation mandates that a pesticide may only be approved for procurement or use following an analysis of 12 specified factors focused on need and risk. More rigorous analytical requirements attach to pesticides designated by USEPA as restricted-use or pesticides not approved by USEPA for same or similar uses.

BOX 1. The 12 Pesticide ANALYSIS

FACTORS

A. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

(US EPA) registration status of the

proposed pesticides

B. Basis for selection of pesticides

C. Extent to which the proposed pesticide

use is part of an IPM program

D. Proposed method or methods of

application, including the availability of

application and safety equipment

E. Any acute and long-term toxicological

issues with the proposed use, and

measures available to minimize such

hazards

F. Effectiveness of the requested pesticide

for the proposed use

G. Compatibility of the proposed pesticide

use with target and non-target

ecosystems

H. Conditions under which the pesticide is

to be used, including climate,

geography, hydrology, and soils

I. Availability of other pesticides or non-

chemical control methods

J. Host country’s ability to regulate or

control the distribution, storage, use,

and disposal of the requested pesticide

K. Provision for training of users and

applicator

L. Provision made for monitoring the use

and effectiveness of each pesticide


Approval of any given pesticide under these procedures is contingent on specified restrictions and safer use requirements and requires Mission Director and Bureau Environmental Officer (BEO) clearance with concurrence by USAID officers identified by the Mission, usually the Mission Environmental Officer (MEO), Regional Environmental Officer (REO) or Advisor, and relevant practice officers and/or advisors.

Pesticide Evaluation Reports and Safer Use Action Plans (PERSUAPs) are generally the instrument by which the pesticide procedures are addressed. Once approved, PERSUAPs amend the Reg. 216 documentation, Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) and Environmental Analyses (EAs), for the subject projects/activities and the conditions they establish become binding.

Generally, USAID is moving towards mission- or sector-level PERSUAPs rather than project-specific ones. This is intended to reduce redundant preparation effort, simplify compliance oversight, and enhance consistency.

1.3 DEFINITION OF PESTICIDES

Effective pest management is required to achieve intended development outcomes in USAID/DRC programs in agriculture and food security. Even in the context of USAID’s policy commitment to integrated pest management (IPM), effective pest management often requires the use of products defined as pesticides by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). The EPA defines as pesticide

Any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling, or mitigating any pest.

Any substance or mixture of substances intended for use as a plant regulator, defoliant, or desiccant.

Any nitrogen stabilizer1

Pesticides include biological pesticides (or biopesticides) including naturally occurring substances that control pests (biochemical pesticides), microorganisms that control pests (microbial pesticides), and pesticidal substances produced by plants containing added genetic material (plant-incorporated protectants).2

Except in limited circumstances, any substance falling within definition of a pesticide must be registered by the USEPA before it can be legally sold or distributed in the United States. One such exception to the registration requirement is for those pesticides that the Administrator, under section 25(b) of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), has determined “to be of a character which is unnecessary to be subject to this Act,” and that have been exempted from the requirements of FIFRA by regulation.3

In implementing its Pesticide Procedures, USAID is bound by the definition of “pesticide” utilized by USEPA and as established by the US Federal Fungicide, Insecticide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA). Per this definition, pesticides are agents used to kill or control (including repel) any pest, including insects, rodents or birds, unwanted plants (weeds), fungi, or microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses. The term “pesticide” applies to insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, microbicides, rodenticides, and various other substances used to control pests.4 Most pesticides are by design poisons, and their use entails a degree of risk to the environment including humans, animals, birds, fish, bees, and other living organisms.

1.4 INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT

Since the early 1990s USAID has been committed to the philosophy and practice of IPM as official policy. There is not a single standard international definition for IPM, but there is wide agreement on its basic elements.

IPM is an ecosystem-based strategy that focuses on long-term prevention of damage from pests.

It employs a combination of techniques such as biological control, habitat manipulation,

1 https://www.epa.gov/minimum-risk-pesticides/what-pesticide 2 https://www.epa.gov/pesticides/biopesticides 3 https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2013-title40-vol25/xml/CFR-2013-title40-vol25-sec152-25.xml 4 "Types of Pesticides" About Pesticides. 05 Aug 2014. United States Environmental Protection Agency. 09 Aug 2015

http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/about/types.htm.

https://www.epa.gov/minimum-risk-pesticides/minimum-risk-pesticide-definition-and-product-confirmation

https://www.epa.gov/minimum-risk-pesticides/minimum-risk-pesticide-definition-and-product-confirmation

http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/about/types.htm


modification of cultural practices, and use of resistant varieties to minimize pest damage.

Pesticides are used only after monitoring indicates they are needed according to established guidelines, and treatments are made with the goal of removing only the target organism.

Pest control materials are selected and applied in a manner that minimizes risks to human health, beneficial and non-target organisms, and the environment.

IPM is strongly promoted as part of 22 CFR 216.3(b) Factor C (see Box 1 above).

1.5 METHODOLOGY OF PERSUAP DEVELOPMENT

This PERSUAP is based on input provided by USAID/DRC, extensive desk research and field interviews and data gathering conducted by regional expert consultants over a period of two months. The field interviews were conducted by four consultants gathering information from representative locations in the DRC, as shown in Table 2 below.

TABLE 2. INFORMATION GATHERED BY CONSULTANTS FROM REPRESENTATIVE LOCATIONS IN

THE DRC

CONSULTANT AREA OF

COVERAGE

SUBJECTS INTERVIEWED/SURVEYED

Théodore Munyuli

Bin Mushambanyi,

Ph.D.

South Kivu: Bukavu,

North Kivu, Goma.

Kinshasa.

Mercy Corps, ADRA, farmer associations and

cooperatives, input suppliers. Ministry of Agriculture

representatives, ag input importers, input retailers

(Kinshasa).

Rémy Mukendi

Tshibingu, M.Sc.

East Kasai: Mbuji-

Mayi, West Kasai:

Kananga.

Farmers, farmer organizations, researchers and

representatives of local and federal government,

input suppliers.

Many Madika-

Kennes, Ph.D.

Katanga:

Lumumbashi and

Kolwezi.

University of Lubumbashi, the University of Kolwezi,

INERA Kipopo, input suppliers, farmers.

Espoir Bisimwa

Basengere, Ph.D.

Tanganyika:

Kalemie, Moba*

Farmer organizations, farmers, input suppliers.

Note: *Site visit to Moba could not be completed due to security issues.

Based on interviews and field visits with implementing partners, local government representatives, NGOs, input suppliers, farmer associations and individual farmers, the regional expert consultants provided country specific information on all aspects of this PERSUAP including regulatory issues, input supply chains, product and equipment availability, extension services, farmer behavior, IPM issues and other relevant information.

1.6 USE AND STRUCTURE OF THIS PERSUAP

A PERSUAP has multiple functions. It is a regulatory document, a source of location specific information about pesticides, description of context in which pesticides will be used by USAID programs, a list of evaluated, approved and rejected pesticides, and a description of analysis by which these lists were developed. The PERSUAP also contains an Integrated Pest Management plan that provides crop protection suggestions including use of pesticides approved in this PERSUAP. The PERSUAP provides specific guidance for safer use of pesticides with further detail about safer use provided in the Annexes. IP activities that are implemented to ensure safer use of pesticides are tantamount to environmental mitigation and monitoring. Therefore, Safer Use Action Plan can be equated to the environmental mitigation and monitoring plan. A tracker provided in the Safer Use Action plan is a monitoring tool for plan implementation.

Sections 1 and 2 of this document provide an introduction to the PERSUAP purpose and scope and

pesticide management needs of programs supported by USAID/DRC.

Section 3 provides the environmental context, describes agricultural production practices, pesticide use

and the system of environmental protection and pesticide regulations.


Sections 4 and 5 are the Pesticide Evaluation Report (PER) that analyzes the selected set of pesticides

and requirements for safe use, which culminates with an assessment of the 12 pesticide risk evaluation

factors (a through l) required by 22 CFR 216.3(b).

Section 6: The Safe Use Action Plan provides a succinct, definitive stand-alone statement of compliance

requirements, synthesized from the 12-factor analysis and includes the list of AIs approved and rejected.

It also provides a mandatory template (the SUAP Tracker in Section 6.5) for assigning responsibilities and

timelines for implementation of these requirements. Each project subject to this PERSUAP must

complete this SUAP template and submit to its A/COR and MEO for approval.

Annexes: The PERSUAP Annexes provide a set of tools for SUAP implementation.

Annexes A, B and C. In keeping with USAID’s policy and promotion of IPM, this document analyzes

the preventive non-chemical IPM tools and tactics to be promoted by the IP. In order to provide the IPs

and their sub-grantees with guidance for the development of recommended detailed and extensive

integrated pest management plans for each specific pest or disease, this PERSUAP compiles and presents

this best practices information in Annex A.

Annex B analyzes the human and eco-toxicology of the pesticides.

Annex C lists mandatory training topics in Safer Use of Pesticides.

Annex D provides policy recommendations.


2. USAID/DRC PROGRAMMING

As noted above, this PERSUAP covers both current USAID/DRC programs and foreseeable future programming. This section summarizes current programs with need and potential need for pesticide use.

2.1 USAID PROGRAMS

This PERSUAP covers programs under Development Objective 2 (DO2): Lives Improved through

Coordinated Development Approaches in Select Regions of the DRC Country Development Cooperation Strategy

(CDCS)

Additionally, the PERSUAP covers the following programs:

Feed the Future (FTF)

Central Africa Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE)

Food for Peace (FFP)

Others programs to be developed that do not differ in programmatic substance and have the

same or similar requirements for use of pesticide active ingredients (AIs) registered for the same

or similar uses by USEPA

2.1.1 FEED THE FUTURE

The DRC is not currently an FTF focus country, but its portfolio is strategically aligned with the FTF global objectives of reducing extreme poverty, under-nutrition, and hunger. FTF programs in the DRC support agriculture and nutrition programs and promote climate smart agriculture.

2.1.2 FOOD FOR PEACE

FFP provides cash, food vouchers, and locally and regionally procured commodities and U.S. food commodities to meet emergency food needs. In addition, FFP food aid programs are assisting populations in North and South Kivu and northern Katanga improve food security, nutrition, and health.

2.1.3 CARPE

USAID/DRC houses the USAID/Central Africa Regional operating unit that manages the Central Africa Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE). CARPE’s strategic goal is: “Central Africa’s transition to climate-resilient, low-emissions development accelerated through sustainable management of biodiverse forests.” CARPE fulfills this goal through a comprehensive and integrated strategy which aims to: (1) improve the management of eight forest landscapes in the Congo Basin; (2) mitigate threats to biodiversity; (3) monitor the condition of forests, wildlife and the natural ecosystems of the Congo Basin and make this information available to the public and policy-makers; and (4) improve natural resources governance.

2.2 IDENTIFICATION OF TARGET ACTIVITIES

In addition to currently implemented projects/activities, this PERSUAP is designed to provide for the needs of future USAID/DRC projects with the same or similar pest management needs.

The PERSUAP addresses programs that potentially include the following activities that may require

pesticide use:

Crop Production;

Agricultural Research;

Seed Multiplication;

Post-Harvest Storage and Processing; and,

Livestock and Aquaculture production.

Production activities addressed by this PERSUAP include:

Food Crops including grains (sorghum, millet, maize), pulses (groundnuts, beans, soybean,


cowpeas), tubers (yams, sweet potatoes, cassava, Irish potato), Musaceae (banana and plantain);

Tree crops (coffee, oil palm, cocoa, chinchona/quinquina bark, rubber tree, citrus, mango,

avocado) and plantation crops (cotton, sugar cane and pyrethrum flowers).

Production of vegetables (tomatoes, cabbage, onions and other vegetables)

Livestock production activities covered in this PERSUAP include production of cattle, small

ruminants (goat and sheep), pigs, rabbits and guinea pigs, and poultry (chickens and ducks), as

well as aquaculture.

Current and planned USAID activities identified as requiring a PERSUAP are as follows.

Teaching and demonstration farms for a variety of crops.

On-farm demonstration plots for management of irrigated perennial crops.

Technical advice and support to small-scale farmers for perennial tree crop management.

Technical advice and support to small-scale farmers for grain crop production (including

minimum till practices).

Technical advice and support to small-scale farmers for production of vegetables.

Procurement of agricultural inputs (seeds, seedling, and other plant materials, fertilizer, pesticides

equipment and machinery).

Control of ecto-parasites on livestock.

Support to agricultural processing and storage facilities.

Matching grants or links to finance mechanisms for purchase of required equipment for

cultivation, processing, or marketing of crops to encourage value chain development.

Grants and Loans: USAID regulations apply to all recipients, direct and indirect, of USG funding. All projects that provide grants and loans for agricultural activities are responsible for ensuring enforcement of the requirements established by this PERSUAP.

Future project needs. Should future projects require the procurement, use or support to use of pesticide

AIs not authorized by this PERSUAP, or for uses not authorized by this PERSUAP, an amendment to

this PERSUAP will be necessary.


3. ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT

3.1. DRC COUNTRY BACKGROUND

Geography. The DRC has about 25-mile (40-km) coastline on the Atlantic Ocean but is otherwise landlocked. The country straddles the equator and has widely differing geographical features, including mountain ranges in the north and west, a vast central plain through which the Congo River flows, and the volcanoes and lakes of the Kivu region. Major lakes in the DRC include Albert, Edward, Kivu, Mweru and Tanganyika.

Biodiversity. The DRC has the greatest extent of tropical rainforests in Africa, covering more than 100 million hectares. The forests in the eastern sector are particularly diverse as one of the few forest areas in Africa to have survived the ice age. About 45 percent of the DRC is covered by primary forest which provides a refuge for several large mammal species driven to extinction in other African countries. Overall, the country is known to have more than 11,000 species of plants, 450 mammals, 1,150 birds, 300 reptiles, and 200 amphibians.

Economy. One of the key challenges in the DRC is the lack of infrastructure, particularly transport infrastructure and electricity. An estimated 80-90 percent of the DRC’s population is engaged in the informal sector. In economic value, this parallel economy is estimated to be three times the size of the DRC’s formal GDP. In the conflict pockets of eastern DRC such as in Masisi and Walikale in North Kivu and parts of Ituri, an informal war economy has taken over with militarized natural resources exploitation and trade lying beyond the purview of state administrative institutions. Although the governance frameworks to formalize economic activity are gradually being put in place, the DRC’s undiversified economy – based almost entirely on natural resource extraction – has remained informal to this day with major environmental and social consequences.5

Governance. Fifty years after gaining its independence from Belgium, the DRC remains plagued by continuing governance challenges, corruption, insecurity, and widespread poverty. State institutions are generally weak, and efforts to bring lasting peace and security have so far produced mixed results. While the western part of the country enjoys relative calm, violent conflict persists in much of the eastern DRC, perpetrated by armed militias, domestic and foreign.

In 2008, at the request of the government of the DRC, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) established a Country Programme and a project office in the capital, Kinshasa. The aim of the programme is to work with other members of the UN to assist the government of the DRC in its post-conflict recovery and sustainable development. UNEP concluded that with half of Africa's forests and water resources and trillion-dollar mineral reserves, the DRC could become a powerhouse of African development provided multiple pressures on its natural resources are urgently addressed.6 Unfortunately, this potential remains unfulfilled while the DRC continues to suffer from governance challenges, insecurity and ongoing rebel attacks in the east irregularly alleviated by the ill-conceived international intervention.

In collaboration with the Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation and Tourism (MECNT) and the Congolese Nature Conservation Institute (ICCN), UNEP conducted a national, multi-thematic assessment of priority environmental issues facing the country in 20117.

5 http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/UNEP_DRC_PCEA_EN.pdf 6 http://www.unep.org/newscentre/Default.aspx?DocumentID=2656&ArticleID=8890 7 http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/UNEP_DRC_PCEA_EN.pdf

https://www.britannica.com/place/Atlantic-Ocean


FIGURE 1. DRC POLITICAL MAP

Source: focusafrica.gov.in

3.2 ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS

Noteworthy legal developments in environmental protection in the DRC commenced with the adoption of a new Constitution on 18 February 2006, which clearly introduced environmental rights and obligations5 and provided for the creation of other domestic laws concerning, inter alia, the protection of the environment and tourism. Subsequently, around a dozen national laws in the DRC were introduced and/or amended to include environmental protection dispositions.

Environmental protection in the DRC faces numerous obstacles including:

Lack of funds

Inability of the Government to abide by national environmental laws

Gap between legislation and practice

Political instability

Lack of environmental pollution impact assessment

Absence of mechanisms of coordination of the cooperation between various sectors

Overlapping institutional mandates

No central database of cases examined by local courts and tribunals

No official journal (national or provincial) in which legal decisions and case law can be published. At most Universities environmental law is not offered at all, or at best as an elective course8

Crop protection, pest control and pesticide management approach is the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Livestock. Currently, the responsible authorities at the Ministry and at the provincial level have not yet adapted a cohesive strategy. The fight against pests in the region focuses on a few uncoordinated initiatives that include preventive and curative control and IPM.

8 Country Report: Democratic Republic of Congo, Recent Developments In Environmental Protection

Oliver Ruppel & Dignité Bwiza

http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwj6tpvc94nPAhXBeT4KHVJ_BhoQjB0IBg&url=http%3A%2F%2Ffocusafrica.gov.in%2FCountry_at_glance_DRC.html&psig=AFQjCNEWPEA68b8UDMDxuCNbHNiLYX9Acg&ust=1473773261021470

http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwj6tpvc94nPAhXBeT4KHVJ_BhoQjRwIBw&url=http://focusafrica.gov.in/Country_at_glance_DRC.html&psig=AFQjCNEWPEA68b8UDMDxuCNbHNiLYX9Acg&ust=1473773261021470


3.3 AGRICULTURE IN THE DRC

3.3.1 ECORIGIONS AND AGROECOLOGICAL ZONES

The DRC has 14 ecoregions either entirely or partly within its borders: (1) Central African Mangroves, (2) Atlantic Equatorial coastal forests, (3) Western Congolian forest-savanna mosaic, (4) Angolan Miombo woodlands, (5) Southern Congolian forest-savanna Mosaic, (6) Central Congolian lowland forests, (7) Eastern Congolian swamp forests, (8) Western Congolian swamp forests, (9) Northeastern Congolian lowland forests, (10) Northern Congolian forest-savanna mosaic, (11) East Sudanian savanna, (12) Ruwenzori-Virunga montane moorlands, (12) Albertine Rift montane forests, and (14) Central Zambezian Miombo woodlands. The Congo Basin, which stretches from the DRC across the Central African Republic, Congo, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon at 500 million acres, is one of the most critical wilderness areas on Earth, and the second largest tropical forest. It is home to many species of tropical plants, mammals, birds and fish, some of which are endangered.

The DRC is divided into three agroecological zones with the larger sub-humid zone, humid and the highlands. Cassava is grown throughout the country under all climatic conditions. Both tubers and leaves are eaten. Maize and corn, like cassava, is grown nationwide, but its principal culture is centered in the south. Millet and sorghum are grown exclusively in the savanna areas and are important only in the relatively dry far northern and southeastern parts of the country. Rice is grown mainly in the humid climate of the Congo River basin, particularly along the Congo in Équateur Region and also near Kisangani. Coffee has long been the DRC’s most important agricultural cash crop and is grown by both smallholders and large plantations. Yams and potatoes are cultivated principally in the forest zones of central part of the country, where they occasionally constitute the main staple. Peanuts are grown outside the central forest zones and are used to produce oil.9

It is estimated that total agricultural land in the DRC is 11.4 percent, with 3.1 percent arable land, permanent crops 0.3 percent and permanent pasture 8 percent, with forests covering 67.9 percent.10

FIGURE 2. DRC AGRO ECOLOGICAL ZONES

9http://www.photius.com/countries/congo_democratic_republic_of_the/economy/congo_democratic_republic_of_the_economy_

crops.html 10 http://www.indexmundi.com/democratic_republic_of_the_congo/land_use.html


FIGURE 3. DRC LAND USE/COVER

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/235983711_fig1_Fig-1-Land-use-and-cover-in-Democratic-Republic-of-Congo-

based-on-the-Africover-map

3.3.2 AGRICULTURE SECTOR

Agriculture accounts for about 40 percent of the national GDP and employs 70 percent of the population in the DRC. Commercial agriculture in the country is relatively limited as most producers are small-scale farmers and subsistence food producers because of the deterioration of market infrastructure caused by war.11

Agriculture is practiced mainly on subsistence level in the DRC, where farmers produce food for their own consumption. Cassava, plantains and maize are the most widely-grown crops. In some regions, groundnuts/peanuts and rice are grown. A wide range of fruits are grown across the country. These include mangoes, oranges, mangosteens, guavas, papaya, avocados and bananas. Smallholders often grow some cash crops. These include tobacco, coffee, sugar cane and cocoa. Rubber is also extracted from rubber trees, and palm oil from the kernels of palm trees.12

In terms of the structure of the DRC agriculture sector, in comparison to other African countries, its rural areas are relatively unstructured and organization remains focused on groups and informal associations. In the past, the DRC government has sought to promote different forms of association, including mutual associations and cooperatives, but the lack of a clear vision for their organization and limited resources available in the departments concerned, have not allowed for meaningful results.

The cooperative movement has however experienced a recent revival, as a result of social and political unrest. This is explained largely by the trust placed in them by donors and international NGOs, which consider them more credible than the state structures, for sending support to grassroots communities, beneficiaries of their interventions in rural areas. The cooperative groups and associations are involved in agriculture, processing of products, small animal husbandry, fishing, and marketing. These cooperative

11 http://www.abghq.com/downloads/DRC.pdf 12 ibid

http://www.abghq.com/downloads/DRC.pdf


groups are structured umbrella or coordination platforms at the central and provincial level, to better defend the interests of their members and provide a better service in the supply of means of production,

market access and financing and advisory support.13

Dignitaries and politicians as well as private agricultural amateur entrepreneurial operators purchase agricultural land and practice farming for a secondary income or buy agricultural land as an investment. In some cases, these individuals own large tracts of land but exploit only limited plots for agriculture. The land and agricultural production on this land may be managed by an employee manager.

Most of the commercial crops such as coffee, cocoa, rubber, tea, palm oil and sugar cane are grown on plantations, with the production of tobacco and cotton largely in the hands of private small-hold farmers.

13 ibid


4. PER PART 1—BASELINE: PEST MANAGEMENT NEEDS AND

MANAGEMENT CAPACITY

This section provides key information that serves as critical input to the 12-factor analysis (per 22 CFR 216.3(b)) undertaken in Section 5. It includes information regarding the local context (e.g., knowledge and awareness of pesticide safe use principles) that is critical to decisions regarding which pesticides can be safely used in the DRC.

4.1 AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION IN THE DRC

Despite having one of the highest extension agent-to-farmer ratios and a pluralistic extension system, the DRC fails to deliver knowledge and technologies to rural areas due to lack of coordination, no unified and clear policy and mandate, lack of funding, aging and low competencies of agents, and lack of mobility and interactions of agents with key actors. The DRC agricultural extension system lacks enforcement of performance targets, systems of rewards and sanctions, mobility to foster linkages, and skills development.14

4.2 INPUTS VALUE-CHAIN

Input suppliers. There are three categories of input suppliers in the DRC, including large traders, urban stores and rural markets. Large international manufacturers and traders, such as ALM International, manufacture, mix, package and import pesticides into the DRC. These input suppliers may sell products to government funded agencies and research institutions such as the Inspection Provincial à l'Agriculture, Pêche et Elevage (IPAPEL), the Service National de Semences (SENASEM), the Service National des Fertilisants et Intrants Connexes (SENAFIC), and the Ministry of Agriculture, Plant Protection Department. They also may supply pesticides to donor agencies’ project implementers including USAID implementing partners.

In towns and urban centers, pesticides are sold at large and small stores and pharmacies. Pesticides are sold by agricultural input suppliers that sell seeds, agricultural equipment, tools and materials, veterinary products, fertilizers, and pesticide application equipment such as sprayers. These agricultural inputs and agrochemicals suppliers may act both as wholesalers and as retailers. Other stores that may sell pesticides in towns are home and garden stores and even general supply stores that sell food items. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is almost never available in these stores, reportedly due to lack of demand.

In rural areas, pesticides are sold in small shops usually located in the market. In general, pesticide trade is conducted by non-registered and uncertified businesses. Many interviewed input supply business owners claimed that they have authorization to sell pesticides (agrochemicals) and related agricultural inputs.

Importation. Pesticides are imported into the DRC from East and South Africa, Europe, and Asia. While some pesticides arrive into the DRC through the formal importation process, many are delivered directly across DRC borders, particularly from Rwanda in eastern DRC, and from Angola in southern DRC. The African wholesale distribution companies in turn purchase their products from manufacturers in India, Pakistan or China. Pesticides that arrive through the DRC porous borders are sold in stores and farm shops on the market. According to many input suppliers interviewed, formal laws governing the importation of pesticides into the DRC are unknown, and therefore inspections, taxation and duties are applied in an arbitrary fashion. Often pesticide products banned in other countries find their way into the DRC.

Government oversight. Several stores reported regular visits by government officials, while others reported irregular or no visits by government agencies. According to shop owners, inspectors arrived from numerous variety of government ministries and departments.

Availability of agrochemicals and other agricultural inputs varies significantly depending on location as well as on political stability of the region. This variability causes strong price fluctuation of agricultural inputs. There is also variability of demand based on type of crops grown as well as regional and seasonal variability. Demand for herbicide grows seasonally when weeds must be controlled during the dry seasons preceding rainy seasons. Demand is also based on farmers’ experience with resistance development.

14 http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1389224X.2015.1026363


Farmers in the DRC have limited chemical tools available to them to control pests. Those readily available to them are often broad spectrum and high acute and environmental toxicity.

Shops found in rural areas do not have products and price lists; however, those in urban areas may have a list of available products and prices which are frequently modified and updated. Pesticides, veterinary pesticides and veterinary products are often sold in the same store. In some shops pesticides are placed on the same shelves as food and medicine intended for human consumption.

Knowledge and training. Most retailers do not have formal education or training, however some have attended courses provided by donor funded programs and have agricultural degrees. Shop owners often advise farmers purchasing pesticides. Providing demonstrations to farmers is not a common practice among input suppliers, with the exception of during agricultural fairs. Demonstrations more frequently focus on veterinary products and spray equipment than on the selection and safe use of pesticides.

Most pesticide retailers understand the human health risks of pesticides and the risks of pest resistance development as a result of misuse of pesticides, however it is not clear whether they communicate this information to farmers. Sellers often assume that farmers are more knowledgeable about pesticide use than about the use of fertilizers. Shop owners consider training of farmers in use of pesticides and equipment, as well as pesticide use safety the responsibility of extension agents. Generally, services for repair of broken spraying equipment are not provided to farmers. Traders rarely sell Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) citing low demand.

Quality issues. Strong pesticide odors were noted in the pesticide shops visited, which usually indicates tampering with the original packaging and/or poor handling of pesticides. Farmers are not willing to buy pesticides packaged in large containers and often ask for smaller amounts. Original packaging is opened to place pesticides in small unlabeled or mislabeled containers thus creating hazards of pollution and compromising their initial quality. Pesticides not approved by the DRC Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Livestock are often available for sale in these pesticide shops.

Disposal. Interviewed shop owners reported that they do not have products on shelves with expiration date beyond life of the product. However, it appears that the retailers do not dispose of such products and instead use them in their own gardens or sell them in their villages. Some reported disposing of unusable products in latrines, throwing them into garbage, bringing them to city dumping sites, or even throwing them on the road to be blown away by passing cars. According to interviews, used containers are sometimes buried, but many are disposed of in local trash collection areas, or are often reused by people in towns and villages.

4.3 FARMERS USE OF PESTICIDES

Pesticide availability. Smallholders in villages have difficulty accessing supplies in large towns. Input suppliers, on the other hand, may not open pesticide shops in villages due to potential risks including poor security, high market uncertainty, and low profitability. Farmers from rural communities may prefer to purchase their supplies in large towns due to a lack of trust in local village shops. According to farmers, these local village pesticide vendors often tamper with product packaging and may therefore sell products of inferior quality.

Many pesticides available on the market are counterfeit products with modified product content. Imports of non-authorized products (not yet registered or banned) or parallel illegal imports (registered products from non-registered sources) by non-authorized distributors are common.

Most farmers select from a very limited number of familiar broad spectrum pesticides that are available on the market. Pesticide demand is seasonal depending on the crop and region.

Pesticide use. Farmers in the DRC with access to pesticide products have become progressively dependent on pesticide use as they believe that current seed varieties at local markets require application of pesticides for higher yields. Seeds of local varieties have grown scarce in the many villages in certain areas of the DRC. Some farmers interviewed for this PERSUAP believe that local varieties are more resistant to pests, while new varieties perform well at the onset, but later become susceptible to pests and diseases. Pesticide use varies by crop. Pesticides are often used with vegetables such as tomatoes, cabbage, eggplants and potatoes, as well as maize and beans. On the other hand, farmers do not often apply


pesticides to crops such as watermelon, cucurbits, onions, cassava, and sweet potato. More often than not, farmers cannot differentiate between crop stress and disease and therefore apply pesticides indiscriminately. Farmers do not observe pre-harvest-intervals (PHI) and sometimes purposely spray vegetables before harvesting. Demand for fungicides increases during the rainy season when there is higher prevalence of plant diseases.

Pesticides are usually applied by men in the DRC. Most farmers’ homesteads are a considerable distance from their fields. As a result, their families are not often nearby during pesticide application. Farmers can be seen using their cell phones, eating, drinking or smoking while spraying their crops. In some cases, agricultural pesticides are used for the control of household pests or rodents.

Many fields are reportedly established very close to surface and ground water sources, contributing to pesticide runoff and leaching into the water supply. In certain areas of the DRC, pesticides are used to kill bush meat, including in protected areas, and to trap fish in local rivers and streams.

Climate change. Depleted soils and plants weakened by unseasonable conditions resulting from climate change have introduced new pests and diseases to newly introduced crop varieties. According to farmers, newly introduced varieties in combination with climate change cause crops to become more susceptible to pests and diseases. As a result, farmers are forced to apply more powerful pesticide products, increasing their dependency on pesticides.

Agricultural practices. Farmers in the DRC may deplete or exhaust the soil through excessive exploitation, practicing slash and burn techniques, and monoculture. Tree cutting for charcoal and construction and other forms of vegetation removal further contribute to soil depletion and erosion. Plants grown on depleted and eroded soils with low microbial biomass and low nutrient availability are particularly susceptible to pests and disease. While many farmers possess a fair knowledge of pests, they are less likely to know the difference between disease and soil nutrient deficiency symptoms. Farmers depend on the use of chemical fertilizer to improve soil fertility but have limited knowledge and means to do so. Misuse of pesticides, including applying incorrect dosages (both over applying and under applying), poor quality products, and the continuous use of the same pesticide products contribute to growing pest resistance. The lack of phytosanitary controls and the unchecked or uncontrolled introduction of seeds and plant materials into the country contributes to the spread of plant diseases and (sometimes) non-native insects. Border control by inspectors to intercept and stop consignments that are contaminated with harmful organisms is not functioning in the DRC. Risk awareness and use of PPE. Anecdotally, farmers do not often ask for advice from pesticide vendors in the DRC. Farmers’ attitudes toward pesticide hazards vary from those not willing to use pesticides due to known health risks, to those knowingly applying pesticides without any protective equipment or regard for human and environmental hazards. According to interviews conducted in support of this PERSUAP, many farmers complain about both acute and chronic symptoms as well as skin and eyes injuries from pesticide exposure. Most farmers do not wear PPE, but some may use googles, dust-masks or gumboots. PPE is not usually available in stores since there is low demand due to its high price. Most farmers are not aware of the long-term impacts of pesticides nor the potential adverse impacts of pesticides on the environment and non-target organisms. On large farms and plantations in the DRC, pesticides are often applied by workers with limited knowledge and training. Appropriate pesticide safe use training is not provided. Plantation and farm workers that are issued PPE typically do not take the necessary precautions of proper cleaning and maintenance.

Storage and disposal. Most farmers store pesticides in field sheds. Some smallholders store pesticides in their houses. Any unused pesticides and used containers are usually disposed at the local dumping site located within the village.


5. PER PART 2—CANDIDATE PESTICIDES AND THE 12-FACTOR

ANALYSIS

This section applies the analysis of the 12 factors required by 22 CFR 216.3(b) to assess the candidate pesticides for use/support with USAID funds, and to determine the specific conditions attendant to their use.

5.1 LIST OF CANDIDATE PESTICIDES

A candidate set of AIs was prepared based on the following criteria:

1. Request by current projects, 2. Availability in the local markets including in border towns, 3. Interviews with farmer associations and farmers, 4. Interviews with research organizations and local NGOs, 5. Inclusion in other PERSUAPs in the region, and, 6. Approval by the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries.

This candidate set of AIs is presented in Table .

5.1.1 PESTICIDES (ACTIVE INGREDIENTS) EVALUATED FOR

PROCUREMENT/USE/SUPPORT BY ACTIVITIES IN THE DRC

To document the decision-making process and to support consideration of future amendment requests, the PER analysis sets out the full list of AIs evaluated in Table 3 below. Pesticides permitted for use are found in Table 4 and those rejected are found in Table 5.

TABLE 3. PESTICIDES (ACTIVE INGREDIENTS) EVALUATED FOR PROCUREMENT/USE/SUPPORT BY

USAID FUNDED ACTIVITIES IN THE DRC

ACTIVE INGREDIENT (AI) TYPE OF PESTICIDE

2,4-D Amine Herbicide, Plant Growth Regulator

Abamectin Insecticide and Antiparasitic

Acetamiprid Insecticide

Alpha-cypermethrin (alpha-methrin) Insecticide

Aluminum Phosphide Insecticide, Rodenticide (fumigant)

Atrazine Herbicide

Amitraz Acaricide, Insecticide

Azocyclotin Insecticide

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Insecticide

Beta-cyfluthrin Insecticide

Benomyl Fungicide






Bispyribac-sodium Herbicide

Brodifacoum Rodenticide

Bromadiolone Rodenticide

Bromophos Insecticide

Carbaryl Insecticide, Plant Growth Regulator

Carbendazim Fungicide

Carbosulfan Insecticide

Chlorophacinone Rodenticide

Chlorothalonil Fungicide

Chlorpyrifos ethyl Insecticide, acaracide and miticide

Copper hydroxide Fungicide

Copper oxide Fungicide

Copper oxychloride Fungicide

Coumatetralyl Rodenticide

Cyanazine Herbicide

Cyfluthrin Insecticide

Cypermethrin Insecticide

Cyphenothrin Insecticide

Deltamethrin Insecticide

Diazinon Insecticide

Dichlorvos (DDVP) Insecticide

Dicofol Miticide

Difenoconazole Fungicide

Difenacoum Rodenticide

Dimethoate Insecticide

D-trans-tetramethrin (stereoisomer of

Tetramethrin)

Insecticide


https://www.google.com/search?q=cyphenothrin&start=0&spell=1





Emamectin benzoate Insecticide

Endosulfan Insecticide and acaricide

EPTC (S-ethyl dipropylthiocarbamate) Herbicide

Esfenvalerate Insecticide

Ethephon Growth regulator

Ethofenprox Insecticide, veterinary use

Fenamiphos Insecticide, nematicide

Fenitrothion Insecticide

Fenthion (DMTP) Insecticide, avicide, and acaricide

Fipronil Insecticide

Fluazifop-p-butyl Herbicide

Fluroxypyr Herbicide

Formothion Insecticide

Glyphosate Herbicide

Hexaconazole Fungicide

Imidacloprid Insecticide

Indoxacarb Insecticide

Lambda-cyhalothrin Insecticide

Malathion Insecticide

Mancozeb Fungicide

Maneb Fungicide

Mefenoxam (Metalaxyl M) Fungicide

Metalaxyl Fungicide

Metaldehyde Molluscicide

Methyl Bromide Acaricide, fungicide, herbicide, insecticide, nematicide,

and rodenticide (fumigant)

Metsulfuron-methyl Herbicide

https://www.google.com/search?q=emamectin%20benzoate&start=0&spell=1





Nicosulfuron Herbicide

Oxadiazon Herbicide

Oxamyl Insecticide/Nematicide

Paraquat Herbicide

Penoxsulam Herbicide

Permethrin Insecticide

Pirimiphos-methyl Insecticide

Profenofos Insecticide

Propineb Fungicide

Sulfur Fungicide and miticide

Thiamethoxam Insecticide

Thiophanate-methyl Fungicide

Thiram Fungicide

Triadimenol (product of triadimefon) Fungicide

Triadimefon Fungicide

Triclopyr Foliar herbicide and fungicide

Tricyclozole Fungicide

Warfarin Rodenticide

5.2 THE 12-FACTOR ANALYSIS

FACTOR A: US EPA REGISTRATION STATUS OF THE PROPOSED PESTICIDES

In the U.S., EPA regulates pesticides through the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), as amended, and registers both AIs and products. Unless a full 22 CFR 216 Environmental Assessment is conducted, USAID-funded programs are limited to procuring, using, and/or supporting the use of pesticides registered by EPA for the same or similar uses. An emphasis is placed on “similar use” because some crops and pest species found overseas are not present in the U.S. Therefore, pesticides may not be registered for the exact use required by a USAID activity.

The EPA designates some products as restricted use pesticides (RUPs). The EPA classifies a particular pesticide product as restricted if it determines that the product may be hazardous to human health or to the environment even when used according to the label. In the U.S., pesticides products that are labeled RUP can only be sold to and used by certified applicators or persons under their direct supervision, and only




for those purposes covered by the applicator's certification (such as for row crops, tree crops, or structural pests).

22 CFR 216 requires a full environmental assessment before use of a RUP can be supported with USAID funds, except for RUPs so designated solely for reason of user hazard, as stated in §216.3(b)(1)(ii). RUPs designated solely for reason of user hazard can be authorized for procurement or use with USAID funding on the basis of a user hazard analysis in the PERSUAP. In this case, the recipient government must be made aware of the hazard, and a mitigation action will be made and implemented with additional technical assistance.

The analysis of smallholder pesticide knowledge and awareness in the DRC (see Section 4) indicates that it would not be appropriate to authorize USAID funds to support user-hazard RUPs for smallholder production. RUP pesticides are allowed in these programs only with a caveat that they will be used, recommended for use, or supported for use by trained pest control specialists. If and when recognized training program is in place, such training must include components described in Annex C.

FACTOR B: BASIS FOR SELECTION OF PESTICIDES

PEST MANAGEMENT NEED Pesticides to be approved must serve a known pest management need for target USAID/DRC activities. Both current and potential future needs are considered by this PERSUAP. The crop-pest specific needs for pesticides are given in Annex A. The pesticides and the pests that they address are summarized below:

Insecticides/Acaricides.

Systemic insecticides to protect against sap-sucking pests such as aphids and scale insects.

Contact insecticides for lepidopterous, coleopterous pests and locusts.

Acaricides for control of Spider Mite.

Stomach poisons for control of locusts and Codling Moth.

Contact insecticide/acaricide for control of ecto-parasites on livestock.

Herbicides.

Broad-spectrum herbicides to kill all vegetation, especially needed for minimum tillage.

Selective herbicides to control broad-leaved weeds in cereal crops.

Selective herbicides to control graminaceous weeds (e.g. Wild Oat) in cereal and broad-leaved crops.

Fungicides. Fungal diseases are a serious constraint on yields. Farmers need fungicides as seed treatment, foliar application and to protect packaged fresh fruit. Details are given in Annex A.

Molluscicides. Molluscicides are required to protect against slugs and snails which may cause damage to vegetables.

Rodenticides. Rodenticides are required to protect stored commodities in buildings against rats and mice.

Fumigants. Fumigation is a method of pest control that completely fills an area with gaseous pesticides—or fumigants—to suffocate or poison the pests within. Fumigation of stocked commodities is commonly practiced by Title II programs.

Microbicides. Antimicrobial products kill or slow the spread of microorganisms. Microorganisms include bacteria, viruses, protozoans, and fungi such as mold and mildew. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates antimicrobial products as pesticides, and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates antimicrobial products as drugs/antiseptics. As pesticides, antimicrobial products are used on surfaces. As antiseptics, antimicrobial products are used to treat or prevent diseases in people and other organisms.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pest_control

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticide


REGISTRATION STATUS Pesticides selected must be registered by USEPA as well as by the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Livestock in the DRC.

EFFICACY IN LOCAL CIRCUMSTANCES Pesticides must be shown to be effective for crops/seeds under the climates and conditions similar to those found in USAID/DRC intervention areas. According to field visit results, farmers have found certain pesticides to be ineffective for a number of potential reasons, including poor product quality, improper use, or growing resistance from indiscriminate use.

AVAILABILITY Locally available pesticides have been considered for inclusion in this PERSUAP, but others that are desirable, but not currently available were also considered. According to interviews with representatives of the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Livestock and agricultural input suppliers in the DRC, USAID projects have the option of importing products that they particularly wish to see adopted and can encourage local businesses to provide them in the future.

FACTOR C: EXTENT TO WHICH THE PROPOSED PESTICIDE USE IS PART OF AN IPM

PROGRAM

All projects involved directly in crop production will develop pest management plans based on IPM principles. The strategy of USAID partners working with farmers in the DRC will be to stress agronomic improvements based on the adoption of better technologies such as improved crop varieties, agronomic practices, and the use of indigenous pest control practices.

The IPs must incorporate pesticide management in their core farmer training programs and recommendations. Technical support to agricultural activities should fully incorporate IPM as the basis for effective pest management. Where an IP has little control over the actions of beneficiaries in the field, it will promote and support the use of integrated pest management plans (IPMPs) to the greatest extent practicable.

A systematic IPMP brings together different pest control tactics into one program.15 Direct pesticide use and direct extension activities by USAID/DRC programs will be governed by IPM-based crop-specific IPMPs. The crop-by-crop pest and control measures tables in Annex A, are intended to serve as suggestions and drafts of these plans, which will be refined by the agriculture sector IPs.

IPMPs will necessarily be at a level of technical complexity appropriate to the local context, but will embody core IPM principles: emphasis on use of non-chemical controls (building on existing practices), with need-based, targeted use of relative-least-toxicity pesticides.

IP pesticide recommendations must stress to farmers pest recognition and minimum application based on monitoring, rather than applying pesticides for blanket protection from seeding to harvest. For the promotion of IPM, pesticide accounting programs and decision tools for the use of common pesticides need to be implemented by the IPs.

However, it should be acknowledged that the implementation of IPM in the DRC is hampered in several ways. Both input suppliers and farmers have limited trust in the ability of natural pesticides to solve complex pest control problems. Commercial biopesticide products are expensive due to the very limited supply and demand in the DRC. No commercial biopesticides are registered and research institutions are not equipped to evaluate such products under local conditions in the DRC. Farmers in the DRC prepare artisanal pesticides derived from natural plants and based on local knowledge. Such artisanal pesticides are often used by smallholders and are reportedly effective. However, these substances have not been evaluated for efficacy and dosage, nor tested for human or environmental toxicity. In addition, although potentially efficient against some pests and disease agents, many of these substances have not been screened by USEPA.

15 "Private Pesticide Applicator Safety Education Manual." Private Pesticide Applicator Manual. University of Minnesota. Web. 18

Aug. 2015. http://www.extension.umn.edu/agriculture/pesticide-safety/ppatmanual.html.

http://www.extension.umn.edu/agriculture/pesticide-safety/ppatmanual.html


The monitoring schemes developed for establishing economic thresholds for pest and natural enemy populations are fairly sophisticated and expensive practical tools. There is no funding for DRC local institutions for research on naturally occurring antagonists of pests in agro-ecosystems, including ways to exploit crop plants that favor the antagonists.16

FACTOR D: PROPOSED METHOD OR METHODS OF APPLICATION, INCLUDING THE

AVAILABILITY OF APPLICATION AND SAFETY EQUIPMENT

Methods of applications will depend on the pesticide formulation. The manual knapsack sprayer is one of the most common forms of pesticide application, especially in conventional agriculture. Sprayers range in size and complexity and can be made of fiberglass, plastic or stainless steel. Many farmers in the DRC do not own sprayers. Some farmers use makeshift sprayers and containers.

Granular pesticides are applied most commonly by hand. Some granular products are designed so that they can be shaken out of the package without requiring any special application equipment. Granules can also be placed inside bait stations. Once applied, granular pesticides release the AI slowly; some must be watered-in after (or before) application to activate the insecticidal action. Insecticide dusts are important tools in the control or elimination of ants and spiders and can be applied by hand to where the pests tend to hide or migrate.

Application of a pesticide to seeds is a process designed to reduce, control or repel disease organisms, insects, or other pests which attack the seed or seedlings. The kinds of seeds that are normally treated with one or more pesticides are: com, maize, peanuts, cotton, sorghum, wheat, oats, rye, barley, millet, soybeans (under some conditions), and most vegetable seed.17 Most dressed seed is pretreated by manufacturers.

Pesticides can also be placed in bait trap formulations. The amount of AI in most bait formulations is quite low, usually less than five percent. The bait either attracts the pests or is placed where the pests will find it. Pests are killed by eating the bait that contains the pesticide.

Fumigation of commodities is a highly dangerous procedure requiring high quality training and specialized equipment. Some commodities can be fumigated under gas impermeable tarpaulins. In other cases, vehicles or containers are fumigated with their loads. The most satisfactory method is to use purpose-built fumigation structures. It is essential that fumigation be carried out only as stipulated in USAID guidelines (http://www.usaidgems.org/fumigationpea.htm) and only then with the approval of the MEO, who will ensure that these requirements are fulfilled.

The use of contact pesticides for external parasites on livestock will depend on type of pesticide. For applying liquid contact pesticides, pour-on treatment is typically used. Dusts are applied with individual hand treatment and systemic pesticides are applied by pour-ons and spot treatment.18

FACTOR E: ANY ACUTE AND LONG-TERM TOXICOLOGICAL HAZARDS, EITHER

HUMAN OR ENVIRONMENTAL, ASSOCIATED WITH THE PROPOSED USE, AND

MEASURES AVAILABLE TO MINIMIZE SUCH HAZARDS

EXPOSURE Humans may be exposed to the risk of pesticide poisoning in the following ways:

User. The user or applicator comes into close contact with pesticides. The pesticides may splash

on the skin, into the eyes, be inhaled or accidentally ingested (especially when eating or smoking

with contaminated hands). Cleaning and unclogging of sprayers also poses a high potential for

dermal contact. However, users are best placed to be aware of the risks and to be trained and

equipped to be protected against them.

Bystander. The greatest pesticide risk to bystanders, people near to but not engaged in spraying,

is wind-borne drift of spray particles, which may be inhaled. Bystanders may also be exposed by

16 http://issues.org/16-3/ehler/ 17 http://pest.ca.uky.edu/PSEP/Manuals/4-SeedTreatment.pdf 18 http://www.tractorsupply.com/out-here_issues_2011-summer_livestock-pest-control

http://www.usaidgems.org/fumigationpea.htm


entering the sprayed area before the pesticide has broken down or by reusing the empty used

pesticide containers. Pesticides stored insecurely in homes may also cause accidental poisoning,

especially if pesticides are aliquoted into repurposed bottles. Pesticide awareness needs to be

extended beyond users and applicators.

Consumer. Pesticides may be ingested by the ultimate consumer of the harvested crop if a

sufficient period between spraying and harvest is not allowed. Systemic pesticides are particularly

dangerous in this respect.

Environment. Contamination of the environment, including the air, soil, sediments and

especially water supplies, is an important means by which people can be exposed to pesticide

poisoning. Environmental exposure includes exposure of other non-target organisms including

animals, birds, fish, amphibians, insects and microorganisms to pesticides.

ACUTE TOXICITY Acute toxicity refers to the immediate effects (0-7 days) of exposure to a pesticide. Highly acutely toxic pesticides can be lethal at very low doses.

Two Acute Toxicity classification systems are referred to in this document: the USEPA system and the World Health Organization (WHO) system.

According to the USEPA system, formulated pesticide products (which often include inert ingredients)

are given an overall acute toxicity rating which is shown on the label on the pesticide container:

Category I: Extremely toxic (Danger) Category II: Highly toxic (Warning) Category III: Moderately toxic (Caution) Category IV: Slightly toxic, Relatively non-toxic

The EPA also requires that pesticides in categories I-III carry a signal word (e.g. Danger, Warning, Caution). Therefore, there may be more than one classification for an AI depending on concentration and inert ingredients in the formulation.

The WHO classification system is based on AIs.

This PERSUAP does not approve Acute Toxicity Class I Products. While the AIs approved for this

PERSUAP have been chosen conservatively with regard to their risk profiles, some products with these

approved AIs may nonetheless be EPA Acute Toxicity class 1 or equivalent on the basis of their acute

oral, dermal or inhalation toxicity. All products in which methanol (methyl alcohol used as a solvent) is

present at 4 percent or more are also categorized as Class I. Such products are marked with the skull and

crossbones symbol and the word “POISON” or “DANGER” or the equivalent.

Under the conditions of this PERSUAP, such products may ONLY be used by professionally trained certified and registered pest control specialists and NEVER by smallholder farmers.

Farmers should be encouraged to select least toxic products and trained in the safe use of all products allowed by this PERSUAP.

Products that are sold in their original packages are properly labeled. However, where the original packaging was tampered with to create smaller packages, the labels are missing. Use of products without a label should be discouraged.


LONG TERM TOXICITY Pesticides may also cause long term hazards to human health. Sub-chronic effects of a toxic substance cause effects for more than one year but less than the lifetime of the exposed organism. Chronic toxicity of a substance or mixture of substances causes harmful effects over an extended period, usually upon repeated or continuous exposure, sometimes lasting for the entire life of the exposed organism. Those that cause the most concern are:

Carcinogenicity. Exposure to some substances may cause the development of cancer.

Neurotoxicity. Exposure to some pesticides may cause chronic neurodegenerative disorders such

as Parkinson disease.

Reproductive or Developmental Toxicity. Exposure to some pesticides may cause birth defects

or interfere with normal development.

Endocrine Disruption. Many pesticides and industrial chemicals are capable of interfering with

the proper functioning of oestrogen, androgen and thyroid hormones in humans and animals.

It is important to read the label and look for signal words identifying the product's acute toxicity. But it also important to look for statements identifying chronic toxicity. A pesticide may be low in acute toxicity (signal word Caution), but it may have a label statement identifying potential chronic toxicity requiring appropriate PPE. When handling a product that may have chronic toxicity, the user must wear the required PPE when handling or working with the pesticide to minimize or eliminate exposure to the pesticide.

Table 1 (also 4), the list of approved pesticides, includes a description of the potential chronic effects of approved AI that must be considered when selecting pesticides.

ECOTOXICITY Ecotoxicology is the study of how chemicals interact with organisms in the environment. With few exceptions, such as pheromones, pesticides are, by their very nature, toxic to some organisms. They may therefore harm organisms other than the pests at which they are directed. These may include directly beneficial organisms, such as honeybees and other pollinators, the natural enemies of pests, and other useful organisms such as fish or rare and endangered organisms making an important contribution to biodiversity.

Over 98 percent of sprayed insecticides and 95 percent of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, because they are sprayed or spread across entire agricultural fields. Pesticides may find their way into other environments through spray drift, water runoff or transported in the bodies of moving animals. Aquatic environments are especially vulnerable in this respect.

The environmental fate of pesticides, once applied, depends upon the physical and chemical properties of the pesticides and the surrounding soil or water. Some pesticides may break down into harmless derivatives in a short time, while others, which are chemically stable, persist indefinitely. Some pesticides may break down, to produce an equally or more toxic by-product. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants aims to eliminate the use of such chemicals.

Some pesticides do not readily break down in the bodies of animals and so may be ingested by predators and thus accumulate in the food chain. The organo-chlorine pesticides have been particularly harmful in this respect, causing, until they were banned, a catastrophic decline in populations of raptorial birds.

Depending on their physical and chemical properties, pesticides may be carried into the groundwater, which may be the source on which people depend for their domestic supplies. They may also find their way into drainage systems – streams, rivers and lakes – and harm the organisms in these ecosystems

The movement of pesticides by leaching and runoff depends on their solubility in water and their ability to adhere to soil components such as clay particles. These properties, together with the vulnerability of habitats into which the pesticides may be translocated must be taken into account when assessing the environmental risks of using particular pesticides.

Before applying a pesticide, it is important to become familiar with the area to be treated and its surroundings. Some pesticides are less environmentally friendly than others and may not be selected for sites with special concerns.


Cultivated fields and orchards are themselves functioning ecosystems, dependent for their productivity on many organisms other than the crops themselves. These include pollinators, natural enemies of pests (insects, mites, nematodes, fungi, bacteria, and micro-organisms) and soil organisms necessary for fertility. There are also other plants and animals which are a source of food and those contributing to biodiversity. Birds and fish are especially vulnerable to pesticide poisoning. Each pesticide or pesticide class comes with a specific set of environmental concerns.19

The neo-nicotinyls, imidacloprid and acetamiprid, have recently aroused the concern that sub-lethal doses to bees can reduce the viability of colonies. Therefore, these pesticides should not be used when crops are in flower. Imidacloprid is often used as a seed dressing and it is unlikely, though not impossible, that this could expose pollinators during flowering to harmful doses.

Pyrethroids have been found to be especially toxic to fish. Care must be taken to avoid contaminating aquatic habitats with bezoyl-ureas, as they are harmful to crustaceans, essential components of most aquatic food chains.

Herbicides are believed to present a concern because of their concentration in the water supply, due to runoff from agricultural use. Herbicides can be slightly, moderately or highly toxic to aquatic organisms. They may cause the reduction of sensitive species and the abundance of tolerant species. Long term effects of concern include endocrine disruption and carcinogenicity. The resistance of weeds to herbicides is becoming a worldwide problem. All herbicide labels warn the user to keep the product out of lakes and streams. Many herbicides, including glyphosate, carry label statements about groundwater contamination. Care must be taken to ensure that such products are not used where groundwater contamination is likely.20

Pesticides that are labeled as natural or organic are not necessarily harmless to humans or the environment. Many are quite safe to use but some have hazards associated with them. Other problems can emerge from poor pesticide management practices. Over time, repeated application increases pest resistance, while its effects on other species can facilitate the pest's resurgence.21

MITIGATING MEASURES TO MINIMISE HAZARDS OF PESTICIDE USE The assessment of the acute, long-term and environmental toxicity of the pesticides being evaluated is summarised in Table B.3 in Annex B. The toxicity of pesticides to non-target organisms is a major consideration in the decision as to whether they should be used. The toxicity to aquatic organisms and honeybees of the pesticides assessed is included in Table B.3.

Any products equivalent to EPA RUPs are only allowed for use by trained specialists. Products with acute toxicity class I (Red Label, Words Danger-Poison, skull and crossbones on the pictogram) are rejected by this PERSUAP for use except where specified for use by trained specialists.22 Products with toxicity class II and III and potential chronic effects are allowed for use only by trained individuals using appropriate PPE.

Accordingly, the SUAP in Section 6 identifies restrictions on the set of AIs that are supported for use only by trained and certified agricultural or pest control professionals, based on toxicity screening. The SUAP details measures for minimizing pesticide risks. These measures include: adoption of an IPM approach that emphasizes prevention, sanitation and exclusion of pests, use of traditional practices, and utilizing pesticides only as a last resort when other options have failed. Note that the ecotoxicity information in Table B.3 also provides a key reference for the development of crop- and pest-specific pest management plans. Critical measures also include:

Projects will ensure that staff responsible for pesticide use have access to the necessary safety information found in Materials Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). Where MSDSs are not available in-country from dealers, they can be found online or requested from the manufacturer. Where

19 Originally published in 1987 as Pesticide Use and the Environment, Nevada Pesticide Applicator’s Certification Workbook, SP‐

87‐07, by W. Johnson, J. Knight, C. Moses, J. Carpenter, and R. Wilson. Updated in 2012 by M. Hefner and S. Donaldson,

University of Nevada Cooperative Extension, and J. Carpenter, Nevada Department of Agriculture.

http://www.unce.unr.edu/programs/sites/pesticide/files/pdf/PesticideUseAndEnvironment.pdf

20 https://ipm.illinois.edu/pubs/iapmh/11chapter.pdf

21 "Pesticides: Environmental Effects." EPA. Environmental Protection Agency. Web. 18 Aug. 2015.

http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/ecosystem/ . 22 "Hazard Communication Standard Pictogram." Hazard Communication Standard Pictogram. United States Department of Labor. Web. 18 Aug. 2015. https://www.osha.gov/Publications/HazComm_QuickCard_Pictogram.html

http://www.unce.unr.edu/programs/sites/pesticide/files/pdf/PesticideUseAndEnvironment.pdf

https://ipm.illinois.edu/pubs/iapmh/11chapter.pdf

http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/ecosystem/

https://www.osha.gov/Publications/HazComm_QuickCard_Pictogram.html


project staff do not directly supervise pesticide application, the project will prepare information leaflets in the appropriate local languages.

Projects will ensure that staff and beneficiaries using, storing or transporting pesticides have the PPE appropriate to the task (see Annex C).

USAID will ensure that all projects using pesticides will have adequate training for all those using, storing or transporting pesticides. (see Annex C).

If possible, projects will promote the use of small single use containers of pesticides to remove the hazard of smallholders buying or keeping small unlabeled packages of pesticide and the return of used containers to the dealer for safe disposal.

FACTOR F: EFFECTIVENESS OF THE REQUESTED PESTICIDES FOR THE PROPOSED USE

In most countries, pesticides are usually registered in country once they undergo registration testing. Although the DRC Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries maintains a list of registered AIs and products, the Ministry reportedly does not conduct efficacy trials. Farmers often complain about the efficacy of pesticides and express distrust in quality of products sold, particularly those removed from their original packaging. Misuse and misapplication of pesticides contributes to growing resistance and reduced efficacy. To the extent possible, projects should use the least toxic and most effective pesticides in the context of their IPM plans.

FACTOR G: COMPATABILITY OF THE PROPOSED PESTICIDES USE WITH TARGET AND

NON-TARGET ECOSYSTEMS

Synthetic organic insecticides associated with broad nontarget effects, with potentially hazardous residues, and with exposure risks to applicators, that are found on the markets in the DRC, are much less compatible with local ecosystems than newer products developed in the last decade, that have safer properties and smaller environmental impacts than older synthetic organic pesticides. Nevertheless, new products share many of the problems that have been presented by traditional synthetic organic insecticides. Additionally, the newer products are rarely found on the market and are more expensive. To the extent possible, this PERSUAP aimed to recommend pesticides with safer properties.23

FACTOR H: THE CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH THE PESTICIDE IS TO BE USED,

INCLUDING CLIMATE, FLORA, FAUNA, GEOGRAPHY, HYDROLOGY, AND SOILS Topography. Factors that control pests include climatic factors (e.g., wind, temperature, sunshine, and rain), air or water pollution, and topographic features (rivers, lakes, and mountains) that can affect pest movement. Such natural controls can hold pests in check or promote proliferation.24 The DRC is dominated by the central Congo basin, a vast rolling plain with an average elevation of about 1,700 feet (520 meters) above sea level. The lowest point of 1,109 feet (338 meters) occurs at Lake Mai-Ndombe (formerly Lake Leopold II), and the highest point of 2,296 feet (700 meters) is reached in the hills of Mobayi-Mbongo and Zongo in the north. The basin may once have been an inland sea whose only vestiges are Lakes Tumba and Mai-Ndombe in the west-central region.25 Climate. The DRC is divided into four major climatic regions. In the equatorial climate zone, temperatures are hot, the average monthly temperature rarely dropping below the mid-70s F (low to mid-20s °C). Humidity is high, and it rains throughout the year. Annual precipitation at Eala, for example, averages 71 inches (1,800 mm). The tropical or subequatorial climate zone, marked by distinct dry and rainy seasons, is found north and south of the equatorial region. The dry season lasts from four to seven months (usually April to October), depending largely on distance from the Equator. In Kananga about 63 inches (1,600 mm) of precipitation falls annually. Short dry spells of several weeks’ duration may occur during the rainy season.

23 https://www.nap.edu/read/9598/chapter/8#252 24 http://www.nasda.org/File.aspx?id=30498

25 https://www.britannica.com/place/Democratic-Republic-of-the-Congo

https://www.britannica.com/place/Congo-Basin

https://www.britannica.com/place/Lake-Mai-Ndombe

https://www.britannica.com/place/Lake-Tumba

https://www.britannica.com/place/Kananga


The Atlantic climate zone is confined to the west coast. The low elevation and the cold Benguela Current are the major influences. At Banana the average annual temperature is in the high 70s F (mid-20s °C), and precipitation averages about 30 inches (760 mm) yearly. The mountain climate occurs in the eastern high plateaus and mountains. In Bukavu, for example, the average annual temperature is in the mid-60s F (high 10s °C), and annual precipitation levels measure about 52 inches (1,320 mm). Climate Change. Climate models predict that by 2050, the DRC average annual temperature is likely to increase by 2.5–3.7 °C, with seasonal droughts occurring more frequently and lasting longer. It is also anticipated that annual rainfall will increase in the “Cuvette” region (Province of Equateur), while appreciable decreases will occur in the rest of the country and extreme climate events will increase in intensity and frequency. Decreased rainfall will be felt most severely in the southern part of the country, especially in the belt of tropical climate savannahs where over 70 percent of the rural population lives. It is expected, for example, that by 2020, the Katanga province is likely to experience only five months of rainy season compared to seven months today. Farmers in such regions do not have access to varieties of agricultural seeds that are adequately adapted to these climate disturbances.26

Soils. There are two main types of soils in the DRC. The equatorial soils are found in the warm lowlands of the central basin and receive rain throughout the year. These soils are covered by dense forests and are very thick in swampy areas and nourished by humus. The savannah soils face a greater threat of erosion, but the river valleys still contain rich and fertile alluvial soils. In the most productive agricultural area, the highlands of the Great Lakes region, the soils are rich and derived from volcanic lava.

Hydrology and water resources. The DRC has Africa’s largest internal renewable water supply with 52 percent of the continent’s surface water reserves and 23 percent of its internal renewable water resources. In addition, rain is abundant as the DRC receives 6,000 billion m3 of rainfall every year. Seventy percent of the DRC’s renewable water resources are generated from rainfall within the country. The Congo River has the largest discharge volume in Africa and 62 percent of the Congo Basin lies within the DRC, covering 98 percent of the country, with one of the most extensive river networks in the world. Rivers and lakes comprise approximately 3.5 percent of the DRC's surface area. Water resources are linked to the country’s vast forest ecosystems, and even though surface water is abundant, the majority of the population depends on groundwater and springs for safe drinking water. Groundwater comprises 47 percent of DRC’s internal renewable water resources. An estimated 1,000 deep-drilled wells exist in the DRC, servicing only a small percentage of the population. Limited well drilling has occurred since the 1990’s, and most groundwater is exploited using dug wells or mechanical pump wells. While the DRC holds over half of Africa’s water reserves, according to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) three quarters of the population, mostly people living in rural areas, have no access to safe drinking water. Despite the fact that the DRC is “water-rich”, it is currently facing a serious drinking water supply crisis. Water infrastructure was plagued by years of underinvestment, conflict, and a fast growing population. Only around 26 percent of the population has access to safe drinking water. Additional issues in the water sector include degradation of drinking water sources from land-use changes, poor construction and maintenance of rural water systems, and water pollution. 27 Many agricultural plots are established in the vicinity of local rivers, on river and stream banks and close to sources of drinking water thereby contributing to water pollution. Protected areas and parks. A number of parks in the DRC are on the UNESCO World Heritage List; however, because of the effects of wars, immigration and poaching, these parks are also inscribed on the World Heritage in Danger List. The major protected areas and parks include: Salonga National Park, the largest equatorial forest in Africa, is in the central basin of the Congo River. The park is home to the bonobo, a small chimpanzee-like ape. The Okapi Wildlife Reserve occupies part of the Ituri forest. The reserve is named after the okapi, a relative of the giraffe, which inhabits the region.

26 http://www.uncclearn.org/sites/default/files/inventory/gef61_0.pdf 27 DRC Kivu Value Chain (FtF) Initial Environmental Examination (IEE)

https://www.britannica.com/place/Benguela-Current

https://www.britannica.com/place/Banana-Democratic-Republic-of-the-Congo

https://www.britannica.com/place/Bukavu

http://www.unep.org/


Garamba National Park consists of grasslands, savannahs, woodlands, forests and rivers. Animals include the elephant, giraffe, hippopotamus and white rhinoceros. Kahuzi-Biega National Park, an area of tropical forest, is named after its extinct volcanoes, Kahuzi and Biega. A group of mountain gorillas live in the park. Mountain gorillas also live in Virunga National Park. Nyiragongo, part of the Virunga Volcanic Chain, is one of Africa's most active volcanoes.28

Vulnerable habitats. Primary ecosystems include tropical and subtropical grassland, savanna, shrub land, tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests.

Ongoing instability, poor infrastructure, and a failing economy have led to hunting in surrounding forests. Hunting for bushmeat threatens many of the DRC’s endemic species as locals trap animals for a cheap source of food.

Deforestation also remains an ongoing problem in the DRC. Slash-and-burn agriculture has destroyed many hectares of land while farmers often lack the necessary education to employ sustainable agricultural practices.

FACTOR I: THE AVAILABILITY AND EFFECTIVENESS OF OTHER PESTICIDES OR NON-

CHEMICAL CONTROL METHODS

Crop protection specialists aim to develop pest control methods that are compatible with the goals of sustainable and productive agriculture. To meet these goals, crop protection must integrate a range of complementary pest control methods in a mutually enhancing fashion, namely IPM.

IPM focuses on six control areas:

Cultural pest control: is the use of farming or cultural practices that make the crop environment less favorable to pest species, for example, the choice of sowing and harvest dates to minimize damage, intercropping, vegetation management and crop rotations.

Biological control: is the manipulation, conservation or introduction of natural enemies: predators, parasites, or pathogens.

Physical and mechanical control: is the application of direct or indirect measures that kill the pest, disrupt its physiology other than by chemical means, exclude it from an area, or adversely alter the pest's environment.

Host plant resistance: is the breeding and use of crop varieties that are less susceptible to pests (e.g. insects, diseases, nematodes, parasitic weed, and birds.).

Judicious use of pesticides: is pesticide application to protect rather than avenge the crop. The use of pesticides has a cost that is not only the price of the product and its application, but its effect on beneficial organisms such as natural enemies and pollinators. The decision to use a pesticide is therefore based on an assessment that the pest population, or expected population, will cause damage that exceeds all these costs: the economic threshold. Determining the economic threshold requires considerable research and experience. Decision making needs to be based on regular scouting, sometimes supported by pheromone traps where available.

Legal/regulatory control: includes the enforcement of measures and policies that range from quarantine to land and water management practices. These policies include the prevention of the entry and establishment of undesirable plant and animal pests in a country or area and eradication, containment, or suppression of pests already established in limited areas (quarantines). This approach to pest management must involve area-wide operations that include

28 http://worldinfozone.com/country.php?country=DRC


many rural households and are enacted for the common good of both farmers and society at large.

Formally, the development of IPM strategies requires the following steps.

Identify the major pests, quantify losses caused by them in a given agro-ecosystem and determine the economic thresholds;

Study the biology, behavior and population dynamics of the pests to understand the features that may be exploited for pest management;

Establish the role of local natural enemies and develop mass-rearing, or mass-culture for disease agents on insects;

Study and develop other suitable components of IPM, such as intercropping and other cultural practices;

Integrate these components into an appropriate IPM technology and test for compatibility and efficacy under different ecological conditions; and

Develop a simple protocol for monitoring the impact of IPM technology in the field.29

In the context of the DRC, where much of the technical capacity for the above is lacking, the essential step in IPM is the correct identification of the pests or pathogens to which the various crops are subject and a realistic assessment of the damage they can potentially cause.

Once this is known, it is possible to develop a proactive approach to plant protection, rather than responding to infestations after the damage has been done.

The first element in the plan must be good cultural practices. Healthy plants grown in good conditions are more resistant to pests and diseases. The use of resistant varieties, when available, is also important. (See the tabular IPM Plan in Annex A.)

The second element is routine preventive measures such as crop rotation for annual crops, or dormant season spraying with mineral oil for tree crops.

The third element is the encouragement of natural enemies. These may be reared in a laboratory and released, but more important—and most applicable in the context of the DRC—is not killing them by inappropriate pesticide application.

The fourth element is monitoring for the presence of economically harmful densities of pests that may occur because of favorable conditions. This may be done with pheromone traps or simple examination of the plants.

The fifth element is the choice of an effective control method, should this be necessary. The options may be mechanical removal of the pests, but the selective use of a safe and effective pesticide may be the best option. The IPM Plan in Annex A provides guidance as to chemical- and non-chemical control measures for common pests of many crops.

Some of the implementing partners in the DRC are emphasizing the utilization of biological natural pesticides. Biopesticides are derived from natural materials such as animals, plants, bacteria, and certain minerals. Notably, biopesticides are also considered pesticides and are registered by USEPA. However, some low-risk AIs (primarily essential oils and other plant extracts) are exempt from regulation under the US Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and therefore may be used by implementing partners without approval via this PERSUAP.

Farmers in the DRC often prepare artisanal products such as mixtures of fermented leaves of Ricinus communis, Tephrosia vogelii, Erythrina abyssinica, Tetradenia riparia, Nicotiana tabacum, Datura stramonium (Ntobololo), Casingo (Shusha) and Lupin (purple flowers that look like Tephrosia) that are used on a variety of crops and pests.

For example, against coffee rust disease, farmers use a natural pesticide prepared from chili peppers, garlic, papaya leaves, sodium bicarbonate, olive oil and water.

29 http://www.fastonline.org/CD3WD_40/CD3WD/AGRIC/G49ABE/EN/B5_11.HTM#B5_11_2

http://www.fastonline.org/CD3WD_40/CD3WD/AGRIC/G49ABE/EN/B5_11.HTM#B5_11_2


The natural enemies (e.g. parasitoids, and predators) of coffee pests are not yet known in the DRC. No research is being performed to better understand hosts breeding sites, and reservoirs of different natural enemies. Local researchers believe that the promotion of natural botanical pesticides and landscape habitat management to favor biological control and pollination services is critical in coffee production in the DRC.

To control vegetable pests farmers prepare pesticides from Tithonia diversifolia, Annona squamosa, garlic, Carica papaya, Capsicum frutescens, Melia azedarach and Azadirachta indica, ash, mineral soap and palm oil, animal manure and eucalyptus in various formulations.

Overall, farmers are very interested in using low cost artisanal products and want to learn more about appropriate formulation and dosages needed to prepare them. Implementing partners and local researchers in the DRC believe that there is a need for locally based research to validate formulations and dosages, as well as the effectiveness of the products currently used by farmers.

Because healthy crops grown in fertile soils are generally resistant to pests and tolerant of disease, IPM practices must include practices to improve plant health and integrated soil fertility management. Practices such as composting, vermiculture, mulching, establishing hedges, terracing and other soil erosion control measures, cultivating on contours and reducing acidity with lime amendments, as well as promoting agroforestry systems should be considered as effective IPM measures.

FACTOR J: THE REQUESTING COUNTRY’S ABILITY TO REGULATE OR CONTROL THE

DISTRIBUTION, STORAGE, USE AND DISPOSAL OF THE REQUESTED PESTICIDE

PESTICIDE REGISTRATION PROCESS The DRC is a member of the Southern African Development Community (SADC). SADC member states have been involved in the process of harmonizing pesticide registration procedures and regulations.30 In SADC there are few countries that have formulated clear-cut policies that reduce chemical and pesticide use, their risks to the environment, human and animal health, and reliance on pesticides in the management of pests and vectors. Like many other southern African countries, the DRC lacks effective and fully operational systems for pesticide regulation and control. It does not provide sufficient support to farmers on the best practices in sustainable pest management and pesticide use. Widespread overuse, misuse, mishandling and mismanagement of pesticides are all too common throughout the region. The Southern Africa Pesticide Regulators Forum (SAPReF), begun in 2011, is a group of pesticide regulators from SADC member countries who are collaborating and working together on matters related to pests and pesticide management. The major challenge for the SAPReF has been the lack of an action plan containing concrete steps towards reducing the risks posed by pesticides and strengthening the regulation and management of pesticides in member countries.

The Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Livestock, Direction de la Production et Protection des Végétaux (DPPV), issues a list of approved pesticides and products on an annual basis; however, this list is not widely distributed nor widely known. According to discussions with the Chief31 of the Registration of Pesticides Bureau of DPPV, proposed pesticide products are evaluated and approved based on comparison with lists published by international organizations (WHO, EU, SADC, or FAO). If the pesticide products are approved in accordance with these standards, they are registered and included on the list of approved pesticides.

RELEVANT INSTITUTIONS AND REGULATORY ENFORCEMENT The constitution in the DRC has been amended several times since its independence in 1960. New legislation and regulations are developed at the ministerial level. Current laws are presidential decisions or decrees. For legislation to become law, it must be published in the presidential bulletin as a decree. The major legislation related to pesticide management in the DRC includes: (1) the Law on Agriculture, setting

30 http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/Pnact580.pdf 31 Personal communication with Mr. Christian Tebila Kiaku, Chef de Bureau en charge de l'Homologation des Pesticides, DPPV,

Ministry of Agriculture, January 2017

http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/Pnact580.pdf


the guiding principles on agriculture in the DRC, published in December of 2011,32 and the Decree on Phytosanitary Regulations,33 promulgated in November of 2005.

In the DRC, the institutions with responsibility for pesticide management include, within the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Livestock, the DPPV, the Direction de Production de Santé Animale (DPSA), the Service National des Fertilisants et Intrants Connexes (SENAFIC), and the Service National de Vulgarisation (SNV). The relevant institutions within the Ministry of Commerce include the Direction Générale des Douanes et Accises (DGDA), and the Office Congolais de Contrôle (OCC).

Despite this legislative and institutional framework, the relevant DRC government departments and institutions do not have the regulatory mandate, authority and budget to engage in crop protection activities or to develop policy and regulations for pesticide registration and safe use.34

INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS AND TREATIES The DRC has ratified the Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade (i.e. the Rotterdam Convention), which promotes shared responsibilities among the signatories for the importation of hazardous chemicals. In August 2016, the DGDA and OCC published a decree requiring pre-shipment inspection of imports to the DRC. Among other things, the decree bans the importation of Rotterdam Convention listed chemicals and phytosanitary products deemed harmful to people and the environment.35 Despite this importation ban, many of the products listed in the decree are available in urban and rural stores. The DRC has also ratified the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, an international environmental treaty that aims to eliminate or restrict the production and use of persistent organic pollutants (POPs).

SUMMARY Much remains to be done in the DRC at the policy, enforcement and infrastructure development level to ensure the safer use of pesticides. Issues that need to be addressed and require capacity building and funding include, but are not limited to: (1) the development of registration policy and guidance, proper phytosanitary controls, import regulations including taxation, duties and fines, (2) support for relevant institutions including those conducting testing and research on biopesticides and IPM technologies, (3) establishing pesticide safety public information systems, (4) strengthening education and developing formal training and certification systems, (5) strengthening formal input supply chains and reigning in the informal markets, (6) establishing quality controls of the input supply chains, (7) developing infrastructure to address analytical needs for quality controls, and (8) developing disposal and recycling infrastructure.

A fundamental problem in determining the US regulatory status of pesticides available in the DRC is that they do not conform to US standards of labeling and quality. The DRC does not have a functioning system able to regulate or control the registration, import and distribution, storage, use and disposal of pesticides.

FACTOR K: THE PROVISIONS MADE FOR TRAINING OF USERS AND APPLICATORS

Training is the chief factor in ensuring safe and effective pesticide use by USAID projects. In the past, projects in the DRC have provided training of variable quality. It is therefore strongly recommended that there be a program-wide training policy with a common syllabus, implemented by a dedicated, trained team of trainers.

Training must be directed to the following recipients.

32 “Loi n° 11/022 du 24 décembre 2011portant principes fondamentaux relatifs à l’agriculture”, http://agriculture-

rdc.net/agri/documents/loiagricole.pdf 33 Décret 05/162 du 18 novembre 2005 portant sur la réglementation Phytosanitaire. 34 PICAGL, 2016, Pest and Pesticide Management Plan for the Programme Integre de Croissance Agricole dans la Region des

Grands Lacs-Projet Regional (PICAGL) 35 https://verigates.bureauveritas.com/wps/wcm/connect/cc71ca004d1fd4c8954dbfd3ae22b828/GSIT+-

+Congo+(Dem+Rep+of)+Datasheet+Rev+8.pdf?MOD=AJPERES

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_law

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant

http://agriculture-rdc.net/agri/documents/loiagricole.pdf

http://agriculture-rdc.net/agri/documents/loiagricole.pdf


Project staff who will apply or handle pesticides, or serve as extension agents.

Beneficiary farmers who will use and apply pesticides.

Individuals being trained as extension agents by the projects.

Enterprises or cooperatives receiving USAID-funded loans or other credit support that deal in or use pesticides.

Beneficiary agro-input dealers.

Training topics must include the following;

Definition of pesticides.

Pesticide risks and the understanding that pesticides are bio-poisons.

Concept of AIs vs. formulated products.

Classes of pesticides and the concept that specific pesticides are effective only against a certain class of organism.

Concept of proper application rates and pesticide resistance and techniques for avoiding misapplication.

Survey of the core elements of Safer Pesticide Use: IPM, safe purchase, transport, storage, mixing, application, reentry and pre-harvest intervals, clean-up and disposal, including specific treatment of PPE.

Pesticide first aid and spill response.

Reading and interpreting pesticide labels -- particularly to understand PPE requirements and other precautions, dosage rates, and to identify AIs and expiration dates.

Proper operation and maintenance of sprayer or other equipment.

Record keeping and monitoring.

All training must include a pre- and post- course evaluation of the participants. Participants will only be accepted as “trained” if their evaluation is satisfactory. The brief refresher training must be provided at least annually.

The application of certain, higher-risk products requires training beyond the basic level.

NGOs in the DRC occasionally provide training in safe pesticide use to extension agents and input suppliers. However, there is no formal government certification for such training.

FACTOR L: THE PROVISIONS MADE FOR MONITORING THE USE AND

EFFECTIVENESS OF THE PESTICIDES

MONITORING USE AND EFFECTIVENESS The use of pesticides by USAID supported programs in the DRC will be monitored as part of the projects’ crop management extension program. Any incidents reported by program staff or farmers will be followed up by M&E staff.

The project must maintain records of all pesticide use, monitor pesticide effectiveness, and scout for resistance. Training in monitoring and reporting must be provided to farmers. Where literacy or language is a limiting factor, training should be developed to address this concern. Some products are considered low risk for resistance development, while others allow a limited number of applications per season because of the high risk of resistance development, and must alternate with pesticides from different chemical groups.

IPs will be required to report as stipulated in the SUAP in Section 6.

As part of this reporting, IPs directly supporting farm-level pesticide use or extension will be required to report on instances observed of pesticide resistance. USAID monitoring and evaluation field visits will examine pesticide compliance.


6. SAFER ACTION USE PLAN (SUAP)

6.1 INTRODUCTION

This Safer Use Action Plan is the definitive statement of implementing partners’ pesticide compliance

requirements and is synthesized from the PER analysis:

Section 6.2, immediately below, delineates allowed pesticides and provides advisories and

restrictions for their use.

Section 6.3 delineates rejected and banned pesticides.

Section 6.4 summarizes the mandatory safe use conditions attendant to use/support of these

pesticides.

Section 6.5 defines these conditions in the attached Mandatory Template, entitled “Pesticide

Safer Use Action Plan & Compliance Tracker,” for assigning responsibilities and timelines for

implementation of these requirements, and for tracking compliance.

With respect to pesticides, the “Pesticide Safer Use Action Plan & Compliance Tracker” (Section 6.5)

satisfies the requirement for an EMMP. The project EMMP should simply incorporate the SUAP by

reference.

6.2 ALLOWED PESTICIDES

Upon approval of this PERSUAP, pesticides containing the AIs listed in Table 4 below are permitted for procurement/use/support by USAID supported programs in the DRC. (Table 4 is the same as Table 1 in the Executive Summary.) These pesticides have an identified use within an IPM scheme provided in Appendix A; are registered by the EPA and listed by the DRC Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Livestock, and are chosen conservatively with respect to their environmental and human health risk profiles, with specific risk-reducing conditions specified as appropriate in Table 4.36

The AIs listed in the table below can be in products that are designated as RUPs as well as in products

designated as General Use Pesticides (GUP).

RUPs are pesticides which are not available to the general public in the United States. The "Restricted

Use" classification restricts a product to use by a certificated pesticide applicator or under the direct

supervision of a certified applicator. This means that a license is required to purchase and apply the

product. Certification programs are administered by the federal government, individual states, and by

company policies that vary from state to state.37 Restrictions can apply to the particular crop,

formulations, concentrations or uses.

Products can be designated RUP because of human acute (immediate) and chronic (long-term) health

risk; physical hazards, such as risks of fire or explosion; and eco-toxicity hazards, such as potential risks of

water pollution and risk to flora and fauna. RUP pesticides are designated as such if their toxicity exceeds

36 Human health and ecological toxicological summaries and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) registration status

for each pesticide are presented in Table B.1 in Annex B. 37 EPA Pesticide Worker Safety. (n.d.). Retrieved August 17, 2015, from http://www2.epa.gov/pesticide-worker-safety/restricted-

use-products-rup-report

MANDATORY TEMPLATE

Every Project Subject to this PERSUAP must submit a completed SUAP template to its

AOR/COR by the date specified on the attached tracker template and must provide an

annual update.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States

http://www2.epa.gov/pesticide-worker-safety/restricted-use-products-rup-report



certain hazard criteria. The skull and crossbones symbol and the word “Poison” identify pesticide

products that are determined to be in Toxicity Class I based on at least one of the following acute toxicity

studies: acute oral, acute dermal, or acute inhalation. If methanol is present at 4 percent or more, then the

pesticide is also designated Toxicity Class I.

Only GUP products are approved for use by farmers. RUP products that contain AIs listed in the table

below can be used only by professionally trained certified and registered pest control specialists. Class I

products are not approved for use by farmers by this PERSUAP.

Farmers must be trained to use Class II and III products. The training must require farmers to interpret

product labels to understand product health risks, physical hazards, eco-toxicity, and required safety

measures. Training requirements are specified within this SUAP. For more complete information on

impacts of these AIs on human health and environment, please see Annex B, Table B.3.

Table 4 specifies AI- and product-specific risk-reducing conditions. Two of these restrictions are as follows:

No Acute Toxicity Class I Products. While these AIs have been chosen conservatively with

regard to their risk profiles, some products with these approved AIs may nonetheless be EPA

Acute Toxicity Class I or the equivalent on the basis of their acute oral, dermal or inhalation

toxicity. All products in which methanol (methyl alcohol used as a solvent) is present at 4 percent

or more are also Class I. Such products are marked with the skull and crossbones symbol and the

word “POISON” or “DANGER” or equivalent.

Under this PERSUAP, such products may ONLY be used by professionally trained certified and

registered pest control specialists and NEVER by smallholder farmers.

Some Products Require Label Approval. Similarly, some approved AIs are present in

products designated RUPs by EPA.38 Generally, AIs for which a significant percentage of US

products are RUP have been rejected by this PERSUAP. However, a few such AIs are approved

under this PERSUAP where they meet an important pest management need for which there is no

reasonable alternative. For such AIs, the conditions in Table 4 require IPs to submit the label of

the proposed product together with the intended use to USAID for COR and MEO approval

prior to procurement or use. To approve the use, the MEO must verify that the closest US-

registered analogue to the product is not RUP.

This PER does not evaluate artisanal pesticides and their ingredients, however in some cases IPM

suggests use of artisanal ingredients that are already commonly used by farmers in DRC.

Note that some particularly low-risk AIs are exempt from regulation under the US Federal Insecticide,

Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and therefore can be used by implementing partners without

approval via this PERSUAP. These are listed at http://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-

12/documents/minrisk-active-ingredients-tolerances-2015-12-15.pdf.

(A list of pesticides Inert Ingredients that are exempt from FIFRA is available at:

38 In the United States, the same AIs can be in products that are designated by EPA as Restricted Use Pesticides (RUP) as well as

in products designated as General Use Pesticides (GUP). RUPs are pesticides which are not available to the general public in the

United States. The "Restricted Use" classification restricts a product to use by a certificated pesticide applicator or under the

direct supervision of a certified applicator. This means that a license is required to purchase and apply the product. Certification

programs are administered by the federal government, individual states, and by company policies that vary from state to state

(see http://www2.epa.gov/pesticide-worker-safety/restricted-use-products-rup-report). Products can be designated RUP

because of human acute (immediate) and chronic (long-term) toxicity/health risk, physical hazards such as risks of fire or

explosion, and eco-toxicity hazards such as potential risks of water pollution and risk to flora and fauna.. Restrictions can apply

to the particular crop, formulations, concentrations or uses.

http://www.epa.gov/opp00001/regulating/labels/pest-label-training/glossary/skull.html

http://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-12/documents/minrisk-active-ingredients-tolerances-2015-12-15.pdf


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States



http://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-01/documents/section25b_inerts.pdf.)

The below-listed pesticides (as AIs) are permitted for use/support on USAID funded programs in the

DRC, SUBJECT to compliance with any conditions enumerated in these tables and those enumerated in

the “Safer Use Action Plan and Compliance Tracker” that comprises Section 6.5. (A summary of these

conditions is provided in Section 6.4.) Human health and ecological toxicological summaries and US EPA

registration status for each are presented in Table B.3 in Annex B.

PESTICIDES APPROVED FOR AGRICULTURAL USE

IMPORTANT NOTE: Any product containing these AIs that is marked with skull and crossbones or the words “danger” or “poison” or the equivalent may ONLY be used by professionally trained certified and registered pest control specialists and NEVER by smallholder farmers.




2,4-D Herbicide Has acid, amine salts and ester forms

with variable ecotoxicity from

practically non-toxic to highly toxic

depending on the form.

Some products are Acute Toxicity

Category I for irreversible eye damage

(particularly acid and salt forms);

Possibly Carcinogenic to humans

Do not use products that have signal word

Danger and skull and crossbones on

pictogram,

Reported found in provincial stores in DRC.

IPs must confirm registration status in DRC

before procurement of products with this

AI.

Where required by the “AI-Specific Concerns” column in the table below, IPs must submit

the pesticide product label to the MEO/A/COR for review and approval. The MEO/A/COR will

review each product label against the USEPA guidance for RUPs provided at

https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-worker-safety/restricted-use-products-rup-report .

IPs must always review the pesticide label for the PPE requirements and the environmental

hazards statement. IPs must always keep pesticides away from water bodies including vulnerable

groundwater sources. AIs that have been identified as potential groundwater contaminants are

identified in the “AI-Specific Concerns” column below.

http://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-01/documents/section25b_inerts.pdf

https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-worker-safety/restricted-use-products-rup-report





Abamectin Insecticide,

acaricide and

Antiparasitic

Microorganis

m derived

Products over 1.9% are RUP

It is incompatible with many commonly

used pesticides.

Highly Toxic: Bees, birds, amphibians,

zooplankton

Smallholders should not use products with

concentration over 1.9% as such products

can be used only by properly trained and

qualified professionals with access to

necessary PPE.

Where products contain this AI in addition

to other AIs, product procurement must be

approved by the MEO

Acetamiprid Insecticide Potential pollutant of underground

waters

Highly toxic to birds

Like other neonicotinoids it is suspected to

be involved in honeybee colony collapse

disorder, even if generally considered safer

than other chemicals belonging to the same

chemical group. Should not to be applied

during or close to flowering.

Aluminum Phosphide Fumigant All products are RUP

Fatal by inhalation

Highly toxic tobees

Can be used only by professional fumigators

for FFP activities

Implementers must refer to

USAID Programmatic Environmental

Assessment (PEA) for

phosphine fumigation of stored agricultural

commodity available at

http://www.usaidgems.org/fumigationpea.h

tm

Amitraz Acaricide,

Insecticide Potential neurotoxin

Possible Reproducive/Development

toxin

Possible endocrine disruptor

Possible carcinogen

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Insecticide Only strains approved and registered

in DRC should be used












Acaricide

Many products are RUP


Potential development/reproductive

toxin

Possible carcinogen


smallholders. IPs must receive MEO

approval for use of products containing this

AI.

Bispyribac-sodium Herbicide Potential groundwater contaminant

Copper hydroxide Fungicide Use products < 50% a.i. and possibly

granular or flowable formulations

Very persistent water, soil, sediment

Very toxic to aquatic organisms

Very hazardous in case of skin and eye

contact, slightly hazardous if inhaled


and/or oskull and crossbones on the label

Copper oxide Fungicide Moderately toxic

Copper oxychloride Fungicide Suspected endocrine disruptor


and/or skull and crossbones on the label

Cypermethrin Insecticide Many agricultural use products are

RUPs due to toxicity to fish and aquatic

invertebrates.

Highly Toxic to bees




AI.

Deltamethrin Insecticide Restricted for use in cotton, some EC

products are RUP due to toxicity to

aquatic organisms

Potential endocrine Disruptor

Highly toxic to some aquatic

organzisms such as crustaceans and to

amphibians

Highly toxic tobees

IPs must receive MEO approval before

procurement and use of products

containing this AI.






Difenoconazole Fungicide Potential endocrone disruptor

Possible carcinogen

Highly Toxic toooplankton

Dimethoate Insecticide Few products are RUP


waters

Potential carcinogen, neurotoxin,

edocrine disruptor,

reproductive/developmental toxin

Esfenvalerate Insecticide Most products are RUP


amphibians

Highly toxic to bees





AI

Ethofenprox Insecticide Likely carcinogen


Approved for veterinary use

EPTC (S-ethyl dipropyl

thiocarbamat) Herbicide Not approved in EU

Likely developmental toxin

Likely neurotoxin

Fenitrothion Insecticide Suspected endocrine disruptor

Fipronil Insecticide Many products are RUP

Possible carcinogen



waters


fishcrustaceans, zooplankton

Highly toxic to beesees




AI.

Fluazifop-p-butyl Herbicide Potential Reproductive or

Developmental Toxin

Fluroxypyr Herbicide Found in some RUP products





Glyphosate Herbicide Some products are Acute Toxicity

Category I for irreversible eye damage;

do not use products that have signal

word Danger

Probably Carcinogenic to humans


waters

Imidacloprid Insecticide Implicated in possible impacts to bee


not to be used during flowering stage

or when bees are actively foraging


waters


toxin,

Potential Neurotoxin

Indoxacarb Insecticide Moderately to very highly toxic to

freshwater and marine/estuarine fish

and invertebrates





Lambda-cyhalothrin Insecticide Most products are RUP

Highly toxic to fish and other aquatic

organisms.

Highly toxic to bees.





AI.

Mancozeb Fungicide Likely Carcinogen (USEPA)

Potential Endocrine Disruptor


waters

Highly Toxic to amphibians

Mefenoxam (Metlalxyl M) Fungicide Potential groundwater contaminant

Metalaxyl Fungicide Potential pollutant of underground

waters

Metaldehyde Molluscicide Potential ground water contaminant

Potential carcinogen





Metsulfuron-methyl Herbicide Potential ground water contaminant









Nicosulfuron Herbicide Do not use when in products

containing Atrazine, these products are

RUP


waters

Oxadiazon Herbicide Likely Carcinogen (EPA)


Toxin


Penoxsulam Herbicide Possible carcinogen


Permethrin Insecticide Most are RUP

Not registered products in EU

Probable carcinogen

Hightly toxic to bees

IPs must receive MEO approval for

procurement and use of products

containing this AI.

Pirimiphos-methyl Insecticide Potential neurotoxin

Higly toxic to bees


To be used only for stored products and

healh applications

Sulfur Fungicide and

miticide Human health risks include eye, skin

and inhalation

Elemental sulfur is not toxic, but it’s

derivatives are

Thiamethoxam Insecticide Highly toxic to bees

Implicated in possible impacts to bee


not to be used during flowering stage

or when bees are actively foraging.


waters

Thiophanate-methyl Fungicide Potential carcinogen


Potential reproductive toxin/mutagen

Thiram Fungicide Included in the Rotterdam Convention

Highly toxic to fish, zooplankton,

amphibians, worms,

In the US and Europe used in

concentration below 15%, particularly

for seed treatment


Potential reproductive/development

toxin






Approved for use only as treated seed

Triadimenol Fungicide Possible carcinogen


Possible neurotoxin

Potential reproductive/developmental

toxin

Use only when in treated seed

Triadimefon (parent of

Triadimenol)

Fungicide Possible carcinogen


Likely developmental and reproductive

toxin


Triclopyr Foliar

herbicide and

fungicide

Few products are RUP

Some products are Category I for

irreversible eye damage; do not use

products that have signal word Danger or

skull and crossbones on the pictogram

6.3 PESTICIDES REJECTED AND BANNED

Only pesticides specifically approved (i.e., appearing in the “lists of approved pesticides” in

Table 4 above) under this PERSUAP are authorized for use by USAID supported programs in

the DRC. For reference, the tables below document pesticides (as AIs) that were specifically

considered and rejected for use by the analysis undertaken in this PERSUAP.

Pesticides listed in Table 5 are REJECTED for procurement or use by USAID supported programs in the DRC. (See Tables 9 for the pesticides specifically banned by the Stockholm Convention and the Rotterdam Convention and Table 10 for AIs banned for import in DRC).

TABLE 5. PESTICIDES (ACTIVE INGREDIENTS) REJECTED FOR PROCUREMENT/USE/SUPPORT BY

ACTIVITIES IN THE DRC

ACTIVE INGREDIENT (AI)

REJECTED

TYPE OF PESTICIDE REASON FOR REJECTION

Alpha-cypermethrin Insecticide Many agricultural use products are

RUPs due to toxicity to fish and

aquatic invertebrates.

Highly Toxic: bees

Atrazine Herbicide Products containing this AI are RUP

Likely Carcinogen

Likely groundwater contaminant


Azocyclotin Insecticide Not registered by USEPA

Benomyl Fungicide No Federally registered products in

the US






REJECTED


Beta-Cyfluthrin Insecticide Most product are RUP

WHO: 1b = Highly hazardous

Brodifacoum Rodenticide Not allowed in DRC

Not approved by EU

Highly hazardous

Bromadiolone Rodenticide Bromadiolone traps that are GUP

Not registered/avaiolable in DRC

Second-generation anticoagulant is

RUP

Bromophos Insecticide On the list of WHO obsolete

pesticides

Carbaryl Insecticide, Plant

Growth Regulator

Banned in EU

High toxicity to bees

High chronic toxicity potential


Carbendazim

Fungicide

Potential Reproductive or

Developmental Toxin

Highly Toxic: Zooplankton

Moderately Toxic: Fish

Slightly Toxic: Bees, Amphibians,

Crustaceans

Carbosulfan Insecticide No Federally registered products in

the US

Banned in EU

Banned by Rotterdam convention

Chlorophacinone Rodenticide USEPA Acute Toxicity Category 1

Chlorothalonil

Chlorotalonil

Fungicide DRC importation ban

Some products containing this AI

are RUP

Likely carcinogen


Chlorpyrifos ethyl Insecticide Most products are RUP

Coumatetralyl Rodenticide Not registered by EPA

Cyanazine Herbicide No products containing this AI are

registered in the US

Cyfluthrin Insecticide Most product are RUP

Not registered in DRC


Very Highly Toxic: Fish, Crustaceans,

Zooplankton

Highly Toxic: Bees

Cyphenothrin Structural use mostly

Has veterinary uses for pests only in

the US





REJECTED


Diazinon Insecticide All crop products products are RUP,

livestock products are not RUP

Banned in Europe and DRC

Probably carcinogenic to humans


waters

Highly Toxic: Bees

Dichlorvos (DDVP) Insecticide Banned in Europe and DRC


Group 2B: Possibly carcinogenic to

humans

Fatal by inhalation

Highly Toxic: Bees, Crustaceans

Dicofol Miticide No USEPA registered products

Banned in DRC

Difenacoum Rodenticide WHO hazard classification 1A

d-trans-tetramethrin

(isomer of Tetramethrin)

Insecticide This isomer is not registered by

USEPA

Possible human carcinogen

High toxicity to aquatic organisms

Highly toxic to non-target bees

Emamectin benzoate Insecticide Most products are RUP

Potential pollutant of undergroung

water

Endosulfan Insecticide, Acaricide All products are RUP

Banned in Europe and DRC

Included in the Rotterdam

Convention and subject to full PIC

procedure.

Included in Annex A of Stockholm

Convention

Fatal by inhalation

Very Highly Toxic: Fish

Highly Toxic: Crustaceans

Ethephon Plant Growth regulator USEPA Category I for acute dermal

irritation and eye irritation

Cholinesterase inhibitor

Fenamiphos Insecticide, nematicide No Federally registered products

Fenthion (DMTP) Insecticide, avicide,

and acaricide

No Federally registered products

available in the US

Not registered in EU

Formothion Insecticide Not registered by USEPA

Malathion Insecticide DRC importation ban

Probably carcinogenic to humans


waters

Highly Toxic: Bees





REJECTED


Maneb Fungicide No Federally registered products in

the US contain this AI

Methyl Bromide Acaricide, fungicide,

herbicide, insecticide,

nematicide, and

rodenticide (fumigant)

All products are RUP

Oxamyl Insecticide,

Nematicide

Several products are RUP

WHO: 1B = Highly hazardous

Paraquat Herbicide All products are RUP in US

Banned in EU

Rotterdam convention pesticide

Profenofos Insecticide, miticide RUP

Potential neurotoxin


Toxic to aquatic organisms

Propineb Fungicide Not registered by USEPA

Trycyclazole Fungicide No Federally registered products

contain this AI

Warfarin Rodenticide USEPA Toxicity Category I

TABLE 6. HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS AND PESTICIDES PROHIBITED FOR IMPORTATION INTO DRC

LISTED IN ANNEX III OF THE ROTTERDAM CONVENTION

2,4,5 T and its salts (2,4,5-T et ses sels) 2,4,5 T and its salts (2,4,5-T et ses sels)

Alachlor (Alachlore) Alachlor (Alachlore)

Aldicarb (Aldicarbe) Aldicarb (Aldicarbe)

Aldrin (Aldrine) Aldrin (Aldrine)

Binapacryl Binapacryl

Captafol Captafol

Chlordane Chlordane

Chlordimeform (Chlordimeforme) Chlordimeform (Chlordimeforme)

Chlorobenzilate Chlorobenzilate

D.D.T D.D.T.

Dieldrin (Dieldrine) Dieldrin (Dieldrine)

DNOC and its salts (Dinitro-ortho-crésol

(DNOC) et ses sels)

DNOC and its salts (Dinitro-ortho-crésol (DNOC) et ses

sels)

Dinoseb and its salts and esters (Dinoseb

et ses sels et esters)

Dinoseb and its salts and esters (Dinoseb et ses sels et

esters)

EDB (Dibromo -1,2 éthane) EDB (Dibromo -1,2 éthane)

Endosulfan Endosulfan

Ethylene dichloride (Dichlorure

d'ethylène)

Ethylene dichloride (Dichlorure d'ethylène)

Ethylene Oxyde (Oxyde d'ethylène) Ethylene Oxyde (Oxyde d'ethylène)

Fluoro acetamide (Fluoro acetamide) Fluoro acetamide (Fluoro acetamide)


TABLE 6. HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS AND PESTICIDES PROHIBITED FOR IMPORTATION INTO DRC

LISTED IN ANNEX III OF THE ROTTERDAM CONVENTION

HCH HCH

Heptachlor (Heptachlore) Heptachlor (Heptachlore)

TABLE 7. PHYTOSANITARY PRODUCTS WHOSE USE IS PROHIBITED IN DRC CONGO DUE TO THEIR

CARCINOGENIC, MUTAGENIC, TOXIC OR ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Dicofol

Brodifacoum

Coumachlore

Diazinon

Dichlorvos

Carbendazim

Chlorothalonil

Malathion

Naphtalène

Paraquat

6.4 SUMMARY OF COMPLIANCE REQUIREMENTS

Only pesticides approved by this PERSUAP can be supported by USAID funded programs in the DRC. Upon approval of this PERSUAP, the pesticide AIs listed in Error! Reference source not found. (Table 5 is the same as Table 1 in the Executive Summary) are permitted for use/support/promotion with USAID/DRC funds of agricultural activities. This approval is subject to compliance with any conditions listed for each AI.

IPs will promote only pesticide products containing AIs approved by this PERSUAP. Pesticide use is broadly defined by USAID as procurement, transportation, storage, mixing, loading, application and disposal. It includes demonstrations, promotion and technical assistance, provision of samples, special payments, donations, subsidies and other forms of financial support including credit provision or guarantee of this credit for purchase of pesticides. USAID funded activities must not support AIs rejected by this PERSUAP. Those AIs rejected for

support with USAID funding are listed below in Tables 6, 7 and 8.

USAID funded activities must not support use of products that contain inert ingredients prohibited by USEPA. On December 20th, 2016 USEPA published a list of 72 inert ingredients prohibited from use in pesticide products. An inert ingredient is any substance (or group of structurally similar substances if designated by the Agency), other than an “active” ingredient, which is intentionally included in a pesticide product. It is important to note, the term “inert” does not imply that the chemical is nontoxic.39 For a list of prohibited inert ingredients please see https://www.epa.gov/newsreleases/epa-prohibits-72-inert-ingredients-use-pesticides. USAID funded activities can support the use of low-risk AIs. Some particularly low-risk AIs

(primarily essential oils and other plant extracts) are exempt from regulation under the US Federal

Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and therefore may be used by implementing partners

without approval via this PERSUAP. These AIs are listed at

http://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-12/documents/minrisk-active-ingredients-tolerances-

39 https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-registration/guidance-documents-inert-ingredients

https://www.epa.gov/newsreleases/epa-prohibits-72-inert-ingredients-use-pesticides



2015-12-15.pdf. A list of pesticides Inert Ingredients that are exempt from FIFRA is available at:

http://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-01/documents/section25b_inerts.pdf.

In addition to these and other restrictions set out in Error! Reference source not found. approval of

the AIs listed in Table 5 is SUBJECT to conditions enumerated in the Safe Use Action Plan &

Compliance Tracker (“SUAP Tracker”) provided in Section 6.5. In summary these conditions are as

follows:

Commercial pesticide products procured, used or recommended for use must be properly

labelled in the national language and include specified essential information. Training in reading and

understanding of labels must is one of the topics to be addressed under the mandatory requirement for

understanding pesticide risks and safe pesticide use.

Projects must assure use per label, including the correct use of appropriate PPE (per label) for all

pesticide use under their direct control. Otherwise, projects must assure access to, proper use and

maintenance of appropriate PPE and use per label to the greatest degree practicable.

Projects must require the use and maintenance of appropriate PPE—as well as safe pesticide purchase, handling, storage and disposal practices; See Annex C.

Pesticide support must be governed by a set of locally adapted, crop- and pest-specific IPM-based pest management plans and observe enumerated use restrictions. (The PERSUAP provides key information for Implementing Partners (IPs) to develop these plans.) IPs must utilize preventive IPM tools and tactics provided in Annex A. IPs will develop more extensive and detailed IPM plans that address major pests of their respective value chains and preventive non-chemical IPM tools/tactics recommended to be used before using PERSUAP-approved pesticides. These pesticides should be used only as the last resort after all preventive tools have been exhausted. Pesticides for plant protection must be part of an IPM scheme governed by crop- and pest-specific IPM-based pest management plans.

Appropriate project staff and beneficiaries must be trained in safe pesticide use and pesticide first aid. Mandatory requirement for understanding pesticide risks and safe pesticide use training. IPs must provide basic training to their staff and beneficiaries, including those using, selling, financing or providing extension services or demonstrating pesticides with USAID funding. Advanced training is required for certain AIs and products. Training must be reported to the AOR/COR. IPs must use appropriate training materials and must build awareness about human health and ecological risks of pesticides and promote safer pesticide use through promotion of pesticide best practices and safety use training. Training must include all topics listed in Annex C.

IPs must take necessary steps to prevent the development of pest resistance by using tools

recommended by this PERSUAP such as rotating among different classes of each type of pesticide and

monitoring and record keeping for detecting development of resistance. Projects must be systematic in

their pesticide-related record-keeping and monitoring.

Projects seeking approval to purchase pesticides must certify that such procurement is compliant

with this PERSUAP and provide other specified information for AOR/COR review and clearance.

Pass-down requirements. Prime contractors must write pesticide compliance requirements as set out

above into each grant or sub-contract that will involve support for pesticide use. Sub-contractors or

grantees will be responsible for reporting on risk and risk reduction to the prime contractor. Record-

keeping, reporting on compliance with the above conditions as part of regular project implementation

reporting, and pass-down of all above requirements to subcontractors, grantees and sub-grantees is

required.

SUAP conditions must be implemented, and their implementation must be monitored and

reported. To the greatest degree practicable, projects must require use and maintenance of appropriate

PPE – as well as safe pesticide purchase, transportation, handling, storage and disposal practices. SUAP




implementation must be monitored and reported using the “SUAP Tracker” tracking tool provided in

Section 6.5.

Mandatory use of the “SUAP Tracker.” Any project subject to this PERSUAP must submit a

completed SUAP Tracker to its AOR/COR and MEO 30 days before the implementation of the activity

and must update it annually. The tracker is a mandatory tool for assigning responsibilities and timelines

for implementation of PERSUAP requirements, and for tracking compliance.

Note: With respect to pesticides, the SUAP Tracker satisfies the requirement for an EMMP. Project

EMMPs should simply incorporate the SUAP Tracker by reference.

General conditions for USAID/DRC require that:

1. USAID/DRC put in place effective internal procedures to review pesticide use plans and pesticide procurement requests submitted by IPs. The MEO must review and approve all procurement requests.

2. Per ADS 204.3.4, AORs/CORs must assure that the requirements established by the IP Conditions summarized above are funded, implemented, and monitored.

3. Technical Offices must ensure that contract and award language requires compliance with the conditions established by this PERSUAP for each relevant project.

4. USAID/DRC must assure that all relevant mission staff receive an internal short-format (~1–2 hour) training on the requirements established by this PERSUAP.

5. At such time that pesticides are registered under the DRC Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, Livestock’s List of Approved Pesticides, USAID/DRC must update this PERSUAP.

Responsibilities

Primary mission responsibility for environmental compliance over life-of-project (LOP) rests with AORs/CORs, Activity Managers and Team Leaders. The MEO and REA play key roles as compliance advisors and quality reviewers and gatekeepers of Reg. 216 documentation. IPs have responsibility for field implementation of environmental mitigation and monitoring measures, typically via the Compliance Tracker that satisfies the requirements of an EMMP, and periodic reporting. Table 8 summarizes the resources included herein to support IPM and safe use of pesticides.


TABLE 8. IPM/SAFE USE REQUIREMENTS AND RELEVANT RESOURCES

IPM/SAFER USE

REQUIREMENT

KEY RESOURCES PROVIDED

Pesticide recommendations

and use must be governed by

a set of crop- and pest-specific

IPM-based pest management

plans.

(IPs are responsible for

developing these plans.)

ANNEX A: sets out crop-by-crop, pest-by-pest chemical and non-

chemical management methods recommended by this PERSUAP. The

pests and control methods table for each crop is intended to serve as

a rough draft for a crop-specific pest management plan.

ANNEX B: provides toxicology information for each approved active

ingredient (AI), including human acute toxicities and chronic health

issues, water pollution potential, as well as potential eco-toxicities to

important non-target organisms like fish, honeybee pollinators, birds

and several aquatic organisms. This information is summarized in

Table B.3.

Appropriate project staff and

beneficiaries must be trained

in safe pesticide use and

pesticide first aid.

ANNEX C: Mandatory Elements of Pesticide Safe Use Training

provides significant discussion of safe use training elements.

To the greatest degree

practicable, projects must

require use and maintenance

of appropriate PPE—as well as

safe pesticide purchase,

handling, and disposal

practices.

Pesticide use requires risk

management capability and

capacity including the

necessary institutional and

physical infrastructure.

ANNEX D: Policy Recommendations.


6.5 PESTICIDE SAFER USE ACTION PLAN & COMPLIANCE TRACKER

USAID/DRC Mission-Wide Agricultural PERSUAP Must be submitted to AOR/COR by Date: and annually updated thereafter.

PERSUAP COMPLIANCE TRACKER

BASIC INFORMATION SUBMISSION DATES:

Prime Contractor Initial submission

Project Annual Update #1

Pesticide

Compliance Lead

& Contact

Information

Annual Update #2

Summary of Pest

Management

Needs on Project

Annual Update #3

Note: Pesticide “support” = use of USAID funds to: purchase pesticides; directly fund the application of pesticides; recommend pesticides for use; enable

the application or purchase of pesticides via provision of application equipment, credit support, etc.


PESTICIDE SAFE USE ACTION PLAN & COMPLIANCE TRACKER: 2017 USAID/DRC MISSION-WIDE AGRICULTURAL PERSUAP

REQUIRED COMPLIANCE (MITIGATION) MEASURE INITIAL COMPLIANCE

STATUS (IF NOT

KNOWN, SO INDICATE)

ACTIONS PLANNED TO ACHIEVE &

MAINTAIN COMPLIANCE

(W/ DEADLINES & RESPONSIBLE PARTY)

STATUS OF

COMPLIANCE

ACTIONS

SUPPORT ONLY THE PESTICIDES AUTHORIZED BY THE 2017 USAID/DRC MISSION-WIDE AGRICULTURAL PERSUAP

To be implemented Immediately

Inventory Pesticides being supported and ensure NO SUPPORT

for Class I chemicals.

(insert extra rows if needed)

Ensure that Restricted Use Pesticides (RUPs), as classified by US

EPA, can only be used by or under supervision of a certified

pesticide applicator.

Distribute copies of the list of allowed AIs with matching

commercial product names and list of cancelled products to all

project field extension staff & advice regarding the Date:

deadline for compliance (below).

To be implemented as soon as possible but not later than Date:

Assure that USAID-funded pesticide support is limited to ONLY

PESTICIDES APPROVED BY PERSUAP.

Continue verification throughout life-of-project



STATUS (IF NOT

KNOWN, SO INDICATE)


MAINTAIN COMPLIANCE


STATUS OF

COMPLIANCE

ACTIONS

Pesticide technical assistance and use must be governed by a set of locally adapted IPM-based pest management plans and observe enumerated use restrictions.

For agricultural activities these will be crop-and-pest specific.

To be implemented by this Date:

Starting from the information in PERSUAP Annex A and

drawing on PERSUAP Annex B, adopt/develop crop- and pest-

specific IPM-based pest management plans (PMPs).

For chemical controls, PMPs must include the use restrictions

specified in the Annex B pesticide profiles. (e.g. no use near

surface waters.)

Translate PMPs into crop-specific field reference guides or

posters for farmers to anticipate and manage pests.

To be implemented by this Date:

Provide first-time training to appropriate project staff, partners

and beneficiaries in PMPs;

Provide refresher training annually.

From Date:



STATUS (IF NOT

KNOWN, SO INDICATE)


MAINTAIN COMPLIANCE


STATUS OF

COMPLIANCE

ACTIONS

Require and enforce PMP implementation in situations where

the project has direct control over pesticide use

Require and enforce that field extension under direct project

control be PMP-based.

Where project control over extension or agricultural practice

on the ground is less than complete, promote and support the

PMPs to the greatest practicable extent.

Ongoing over Life of Project (LOP)

Modify PMPs over LOP based on ground-truthing/field

experience.



STATUS (IF NOT

KNOWN, SO INDICATE)


MAINTAIN COMPLIANCE


STATUS OF

COMPLIANCE

ACTIONS

For all target activities appropriate project staff & beneficiaries must be trained in safe pesticide use & pesticide first aid.

Ensure availability of product label and MSDS. For all products

that will be in use, the project personnel must obtain and

review the product label and MSDS to ensure that pesticide

users are aware of potential hazards and are undertaking all

measures to minimize risks to human health and safety and to

the environment.

Ensure that for all beneficiaries that receive support for

procurement and use of seed treated with pesticides, training

in handling dressed seed is provided.

Develop a training plan for pesticide safe practices and IPM for

project staff and beneficiaries, including at least annual

refresher training.

Develop or source curricula conforming to required training

elements specified in Annex C.

Implement training plan, providing first-time training to all

relevant staff and beneficiaries within six months.



STATUS (IF NOT

KNOWN, SO INDICATE)


MAINTAIN COMPLIANCE


STATUS OF

COMPLIANCE

ACTIONS

To the greatest degree practicable, all projects must require use & maintenance of appropriate PPE – as well as safe pesticide purchase, handling, storage and

disposal practices.

If carbamate or organophosphate-class pesticides are used

extensively, follow procedures for baseline testing for

cholinesterase inhibition, and establish a periodic

cholinesterase monitoring schedule when necessary.

Implement/observe core risk mitigation measures (PPE and

other precautions).

Where control is less complete, take all practicable measures to

support and promote implementation of these measures.

Whenever providing, supporting or recommending pesticides

for use, assure that appropriate PPE is available and, to the

degree possible, require its use.

Whenever directly using, procuring or supplying pesticides,

assure that quality application equipment is available and local

capacity for application is available and maintained.



STATUS (IF NOT

KNOWN, SO INDICATE)


MAINTAIN COMPLIANCE


STATUS OF

COMPLIANCE

ACTIONS

Projects must follow safety restrictions and precautions for all target activities

People who are not wearing PPE should not enter pesticide

treated areas during Restricted Entry Intervals (REI) to perform

tasks that involve contact with pesticide treated surfaces. Each

pesticide label specifies a REI usually ranging from 12 to 72

hours.

Warning signs should be posted to warn people in advance

about pesticide application and REI.

Products that are suspected to have potential to cause harm to

unborn child will not be handled and applied by pregnant

women. Pregnant women should not enter treated areas

during application and REI.

Pre-harvest interval (PHI) is the time required between the last

application of pesticides and the safe harvesting of edible

crops for immediate consumption. Farmers will be trained

about the importance of adhering to the PHI stated on the

label to ensure no chemical residues are found on harvested

crops.

Projects must be systematic in their pesticide related record-keeping and monitoring.

Pesticide efficacy must be evaluated



STATUS (IF NOT

KNOWN, SO INDICATE)


MAINTAIN COMPLIANCE


STATUS OF

COMPLIANCE

ACTIONS

Any evidence of pesticide resistance development must be

tracked and reported.

Flow-down requirements

Prime contractors must write pesticide compliance

requirements as set out above into each grant or sub-contract

that will involve support for pesticide use.

Pesticide registration status in the DRC and US EPA must be updated yearly.


ANNEX A: PESTS AND DISEASES OF TARGET CROPS AND AVAILABLE AND RECOMMENDED CONTROL

METHODS

This annex details the primary pests of all target crops on a crop-by-crop basis, available non-chemical control methods, and recommended chemical controls, where these are necessary. As such, this annex contains both information compiled as INPUT to the PER analysis (pests of target crops), and OUTPUTS of that analysis (available non-chemical controls, recommended chemical controls).

This information is intended to serve as the basis for the crop and pest-specific IPM Management Plans required by the SUAP.

This annex is intended to describe the IPM context in which the selected pesticides will be used. It does not purport to be a complete handbook of IPM techniques.

The PER analysis did not include artisanal pesticides and their ingredients, however in some cases this IPM suggests use of artisanal solutions that are already commonly used by farmers in DRC.

GRAINS

TABLE A.1. SORGHUM AND PEARL MILLET INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN

TYPE OF PESTS DAMAGE DONE AVAILABLE IPM CONTROL MEASURES RECOMMENDED

PESTICIDES (AI), WHEN

NEEDED

Weeds and Grasses

Annual and perennial

broadleaf weeds

Annual or perennial

grasses

Reduction in crop yield as weeds

compete with crops for water,

nutrients and light

Increased cost of cultivation

Reduced quality of produce

Transmitting pests and disease

Weeds block drainage and reduce

irrigation efficiency40

Land preparation to provide weed free environment for

small millet seed

Small millet seeds should be sown less deep than seeds

such as maize

Making sure all equipment used to plant millet is free of

weed seeds.

Chemical weed control

options are limited for

millet production.

Use Glyphosate products

40 http://oer.nios.ac.in/wiki/index.php/Damages_caused_by_Weeds

http://oer.nios.ac.in/wiki/index.php/Damages_caused_by_Weeds





NEEDED

Help prevent weed seed from entering fields by

controlling weeds along ditchbanks, roadsides, and field

margins

Narrow row spacing, adapted variety selection, and crop

rotations, all practices that will provide a competitive edge

for the millet crop.

Hand weeding

Soil applied and foliage applied herbicides.41

Parasitic weed

Striga (Striga spp.)

Mostly in Bunia and

Kasai

Striga will parasitize millet plants and

prevent root development and

nutrient uptake. Severe attack

produces leaf wilting and chlorosis.

Infected plants may be stunted and

die before seed set.

In Striga affected fields, do not grow pearl millet

continuously and follow crop rotation with legumes

Post emergence use 2, 4-

D products

Millet head miner

(Heliocheilus

albipunctella)

Millet earhead

caterpillar also

Fly period of the adult moth

coincides with the peak of millet

panicle emergence and flowering.

Caterpillars eat and finish the larval

development inside panicles. During

this period, the seed head also grows

Plough deeply to expose residual larval populations and

pupae to natural enemies and desiccation.

Conserve natural enemies.

Augmentation (rearing and releases) of an effective

parasitic wasp (Habrobracon hebetor)

Deltamethrin

Imidacloprid

Dimethoate

Lambda-cyhalothrin

41 http://lubbock.tamu.edu/files/2011/10/Millet-Production.pdf

http://lubbock.tamu.edu/files/2011/10/Millet-Production.pdf





NEEDED

known as Millet

spike worm

(Rhaguva

albipunctella)

and develops, passing from

emergence through flowering to

grain-filling and maturity.

A two-week delay in planting of short cycle millet varieties

(75 days to maturity) to desynchronize the peak flight

period of the susceptible phenological stage of the crop

has been reported to be effective against this pest.

Head-bugs

Eurystylus oldi and

other spp.

Damage on panicle starts as soon as

it emerges from the boot leaf, the

nymphs and adults suck

the sap from the developing grain

and occasionally on tender parts

of the panicle

Use resistant cultivars

Use common cultural practices such as:

o Timely sowing

o Field sanitation, rogueing

o Destroy the alternate host plants

o Soil test based application of manures and fertilizers.

o Adoption of crop rotation.

o Avoid high plant populations

o Adopt ecological engineering by growing the

attractant, repellent, and trap crops around the field

bunds.

Where available use

Neem extract

Stem borers (Several

species of stem borers

attack millet including

the millet stem borer

(Coniesta ignefusalis),

the maize stalkborer

The damage starts from the seedling

stage and continues until maturity.

Early-sown millet is attacked by first-

generation larvae (caterpillars), which

damage young plants and cause

dead-hearts. Seedlings of late-sown

Post-harvest plowing and disposal of dead stalks to get

rid of larva and pupae in millet stubbles

Deep ploughing and soil solarisation to expose pupae and

propagules of soil borne pathogens

Cutting stems and laying on soil, or 5 cm below soil post-

harvest42

Use natural extracts of

neem and chili peppers.

Neem can be effective

against stem borers if

used early in the season

42 Youm, O. Coniesta ingefusialis (Hampson) The millet Stem Borer: A Handbook of Information. (Andhara Pradesh, India: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, 1999) http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/Pnaby140.pdf

http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/Pnaby140.pdf





NEEDED

(Busseola fusca), the

spotted stalkborer

(Chilo partellus), and

the pink stalkborer

(Sesamia calamitis).

millet are exposed to larger

populations of second or third-

generation larvae which produce

extensive tunnels in the stems that

may kill the plant. On older plants,

stem tunneling may cause lodging

and panicle damage due to

disruption of the vascular system,

which prevents grain formation.

Timely sowing should be done.

Field sanitation, rogueing (removing plants with

undesirable characteristics from agricultural fields)

Destroy the alternate host plants

Soil test based application of manures and fertilizers.

Adoption of crop rotation.

Sowing of healthy, disease free and certified seeds

Uproot and burn infected plants early enough to avoid

spread of the disease.

Avoid high plant populations

Growing attractant, repellent, and trap crops around the

field bunds

Before rainfall apply aqueous neem extracts or neem

powder applied before rainfall

Harvest before development of third generation larvae

Use water-based pheromone trap for adults

Plant resistant varieties

before the larvae bore

into the stem of the plant

Sorghum shoot fly

(Atherigona soccata)

Females lay single cigar-shaped eggs

on the undersides of leaves at the 1-

to 7-leaf stage. The eggs hatch after

only a day or two of incubation, and

the larvae cut the growing point of

the leaf, resulting in wilting and

Conserve natural enemies. Parasitic wasps and several

species of spiders are important predators on eggs.

Collect and destroy crop residues after harvest to reduce

carry-over from one season to the other.

Neem extract where

available





NEEDED

drying. These leaves, known as

'deadhearts', are easily plucked.

When a "dead heart" is plucked, it

releases unpleasant odor. Larvae also

bore into the heart of the young

shoot of seedlings killing the growing

points.

Use shoot-fly resistant varieties, if available. Intercropping

with leguminous crops reduces damage

Grasshoppers

(Several species of

grasshoppers attack

millets Short-horned

grasshoppers include

Zonocerus spp,

Oedaleus

senegalensis,

Kraussaria angulifera,

Hieroglyphus

daganensis,

Diabolocantatops

axillaris among

others)

Grasshoppers defoliate and eat the

panicles. They are not of economic

importance when present in low

numbers. However, invasion by a

swarm of grasshoppers may result in

serious grain losses.

Locusts are the swarming phase of

certain species of short-horned

grasshoppers in the family Acrididae.

Under suitable conditions of drought

followed by rapid vegetation growth,

they become swarms causing great

economic damage.

Conserve natural enemies. Important natural enemies

include ants, larvae of blister beetles, parasitic flies,

assassin bugs, predatory wasps, birds, lizards, snakes,

frogs, and fungi. Robber flies are also major predator of

grasshoppers.

Domesticated poultry and wild birds are good for

keeping grasshopper populations in check. However,

enclose the birds in wire fencing along the perimeter to

avoid damage to the crop.

Ensure the ground is covered with crops, grass or mulch.

This is reported to reduce grasshopper numbers since

they prefer laying eggs on bare soil.

Dig or cultivate the land before planting to expose the

eggs to predators and to the weather.

Deltamethrin

Lambda-cyhalothrin

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swarm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grasshopper

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrididae

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drought





NEEDED

Neem extracts act as antifeedant (grasshoppers stop

feeding when exposed to neem products) and affect

development of grasshoppers

IITA (the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture)

researchers and partners have developed an

environmental friendly biopesticide Metarhizium

anisopliae var. acridum "Green Muscle" for control of

grasshoppers and locusts (www.iita.org).

Ergot (Claviceps spp.)

Ergot or ergot fungi

refers to a group of

fungi of the genus

Claviceps.

Cream to pink sticky "honeydew"

droplets ooze out of infected florets

on panicles. Within 10 to 15 days, the

droplets dry and harden, and dark

brown to black sclerotia (fungal

fruiting bodies) develop in place of

seeds on the panicle. Sclerotia are

larger than seed and irregularly

shaped, and generally get mixed with

the grain during threshing.

The sclerotia falling on the soil or

planted with the seed germinate

Plant resistant varieties, where available.

Remove affected panicles.

Avoid planting seeds from infected panicles.

Plough deep.

Rotate with non-cereals preferably with pulses.

Practice good field sanitation

No chemical methods





NEEDED

when the plants are flowering. They

produce spores that are wind-borne

to the flowers, where they invade the

young kernels and replace the

kernels with fungal growth. The

fungal growth bears millions of tiny

spores in a sticky, sweet, honeydew

mass. These spores are carried by

insects or splashed by rain to infect

other kernels.

Downy mildew

(Sclerospora

graminicola,

Plasmopara penniseti)

Disease of the foliage

caused by a fungus-

like (Oomycete)

organism

Pale, chlorotic, broad streaks

extending from base to tip of leaves.

At the advancement of disease, the

leaf streaks turn brown and the

leaves become shredded

longitudinally. In severe infection, the

downy fungal growth can be seen on

the upper as well as lower surface of

the leaves. The rapid growth of

fungal pathogen is favored by rainy

and humid environment. The infected

plants fail to form ear but if formed,

they are malformed to green leafy

Use tolerant varieties available in country

Plant in a row of 15 inches to 24 inches. Seed may be

placed about 6 inches apart within the row.

The seed should be planted shallow, about half inch deep

at the rate of 2 Kg/acre

Maintain good fertility levels, apply adequate organic

manure

Use Metalaxyl treated

seed

Broadcast application for

some pathogens





NEEDED

structures. The complete ear can be

transformed into leafy structure. The

fungal pathogen transformed all

floral parts such as glumes, palea,

stamens and pistils into green linear

leafy structures of variable lengths.

As the disease advances, the

malformed floral structures of ears

become brown and dry.

Kernel smut

Fungal disease

(Ustilago crameri and

Sporisorium

neglectum)

Immature, green sori larger than the

seed develop on panicles during

grain filling stage.

A single sorus develops per floret.

As grain matures, sori change in color

from bright green to dark brown.

Sori are filled with dark teliospores.

Plant resistant varieties, if available.

Rotate with non-cereals.

Plough deep

Practice good field sanitation

Chemical control

measures are neither

economical nor feasible at

the farmers' level.

Birds

Culumbidae (several

species)

Birds peck away at the exposed seed

on the grain head and in large

enough numbers can eat the entire

crop

keeping pearl millet fields away from tree lines or woods

if possible

Family labor at the time of grain filling stay in field to

scare off birds

Use effigies and scarecrows in the field

Destroy nesting sites within the vicinity

No chemical control

recommended





NEEDED

Reflecting tape in the field

Bird repellant

MAIZE

TABLE A.2. MAIZE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN

PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION MEASURES RECOMMENDED

PESTICIDES, WHEN

NEEDED

Striga (Purple witch

weed, Striga spp)

Tap the roots of maize

plant and draw water and

nutrients

Stunting of plants and

yield loss

Weeding regularly but is labor intensive

Rotate maize with trap crop

Intercrop maize with “Striga chaser” Celosia

Inter crop with legumes like cowpea and pigeon pea – can cause

suicidal germination of Striga seed

Intercrop with Desmodium to reduce seed bank of Striga in the soil

(push and pull)

Use resistant varieties

Boost plant health through manure/fertilizes application

2,4-D




PESTICIDES, WHEN

NEEDED

Use seeds that are free of Striga seeds (avoid using seeds from the

previous harvest if the crop was infested with Striga)

Grass and broad

leaf weeds

Compete for water and

nutrients

Post-emergent controls

Thorough land preparation

Hand hoe

Weeding

Post-emergent spray if previous crop was weedy

Nicosulfuron

Perennial weeds Compete for water and

nutrients

Pre-plant or pre-emergence spray

Herbicide post- emergence weed control

Glyphosate (most effective

if applied from time of

flowering when the plant's

energy system shifts to

developing roots)

Borers

Maize Stalk Borer

(aka African Stalk

Borer)

(Busseola fusca)

Pink Stem Borer

(Sesamia calamistis)

African sugarcane

borer

(E. saccharina)

Young plants have

pinholes in straight lines

across the newest leaves.

Borers tunnel stalks to

inhibit nutrient and water

flow. Their feeding causes

ears to break off

Conserve natural enemies. Parasitic wasps and predatory ants are

important in natural control of stemborers.

Destroy crop residues to kill pupae left in old stems and stubble and

prevent carry-over populations. This helps in limiting initial

establishment of stemborers on the following season's crops.

Intercrop maize with crops that are non-hosts for stemborers (e.g.

cassava and grain legumes)

Intercrop maize with a repellent plant such as Desmodium and plant

an attractive trap plant, such as Napier grass, as a border crop around

Apply Imidacloprid or

Thiamethoxam to seed or

growing plant, or apply

Acetamiprid to the plant

(but only when plants are

in vegetative state, not

when flowering due to risk

to pollinators and

http://www.infonet-biovision.org/lexicon/natural-enemies

http://www.infonet-biovision.org/lexicon/predator

http://www.infonet-biovision.org/lexicon/border-crop




PESTICIDES, WHEN

NEEDED

this intercrop to protect maize from stemborers. This technology is

known as "push-pull".

Use neem products. Simple neem products are reported to be effective

for control of stemborers.

honeybee colony collapse

disorder).

Lambda-Cyhalothrin

Termites

(Microtermes spp.,

Macrotermes spp.,

Allodontermes spp.,

and Odontotermes

spp)

Attack roots and stems

of young seedlings

and mature plants

Deep plowing

Dig out queen and destroy

Grinding fish bones and placing dry meal underground to attract ants

that reduce termites

Use of dressed seed

Use bio-pesticides

Intercropping with legumes

Fipronil

Imidacloprid

African bollworm

(Helicoverpa

armigera) aka

Earworm and

Cornworm

Attack mainly the

developing cobs,

although they may

occasionally feed in the

leaf whorl or on tender

tassels. Eggs are laid on

the silks. Caterpillars

invade the cobs and feed

on developing grain.

Development of

Conserve natural enemies. Parasitic wasps, ants and predatory bugs

are important in natural control of the African bollworm.

Monitor the crop regularly.

Use bio-pesticides. Plant extracts (e.g. neem, garlic, chili,) and Bt are

reportedly effective against the African bollworms. However, timing of

application is very important. Spraying when caterpillars are inside the

cob would be ineffective.

Handpick and destroy pod borers. This helps when their numbers are

low and in small fields.

Use neem where available

Bt




PESTICIDES, WHEN

NEEDED

secondary infections is

common. Local outbreaks

of this pest are

sometimes severe.

Cutworms (Agrotis

spp. and other

species)

Sever seedlings,

defoliate and reduce

photosynthetic surface

area

Early planting

Deep plowing to expose worms

Conserve natural enemies

Apply insecticide poisoned bait when larvae first seen in economic

numbers

Neem

Leaf extracts of Lantana

All lantana should be

treated as poisonous to

livestock

Extract of Rumex

nepalensis

Grasshoppers and

locusts

Grasshoppers and locust

attack maize from the

mid-whorl stage to

maturity, and may

consume every part of the

plants. Attacks vary in

severity from location to

location.

Conserve natural enemies. Avoid destroying larvae of blister beetles,

since they feed on eggs of grasshoppers. Other natural enemies

include ants, parasitic flies, assassin bugs, predatory wasps, birds,

lizards, snakes, frogs, and fungi. Robber flies are a major predator of

grasshoppers.

Domesticated poultry (e.g. chickens, turkeys, guinea fowl, geese, and

ducks) and wild birds are good for keeping grasshopper populations in

check. However, birds may damage the plants too. To avoid this,

enclose the birds in wire fencing along the perimeter so that they can

prey on visiting grasshoppers while staying out of the crop.

Ensure the ground is covered with crops, grass or mulch. This is

reported to reduce grasshopper numbers since they prefer laying eggs

on bare soil.

Deltamethrin

Lambda-Cyhalothrin




PESTICIDES, WHEN

NEEDED

Catch grasshoppers by hand or with a butterfly net. Catching them in

the early morning is easier, as they are less active in the mornings.

Dig or cultivate the land before planting to expose the eggs to

predators and to the sun.

Whenever necessary spray biopesticides. Neem extracts act as

antifeedant (grasshoppers stop feeding when exposed to neem

products) and affect development of grasshoppers.

Maize streak virus

(MSV)

White to yellowish

streaking on the leaves.

The streaks are very

narrow, more or less

broken and run parallel

along the leaves.

The virus is transmitted

by leafhoppers

(Cicadulina mbila and C.

bipunctella zeae). Maize

streak virus is a serious

constraint to maize

production in sub-

Saharan Africa. The

reduction in yields

Use of tolerant, resistant varieties if available.

Plant early in the season.

Eradicate grass weeds.

Eradicate control vectors such as leafhoppers

Pesticides such as

Imidacloprid and

Thiamethoxam can be

used for control of vectors,

but have been found not

to be economical for

control of disease




PESTICIDES, WHEN

NEEDED

depends on the time of

infection. Plants infected

at early stage usually do

not produce any cobs.

Angoumois grain

moth (Sitotroga

cerealella)

The larvae of the

Angoumois grain moth

penetrate and feed inside

maize grain. This insect

may also infest the crop

in the field prior to

harvest. The moths are

small yellowish or straw-

colored. The larvae are

whitish. The larvae

prepare a round exit hole

for the moth, leaving the

outer seed wall only

partially cut as a flap over

the hole, resembling a

trap door. The adult

pushes its way out

through this "window"

leaving the trap door

Practice good warehousing hygiene. Ensure proper monitoring and

record keeping. All residual pockets of infestation should be cleaned

out at the end of the storage season. This is important to minimize re-

infestation of the new crop.

Store old and new lots separately.

Do not leave maize in the field after drying, this increases the chances

of infestation.

Whenever possible separate stores from fields. The grain moths are

good flyers and adults from infested stores often infest growing maize

in the field.

Keep the temperature and humidity as low as possible. There are

indications that storing grain in a dry place can reduce infestation.

Prevent pest entry by sealing the store (windows, doors, ventilation

facilities) with insect-proof gauze. Hermetic storage at low humidity

gives good levels of control. Periodically inspect and remove any

infested maize.

Insecticide treatments with

Pirimiphos-methyl

Fumigation with Aluminum

Phosphide

Professional fumigators

only can use these

pesticides.

Refer to

http://www.usaidgems.org

/fumigationpea.htm






PESTICIDES, WHEN

NEEDED

hinged to the grain.

Infested grains can be

recognized by the

presence of these small

windows.

Lesser grain borer

(Rhizopertha

dominica), and

Larger grain borer

(Prostephanus

truncatus).

Both the adults and the

larvae (grubs) of these

beetles feed in the grains.

Adults come from

infested cobs in the field

or from an infested maize

store and lay eggs in the

grains. They attack maize

both in the field and after

harvest. Attacked maize

grains lose all their

contents and are not fit to

eat. These pests become

a serious problem in short

time if no control

measures are applied.

Maize is often left in the field until the moisture content of the grain

has fallen to 15-20%, though this can lead to attack by grain borers in

the covered cobs.

Practice good warehousing hygiene. Ensure proper monitoring and

record keeping. All residual pockets of infestation should be cleaned

out at the end of the storage season. This is important to minimize re-

infestation.

Store old and new lots separately.

Do not leave maize in the field after drying, this increases the chances

of infestation.

Whenever possible separate stores from fields. The grain moths are

good flyers and adults from infested stores often infest growing maize

in the field.

Keep the temperature and humidity as low as possible. There are

indications that storing grain in a dry place can reduce infestation.

Prevent pest entry by sealing the store (windows, doors, ventilation

facilities) with insect-proof gauze. Hermetic storage at low humidity

Professional fumigators

only can conduct standard

fumigation with Aluminum

Phosphide

Refer to


/fumigationpea.htm






PESTICIDES, WHEN

NEEDED

gives good levels of control. Periodically inspect and remove any

infested maize.

Maize weevil

(Sitophilus zeamais)

Both adults and larvae

feed on internally on

maize grains and an

infestation can start in the

field (when the cob is still

on the plant) but most

damage occurs in

storage.

Because the maize weevil larvae develop inside the grain it is difficult

to detect the pest by visual inspection unless its numbers are very high

The severity of a maize weevil infestation can be reduced by good

store hygiene: cleaning the store between harvests, removing and

burning infested residues, fumigating the store to eliminate residual

infestations and the selection of only uninfested material for storage.

Harvesting the maize as soon as possible after it has reached maturity

will reduce the chances of attack by maize weevil and other storage

pests. The use of resistant cultivars may also reduce the severity of an

infestation.

The removal of adult insects from the grain by sieving can reduce

populations but this is very labor-intensive. The addition of inert dusts

such as ash and clay to the grain can reduce insect numbers by

causing the insects to die from desiccation.

. The bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis can be used43.

Black pepper, bay leaves and cloves are reported to deter some weevil

spp.

If needed, can use

synthetic insecticide

powders or dusts

containing Pirimiphos-

methyl

Alluminum Phosphide can

be used only by trained

professional fumigators.

Refer to


/fumigationpea.htm

Diatomaceous earth

43 http://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/v3/eafrinet/maize_pests/key/maize_pests/Media/Html/Sitophilus_zeamais_Motschulsky_1855_-_Maize_Weevil.htm

http://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/v3/eafrinet/maize_pests/key/maize_pests/Media/Html/glossary.htm#Larvae

http://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/v3/eafrinet/maize_pests/key/maize_pests/Media/Html/glossary.htm#Larvae



http://keys.lucidcentral.org/keys/v3/eafrinet/maize_pests/key/maize_pests/Media/Html/Sitophilus_zeamais_Motschulsky_1855_-_Maize_Weevil.htm


RICE

TABLE A.3. RICE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN


PESTICIDES, WHEN

NEEDED

Weeds and Grasses

Wild rice, Oryza

barthii and O.

longistaminata, are

among the most

important weeds in

West Africa and Sahel

Common weeds

include grasses,

grass-like and

broadleaf weeds

Decrease yields by direct

competition for sunlight,

nutrients, and water

Increase production costs e.g.,

higher labour or input costs

Reduce grain quality and price,

for example, weed seeds in

grain can cause the buyer

price to be reduced.

Plowing destroys weeds and remaining stubble from the

previous crop. Weeds should be allowed to grow before the next

cultivation. In addition, a level field helps retain a constant water

level that controls weeds.

When used as mulches, crop residues can help conserve soil

moisture, improve soil fertility, and control weeds, especially in

direct seeded systems.

Weed control is critical after planting until the canopy closes.

Control methods vary depending on the rice ecosystem and

planting method: for transplanted, wet seeded and dry seeded

rice

Direct control of weeds can be done through (1) manual weeding

by hand and (2) mechanical weeding using implements such as

push weeder and inter-row cultivation weeders.44

Chemical weed control options

Type to use will depend

on the type of rice and

type of grasses

African gall midge

(Orseolia oryzivora)

Gall midges can cause serious

damage from the seedling

stage to panicle initiation.

Attacked tillers do not

Destroy alternative host plants such as rice ratoon crop,

volunteers and wild red rice or longstamen rice (Oryza

longistaminata).

Destroy stubble after harvest

In general, insecticide

treatment for rice gall

midge is ineffective.

44 http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/step-by-step-production/growth/weed-management

http://www.infonet-biovision.org/content/rice#overlay=node/27557/edit


http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/step-by-step-production/growth/weed-management




PESTICIDES, WHEN

NEEDED

produce panicles. Galled

plants may tiller profusely to

compensate for loss of

growing points. A serious

attack results in stunted plant

growth and poor yields. Gall

midges do not attack rice

plants that have matured

beyond tillering stage. These

midges spent some

generations on wild grasses

and then move to attack

young rice plants. They are

pests during the rainy season,

and are most serious on rain-

fed lowland and irrigated rice.

Plant resistant and early maturing varieties.

Avoid close spacing since it provides a suitable micro-

environment for the survival of this pest.

Conserve natural enemies. Parasitic wasps (Aprostocetus procerae

and Platygaster diplosisae) are very important in the natural

control of the African rice gall midge. These wasps provided an

important check to pest populations, especially late in the

season. However, the wasp populations usually build up too late

to prevent heavy gall midge infestation.

Habitat manipulation such as dry-season cultivation to

encourage Paspalum grass (Paspalum scrobiculatum) abundance

early in the wet season is suggested as a way of improving the

natural biological control of the rice gall midge.

Rice-sucking bugs,

stink bugs (Aspavia

spp, Nezera viridula),

and Alydid bugs

(Mirperus spp.and

Riptortus spp.)

Both nymphs and adult bugs

feed sucking rice grains in the

milky stage. When grains have

ripened the bugs feed on

panicle stalks and pedicels.

Riptortus bugs also feed on

hard dough rice grains. Bug

If necessary, spray plant extracts. A number of plants ( garlic, ,

African marigold, blackjack, goat weed, wormseed, among

others) are reported as effective against various species of bugs

Can use Imidacloprid

products


http://www.infonet-biovision.org/lexicon/habitat










PESTICIDES, WHEN

NEEDED

feeding causes pecky rice that

is partially or wholly stained

due to infections with bacteria

and fungi. The glumes change

color first to light brown, then

darker and may turn grey in

severe cases. Damage grains

are shriveled and unfilled.

Severity of the damage

depends on the stage of grain

development and on the

number of punctures in the

grain.

Stemborers

Striped borer (Chilo

partellus, Chilo

zacconius, Chilo

orichalcociliellus)

White rice borer

(Maliarpha

separatella)

The caterpillars bore into the

stem of rice plants. Caterpillars

of the yellow borer bore into

the stem below the growing

point, destroying tillers. The

white borer and the pink

stemborer attack rice at full

tillering stage preventing

grains from filling up and

ripening. This damage results

Practice field sanitation. Burn or feed debris to livestock after

harvest.

Plough and flood after harvest. These practices destroy

diapausing stemborer caterpillars.

Use natural extracts of neem and chili peppers.

Practice early and synchronized planting. Synchronized planting

over a large area allows the most susceptible stage of rice to

escape from stemborer damage.

Practice proper water management.

Chemical control of stem

borers is generally not

recommended as stem

borers are quite difficult

to control with

insecticides

Can use available

Permethrin products

http://www.infonet-biovision.org/lexicon/fungi





PESTICIDES, WHEN

NEEDED

Yellow borer

(Scirpophaga sp.)

Pink stemborer

(Sesamia calamistis).

in empty panicles known as

"whiteheads". The striped

borer feed on rice plants at all

stages. Young caterpillars

cause "dead hearts".

Conserve natural enemies. Wasps that parasitize eggs and

caterpillars, and predators such as ants, dragonflies, assassin

bugs, carabid beetles and spiders are important natural enemies

of stemborers.


Stalk-eyed shoot

flies (Diopsis spp.)

The whitish maggots that

hatch from the eggs penetrate

into the growing zone (heart)

of the plant. As a result of

maggot feeding the central

whorl does not open, but

dries-up and dies, producing

what is commonly known as

"dead heart".

Practise early and synchronised planting.

Proper plant spacing. There are indications that damage increase

with an increases in plant density (

Apply calcium silicate to strengthen stem tissues.

Avoid panicle harvesting (leaving tall stems) and destroy stubbles

after harvest.

Water management: keep basis of stems always under water.

Conserve natural enemies. Spiders are the main natural enemies

of these flies.

The cultivars "WAB 1159-2-12-11-6-9-1-2" has been reported in

Uganda to trap Diopsis thoracica larvae with their highly hairy

leaves (WARDA).

Cypermethrin,

Deltamethrin

Lambda-cyhalothrin

Insecticide use may not be

economical; yield loss

only occurs when damage

reaches more than

50%, which rarely occurs

Termites

(Microtermes spp.,

Ancistrotermes spp.,

Trinervitermes spp.,

Termites may cause serious

damage during dry periods.

They may also occur in

lowland areas in light texture

Plant resistant varieties whenever available. "

Use neem with detergent.

Imidacloprid is one of

non-repellents slow-

acting materials that allow

foragers to carry the

product back to the nest


http://www.infonet-biovision.org/lexicon/predator







PESTICIDES, WHEN

NEEDED

Macrotermes spp., and

Odontotermes spp.).

soils. They generally attack

plants in their later growth

stage by hollowing out their

root system and filling it with

soil resulting in the lodging of

the rice plants. The attacked

plants are then predisposed to

further damage by ground-

dwelling pests such as

rodents, ants, and secondary

infection by fungi and

bacteria. Damaged plants can

easily be pulled up by hand

because the roots are severed.

The application of red palm oil mixed with pawpaw is an

indigenous control practice.

and effectively control the

entire colony

Fipronil

The case worm

(Nymphula

depunctalis -

Paraponyx stagnalis)

The case worm is a common

pest on wetland rice. The

caterpillar attacks the food

plant only in the vegetative

stage, during the first 4 weeks

after transplanting. The

caterpillars climb onto a leaf

and begin feeding by

scrapping the leaf surface

Practice field sanitation (burning debris or feeding of debris to

livestock after harvest).

Practice early and synchronized planting.

Proper plant density.

Practice proper water management. Ensure good drainage for 3

days, since larvae cannot survive without water.

Hand pick and destroy rolled leaves in the nursery

Insecticides are not

commonly used

http://www.infonet-biovision.org/lexicon/fungi





http://www.infonet-biovision.org/lexicon/transplanting




PESTICIDES, WHEN

NEEDED

causing linear grazing of

leaves giving the leaf tissue a

ladder-like appearance. Later

caterpillars cut a piece of rice

leaf, roll it up into a case and

seal the edges with silk

material leaving the interior

end open. The cut near the tip

of a leaf is characteristic.

Hispid beetles

(Trichispa spp.,

Dicladispa

viridicyanea,

Dactylispa bayoni)

The beetles cause severe

defoliation and act as vectors

of the Rice Yellow Mottle

Virus. Hispid beetles attack the

crop in the early growth

stages. Larval feeding occurs

during the tillering stage. The

first attack in a field is highly

localized, but the infested area

spreads rapidly.

Feeding by adults on the

leaves causes characteristic

narrow white streaks or

Use close proper spacing.

Keep bunds and surroundings free of grass weeds.

Destroy stubbles and avoid ratooning.

Ensure balanced nutrition. Avoid excessive nitrogen application.

Lambda-Cyhalothrin




PESTICIDES, WHEN

NEEDED

feeding scars that run along

the long axis of the leaf.

Mining by grubs within the

leaf shows as irregular pale

brown blister-like patches.

Feeding results in loss of

chlorophyll and the plants

wither and die. The most

serious damage occurs in

nurseries, which may be

completely destroyed. Severe

infestations sporadically occur

on transplanted rice and can

kill the plant. When the plants

survive, they usually

recuperate and produce some

grain. However, damaged

plants often mature late. They

are generally most abundant

during the rainy season.




PESTICIDES, WHEN

NEEDED

Rice Yellow Mottle

Virus (RYMV)

Stunting of rice plants

Reduced tillers

Yellowing and mottling of

leaves

Infected plants easily attacked

by other diseases

Use resistant/tolerant varieties NERICA 4 and 6, NARIC 1 and 2

Rouging infected plants only when infestation is low

Do not ratoon crop to avoid disease carryover

Vector control

Can use synthetic

insecticides containing

pyrethroids like

Deltamethrin to control

the flea beetle vector.

A preventive seed

treatment with

Thiamethoxam

Rice blast –Leaf and

Neck blast

Pyricularia oryzae

Magnaporthe grisea

Most destructive

Removes photosynthetic

tissue from leaves, stems and

gains

Reduces yield by up to 50% or

more

Resistant varieties like Gold

Avoid excess nitrogen fertilizer

Fungicides may not be economic to use

Use application of

synthetic fungicides

containing

Mefenoxam, Mancozeb,

Difenoconozole where

cost effective.

Sheath Blight

Rhizoctonia solani (Teleomorph:

Reduced photosynthetic areas

Leaves die

Yield reducti on by 20-25%

No variety has a high level of resistance

Do not apply excessive nitrogen

Fungicides usually not economical and not recommended

Use available fungicides

such as Thiophanate-

methyl,






PESTICIDES, WHEN

NEEDED

Thanatephorus

cucumeris)

For this disease, recommendations should include 1) provide

wider plant spacing 2) drain fields relatively early

Brown spot

Helminthosporium

oryzae

Sexual stage:

Cochliobolus

miyabeanus

Reduced photosynthetic area

Reduced grain weight and

quality

Provide adequate fertilizer

Resistant varieties

Hot water treatment of seed

Seed treatment with

Thiram, spray Mancozeb

Leaf scald

Monographella

albescens

Reduced photosynthetic area

Lowers filled grain ratio and

grain quality

Avoid excess nitrogen fertilizer Use Mancozeb products

http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/e

xpert_system/paddy/cpdis

brownspot.html

Sheath rot

Sarocladium oryzae

Loss of photosynthetic area on

the uppermost leaf sheaths

enclosing panicle

Panicle remains in sheath

No control known None available




PESTICIDES, WHEN

NEEDED

Associated with insect

injured plants and

viral infection

Lowers filled grain ratio and

grain quality

Bacterial panicle

blight

(Burkholderia glumae)

Seed transmitted

disease

Spikelet lose green color and

become white then brown

Lowers grain quality and

weight

No resistant variety

Use of fungicides not economical

Use certified disease free seed

No chemical control

agents are labeled to

control bacterial panicle

blight.

False smut

Claviceps virens also

Infects a few single grains in a

panicle

Leave out infected panicles during harvest

Dress seed with fungicide when appropriate

Fungicides are generally

not used for most smuts.

Birds

Qealea spp

Ploceus spp

Starlings

Swarm into crop at

Milky and grain filling stage

and remove grains

Family labor at the time of grain filling stay in field to scare off

birds

Use effigies and scarecrows in the field

Trap cropping with maize or

Sorghum

Destroy nesting sites within the vicinity

Reflecting tape in the field

Artisanal bird repellant

Resistant variety with awns (NERICA 10)

Chemicals not

recommended




PESTICIDES, WHEN

NEEDED

Field rats (Miridae

spp.)

Cut tillers and feed on grains Clear bushes around the fields

Destroy burrows

Preserve predators of rats e.g. mongooses, owls etc.

If mole rats, plant Tephrosia vogelii around the field (this plant is

toxic to fish)

Use traps set carefully in the field

Chemicals not

recommended

LEGUMES/PULSES – GROUNDNUTS, COWPEAS, BEANS, SOYBEANS

TABLE A.4. LEGUMES/PULSES - GROUNDNUTS, COWPEAS, BEANS, SOYBEANS INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN

PEST DAMAGE DONE INTEGRATED PEST MANAGMENET AND PRODUCTION

MEASURES

RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,

WHEN NEEDED

Aphids

(Aphis craccivora)

(Aphis fabae (bean

aphids))

(Aphis glycines)

The damage done by aphids is

due to a number of causes,

including loss of sap, clogging

of leaf surfaces with

honeydew, and growth of

molds and fungi on the

honeydew.

Aphids can transmit viruses

Many larger insects feed on aphids. Protect natural

enemies such as lady beetles, lacewings, bigeyed bugs,

damsel bugs, and syrphid flies where available, prevent

symbiotic ants

Use insect resistant varieties

Check plants regularly for aphids—at least twice a week

when plants are growing rapidly

Prune out infested crop and dispose of safely.

Wash off aphids with a strong stream of water with

insecticidal soap and garlic oil if plants are strong

Don’t over-fertilize, use slow release fertilizers

Use sprays: Acetamiprid,

Imidacloprid, Dimethoate

Cypermethrin

Insecticidal Soap,

Diatomaceous Earth, Neem




MEASURES


WHEN NEEDED

Grow plant under natural cover until they are strong

enough

Bruchid weevils

Callosobruchus

maculatus (Fabricius)

Damage in fields as well as dry

seed in storage

Producing tunneling injuries

Solarization (sun drying and heating) can be used to

control infestations without affecting seed germination

Treating seed at intake is effective in minimizing bruchid

damage in storage

Thorough pre-harvest cleaning of storage, transport and

harvesting equipment is critical for the management of

bruchids.

Thiamethoxam

Lambda-Cyhalothrin

Professional fumigators only

can fumigate with Aluminum

Phosphide

Refer to

http://www.usaidgems.org/f

umigationpea.htm

Maruca pod borer

Maruca vitrata

Pod borers

Maruca pod borer is a post

flowering pest that feeds on

every part of the cowpea plant

Cowpea cultivars resistant to stem damage have been

identified.

Removing leguminous weeds,

Trap cropping with Crotalaria spp., a genus of herbaceous

plants and woody shrubs in the Family Fabaceae

commonly known as rattlepods

Intercropping with sorghum, maize, pearl millet or finger

millet, mung beans reduced pod damage in main crop.

Pheromone traps were found effective in some locations

but not others

Neem Seed kernel extract

(NSKE), Neem Oil

Thrips

Megalurothrips

sjostedti

Premature dropping of flowers Field inspection during active growth


Planting site sanitation

Field inspection during active growth

Cypermethrin

Dimethoate






MEASURES


WHEN NEEDED

Removal of infested residues after harvest

Selection of pest free seeds after threshing for storage, dry

seed inspection

Mosaic virus Transmitted by various beetles

with biting mouthparts

Use of resistant cultivars offers the best means of disease

control. Cowpea lines with resistance to multiple viruses

including CPMV have been developed at the International

Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA).

Because of the small plots used

for cowpea growing and the

extreme prevalence of the beetle

vector, the use of insecticides for

vector control is not practicable.

Fusarium dry rot

Fusarium solani f.

phaseoli

Dry root rot caused by the

fungus directly affects only the

roots of the plants; however,

the parts above ground are

stunted and may turn yellow,

wilt, and die before the plants

mature.

Pathogen is not seed-borne, but is a soil organism,

therefore correct disposal of the bean straw and long

rotations are recommended (at least 3 years)

Avoid injury to the root system including with herbicides

Remove crop debris immediately after harvest

Beans should be planted only on well-drained, well-

fertilized soil

Plant beans on raised beds

Avoiding stress caused by excess water, prolonged

drought, soil compaction

Avoid dense plant population

No cost-effective chemicals for

dry rot Fusarium control




MEASURES


WHEN NEEDED

Anthracnose

A number of related

fungi are responsible

for anthracnose. Most

anthracnose causing

fungi are fairly host

specific;

Seedlings grown from infected

seeds often have dark brown

to black sunken lesions on the

cotyledons and stems

Using anthracnose-free and certified seed

Since the fungus is disseminated in the presence of water,

fields should not be entered for cultivation or pesticide

applications when the plants are wet. Avoiding

unnecessary movement in infested fields will minimize the

spread of the disease.

Two-year crop rotation

Plow debris deep into the soil

Foliar fungicides are not

considered economical

Research also suggests

management of Anthracnose in

common bean by foliar sprays of

Potassium Silicate (KSi), and/or

Sodium Molybdate (NaMo), and

fungicide such as Mancozeb can

be effective.45

Cutworm

Larval noctuid moth

Loxagrotis albicosta

and others

Cutworms are the larvae

(caterpillars) of several species

of night-flying moths. The

larvae are called cutworms

because they cut down young

plants as they feed on stems at

or below the soil surface.

Regular inspections, control is more effective when the

larvae are small

Remove weeds and plant residue to help reduce egg-

laying sites and seedling weeds that nourish small

cutworms

Till before planting which helps expose and kill

overwintering larvae. Tilling also removes plant residue,

which helps to discourage egg laying.

Avoid using fresh manure, use compost instead

Lambda-cyhalothrin

Nematodes Nematode injury can involve

both aboveground and below

ground plant parts.


Crop rotation with plants that are poor host for

nematodes, sorghum is often recommended as a cover

crop to decrease population levels of root-knot

nematodes

Neem cake

45 (APS Journal; January 2014, Volume 98, Number 1, Pages 84-89)




MEASURES


WHEN NEEDED

Foliar symptoms of nematode

infestation of roots generally

involve stunting, premature

wilting, and slow recovery to

improved soil moisture

conditions, leaf chlorosis

(yellowing) and other

symptoms characteristic of

nutrient deficiency.

Root damage can cause

infected plants to form a tight

mat of short roots swollen

appearance

Nematode management is primarily a pre-planting activity

Planting equipment and tools should be properly cleaned,

and in extreme cases could only be used for the same field

Only soil and planting material free of nematodes should

be used, because once nematodes are introduced into a

field they cannot be eradicated

After harvest infected plants should be destroyed to

prevent the build-up of nematodes on these crop residues

and therefore in the soil

Leaf - feeding

beetles and

caterpillars

Beetles most likely to be

Systates snout beetle which

cut semicircular holes in leaf

edges. Emerge about 6 weeks

after first soaking rains.

Unlikely to cause severe

damage.

Caterpillars likely to be semi-

loopers (Trichoplusia and

Chrysodeixis spp.) feeding on

leaves and bollworm,

Helicoverpa

armigera, feeding on buds/

flowers

Early detection and removal

Conservation of natural enemies, general predators

including birds, assassin bugs, lacewings, predaceous

ground beetles, and spiders

Beetles: Dimethoate

Caterpillar control: Bifenthrin

Permethrin




MEASURES


WHEN NEEDED

Termites

Macrotermes spp.

Mound and chimney

builders

Odontotermes spp.

Attack and invade growing

groundnut plants through the

roots and stem near ground

level, hollowing them out and

causing the plants to wilt and

die with a consequent

reduction in crop stand

allowing contamination of the

seed with soil fungi, such as

Aspergillus flavus, which

produce lethal "aflatoxins".

Macrotermes spp. – mound and chimney builders

Odontotermes spp. - subterranean termites which do not build

any above ground structure

Ancistrotermes latinotus and Microtermes spp.— these are the

most important termite pests of crops.

Remove residues of previous cereal crops (sorghum,

millet and maize). Plant residues left in the field serve

as food for termites, which may infest the new crop.

Termite infestation of 100% has been observed in

groundnut crops with high plant residues.

Planting should be carried out early enough to avoid

drought periods. Moisture deficiency may stress a

crop and lead to attack by termites due to low vigor.

Harvest promptly. Research has shown that termite

damage increases with delay in harvest. Furthermore,

most groundnut-producing areas in sub-Saharan

Africa experience drought and high temperatures

during the later part of the growing season, conditions

that favor termite infestation as well as fungus (A.

flavus) infection of pods leading to aflatoxin formation

in seeds.

The complete destruction of mounds and removal of

queen termites are effective control measures against

mound-building species (Macrotermes spp.). Partial

destruction of mounds is unlikely to solve the

Mound –drill hole into side and

pour in diluted Fipronil, then seal

with mud.

Chimney –pour diluted Fipronil

down chimney and seal with mud.

Incorporate Fipronil into the soil

before planting.

Imidacloprid as used for maize

may be effective

http://www.infonet-biovision.org/taxonomy/term/391





MEASURES


WHEN NEEDED

problem, since replacement reproduction may

develop from the remaining termites.

It has been reported that close spacing in groundnut helps to

deter termite infestation, although the reason for this was not

given. However, high density sowing, followed by thinning of

surviving plants where necessary to reduce competition,

offsets anticipated losses due to termites.46

46

http://www.infonet-biovision.org/PlantHealth/Crops/Groundnut


TUBERS

TABLE A.5. TUBERS (YAMS, SWEET POTATOES, CASSAVA, IRISH POTATO) INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN


MEASURES


WHEN NEEDED

Cassava Green Mite

Mononychellus

tanajoa

Severely reduce yields by

reducing the leaves and

lowering the photosynthetic

activity of the plant

Using clean planting material, planting early in the rain season

and intercropping with pigeon pea, can reduce populations of

the pest.

Not recommended as may not

be effective or economic

Weevils

Cylas spp

Female weevils excavate

cavities and create egg-laying

punctures. The eggs are laid

below the surface of the roots

and are covered with dark

color.

Hatched larvae are tunneling

inside tubers. Mining of sweet

potato tubers by larvae is the

principal cause of sweet potato

damage. The tuber becomes

spongy in appearance, riddled

with cavities, and dark in color

Intercropping with maize, yam, cowpea, other crops

Crop rotation

Elimination of crop residues

Deter infestation by preventing soil cracking, irrigating

frequently or hilling a small area around the sweet potato

Mulching materials such as rice straw and plastic film reduce

the infestation of sweet potato weevils by spreading them

over the planting site

Reridging at tuber formation stage

Practice proper field sanitation

Using entomopathogenic nematodes and fungi

Pheromone traps and use of natural enemies where available

Neem extract47

Imidacloprid

47 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264560419_Laboratory_and_field_efficacy_of_entomopathogenic_fungi_for_the_management_of_the_sweetpotato_weevil_Cylas_formicarius_Coleoptera_Brentidae




MEASURES


WHEN NEEDED

Write grub (larvae of

Scarab beetles)

White grub larvae gouge out

broad, shallow areas on the

root

Avoid planting in fields that follow pasture None Approved

Stemborers

Omphisa

anastomosalis

Larvae boring into the main

stem and sometimes

penetrates storage roots

Use treated planting materials

Crop rotation

Hilling-up to cover the holes that provide the adults with an

exit from the stem

Earwigs and ants may attack the larvae developing within

sweet potato vines. Undetermined hymenopteran species

(family Encyrtidae) have been observed attacking this pest

Use resistant varieties where available

Use of insecticides, is difficult

and costly because the insect

remains largely concealed

throughout its life

Thiamethoxam

Lambda-cyhalothrin

Cassava brown

streak disease

(CBSD)

Cassava brown streak

viruses

Cassava mosaic

disease (CMD)

Viruses

Specific virus diseases can

rarely be diagnosed on the

basis of visible symptoms

alone.

Symptoms may include mild to

moderate growth reduction,

mild chlorosis or mottling, pale

spots or veins and leaf

deformities.The leaf symptoms

are mild but a dry brownish rot

makes tubers unfit for eating

Effective management depends on developing

resistant varieties and making clean planting material available

Chemical vector control (white

flies Bemisia tabaci)

Insecticidal soaps and oils, neem

Once the virus is present in the

plant there is no way to control

the disease




MEASURES


WHEN NEEDED

and sale. CBSD occurs

alongside cassava mosaic

disease (CMD), another major

threat to production caused by

a different type of virus. Both

diseases are spread by

whiteflies and in infected

planting material.

Cassava bacterial

blight

Xanthomonas

axonopodis pv.

manihotis

The disease is introduced in

symptomless cuttings which

fail to grow. The bacteria are

then spread by rain splash and

physical contact.

Varieties with good tolerance to the disease are available

Once the disease is present, careful cleaning of tools will limit

spread to healthy plants while animal and human movement

within the crop should be restricted to prevent physical

transfer of bacteria.

The disease spreads less rapidly during dry periods.

Cutting out most of the above ground stems of infected plants

may limit losses in varieties with some resistance to the

disease, but success also depends on how long the plant has

been infected and the spread of the bacteria within the plant.

If only a few plants in a field show symptoms, speedy removal

and safe disposal of infected plants may reduce further spread.

There is no chemical treatment

for controlling the disease.

Rats and mole rats

of sweet potato

Both attack sweet potato, but

rats are the more serious pests. Control relies on community action and early intervention,

mostly include setting traps (snap, snare or live), although care

No chemical methods

recommended by this PERSUAP




MEASURES


WHEN NEEDED

Mastomys, Arvicanthis

& Tachyoryctes

species

Rats feed on sweet potato

storage roots and can cause

serious damage by digging

through the mounds or ridges

to eat them,

or by attacking them when

they are exposed above

ground.

must be taken to protect livestock and children from being

hurt by them.

Placing owl nesting boxes around the village

Weeds should be removed from within and around sweet

potato fields

Some of the methods used in Africa:

• Planting the legume Tephrosia vogelii (commonly known as

fish bean) randomly throughout the field and along the

borders. This shrub contains rotenone, a fish poison and

insecticide, so be careful when disposing of it.

• Using a mixture of cow dung and pepper placed in the

burrows and burnt to smoke out the rodents.

• Pouring one-week old fermented cattle urine into the

burrows to chase away mole rats.

• Digging deep ditches around sweet potato plantings to stop

rodents from tunnelling straight into the field.

Use home remedy based on use of the legume shade tree,

Gliricidia sepium (it means ‘rat killer’).

Pound young leaves or bark, and mix with cooked rice, maize

or other bait, or boil the Giricidia with rice or other cereal

grains. Bacteria convert chemicals in the leaves to substances

similar to brodifacoum (an anti-coagulant used as a rat

poison). These are less toxic than brodifacoum, so larger




MEASURES


WHEN NEEDED

amounts must be eaten. Change the bait daily and protect

children and pets by placing it in bamboo sections or tins.

Potato Viruses

Potato leaf roll virus,

Potyviruses (potato

viruses A, V, and Y):

Potexviruses (Potato

virus X), and the

Carlaviruses (potato

viruses M and S).

The virus diseases cause

reductions in yield quality and

quantity

Buy seed potatoes that have been certified virus-free. Saving

potatoes from a field which was infected by virus will increase

the number of plants serving as sources of virus in the

following season.

Remove "volunteer" potatoes (potato plants coming up from

tubers left over from the previous season), as these may be

virus reservoirs.

Rogue (remove) symptomatic plants — these serve as

excellent sources for virus spread within the field. Do not leave

rogued plants in the field —remove and trash or burn them.

Proper composting may be effective to remove potatoes with

Potyviruses, Carlaviruses, or Potexviruses, but not those with

protozoan or nematode vectors.

Rogue weeds which may serve as reservoirs of viruses.

Plant early to avoid aphid-transmitted viruses,

Plant varieties which have reported tolerance or resistance to

viruses.

Sanitize all tools, planters, and cultivators frequently,

Avoid the spread of soil which could harbor the vectors of

some potato viruses between fields.

Transmitted by aphids therefore

pesticides are effective only for

vector control

Imidacloprid

Dimethoate

Potato aphid

Macrosiphum

euphorbiae

Distort leaves and stems, stunt

plants, and cause necrotic

spots on leaves. Aphids can

secrete a large amount of

Naturally occurring parasites and predators such as such as

lady beetles, lacewing larvae, and syrphid larvae

Avoid sprays that will disrupt these natural enemies

Introduce tolerant varieties

Dimethoate

Acetamiprid

Imidocloprid

http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/M/I-HO-MEUP-CD.007.html

http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/H/I-CO-HCON-LV.011.html

http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/H/I-CO-HCON-LV.011.html

http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/C783/m783bpaphidne.html




MEASURES


WHEN NEEDED

honeydew that promotes

development of sooty mold on

foliage and fruit. Plants are

particularly susceptible to yield

losses from high infestations

during the period from 6 to 8

weeks before harvest. Yield

losses from equally high aphid

populations decline

substantially as harvest

approaches, unless aphid

densities are reducing leaf area

enough to permit sunburn.

Sprays of herbal oils (thyme oil, rosemary, peppermint) or

insecticidal soap

Monotoring and treating if 50 to 60% or more of the leaves

are infested.

Thiamethoxam

Bacterial wilt

(Ralstonia solanacearum/)

Pseudomonas

solanacearum)

Wilting, yellowing and some

stunting of the plants, which

finally die. In tubers, brownish-

grey areas are seen on the

outside, especially near the

point of attachment of the

stolon. Cut tubers may show

pockets of white to brown pus

or browning of the vascular

tissue which, if left standing,

may exude dirty white globules

of bacteria. As the disease

Use resistant strains where available

Organic amendments to soil have direct impacts on plant

health and crop productivity. They are advantageous because

they improve the physical, chemical, and biological properties

of soil, which can have positive effects on plant growth

Bacterial wilt is difficult to control (or eradicate) because of the

soil-borne nature of its causal organism.

Adopt rotations with pastures, cereals and non-solanaceous

crops for periods exceeding five years.

Use of certified seed from reliable sources.

Planting in areas where bacterial wilt has not occurred

previously. Control self-sown potatoes. Control weed hosts

Inorganic bacteriocides such as

calcium cyanamide (CC)

(fertilizer), ammonia water (AW),

and a mixture of ammonium

bicarbonate with lime (A+L)48

48 https://www.nature.com/articles/srep19037




MEASURES


WHEN NEEDED

progresses bubbly globules of

bacteria may exude through

the eyes; soil will often adhere

to the exuded bacteria, hence

the name 'sore eyes' or 'jammy

eyes'.

Avoid deep ploughing – the organisms survive in the deep,

cool layers of soil.

Irrigation water should never be allowed to run freely over or

below the soil surface.

Regular crop inspection for disease symptoms and

remove and destroy diseased plants, tubers and

immediate neighbours.

Use stock to clean up chats, discarded tubers and crop

debris, but do not allow the stock back onto clean

paddocks.

Do not return potato waste, e.g. oversized, misshapen

and diseased tubers to paddocks.

Minimize the spread through proper sanitation practices.

Late blight

(Phytophthora infestans)

Oomycete that

causes potato disease

Irregularly shaped water-

soaked lesions can be

observed on young leaves at

the top part of the plant.

Under humid conditions,

lesions become brown and

pathogen sporulation can be

seen.

Removing sources of the pathogen by eliminating cull

potatoes and volunteers and planting only healthy

seed tubers;

Using resistant cultivars when possible and as they

become available; scouting locations where late blight

might appear first;

Using a forecasting scheme to gain early warning of

weather that is favorable to disease and to adjust

frequency of fungicide application or the intensity of

scouting;

Using appropriate protectant or systemic fungicides.

After harvest, store potato tubers at cool temperatures

under conditions sufficiently dry that there is no free

moisture on tuber surfaces.

Copper based fungicides




MEASURES


WHEN NEEDED

Root-knot

nematodes

(Meloidogyne spp.)

Aboveground symptoms

include stunted, yellowed,

chlorotic, and/or dead plants.

Infected plants are likely to wilt

earlier under temperature or

moisture stress. Infestations

may occur without causing any

aboveground symptoms.

Feeding by root knot

nematode causes characteristic

swellings, called galls, on roots.

Using certified planting material;

Cleaning soil from equipment before moving between

fields

Keeping irrigation water in a holding pond so that any

nematodes present can settle out and pumping water

from near the surface of the pond

Preventing/ reducing animal movement from infested

to un-infested fields

Composting manure to kill any nematodes that might

be present before applying it to fields.

Crop rotation/some cover crops (e.g. mustard)

incorporated as green manure can be useful in

reducing nematode populations.

Fields that are left fallow but kept weed-free usually

have an 80 to 90% per year reduction in root knot

populations.

Destroy potato plants that emerge from tubers left

after harvest to restrict nematode reproduction.

Avoid storage of infected tubers

Neem cake


VEGETABLES (TOMATOES, ONIONS, CABBAGE, OTHER VEGETABLES)

TABLE A.6. VEGETABLES (TOMATOES, ONIONS, CABBAGE, OTHER VEGETABLES) INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN


MEASURES RECOMMENDED PESTICIDES,

WHEN NEEDED

Thrips

Thrips tabaci,

Frankliniella

occidentalis)

Feed on young leaves in the

inner neck of plants and cause

reduced bulb size

Onion thrips can vector plant

viruses

Avoid planting onions adjacent to grain and fields with weeds

that can host thirps.

Plant younger fields upwind, relative to prevailing winds, from

older fields. This applies to fields planted with transplants as

well. Adult thrips in more mature fields will tend to fly

downwind to infest less mature fields.

Fertilize onions with adequate, but not excessive amounts of

nitrogen.

Straw or other mulch placed on the plant bed has been shown

to reduce thrips populations and improve onion growth.

Use trap crops that attract thirps, such as carrots that are not

as damaged by them or flowers that attract thirps.

Overhead sprinkler irrigation has been shown to reduce thrips

populations on onion plants.

Remove or destroy volunteer onion plants and debris. Onion

plant matter left on the soil can survive and spread the

following year.

Use onion varieties can tolerate effects of thrips feeding with

only mild yield loss

Pyrethrum extracts +

diatomaceous earth

Neem

Insecticidal soaps

Cypermethrin

Permethrin

Kaolin clay where available

Imidacloprid

Armyworm,

Spodoptera exigua

Profuse silk webbing may give

infested plants a shiny

appearance

Good soil preparation

Insecticidal soaps and oils, neem

Cypermethrin or other pyrethroid

Indoxacarb

http://www.agri.huji.ac.il/mepests/entry/Insecticidal_soaps

http://www.agri.huji.ac.il/mepests/entry/Neem





WHEN NEEDED

Downy mildew

(Peronospora

destructor)

Appearance of pale green

spotsas on the upper leaf

surface. These areas soon

become yellow and angular to

irregular in shape, bounded by

the leaf veins. As the disease

progresses, the lesions may

remain yellow or become

brown and necrotic.

Plastic mulch covering to avoid plant contact with soil and

minimize weeds that enhance microclimate conditions

favorable to disease dispersion.

Heat treatment of bulbs at 35 to 40 °C for 4 to 8h reduces the

disease significantly.

Eliminate crop residues, plant during dry season, avoid

irrigation during heat of the day.

Use crop rotation.

Use certified seed and good drainage.

Bulb dipping with a synthetic

fungicide containing Metalaxyl.

Use synthetic pesticide as soil

drench and spray applications

containing Thiophanate-methyl,

Metalaxyl + Mancozeb followed

by copper oxychloride.

Fusarium wilt in

tomatoes

Fusarium oxysporum

f. sp. lycopersici

Plants infected with Fusarium

become yellow and wilt.

Sometimes only one branch or

one side of the plant is

affected, creating a yellow flag

effect. Infected plants usually

die. A dark brown vascular

discoloration extends far up

the stem. Symptoms often first

appear during fruit sizing.


Long distance spread is by seed, transplants, and soil on farm

machinery. Use healthy seed and wash off equipment that may

have come in contact with infected soils.

Rotation out of tomatoes for several years reduces inoculum

level, although Fusarium is long-lived

Soil fumigation requires professional application

Sanitation (removal of diseased plants)

none

Early blight in

tomatoes

Alternaria solani

Plants infected with early

blight develop small black or

brown spots on leaves, stems,

and fruit.

Destroy infected plants

Proper crop rotation is important to ensure infected plant

debris decomposes

Mancozeb

http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/F/D-TO-FOXL-FS.003.html

http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/F/D-TO-FOXL-FS.003.html

http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/F/D-TO-FOXL-ST.002.html

http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/F/D-TO-FOXL-ST.002.html





WHEN NEEDED

Tobacco mosaic

virus (TMV) in

tomatoes

The symptoms in tomato vary

greatly in intensity depending

upon the variety, virus strain,

time of infection, light

intensity, and temperature

The most characteristic

symptom of the disease on

leaves is a light- and dark-

green mosaic pattern

Select resistant varieties

Avoid contact between halthy and infected leaves, as well as the

use of contaminated tools and hands.

Mostly spread by insects,

especially aphids and leafhoppers.

Use pesticides for vector control

Tomato fruit borers

Larvae of several

types of moth

The larvae of the moth

damage fruit as they feed on

flesh and seed

Hand picking of larvae

Trenching the field

Damaged fruits and crop residue should be burn to avoid

carryover of pest

Don’t over-irrigate, high moisture in field increases infestation

Use light traps

Use African Marigold (Tagitus Erecta) as a trap crop

Use species appropriatepheromone traps

Deep ploughing after picking

Establish bird perches in the field

Cypermethrin

Neem extract

Root knot

nematodes

Meloidogyne spp.

Cause galls on roots up to 1

inch in diameter. These galls

interfere with the flow of water

and nutrients to the plant;

Because root knot nematodes feed and multiply on many

weed species, weed control is an important aspect of their

management.

Neem cake

Soil fumigants not approved in

this PERSUAP





WHEN NEEDED

infected plants appear less

vigorous than healthy plants,

may be yellowed, are prone to

wilt in hot weather, and

respond poorly to fertilizer.

Damage areas usually appear

as irregular patches and are

frequently associated with

lighter-textured soils.

Use varieties resistant to nematodes, rotate with resistant

varieties

Soil solarization

Soil fumigation can be done only by certified professionals

White flies

Bemisia tabaci

Trialeurodes

vaporariorum

Trialeurodes

abutilonia

Whiteflies are found mostly on

the undersides of leaves.

Whitefly cause damage to

leaves by feeding, which

causes leaves to yellow and

curl, and by the production of

honeydew, which causes leaves

to appear shiny or blackened

(from sooty mold growing on

the honeydew).

Identify the damaging species as not all whiteflies species

cause damage in tomatoes.

Conserve natural enemies. Several wasps, including species in

the Encarsia and Eretmocerus genera, parasitize whiteflies.

Plant tomatoes at least one-half mile upwind from key whitefly

hosts

Destroy and remove all crop residues as soon as possible

Control weeds in non-crop areas including head rows

(headland areas) and fallow fields.

Routinely check field margins that are infected first for

whiteflies

Growing stage: Insecticidal soap

Neem

Rosemary oil + peppermint oil

At planting and transplanting

stage

Imidacloprid

Acetamiprid

Dimethoate

CABBAGE (OTHER CRUCIFEROUS VEGETABLES)

http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/B/I-HO-BARG-EL.006.html

http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/B/I-HO-BTAB-EH.018.html





WHEN NEEDED

Aphids

Brevicoryne brassicae

Aphids feed by sucking sap

from their host plants. They

produce a sugary waste

product called honeydew,

which is fed on by ants. In turn,

the ants provide the aphids

with protection from natural

enemies. Continued feeding by

aphids causes yellowing,

wilting and stunting of plants

Severely infested plants

become covered with a mass

of small sticky aphids (due to

honeydew secretions), which

can eventually lead to leaf

death and decay Cabbage

aphids feed on the underside

of the leaves and on the center

of the cabbage head

Fields should be scouted every week for signs of aphids

Plow immediately after harvest to prevent the spread of aphids

to other crops

rid the field and surrounding areas of any alternate host

Cruciferous plants or weeds

Destruction of plant debris at the end of the season

Planting a nectar plant to attract beneficial insects

Parasites and predators are important for regulating aphid

population

Insecticides should only be used

when aphid populations are high

(>50/plant) on very young

seedlings/transplants up to ~7

leaf stage

Insecticidal Soap

Neem Oil Extract

Pyrethrin

Acetamiprid

Permethrin

Bifenthrin

Whiteflies

Aleyrodes proletella

Small white winged and scale-

like insects on the underside of

leaves. Sooty moulds may

develop on the upper leaf

Inspect for adults and eggs

Plant oils

Deltamethrin

Lambda-cyhalothrin

Dimethoate





WHEN NEEDED

surface only when infestation

is heavy

Bagrada bug/Stink

bug

Bagrada hilaris (syn.

Bagrada

cruciferarum)

Damage plants by feeding on

young leaves. Both adults and

nymphs suck sap from leaves,

which may wilt and later dry.

Considerable damage is

caused to young plants, which

may die or have the growth

points severely damaged.

Significant damage may also

be caused to older plants

Regular monitoring of the crop is important to detect bagrada

bugs before they cause damage to the crop.

Crop hygiene, in particular removal of old crops and

destruction of weeds of the family Cruciferae prevents

population build-up.

Picking the bugs off plants by hand is only feasible if pest

populations are very low.

Pyramid traps and lures

Permethrin

Bifenthrin

Caterpillars

Larvae of several

species of adult

moths such as

Agrotis segetum

Agrotis ipsilon

Tuta absoluta

Cutworms chew through plant

stems at the base. They feed

on roots and foliage of young

plants. In most cases, entire

plants will be destroyed;

Cutworms sometimes crawl to

the tops of plants and do

damage there.

Before planting a new garden remove weeds and plant debris

that might feed and shelter developing larvae.

Turn the soil after fall clean up then give birds and other

predators a chance to pick off the expose larvae and pupae.

Remove grass as closely as possible to the edge of garden to

give cutworms less to feed on and less shelter near the plants.

A three-foot wide (or more) bare-soil strip between the grass

and garden plants makes it harder for larvae to reach plants. It

also gives allows to better spot them.

Wait as late as possible with planting to prevent feeding

cutworms.

Plant sunflowers along the edge of the garden to direct and

pick cutworms from sunflowers.

Acetamiprid

Permethrin

Bifenthrin






WHEN NEEDED

Inspect plants in dusk and evening hours, when cutworms will

begin to feed

Handpicking

circle plants with diatomaceous earth

Use natural enemies where possible such as Beneficial

Nematodes (Steinernema feltiae) or Trichogramma wasps (T.

pretiosum, T. brassicae and T. minutum spp.)

Caterpillars/

Cabbage worms

Larva of Cabbage

Moth

Plutella xylostella,

Cabbage Webworm

Hellula undalis,

African armyworm

Spodoptera exempta

Cabbage looper

Trichoplusia ni

Cabbage Cluster

Caterpillar

Crocidolomia

pavonana

Chew the leaves usually

leaving holes between the

veins. Leave large amounts of

frass (fecal matter) where they

have been feeding

Start checking for caterpillars soon after planting both sides of

the leaf

Destroy crop residue immediately after harvest to eliminate

potential overwintering sites for imported cabbageworms.

Eliminate weeds from the Brassicaceae family such as wild

mustard, peppergrass, and shepherd's purse, as they are

alternate hosts for these pests.

Handpicking the caterpillars, especially in smaller gardens, can

be an effective means of control. Drop the caterpillars into a

pail of soapy water to kill them.

Introduce natural predators such as Cotesia glomerata where

available

Insecticides are more effective on

small/young caterpillars.

Neem

Permethrin

Bifentrin

Lambda cyhalothrin





WHEN NEEDED

Grasshopers Adults and nymphs cause

damage by feeding on foliage.

Most species overwinter as

eggs, which are laid in packets

in the soil

Control of grasshoppers is most effective when they are 1/2 to

3/4 inch long. Use a bait product with a grasshopper

pathogen while the grasshoppers are young

Use a garlic spray

Plant cilantro around crops

Dust plants with ordinary flower which gums up and blocks

the grasshopper’s mouth, which prevents it from eating

Permethrin

Bifenthrin

Snails/slugs Slugs eat leaves using a raspy

tongue with tough spots that

rub against the leaves. This

rasp makes the hole in the

cabbage leaves.

Where available, parasitic nematodes Phasmarhabditis

hermaphrodita mixed with water and applied to the soil

Garlic spray

Corn meal traps

Plant repellant plants around cabbage such as Ginger, garlic,

mint, chives, red lettuce, red cabbage, sage, sunflower, fennel,

foxglove, mint, chicory and endive

Lures and Traps such as stale beer trap

Spraying vinegar mixed with water

Chickens and ducks are natural predators

Use Iron Phosphate where

available

AMARANTH PALMER’S PIGWEED

Anthracnose fungus

Colletotrichum

gloeosporioides

Necrotic lesions on leaves;

dieback of leaves and branches

Avoid damaging plants and creating wounds for pathogen to

enter; plant resistant varieties

Mancozeb

Copper containing fungicides

Damping-off fungus

Pythium spp.

Poor germination; seedling

collapse; brown-black lesions

girdling stem close to soil line;

Avoid planting seeds too deeply; do not plant seeds too

thickly to promote air circulation around seedlings; do not

over-water plants

Metalaxyl





WHEN NEEDED

seedling fail to emerge from

soil

Wet rot fungus

(Choanephora rot)

Choanephora

cucurbitarum

Water-soaked lesions on

stems; lesions have hairy

appearance due to presence of

fungal spores; may cause loss

of leaves

Fungus mainly attacks plants that have been damaged by

insects or by mechanical means; spread by air currents and via

infected seed; disease emergence favors warm, moist

conditions. Plant varieties resistant to disease; only use

certified seed; do not plant crop densely;

Copper fungicides

MUSACEAE BANANAS AND PLAINTAIN49

Banana Weevil

(Cosmopolites

sordidus) is also

known as the banana

borer or banana root

borer

Weak or dying suckers. Yellow

floppy leaves. Small bunches.

Tunnels caused by grubs in

corms.

A combination of clean planting material, destruction of crop

residues and neem can be used to reduce weevil populations;

After trimming, the base of the suckers must be dipped into the insecticidal treatment. Hot water treatment is also a valid

alternative; however, movement of banana weevils from

neighboring farms can reduce the efficacy of any management

options.

Neem powder can be used to

control banana weevils. Apply 60-

100 grams/mat of neem seed

powder or neem cake around the

base of the plant. Apply at

planting and again every four

months.

Neem

Dimethoate

Imidacloprid

Black sigatoka Red-brown streaks at edge of

leaf blade. Dead areas either

side of leaf midrib.

Management is by using tolerant or resistant varieties. Some

plantains are little affected, and resistant dessert and/or

cooking varieties with Cavendish characteristics have been

bred. Fungicides – protectant and systemic – exist for

Mancozeb (in oil or oil/water

emulsion) when the disease is

relatively low.

49 http://africasoilhealth.cabi.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/519-ASHC-manual-English.pdf





WHEN NEEDED

caused by the fungus

Mycosphaerella

fijiensis

commercial plantations, but expense, availability and strategies

to prevent fungal resistance, complicate their use by

smallholders.

Remove infected leaves, or parts of leaves.

If less than 30% infection, remove only part of the leaf; if more

than 40% remove the entire leaf. Take the leaves out of the

plantation and burn them.

Systemic fungicides e.g.

Difenoconazole

It is important to rotate the

fungicides in the different groups

to prevent the build-up of

resistant strains of the fungus.

No more than two applications of

the same systemic fungicide

should be made before changing

to another group. In drier times,

Mancozeb can be used alone.

Fusarium wilt

Yellowing of margins of older

leaves. Leaves turn brown, dry

and collapse

It is spread through movement of soil, on equipment and

especially on contaminated planting material. There are four

strains: three can be contained by cultural methods and

resistant varieties, but a recent variant (TR4) attacks dessert

bananas and plantains, putting both industry and smallholder

production at serious risk.

Copper oxychloride

Quaternary ammonium

Difenoconazole

Bunchy top Leaves small, crowded

together, erect not arching

outwards. Dark green streaks

on minor veins in leaves.

The plant does not fruit and

production is severely affected.

An aphid that is present in all

banana growing countries

helps to spread the disease

over short distances.

Viral disease that gets inside the plant and stays there.

Infected planting material appears healthy. All bananas are

susceptible and there is no chemical treatment. However,

careful selection of healthy planting material can prevent the

introduction of the disease to new countries and early

detection of symptoms enables its spread to be limited

There is no chemical control for

the virus, either as a preventative

or curative measure. Chemicals

can, however, be used against the

aphids which spread the disease:

infected plants can be sprayed,

particularly the underside of

leaves, forcefully with water or a

water-soap solution (about 2% by

volume) to kill the aphids and





WHEN NEEDED

thus help to contain an early

outbreak. Insecticidal oils can also

be used, such as those containing

paraffin or neem extract (2% by

volume).

BXW Wilt

Xanthomonas

campestris pv.

musacearum

Premature ripening of fruit.

Young leaves go yellow, fold in

centre and collapse.

The main management option is sanitation: planting healthy

material, using clean cutting tools and removal of male buds

to limit infection by bacteria-carrying insects as they collect

nectar.

Once the plant is infected there is

no treatment to control the

disease.

TREE CROPS (COFFEE, OIL PALM, COCOA, CHINCHONA/QUINQUINA BARK, RUBBER TREE, CITRUS, MANGO,

AVOCADO)

TABLE A.7. TREE CROPS (COFFEE, OIL PALM, COCOA, CHINCHONA/QUINQUINA BARK, RUBBER TREE, CITRUS, MANGO, AVOCADO) INTEGRATED PEST

MANAGEMENT PLAN


MEASURES


WHEN NEEDED

COFFEE

Coffee Leaf Rust

Hemileia vastatrix

Small, yellowish, oily spots on

the upper leaf surface that

expand into larger round

spots that turn bright orange

Shade-grown coffees, which are not grown as monocultures,

are somewhat less susceptible, as the agroforestry practice of

mixing tree crops greatly slows the spread of the disease.

Resistant varieties coffea canephora rubusta were developed

Copper oxychloride

Cuprous oxide

Copper hydroxide

Triadimefon

https://www.britannica.com/science/leaf-plant-anatomy

https://www.britannica.com/science/agroforestry



MANAGEMENT PLAN


MEASURES


WHEN NEEDED

to red and finally brown with

a yellow border. The rust

pustules are powdery and

orange-yellow on the

underleaf surface. Later the

pustules turn black. Rusted

leaves drop so that affected

trees are virtually denuded;

such trees have significantly

lower coffee yields and

usually die within a few years.

but are considered lesser quality than susceptible c. Arabica.

Coffee Wilt Disease

Gibberella xylarioides

(Fusarium xylarioides)

Generalized chlorosis of the

leaves which became flaccid

and curled. Leaves dry up,

turn brown and very fragile,

and abscise. The crowns of

the dead trees are completely

defoliated. The branches may

turn black-brown or blackish,

and dry up. The bark on the

trunk is hypertrophied and

has numerous vertical or

spiral cracks which reveal

Use of resistan varieties

Frequent inspection of the crop

Uprooting and burning infected material

Replanting should not be done until 6 months after uprooting

infected trees to allow the viability of the soil inoculum to

decline

Reduction of wounding (when weeding) and use of mulches.

No cure, no chemical solution.

Spraying the localized space

where the roots were, with 2.5%

Copper (II) Sulfate will sanitize the

soil where the infected plants

were.



MANAGEMENT PLAN


MEASURES


WHEN NEEDED

blue-black streaks in the

wood under the bark. In the

roots, the black rot becomes

moist. Infection may be

general or partial.

Coffee Berry Borer

Coffee Borer Beetle

Hypothenemus

hampei

Attacks immature and mature

coffee berries from about eight

weeks after flowering up to

harvest season. Females bore a

hole into the coffee berry and

then construct galleries in the

seeds (beans) where the eggs

are deposited, followed by

larval feeding on the coffee

seed Results in premature fall

of young berries and increased

vulnerability of infested ripe

berries to fungus or bacterial

infection.

Berry borer must be managed during every step of production,

pre-, during and post-harvest.

Field sanitation and stripping cherry at the end of the

harvest season

Infested plant material must be disposed of to prevent

re-infestation.

Proper methods of pruning must be established.

Fields should be monitored

Emphasize importance of efficient harvesting and removing all

ripe and dropped fruit. 50

Beauveria bassiana used in the US is not available or approved in

DRC.

Thiamethoxam

Coffee Anthracnose

Brown blight Infect immature or green

berries

Use resistant cultivars 50% copper formulations

Thiophanate-methyl

50 http://www.bioworksinc.com/products/shared/Recommendations-for-Coffee-Borer.pdf



MANAGEMENT PLAN


MEASURES


WHEN NEEDED

Collet otrichum

coffeanum

Active lesions are initially

evident as small dark sunken

spots which spread rapidly to

involve as much as all of the

berry. The pathogen sporulates

readily and is evidenced by a

pale pink crust on the lesion

surface. If infection occurs

early and climatic conditions

favor disease development,

berry development is arrested,

resulting in mummified berries

on the fruiting branch. When

the berry ripens and

anthracnose fully develops, the

bean can become infected and

seed borne.

Precautions should be taken to import seed free of disease

seed Importation of cultivars should occur only through

appropriate quarantine facilities.

Treat seed with fungicides



MANAGEMENT PLAN


MEASURES


WHEN NEEDED

OIL PALM

Bacterial bud rot

Erwinia spp

Parts of spear leaf petiole or

rachi turning brown;

discoloration may be

associated with a wet rot;

spear leaf may be wilted

and/or chlorotic; leaves may

be collapsing and hanging

from the crown; infection of

the bud results in buds

becoming rotten and putrid,

leading to death of the palm

Plant oil palm varieties with resistance to the bacteria; rotting

tissue on spear leaves should be removed to prevent bacteria

spreading to buds;

Palm buds can be protected using

copper-based fungicides

Oil palm wilt

Fusarium oxysporum

Fungus infests palms through

the root system. Symptoms

vary with age of host; disease

can affect seedlings and

mature trees; seedlings exhibit

retarded growth, reduced leaf

size, chlorosis of older leaves

and tip necrosis; field palms

may exhibit a bright yellow

chlorosis of leaves in the mid-

canopy which starts at the tip

Dead or dying trees should be felled and burned to prevent

spread in plantations; if palms are replanted then new palm

should be planted a distance of 3.9 m from infested stump

Resistant cultivars are the only viable method of control for

this disease

Fungicides currently recorded in

the DRC may not be effective



MANAGEMENT PLAN


MEASURES


WHEN NEEDED

pf the pinnae and moves

towards petioles before

affecting adjacent fronds and

spreading to older leaves in

the canopy; in older palms,

lower leaves wilt and dry out

and fronds break close to the

base of the trunk; new fronds

are chlorotic and stunted; the

palm shows decline on one

side and develops symptoms

in the lower canopy; infection

spreads rapidly upwards and

infects the bud, killing the

palm

COCOA

Black pod

(Phytophthora pod

rot)

Phytophthora

palmivora

Phytophthora

Translucent spots on pod

surface which develop into a

small, dark hard spots; entire

pod becomes black and

necrotic with 14 days of initial

symptoms; white to yellow

downy growth on black areas;

internal tissues become dry

Cocoa plants should be well spaced to allow good air

circulation through the plantation; mummified pods should be

removed and destroyed to reduce spread

Protective sprays of copper

containing fungicides in

combination with systemic

fungicides



MANAGEMENT PLAN


MEASURES


WHEN NEEDED

megakarya

Phytophthora capsici

and shriveled resulting in

mummified pods

Cocoa mealybugs

Planococcus spp.

Pseudococus spp.

Flattened oval to round disc-

like insect covered in waxy

substance on tree branches;

insects attract ants which may

also be present; insect colony

may also be associated with

growth of sooty mold due to

fungal colonization of sugary

honeydew excreted by the

insect; symptoms of

directinsect damage not well

documented but trees may

exhibit symptoms of cocoa

swollen shoot

Mealybugs can potentially be controlled by natural enemies

such as lady beetles but are commonly controlled using

chemicals;

Neem oil suspension of 3 per cent

may be sprayed on pods and

foliage at the early state of

infestation

Dimethoate

Cocoa mirid

Distantiella

theobroma

Sahlbergella

singularis

Helopeltis spp.

Monalonion spp.

First symptoms appear as tiny

puncture wounds on young

stems and pods; these

punctures quickly turn

necrotic, creating black

patches which may develop

into cankers; discolored bark;

terminal leaves and branches

dying back; trees

unproductive; adult insect is a

Providing shade cover in the form of forest to cocoa trees can

be used as part of an integrated control method

Do not interplant with other hosts

Some species of ant, e.g black ants, can be used as a biological

control agent

Thiamethoxam

Imidacloprid

Bifenthrin

Deltamethrin



MANAGEMENT PLAN


MEASURES


WHEN NEEDED

slender red or brown insect

with long legs and antennae;

adults are typically between 7

and 10 mm long

RUBBER TREE

Corynespora Rubber

Leaf Fall

Corynespora

cassiicola

Causing "fishbone"- or "railway

track"-shaped lesions on the

leaves

Being familiar with early detection

Conduct surveillance

Use resistant varieties where available

Mancozeb

CHINCHONA/ QUININE TREE

CINCHONA PUBESCENS

Stem Canker

Botryodiplodia

theobromae

Forms lesions on leaves, young

stems, and fruits Cankerous

growth in open wounds

Good cultural practice to promote tree health and vigour,

canopy aeration and crop hygiene. Pruning for good air

circulation and humidity control is essential.

Copper-based fungicides

Chinchona pink

disease

Corticium

salmonicolor

Appear on young branches as

an exudation of latex or gum

from the bark, generally at a

branch crotch. This is followed

by a growth of silky mycelial

threads over the surface of the

affected area. Bleeding open

longitudinal cracks follow

which develop pink pustules

(sterile mycelium) in the cracks.

Shaping of trees for optimum shade

The removal and destruction of infected branches, providing

that early diagnosis is achieved

Prophylactic treatment of the wound with fungicides

Copper based fungicides

Mancozeb



MANAGEMENT PLAN


MEASURES


WHEN NEEDED

At this stage the disease is

readily identifiable.

Basidiospores are later formed

from pinkish white layers that

form in the underside of the

infected branch while the

conidial 'necator' stage

appears at about the same

time as orange red pustules on

the upper side. The whole

branch distal to the point of

infection usually dies but

whole trees are very rarely

killed. The disease can be

successfully transmitted only

by mycelial inoculum and

attempts to use basidiospores

and conidia for this have been

unsuccessful51

51 http://www.mycobank.org/BioloMICS.aspx?TableKey=14682616000000063&Rec=14772&Fields=All



MANAGEMENT PLAN


MEASURES


WHEN NEEDED

CITRUS

African citrus psyllid

Trioza erytreae

T. erytreae severely distorts

leaves, which become stunted

and galled, and appear dusted

with faecal pellets. Young

leaves, especially, may be

yellow. The presence of small

pit galls on young leaves can

indicate T. erytreae.

A vector of citrus greening

disease, Liberibacter africanum

that causes misshapen, bitter

fruit and ultimately kills the

tree Honeydew excreted by

psyllids coats the outside of

fruits and leaves and promotes

the growth of sooty mold

fungus that inhibits

photosynthesis, weakens the

plant, and makes fruit

unattractive.

Tamarixia radiata is an effective parasitoid of the citrus psylla Dimethoate

MANGO

Fruit flies in Mango

Ceratitis cosyra

Female fruit flies puncture the

fruit skin and lay eggs that

Continuous monitoring of fruit flies to determine when they

arrive in the orchard and to decide when treatment is needed.

Neem

http://idtools.org/id/citrus/pests/glossary.php#h



MANAGEMENT PLAN


MEASURES


WHEN NEEDED

C. rosa and C.

capitata

develop into maggots (larvae)

in the flesh of the fruit after

hatching. The larvae feed on

the fruit and cause it to drop

prematurely and destroy the

pulp of the fruit. Generally the

fruit falls to the ground as, or

just before, the maggots

pupate. In fruit for export, fruit

flies cause indirect losses

resulting from quarantine

restrictions that are imposed

by importing countries to

prevent introduction of fruit

flies. Nearly all fruit fly species

are quarantine pests. Fruit flies

attack soft, fleshy fruit of a

wide variety of fruit and

vegetables.

Orchard sanitation is important as poorly managed or

abandoned orchards can result in buildup of fruit fly

populations

Several natural enemies can contribute to the suppression of

fruit flies. Some flowering crops can attract the native enemies

populations and provide good habitats for them.

Biopesticides such as a spray pyrethrum solution is effective in

controlling fruit flies. Other plant extracts like neem, garlic,

chilli and tephrosia can also be used.

Bagging prevents fruit flies from laying eggs on the fruit, but

this practice requires a lot of labor.

Setting vinegar traps

Biological control by use of Metarhizium anisopliae is not

available in DRC

Pyrethrum52

Dimethoate

52 http://www.nation.co.ke/business/seedsofgold/Heres-how-to-curb-the-deadly-mango-fruit-fly/2301238-2710894-s5jd15/index.html



MANAGEMENT PLAN


MEASURES


WHEN NEEDED

AVOCADO

Cercospora spot

Pseudocercospora

purpurea

Fungal pathogen that causes a

leaf spot on avocado. The fruit

gets dark spots that may

produce a tumor-like growth

surrounded by a halo. These

will sink in and develop

necrosis. Early fruit that is

immature will drop.

Cercospora fungus in mature

fruits will dry up and become

tough.

Cleaning up dropped fruit

Destroy heavily infected crops in fall

Copper oxychloride (cuocl)

PLANTATION CROPS (COTTON, SUGAR CANE AND PYRETHRUM FLOWERS)

TABLE A.8. PLANTATION CROPS (COTTON, SUGAR CANE AND PYRETHRUM FLOWERS) INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN


MEASURES


WHEN NEEDED

SUGARCANE

African sugarcane

borer

Internal feeding on stems.

The larva makes an exit hole

Scouting the field Deltamethrin




MEASURES


WHEN NEEDED

Eldana saccharina in the stem prior to pupation

which often has a large

amount of frass hanging from

it.

Early harvesting can reduce the impact, however the economic

age of harvest often exceeds 12 months.

Reduce crop stress when possible. Stressed crops are more

liable to attack, and under extreme conditions such as drought,

damage can increase significantly.

Above-ground stalk material can harbour larvae, when

harvesting, it is important to ensure that stalks are cut at

ground level

Reduced application of nitrogen (N) fertilise (depending on

soil levels of plant available nitrogen)

Application of calcium silicate slag

COTTON

Bollworms/Budwor

ms

Old World Bullworm

(Helicoverpa

armigera)

Red Bollworm

(Diparopsis castanea)

Cotton bollworm larvae

damage bolls (protective

case, around the seeds of the

cotton plants) and squares

(flower buds). Larvae chew

holes into the base of bolls

and may hollow out locks.

Moist frass usually

accumulates around the base

of the boll. Larvae may also

chew shallow gouges in the

Natural enemies include parasitoids in the Braconid wasp

and Tachinid fly families and Trichogramma egg

parasitoids and Telemonus species.

Predators include damselflies, hoverflies, lacewings,

ladybird beetles and larvae, minute pirate bugs, praying

mantis and spiders.

Use resistant varieties.

Plow and harrow fields at least 2 times before sowing

seeds. This will expose pupae of corn earworm to chicken,

birds, ants and other predators. Corn earworm pupates in

the soil.

Monitor regularly, use pegboard tool to count pest

numbers.

Once bollworms are

inside the boll, there is

little chance of hitting

them with a contact

insecticide. Any spraying

of contact insecticides

must be done in concert

with careful monitoring to

see when small larvae are

present and have not yet

bored into the boll;

otherwise pesticide will be

wasted.

http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/H/I-LP-HZEA-LV.024.html




MEASURES


WHEN NEEDED

Pink Bollowrm

(Pectinophora

gossypiella)

Cotton

Bollworm/Spiny

Caterpillar (Earias

vitella, Earias biplaga,

Earias insulana)

Tobacco budworm

(Heliothis virescens)

boll surface, which can

become infected with rot

organisms. Squares injured by

cotton bollworm usually have

a round hole near the base.

Fifth-instar larvae are the

most destructive; they not

only damage more fruit than

do earlier instars, but they

damage larger fruit that are

harder for the plant to replace

Do strip intercropping in this sequence: cotton,

leguminous crops, cereals, cotton.

Use pheromone and baited traps.

Practice crop rotation. Avoid planting crops successively

that are hosts to bollworms like hibiscus, okra, corn,

sorghum, tobacco, soybean, and tomato.

Remove weeds from field and field margins: Two weeks

before planting, remove weeds and grasses to destroy

earworm larvae and adults harboring in those weeds and

grasses.

Plant Marigold, Cosmos, sunflowers, alfalfa, pigeon pea as

trap crops around and in the field to lure caterpillars away

from cotton; once heavily infested, harvest the sunflower

seeds, plow these under or spray them.

Sanitation: After harvest, remove cotton stubble and

destroy by burning, feeding to cows or composting.

Rotate among different

classes of insecticides,

Cotton Bollworms have

developed resistance to

some carbamates,

organophosphates and

pyrethroids/pyrethrins.

There is known tobacco

budworm resistance to BT

toxin.

Use seed treated with

systemic insecticide

imidacloprid or

thiamethoxam.

Use organic natural

insecticides containing

local neem/azadirachtin

extract, and pyrethrum

extract.

Can rotate among rapid

knock-down insecticides

containing synthetic

pyrethroids Bbifenthrin,

Lambda-Cyhalothrin.

http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/H/I-LP-HZEA-LV.048.html


LIVESTOCK

TABLE A.9. LIVESTOCK INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN


MEASURES


WHEN NEEDED

Mites and lice in

chickens

Infestation can reduce egg

laying

Early detection. Keeping the coops and bedding fresh and

clean, scrub coops with soap and water, inspect the flock

Orange peel extracts d-

Limonene product such as

Orange Guard

Dusting with Diatomaceous

Earth

Keds (ticks), lice,

sheep nose bot flies,

wool maggots

(fleece worms), and

sheep scab (mange)

and flies in sheep

and goats

Symptoms of these pests vary

from minor itching and

irritation to extreme

annoyance and fatigue,

malnutrition, and even death.

Pests also can transmit dis

eases and cause secondary

infections.

In addition to routine shearing, clipping, and cleaning, other

cultural controls include practices such as appropriate manure

management and stall sanitation. Chemical controls include

various sprays, dips, pourons, and dusts. Flies are often

targeted with sprays and baits/traps

Permethrin

Deltamethrin

Lambda-cyhalothrin


ANNEX B. PESTICIDE TOXICOLOGICAL PROFILES

This annex provides both human and ecotoxicology for the pesticides evaluated in this PERSUAP.

TOXICITY TO HUMANS

Table B.3 summarizes the human toxicity profiles of all AIs examined by this PERSUAP, as well as their US EPA registration status. The following sections and tables B.1 and B.2 explain the toxicology terminology and classifications used.

ACUTE TOXICITY

Acute toxicity refers to the immediate effects (0-7 days) of exposure to a pesticide. Highly acutely toxic pesticides can be lethal at very low doses. Acute toxicity is estimated from the LD50, the dose (in milligrams of substance per kilogram of body weight) that kills 50% of the test animals in a standard assay. The toxicity of a substance may also depend on the route by which it enters the body: dermal (through the skin), inhalation (through the lungs) or oral (through the digestive tract). The LD50 may need to be determined experimentally for all these routes. For inhalation exposures, the LC50 is used--the concentration in air in mg per liter that kills 50% of the test animals.

Two systems are referred to in this document: the EPA system and the WHO system. EPA also requires that pesticides in categories I-III carry a signal word as in the table. The system used by EPA is based on an evaluation of the formulated product (Table B.1). Therefore, there may be more than one classification for an AI depending on concentration and inert ingredients. Where the EPA assessment of acute toxicity is given in the table as “no consensus”, there is too much variation between the registered products to give a single estimate. The system of WHO is based on the AI alone (Table B.2).

TABLE B.1. EPA SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION OF ACUTE TOXICITY

TOXICITY

CATEGORIES

CATEGORY I CATEGORY II CATEGORY III CATEGORY IV

Acute Oral Up to and

including 50

mg/kg

> 50 thru 500

mg/kg

> 500 thru 5000

mg/kg

> 5000 mg/kg

Acute Dermal Up to and

including 200

mg/kg

> 200 thru 2000

mg/kg

> 2000 thru 5000

mg/kg

> 5000 mg/kg

Acute

Inhalation1

Up to and

including 0.05

mg/liter

> 0.05 thru 0.5

mg/liter

> 0.5 thru 2

mg/liter

> 2 mg/liter

Primary

Eye Irritation

Corrosive

(irreversible

destruction of

ocular tissue) or

corneal

involvement or

irritation persisting

for more than 21

days

Corneal

involvement or

other eye

irritation clearing

in 8-21 days

Corneal

involvement or

other eye

irritation clearing

in 7 days or less

Minimal effects

clearing in less

than 24 hours

Primary

Skin Irritation

Corrosive (tissue

destruction into

the dermis and/or

scarring)

Severe irritation

at 72 hours

(severe erythema

or edema)

Moderate

irritation at 72

hours (moderate

erythema)

Mild or slight

irritation at 72

hours (no

irritation


Signal Word DANGER WARNING CAUTION None Required

TABLE B.2. WHO SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION OF ACUTE TOXICITY

WHO TOXICITY CLASSIFICATION RAT LD50 (MG OF CHEMICAL PER KG OF BODY WEIGHT)

CLASS DESCRIPTION SOLIDS

(ORAL)

LIQUIDS

(ORAL)

SOLIDS

(DERMAL)

LIQUIDS (DERMAL)

Ia Extremely hazardous ‹ 5 ‹ 20 ‹ 10 ‹ 40

Ib Highly hazardous 5-50 20-200 10-100 40-400

II Moderately hazardous 50-500 200-2,000 100-1,000 400-4,000

III Slightly hazardous › 500 ›2,000 ›1000 › 4,000

Table 5 Unlikely to present acute

hazard in normal use

› 2,000 › 3,000 --- ---

Table 6 Not classified: believed

obsolete

Table 7 Fumigants not classified

by WHO

Source: http://www.who.int/ipcs/publications/pesticides_hazard_2009.pdf

LONGER-TERM HUMAN TOXICITY

Pesticides may also cause long term hazards to human health. The hazards of the most concern are below.

Carcinogenicity. Exposure to some substances may cause the development of cancer.

Cholinesterase Inhibition. Cholinesterase is an enzyme that breaks down the neuro-transmitter, acetyl-choline in the nervous system. This is a necessary process for controlling nerve transmission and some pesticides, especially, organo-phosphates, work by interfering with it.

Reproductive or Developmental Toxicity. Some pesticides are known to cause birth defects or interfere with normal development.

Endocrine Disruption. Many pesticides and industrial chemicals are capable of interfering with the proper functioning of oestrogen, androgen and thyroid hormones in humans and animals.

Assessment of the acute and long-term toxicity of the pesticides evaluated is summarised in Table B.3.

ECOTOXICOLOGY

With few exceptions, such as pheromones, pesticides are, by their very nature, toxic to some organisms. They may therefore harm organisms other than the pests at which they are directed. These may include directly beneficial organisms, such as honeybees and other pollinators, the natural enemies of pests, other useful organisms such as fish or rare and endangered organisms making an important contribution to biodiversity. This document provides information, when available on the toxicity of pesticides to important groups of organisms.


TABLE B.3. ASSESSMENT OF THE ACUTE AND LONG-TERM TOXICITY OF THE PESTICIDES

ACTIVE

INGREDIENT CHEMICAL CLASS

HUMAN HEALTH ISSUES

GROUND-

WATER

CONTAMINANT

ECOTOXICOLOGY

ACUTE TOXICITY

CLASS/CATEG.

CHRONIC

TOXICITY

TYPE OF

PESTICIDE

RUP WHO EPA FISH BEES BIRD

S

AMPHIBI

ANS

EARTH-

WORMS

(ANNELID

A)

MOLL

USKS

CRUSTAC

EANS

AQUAT

IC

INSECT

S

ZOOPLAN

KTON

2,4-D Chlorophenoxy acid

or ester

Som

e

II II, III PC P NT NT NT NT NT NT Herbicide

Abamectin Botanical,

Macrocyclic Lactone

Many Unclas

sified

IV, II RD, ED ST HT HT HT MT HT Insecticide

Acetamiprid

Neonicotinoide None II No

consen

sus

P MT HT HT Insecticide

Aluminum

Phosphide

Inorganic All Unclas

sified

I HT HT HT MT Fumigant

Amitraz Formamidine None II III ED, NT, RD MT ST MT MT MT NT HT ST Acaricide,

Insecticide

Bacillus thuringiensis

(Bt)

Micro-organism

derived

None III III Insecticide

Bifenthrin Pyrethroid Many II II ED, NT,

RD, P

HT HT MT HT HT Insecticide

Acaricide

Bispyribac-sodium Pyrimidinyl(thio)ben

zoate

None III No

consen

sus

P MT LT LT MT MT ST Herbicide

Copper hydroxide Inorganic None II III HT MT MT MT HT NT MT Fungicide

http://www.pesticideinfo.org/List_Chemicals.jsp?ChemClassList=Chlorophenoxy%20acid%20or%20ester&dUseList=y&dDPR_Chem_Code=y&dEPA_PCCode=y&dCAS_No=y&dClassList=y&ChemRegList=&ChemUseList=&dS_BA=y&dEPA_Reg=y

http://www.pesticideinfo.org/List_Chemicals.jsp?ChemClassList=Chlorophenoxy%20acid%20or%20ester&dUseList=y&dDPR_Chem_Code=y&dEPA_PCCode=y&dCAS_No=y&dClassList=y&ChemRegList=&ChemUseList=&dS_BA=y&dEPA_Reg=y

http://www.pesticideinfo.org/List_Chemicals.jsp?ChemClassList=Macrocyclic%20Lactone&dUseList=y&dDPR_Chem_Code=y&dEPA_PCCode=y&dCAS_No=y&dClassList=y&ChemRegList=&ChemUseList=&dS_BA=y&dEPA_Reg=y


http://www.pesticideinfo.org/List_Chemicals.jsp?ChemClassList=Pyrimidinyl(thio)benzoate&dUseList=y&dDPR_Chem_Code=y&dEPA_PCCode=y&dCAS_No=y&dClassList=y&ChemRegList=&ChemUseList=&dS_BA=y&dEPA_Reg=y

http://www.pesticideinfo.org/List_Chemicals.jsp?ChemClassList=Pyrimidinyl(thio)benzoate&dUseList=y&dDPR_Chem_Code=y&dEPA_PCCode=y&dCAS_No=y&dClassList=y&ChemRegList=&ChemUseList=&dS_BA=y&dEPA_Reg=y



ACTIVE


HUMAN HEALTH ISSUES

GROUND-

WATER

CONTAMINANT

ECOTOXICOLOGY

ACUTE TOXICITY

CLASS/CATEG.

CHRONIC

TOXICITY

TYPE OF

PESTICIDE


S

AMPHIBI

ANS

EARTH-

WORMS

(ANNELID

A)

MOLL

USKS

CRUSTAC

EANS

AQUAT

IC

INSECT

S

ZOOPLAN

KTON

Copper oxide Inorganic None II Not

listed

HT ST MT MT HT HT MT HT Fungicide

Copper

oxychloride

Inorganic None II III ED, RD ST MT MT HT MT HT Fungicide

Cypermethrin Pyrethroid Many II II PC, ED HT HT LT MT MT HT HT HT Insecticide

Deltamethrin Pyrethroid Many II II ED HT HT LT MT NT HT HT HT Insecticide

Difenoconazole Azole None II III PC, ED ST NT LT MT HT Fungicide

Dimethoate Organophosphate Som

e

II II PC, NT, ED,

RD

P ST HT HT ST NT MT MT MT MT Insecticide

EPTC Thiocarbamate None II III RD, NT P M M M M

Esfenvalerate Pyrethroid Som

e

II II ED HT HT ST HT ST HT Insecticide

Ethofenprox Pyrethroid None U IV PC, ED HT HT LT MT HT Insecticide

Fenitrothion Organophosphorus None II II NT, ED MT HT HT MT MT MT HT HT Insecticide

,

Fipronil Pyrazole Many II II NT, RD MT HT HT MT MT Insecticide

Fluazifop-p-butyl Aryloxyphenoxy

propionic acid

None III III RD MT ST LT MT MT Herbicide

http://www.pesticideinfo.org/List_Chemicals.jsp?ChemClassList=Thiocarbamate&dUseList=y&dDPR_Chem_Code=y&dEPA_PCCode=y&dCAS_No=y&dClassList=y&ChemRegList=&ChemUseList=&dS_BA=y&dEPA_Reg=y

http://www.pesticideinfo.org/List_Chemicals.jsp?ChemClassList=Organophosphorus&dUseList=y&dDPR_Chem_Code=y&dEPA_PCCode=y&dCAS_No=y&dClassList=y&ChemRegList=&ChemUseList=&dS_BA=y&dEPA_Reg=y

http://www.pesticideinfo.org/List_Chemicals.jsp?ChemClassList=Pyrazole&dUseList=y&dDPR_Chem_Code=y&dEPA_PCCode=y&dCAS_No=y&dClassList=y&ChemRegList=&ChemUseList=&dS_BA=y&dEPA_Reg=y

http://www.pesticideinfo.org/List_Chemicals.jsp?ChemClassList=Aryloxyphenoxy%20propionic%20acid&dUseList=y&dDPR_Chem_Code=y&dEPA_PCCode=y&dCAS_No=y&dClassList=y&ChemRegList=&ChemUseList=&dS_BA=y&dEPA_Reg=y

http://www.pesticideinfo.org/List_Chemicals.jsp?ChemClassList=Aryloxyphenoxy%20propionic%20acid&dUseList=y&dDPR_Chem_Code=y&dEPA_PCCode=y&dCAS_No=y&dClassList=y&ChemRegList=&ChemUseList=&dS_BA=y&dEPA_Reg=y



ACTIVE


HUMAN HEALTH ISSUES

GROUND-

WATER

CONTAMINANT

ECOTOXICOLOGY

ACUTE TOXICITY

CLASS/CATEG.

CHRONIC

TOXICITY

TYPE OF

PESTICIDE


S

AMPHIBI

ANS

EARTH-

WORMS

(ANNELID

A)

MOLL

USKS

CRUSTAC

EANS

AQUAT

IC

INSECT

S

ZOOPLAN

KTON

Fluroxypyr Pyridinecarboxylic

acid

None U No

concen

sus

RD, NT ST LT LT LT LT ST Herbicide

Glyphosate Phosphonoglycine None III III PC P ST MT LT ST MT ST Herbicide

Imidacloprid Neonicotinoid Som

e

II II RD, NT P ST HT HT ST HT MT ST Insecticide

Indoxacarb Oxadiazine None II III MT HT HT NT MT

Lambda-

cyhalothrin

Pyrethroid Many II II ED HT LT HT LT HT Insecticide

Mancozeb Carbamate None U IV PC, RD, ED P MT LT LT HT HT ST Fungicide

Mefenoxam

(Metlalxyl M)

Phenylamide Som

e

NL No

consen

sus

P ST ST MT MT LT ST Fungicide

Metalaxyl Phenylamide Few II No

concen

sus

P ST LT MT LT ST Fungicide

Metsulfuron-

methyl

Sulfonylurea None NL III P ST Herbicide

http://www.pesticideinfo.org/List_Chemicals.jsp?ChemClassList=Pyridinecarboxylic%20acid&dUseList=y&dDPR_Chem_Code=y&dEPA_PCCode=y&dCAS_No=y&dClassList=y&ChemRegList=&ChemUseList=&dS_BA=y&dEPA_Reg=y

http://www.pesticideinfo.org/List_Chemicals.jsp?ChemClassList=Pyridinecarboxylic%20acid&dUseList=y&dDPR_Chem_Code=y&dEPA_PCCode=y&dCAS_No=y&dClassList=y&ChemRegList=&ChemUseList=&dS_BA=y&dEPA_Reg=y

http://www.pesticideinfo.org/List_Chemicals.jsp?ChemClassList=Phosphonoglycine&dUseList=y&dDPR_Chem_Code=y&dEPA_PCCode=y&dCAS_No=y&dClassList=y&ChemRegList=&ChemUseList=&dS_BA=y&dEPA_Reg=y

http://www.pesticideinfo.org/List_Chemicals.jsp?ChemClassList=Neonicotinoid&dUseList=y&dDPR_Chem_Code=y&dEPA_PCCode=y&dCAS_No=y&dClassList=y&ChemRegList=&ChemUseList=&dS_BA=y&dEPA_Reg=y

http://www.pesticideinfo.org/List_Chemicals.jsp?ChemClassList=Sulfonylurea&dUseList=y&dDPR_Chem_Code=y&dEPA_PCCode=y&dCAS_No=y&dClassList=y&ChemRegList=&ChemUseList=&dS_BA=y&dEPA_Reg=y



ACTIVE


HUMAN HEALTH ISSUES

GROUND-

WATER

CONTAMINANT

ECOTOXICOLOGY

ACUTE TOXICITY

CLASS/CATEG.

CHRONIC

TOXICITY

TYPE OF

PESTICIDE


S

AMPHIBI

ANS

EARTH-

WORMS

(ANNELID

A)

MOLL

USKS

CRUSTAC

EANS

AQUAT

IC

INSECT

S

ZOOPLAN

KTON

Nicosulfuron Sulfonylurea Som

e

U IV P ST MT LT LT ST Herbicide

Oxadiazon Oxidiazole None U IV PC, DR MT LT MT ST HT Herbicide

Penoxsulam Triazopyrimidine None U No

concen

sus

PC P LT ST LT LT MT MT Herbicide

Permethrin Pyrethroid Som

e

II II,III PC, ED MT HT MT ST HT HT Insecticide

Pirimiphos-methyl Organophosphate Som

e

II III NT MT HT MT MT MT HT Insecticide

Profenofos Organophosphate Many II No

concen

sus

NT P HT HT HT HT HT MT Insecticide

Sulfur Inorganic None III IV ST LT ST ST Insecticide

, miticide

Thiamethoxam Neonicotinoid None NL No

consen

sus

P LT HT MT LT Insecticide

Thiophanate-

methyl

Benzimidazole

precursor

None U IV PC, RD P ST ST LT NT NT ST Fungicide

http://www.pesticideinfo.org/List_Chemicals.jsp?ChemClassList=Sulfonylurea&dUseList=y&dDPR_Chem_Code=y&dEPA_PCCode=y&dCAS_No=y&dClassList=y&ChemRegList=&ChemUseList=&dS_BA=y&dEPA_Reg=y



http://www.pesticideinfo.org/List_Chemicals.jsp?ChemClassList=Benzimidazole%20precursor&dUseList=y&dDPR_Chem_Code=y&dEPA_PCCode=y&dCAS_No=y&dClassList=y&ChemRegList=&ChemUseList=&dS_BA=y&dEPA_Reg=y

http://www.pesticideinfo.org/List_Chemicals.jsp?ChemClassList=Benzimidazole%20precursor&dUseList=y&dDPR_Chem_Code=y&dEPA_PCCode=y&dCAS_No=y&dClassList=y&ChemRegList=&ChemUseList=&dS_BA=y&dEPA_Reg=y



ACTIVE


HUMAN HEALTH ISSUES

GROUND-

WATER

CONTAMINANT

ECOTOXICOLOGY

ACUTE TOXICITY

CLASS/CATEG.

CHRONIC

TOXICITY

TYPE OF

PESTICIDE


S

AMPHIBI

ANS

EARTH-

WORMS

(ANNELID

A)

MOLL

USKS

CRUSTAC

EANS

AQUAT

IC

INSECT

S

ZOOPLAN

KTON

Thiram

Dithiocarbamate None II III RD, ED HT LT MT HT HT NT HT Fungicide

Triadimefon

(parent of

Triadimenol)

Azole None II III PC, RD, ED P ST ST LT ST MT NT Fungicide

Triadimenol Azole breakdown None II III PC, ED,

RD, NT

P ST LT LT MT Fungicide

Triclopyr Chloropyridinyl Som

e

II III RD ST ST MT NT MT NT Fungicide

Herbicide

WHO Acute Toxicity:

Class O = Obsolete Pesticide; Class Ia = Extremely Hazardous, Class Ib = Highly Hazardous; Class II = Moderately Hazardous; Class III = Slightly Hazardous, Class U = Unlikely to Present Acute Hazard in Normal Use

EPA Acute Toxicity: Category I = Extremely Toxic, II = Highly Toxic, III = Moderately Toxic, IV = Slightly Toxic

Chronic Toxicity:

KC = Known/Likely Carcinogen; PC = Possible Carcinogen; ED = Potential Endocrine Disruptor; RD = Potential Reproductive or Developmental Toxin; NT = Cholinesterase inhibitors that are Potential Parkinson’s Disease Risk Factor and other neurological toxins

Acute Ecotoxicity: HT = Highly Toxic; MT = Moderately Toxic; ST = Slightly Toxic; NT = Not Toxic

http://www.pesticideinfo.org/List_Chemicals.jsp?ChemClassList=Dithiocarbamate&dUseList=y&dDPR_Chem_Code=y&dEPA_PCCode=y&dCAS_No=y&dClassList=y&ChemRegList=&ChemUseList=&dS_BA=y&dEPA_Reg=y


http://www.pesticideinfo.org/List_Chemicals.jsp?ChemClassList=Chloropyridinyl&dUseList=y&dDPR_Chem_Code=y&dEPA_PCCode=y&dCAS_No=y&dClassList=y&ChemRegList=&ChemUseList=&dS_BA=y&dEPA_Reg=y

http://www.pesticideinfo.org/Docs/ref_toxicity6.html#CholinesteraseInhibitors


ANNEX C. MANDATORY ELEMENTS OF TRAINING AND PESTICIDE SAFER

USE

C.1 TRAINING IN SAFER USE

By far the most important mitigating measure for pesticides is to ensure that those who use them understand them and are competent in handling and using them. It is essential that training to a uniform high standard is available across USAID/DRC projects.

All project beneficiaries who are expected to use USAID resources for pesticides must receive training. Information materials, such as leaflets and posters, in French, should be prepared and made available for those projects, such as those providing finance, who lack the relevant technical capacity.

Basic pesticide safer use training must address the following minimum elements.

Definition of pesticides.

Pesticide risks and the understanding that pesticides are bio-poisons.

Concepts of AIs vs. formulated products.

Classes of pesticides and the concept that specific pesticides are effective only against a certain class of organism.

Concept of proper application rates and pesticide resistance and techniques for avoiding misapplication.

Proper sprayer operation and maintenance.

Practice-focused training in the core elements of Safe Pesticide Use: a) IPM (see C.2, below) b) Reading and interpreting pesticide labels -- particularly to understand PPE requirements

and other precautions, dosage rates, and to identify AIs and expiration dates. (see C.3, below)

c) PPE use and treatment (see C.4, below) d) Safe Purchase, Transport, Storage, Mixing, e) Safe application (see C.5, below), Reentry and Pre-harvest intervals f) Pesticide first aid and spill response. (see C.6, below) g) Clean-up and Disposal (see C.7, below) h) Record keeping and monitoring. (see C.8, below)

All training should include a pre- and post- course evaluation of the participants. Participants will only be accepted as “trained” if their evaluation is satisfactory.

C.2 TRAINING IN IPM

IPM is an integral part of safe pesticide use and supporting the use of pesticides only within an IPM

framework is a core requirement of this PERSUAP. Therefore, pesticide safe use training must build an

understanding of IPM fundamentals.

The heart of IPM is an understanding of the relationship between pest injury, damage, yield loss, and

economic loss. IPM was developed within the discipline of economic entomology. Farmers who are not

trained in IPM may spray a crop upon seeing a single insect in a field or a few brown spots of a disease on

a leaf. Pesticides are expensive and should only be used as a last resort and only when economically

justified.

Threshold determination. Extension workers and farmers first need to understand the relationship

between increasing injury levels and crop yield of each pest which is known as the damage function. A

small amount of injury in fact can cause yield gain called overcompensation. In most cases, significant

yield loss does not occur until a certain pest density occurs in the field because the crop can compensate

for this level of damage. Then there is normally a linear decline in yield with increasing pest density. From


this relationship, the economic injury level, economic threshold, or action threshold can be defined in the

case of insect pests. Other methods to assess the threat of weeds and crop diseases will need to be

developed based on field experience. Certain guidelines can be developed based on experience in

neighboring countries.

IPM involves several tiers of integration. First there is the integration between control methods which

must be harmonious. A non-harmonious example is the negative effect of pesticides on biocontrol

agents. Biocontrol, which is the action of natural enemies against the pest, is free to the farmer so it

behooves him not to upset this delicate balance unless absolutely necessary. The next tier

of integration occurs between the different pest control disciplines. When one sprays an

insecticide, herbivorous insects feeding on weeds are killed. Some fungicides also kill

insect pests. Removing weeds forces army worms to feed on the crop. The third tier is

integration with the cropping system and farming system. Crops that are well nourished

can tolerate more damage. Many crop husbandry practices also affect pests, either positively or negatively.

Application of nitrogen fertilizer is an example. On the one hand it can stimulate plant diseases, but on

the other nitrogen fertilizer can provide strength of the crop to tolerate insect pest damage.

Pests do not occur in isolation; thus the crop has to deal with multiple pests as well as multiple stresses. A

crop that is weak from zinc deficiency or water stress cannot tolerate as much pest damage as a healthier

crop. In fact, some sucking insect pests explode in abundance on a drought-stressed crop, further

exacerbating the problem. The relationship between multiple pests and multiple stresses can be additive

(1 + 1 = 2), antagonistic (1 + 1 = 1), or synergistic (1 + 1 = 3). This can occur in terms of yield loss from

adding more pests or stresses, or can occur in terms of yield gain when one or more stresses are removed

due to an effective curative control effort.

IPM training should provide examples of the different pest control methods beginning with

preventative ones, which start with quarantine and cultural crop husbandry methods based on good

agronomic practices, which increase the crop’s tolerance for pest injury. Many of these methods fall under

the rubric of cultural control. Host plant resistance is another good example of prevention. Other pest

control methods can be physical (e.g., a fence to keep out animals), mechanical (e.g., using nets), or

biological (e.g., parasitoids, predators, pathogens). Biological methods include natural control and man-

induced methods, such as purchasing and releasing natural enemies or using selective pesticides. As a last

resort there is chemical control.

Farmers will need to be trained to recognize pests in the field and to be able to assess their densities as

well as know several methods of control for each. Training manuals with high-quality, color photos will

be essential in the training process. Government-approved, recommended practices need to be published

and updated annually in guides given to extension officers.

C.3 UNDERSTANDING PESTICIDE LABELS AND MATERIAL SAFETY DATA

SHEETS

The label of a pesticide container must have all the information about risks as well as information needed

for safe and effective use. Additional important details about risks of pesticide products and instructions

about safe use can be found in the manufacturer’s MSDS. Labels and MSDS for some pesticides are

available online at http://www.cdms.net and http://www.greenbook.net.

The label on a pesticide container has to provide the following information::

Product risks and how to minimize these risks including through proper handling and use of PPE

Intended use.

http://www.cdms.net/

http://www.greenbook.net/


How to handle, use, and store the pesticide safely.

To tell the user how and when to apply the pesticide for the best effect.

Pesticide lables must identify health, eco-system and physical hazards that can be associated with each

chemical used. It is important to know the hazard classification of each chemical used in order to

determine many different aspects of safely handling that chemical.

The Hazard Communication Standard (29CFR 1910.1200) requires all manufacturers or distributors of

any products containing chemicals to evaluate the chemical hazards of the product. The evaluation is

performed by classifying each chemical based on published toxicological or other data to determine its

physical and health hazards.

By US law, pesticide labels must contain:

The name of the product.

Level of toxicity.

Active ingredients.

Other ingredients-co-formulants.

The pests which the product will control.

The rate of application of the product (how much of it to use).

The time and method of application.

Directions for handling the product safely.

First aid procedures in case of an accident.

Any special instructions or warnings about its use, transport, storage, or disposal.

The net contents (weight when packed) of the container.


The Globally Harmonized System (GHS) was developed by the United Nations for international standardization of hazard classification and communication that provides hazard rating. The pesticide pictogram provides information about risks and safety measures required.

An example of an item that may be considered supplementary is the personal protective equipment (PPE) pictogram indicating what workers handling the chemical may need to wear to protect themselves.


C.4 PROTECTIVE CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT

Pesticide safety training must address the types of personal protective equipment (PPE), when they

should be worn and why, as shown in Table C.1 below.

TABLE C.1. HANDLER PPE FOR WORKER PROTECTION STANDARD PRODUCTS

ROUTE OF

EXPOSURE

TOXICITY CLASSIFICATION BY ROUTE OF EXPOSURE OF END-USE PRODUCT

I

DANGER

II

WARNING

III

CAUTION

IV

CAUTION

Dermal

Toxicity

or Skin

Irritation

Potential1/

Coveralls worn over

long-sleeved shirt

and long pants

Coveralls worn

over long-

sleeved shirt and

long pants

Long-sleeved

shirt and long

pants

Long-sleeved

shirt and long

pants

Socks Socks Socks Socks

Chemical-resistant

footwear

Chemical-

resistant

footwear

Rubber boots or

shoes

Rubber boots or

shoes

Chemical-resistant

Gloves2

Chemical-

resistant

gloves2

Chemical-

resistant

Gloves2

No minimum4

Inhalation

Toxicity Respiratory

protection device3

Respiratory

protection

device3

No minimum4 No minimum4

Eye Irritation

Potential

Goggles5 Goggles5 No minimum4 No minimum4

1 If dermal t1/Toxicity and skin irritation toxicity categories are different, PPE shall be determined by the more severe toxicity

classification of the two. If dermal toxicity or skin irritation is category I or II, refer to the pesticide label/MSDS to determine if

additional PPE is required. 2 Refer to the pesticide label/MSDS to determine the specific type of chemical-resistant glove. 3 Refer to the pesticide label/MSDS to determine the specific type of respiratory protection. 4 Although no minimum PPE is required for these toxicity categories and routes of exposure, some specific products may require

PPE. Read pesticide label/MSDS. 5 “Protective eyewear” is used instead of “goggles” and/or “face shield” and/or “shielded safety glasses” and similar terms to

describe eye protection. Eye glasses and sunglasses are not sufficient eye protection.

Note: Where necessary, farmers can make their own PPE. For example, a plastic or water repellent apron

from the waist to ankle length, can be fashioned from a large piece of plastic purchased in the local

market (important if walking through the spray path).


C.5 PROPER SPRAY TECHNIQUE: PROTECTING AGAINST PESTICIDE

SPRAY DRIFT

Many farmers apply pesticides with a knapsack sprayer, which means that delivery of pesticides is either in

front of the person spraying or to the side, not to the back as is the case with tractor-drawn sprayers.

Inevitably pesticide drift will be carried by the wind and potentially settle on sensitive ecosystems such as

national parks if they are nearby. Herbicides pose the greatest risk for environmental damage, especially

when their drift lands on a neighbors crops and kills or severely damages them.

The potential for drift to travel long distances has been shown with highly residual chlorinated

hydrocarbon pesticides, such as DDT, which have moved through the atmosphere and been found in

measurable quantities at both poles on earth. Pesticides that can be transported to the earth’s distant poles

are bound tightly to dust particles carried high into the atmosphere and transported by jet streams. Their

presence only represents a very small percentage of the drift. Spray drift is a mostly local phenomenon,

whereby spray droplets move to areas near the field.

There are a number of ways in which pesticide drift can be minimized:

Increase spray droplet size. Fog-sized droplets can travel three miles (4.8 km) while coarse droplets

typically travel less than 10 feet (3 meters). To increase droplet size, the farmer can reduce spray pressure

(e.g., 30 to 50 pounds per square inch [2-3.5 kg/cm2] with 5 to 20 gallons [19 to 76 liters] of water per

acre [.4 ha]), increase nozzle orifice size, use special drift reduction nozzles, and purchase additives that

increase spray viscosity.

Distance between nozzle and target. Reduce the distance between the nozzle and the target crop.

Temperature and relative humidity. As pesticides vaporize under high temperature, low relative humidity

and/or high temperature will cause more rapid evaporation of spray droplets between the spray nozzle

and the target. Evaporation also reduces droplet size, which in turn increases the potential drift of spray

droplets. It is best not to spray in the heat of the day to avoid drift problems.

Avoid spraying when the wind speed > 10 mph (16 km/h). As drift occurs as droplets suspended in the

air, it is best to minimize applications during windy days. If spraying has to be done, however, the farmer

should spray away from sensitive areas. Local terrain can influence wind patterns, thus every applicator

should be familiar with local wind patterns and how they affect spray drift.

Do not spray when the air is completely calm or when a temperature inversion exists. When the air is

completely still, small spray droplets become suspended in the warm air near the soil surface and will be

readily carried aloft and away from susceptible plants by vertical air movement. Temperature inversion

occurs when air near the soil surface is cooler than the higher air. Temperature inversions restrict vertical

air mixing, which causes small suspended droplets to remain in a concentrated cloud and impact plants

two miles or more downwind. This cloud can move in unpredictable directions due to the light, variable

winds common during inversions.

Application height. Making applications at the lowest height reduces exposure of droplets to evaporation

and wind.


C.6 PESTICIDE TRANSPORT AND STORAGE

Where IPs or beneficiary groups will be transporting pesticides, training must address the fundamentals

of safe transport of pesticides. (Some of the largest accidents involving pesticides have occurred during

transportation.) Drivers should be trained on how to deal with and contain spills, and not to transport

pesticides with food. Many of the agro-dealers are small and ship their stock individually in relatively small

quantities. Agro-dealers should be sensitized about minimizing potential risks during transportation.

Storing pesticides properly protects human and animal health, safeguards wells and surface waters, and

prevents unauthorized access to hazardous chemicals. The pesticide label is the best guide to storage

requirements for every product. The MSDS provides additional information on normal appearance and

odor as well as flash point, fire control recommendations, boiling point, and solubility.

Further, if IP-run pesticide stores exist in an area with fire or emergency services, local first responders

must receive training on how to deal with pesticide fires. The smoke from such a fire is highly hazardous

and effluent from water spray can do great harm to the environment. If fire fighters use water to put out

a fire in a pesticide storage shed, the runoff will be highly toxic.

Minimum elements of safe transport are:

Keep pesticides away from passengers, livestock and foodstuffs;

Do not carry pesticides in driver’s compartment;

Containers must be in good condition;

Do not transport packages with any leakage; and,

Transport under cover and protected from rain, and direct sunlight.

Preventative measures are required in pesticide warehouses in order to reduce cases of

pilferage, exposure through leakages, theft, and expiration of pesticides. Where IPs or

beneficiaries, including agro-dealers, will be maintaining pesticide stores, training must

address these practices, as per the best management practices for pesticide storage

highlighted in FAO storage manual and summarized below:

All primary pesticide storage facilities will be double-padlocked and guarded on a 24-

hour basis.

All the storage facilities will be located away from water sources, domestic wells,

markets, schools, hospitals, etc. Wastewater from pesticide storage facilities must not

be drained directly into public drains but should be pretreated on site.

Soap and clean water will be available at all times in all the facilities.

A trained storekeeper will be hired to manage each facility.

Pesticides will be stacked as specified in the FAO Storage and Stock Control Manual.

Inventory management will include recording expiration dates of all pesticides and

maintaining a “first-in first-out” stocking system.

All the warehouses will have at least two exit access routes in case of a fire outbreak.

A non-water-based fire extinguisher will be available in the storage facilities, and all

workers will be trained on how to use this device, and how to respond to fire (see

below).

Warning notices will be placed outside of the store in the local language(s) with a skull

and crossbones sign to caution against unauthorized entry.


C.7 FIRST AID FOR PESTICIDE POISONING

It is important to provide training on recognition of the symptoms of a pesticide poisoning so the victim

will receive timely treatment. Contact information of the closest medical facility must be known and

available if someone can be possibly poisoned with a pesticide. Quick action could save the victim's life.

Farmers must be trained to make sure to take the label and if possible the MSDS on the chemical to the

hospital. This will enable the medical professionals to treat the victim properly and promptly.

Training must include the basic elements of pesticide first aid, as per Table C.2 below. Wherever possible,

personnel at local health facilities should participate in/receive such training.

TABLE C.2. PESTICIDE POISONING FIRST AID

General Read the first aid instructions on the pesticide label, if possible, and follow them. Do

not become exposed to poisoning yourself while you are trying to help. Take the

pesticide container (or the label) to the physician.

Poison on

skin

Act quickly.

Remove contaminated clothing and drench skin with water.

Cleanse skin and hair thoroughly with detergent and water.

Dry victim and wrap in blanket.

Chemical

burn on skin

Wash with large quantities of running water.

Remove contaminated clothing.

Cover burned area immediately with loose, clean, soft cloth.

Do not apply ointments, greases, powders, or other drugs in first aid treatment of

burns.

Poison in

eye

Wash eye quickly but gently.

Hold eyelid open and wash with gentle stream of clean running water.

Wash for 15 minutes or more.

Do not use chemicals or drugs in the wash water; they may increase the extent of

injury.

Inhaled

poison

Carry victim to fresh air immediately.

Open all doors and windows so no one else will be poisoned.

Loosen tight clothing.

Apply artificial respiration if breathing has stopped or if the victim’s skin is blue. If

victim is in an enclosed area, do not enter without proper protective clothing and

equipment. If proper protection is not available, call for emergency equipment from

your fire department (if available).


TABLE C.2. PESTICIDE POISONING FIRST AID

Poison in

mouth or

swallowed

Rinse mouth with plenty of water.

Give victim large amounts (up to 1 quart) of milk or water to drink.

Induce vomiting only if instructions to do so are on the label.

Procedure

for inducing

vomiting

Position victim face down or kneeling forward. Do not allow victim to lie on his back,

because the vomit could enter the lungs and do additional damage.

Put finger or the blunt end of a spoon at the back of victim’s throat or give syrup of

ipecac.

Collect some of the vomit for the physician if you do not know what the poison is.

Do not use salt solutions to induce vomiting.

When not to

induce

vomiting

If the victim is unconscious or is having convulsions.

If the victim has swallowed a corrosive poison. A corrosive poison is a strong acid or

alkali. It will burn the throat and mouth as severely coming up as it did going down.

It may get into the lungs and burn there also.

If the victim has swallowed an emulsifiable concentrate or oil solution. Emulsifiable

concentrates and oil solutions may cause severe damage to the lungs if inhaled

during vomiting.

C.8 PROPER PESTICIDE CONTAINER DISPOSAL

Once pesticides have been used, the empty containers need to be properly disposed of. Training must

address proper disposal. Table C.3 gives a summary of the best practices for doing so.

TABLE C.3. PROPER METHODS TO DISPOSE OF PESTICIDES AND THEIR EMPTY CONTAINERS

CONTAINER TYPE DISPOSAL STATEMENTS

Metal Containers (non-aerosol) Triple rinse. Then offer for recycling or

reconditioning, or puncture and bury.

Paper and Plastic Bags Completely empty bag into application

equipment. Then bury empty bag.

Glass Containers Triple rinse. Then bury.

Plastic Containers Triple rinse. Then offer for recycling or

reconditioning, or puncture and bury.


C.9 MONITORING AND DATA RECORD KEEPING

DRC small-scale farmers do not keep records of information on crops grown, production, pest attack,

pesticides used, whether the pesticides worked well or not, pest resistance development and pre-harvest

intervals to reduce pesticide residues. Certified large-scale commercial and estate farms, on the other

hand, generally keep detailed records.

Interviewed shop operators indicated that they received some feed-back from growers regarding pesticide

effectiveness and development of resistance. For example, during the course of year 2015, commonly

used pesticides such as cypermethrin was reported less effective. Farmers claimed that they have to apply

more and more powerful pesticides. Poor pesticide management practices contribute to resistance

development. While anecdotal evidence exists, projects must conduct training programs on monitoring

and data record-keeping techniques for pest control and pesticide needs and/or effectiveness to combat

development of resistance.

An example of monitoring and record keeping chart is included below. Suggestions for development of

simple charts for monitoring and record keeping can be found at http://www.hobbyfarms.com/crops-

and-gardening/crop-record-keeping-charts.aspx.

TABLE C.4. EXAMPLE OF MONITORING AND RECORD KEEPING CHART

Crop Plot

Location

Plot

Size

Planted

Date

Pests

Observed

Infestation

Severity

Management

Technique

Date/Time

of

Application

Notes (Rate

of

Application,

Weather,

Etc.)

Harvested

Date

Results

http://www.hobbyfarms.com/crops-and-gardening/crop-record-keeping-charts.aspx

http://www.hobbyfarms.com/crops-and-gardening/crop-record-keeping-charts.aspx


ANNEX D: POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS

Although chemical pesticide use is historically low throughout most of Sub-Saharan Africa compared to other parts of the developing world, some increase in pesticide use is occurring as income levels rise. While there are no data for pesticide use in the DRC for specific crops, donor-funded programs sometimes support pesticide use. 53 New agricultural practices and technologies such as low-till agriculture and improved crop varieties are being increasingly introduced to farmers. However, DRC has very limited capacity for regulation and management of pesticides by national and local governments, lack of awareness regarding pesticide risks to people and the environment among farmers and very limited ability to address these risks.

In DRC, where pesticide use is still relatively low, introduction of pesticides without the complex systems required to regulate and manage pesticides presents a significant risk to individuals, society and ecosystems and possibly a lost opportunity for development of organic agriculture.

Because pesticides are toxic, in order to regulate and manage pesticides and minimize risks, a complex and interrelated system is put in place in developed countries. For the purposes of simplicity, components of this system are presented below as a list rather as an inter-related scheme.54

Pesticide regulatory and risk management systems

International pesticide regulations affecting cross-boundary trade ---- International Organizations and Institutions

Trade agreements

Conventions

Partnerships and memberships in international organizations

National regulations/government policies --- Government agencies and institutions, public funded universities and schools, private sector, NGOs, multilateral institutions

Legislation of production, importation, exportation, marketing and sales

Registration of AIs and products

Establishing risk reduction requirements

Residue limits

Label requirements

Use guidelines and restrictions (application, transport, storage, disposal)

Establishing/funding and maintaining/funding controls

Enforcement of pesticide regulations

Registration, certification, accreditation, permits and licensing of production,

importation, exportation, marketing and sales

Controlling borders including product and phytosanitary control

Implementing/funding research and monitoring

Testing pesticide products effectiveness

Testing product authenticity and quality

R&D developing alternatives (IPM measures e.g. bio-pesticides, natural enemies)

Environmental pollution monitoring

Establishing medical response and reporting requirements

53 USAID Climate risk screening for food security Democratic Republic of Congo, Climate Change Adaptation, Thought Leadership and Assessments (ATLAS) Task Order No. AID-OAA-I-14-00013 54 https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/7932.pdf

https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/files/odi-assets/publications-opinion-files/7932.pdf


Pesticide-related illness and injury surveillance and testing

Establishing pest monitoring and outbreak alert systems

Establishing pesticide use monitoring and reporting systems

Implementing/funding education and extension systems

Degree and certification programs, vocational programs

Extension service providing farmer technical services and advice

Pesticide risks and safety education and awareness programs

Implementing/funding infrastructure development

Disposal of obsolete, expired, counterfeit products

Disposal and recycling of pesticide contaminated waste including containers and

packaging

Pesticide markets --- Private sector and supporting institutions

Manufacture, formulate and export

Manufacture, maintain inventory, store and distribute in accordance with regulations

Conduct R&D

Register products (AIs and inert ingredients)

Provide toxicological profiles

Provide complete product label

Inform product use, storage and shelf life conditions

Provide MSDS

Provide instructions for cleanup of spills

Import, wholesale and sell retail

Obtain regulatory permits, registrations and certifications

Maintain inventory, store and distribute in accordance with regulations

Maintain a list of products offered

Pesticide users –Sectors: agriculture, livestock production, poultry, aquaculture, turfs and

gardens, commodity storage, public health, right of way clearing, structural control – individuals,

organizations and companies

Purchasing, transporting, applying, storing

Properly disposing of pesticides and pesticide containers

Obtaining training and certification where available/required

Following pesticide labels and MSDS instructions

Procuring and using Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Monitoring pest occurrence and reporting unusual occurrence and outbreaks to extension

Monitoring and reporting pesticide use and reporting to extension

Responsible use and safeguarding people and environment

In countries where farmers have low level of education and literacy mostly highly toxic broad spectrum

products are currently being used without the necessary safety measures. Before introducing pesticides

into low pesticide use, poorly developed countries, it is important to ensure that regulatory, management

and systems are in place to handle increased pesticide availability and use. Supporting development of

pest control profession, developing infrastructure and regulatory frameworks capable of handling

introduction of pesticides and resulting waste that is being generated at increasing rates is essential for

moving pesticides out of hands of illiterate and untrained individuals and protecting the people and the

environment.


REFERENCES AND RESOURCES

US EPA chemical search:

http://iaspub.epa.gov/apex/pesticides/f?p=CHEMICALSEARCH:1:0

Inert ingredients search

http://iaspub.epa.gov/apex/pesticides/f?p=INERTFINDER:1:0::NO:1::

Inert Ingredients Eligible for FIFRA 25(b) Pesticide Products


US EPA product label search:

http://iaspub.epa.gov/apex/pesticides/f?p=PPLS:1

US product search:

http://ppis.ceris.purdue.edu/

National Pesticide Information Center:

http://npic.orst.edu/npicfact.htm

WHO Recommended Classification

http://www.who.int/ipcs/publications/pesticides_hazard_2009.pdf?ua=1

Pesticides approved in EU:

http://sitem.herts.ac.uk/aeru/ppdb/en/atoz.htm

http://sitem.herts.ac.uk/aeru/bpdb/atoz.htm

http://sitem.herts.ac.uk/aeru/vsdb/atoz.htm

Restricted Use Pesticides (RUP):

https://www.epa.gov/pesticide-worker-safety/restricted-use-products-rup-report Hazard

Communication Standard: Labels and Pictograms

https://www.osha.gov/Publications/OSHA3636.pdf

Chemical Hazard Classification

https://www.drs.illinois.edu/SafetyLibrary/ChemicalHazardClassification

NFPA Hazard Rating Information for Common Chemicals:

http://safety.nmsu.edu/programs/chem_safety/NFPA-ratingJ-R.htm

http://www.ehs.neu.edu/laboratory_safety/general_information/nfpa_hazard_rating/

Pesticides and Cancer

http://pesticide.umd.edu/products/leaflet_series/leaflets/PIL33.pdf

Pesticide adjuvants

http://iaspub.epa.gov/apex/pesticides/f?p=CHEMICALSEARCH:1:0

http://iaspub.epa.gov/apex/pesticides/f?p=INERTFINDER:1:0::NO:1

http://iaspub.epa.gov/apex/pesticides/f?p=PPLS:1

http://ppis.ceris.purdue.edu/

http://npic.orst.edu/npicfact.htm

http://www.who.int/ipcs/publications/pesticides_hazard_2009.pdf?ua=1

http://sitem.herts.ac.uk/aeru/ppdb/en/atoz.htm

http://sitem.herts.ac.uk/aeru/bpdb/atoz.htm

https://www.osha.gov/Publications/OSHA3636.pdf

https://www.drs.illinois.edu/SafetyLibrary/ChemicalHazardClassification

http://safety.nmsu.edu/programs/chem_safety/NFPA-ratingJ-R.htm

http://www.ehs.neu.edu/laboratory_safety/general_information/nfpa_hazard_rating/

http://pesticide.umd.edu/products/leaflet_series/leaflets/PIL33.pdf


http://psep.cce.cornell.edu/facts-slides-self/facts/gen-peapp-adjuvants.aspx

Codex alimentarius (pesticide residues in food and feed):

http://www.codexalimentarius.net/pestres/data/pesticides/search.html

Guidelines for Training

http://pesticidestewardship.org/Pages/default.aspx

http://www.croplifeafrica.org/

Pesticide Applicator Core Training Manual

http://www.stewartfarm.org/phragmites/pdf/coremanual.pdf

IPM

www.infonet-biovision.org

www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/GENERAL/whatisipm.html

www.birc.org/products.pdf

www.ipm,ncsu.edu/agchem/1-toc.pdf

http://ipm.ncsu.edu/vegetables/pests_vegetables.html

http://ipm.tamu.edu/about/glossary/economic-thresholds/

http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/

https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/plants/fruit-and-vegetables/a-z-list-of-horticultural-insect-pests

http://www.organic-africa.net/fileadmin/documents-africamanual/training-manual/chapter-

09/Africa_Manual_M09-8.pdf

http://www.plantwise.org/

Lists the species recorded in the Compendium for DRC region

http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108615

Preventing development of pest resistance

IRAC http://www.irac-online.org/documents/moa-classification/?ext=pdf

FRAC http://www.frac.info/docs/default-source/publications/frac-code-list/frac-code-list-2017-final.pdf?sfvrsn=fab94a9a

IPM insect and disease control

http://www.caes.uga.edu/extension/habersham/anr/documents/Organic.pdf

Pesticide regulations

http://epi.yale.edu/files/pops_final.pdf

http://psep.cce.cornell.edu/facts-slides-self/facts/gen-peapp-adjuvants.aspx

http://www.codexalimentarius.net/pestres/data/pesticides/search.html



http://www.croplifeafrica.org/

http://www.stewartfarm.org/phragmites/pdf/coremanual.pdf

http://www.infonet-biovision.org/

http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/GENERAL/whatisipm.html

http://www.birc.org/products.pdf

http://www.ipm,ncsu.edu/agchem/1-toc.pdf

http://ipm.ncsu.edu/vegetables/pests_vegetables.html

http://ipm.tamu.edu/about/glossary/economic-thresholds/

http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/

https://www.daf.qld.gov.au/plants/fruit-and-vegetables/a-z-list-of-horticultural-insect-pests

http://www.organic-africa.net/fileadmin/documents-africamanual/training-manual/chapter-09/Africa_Manual_M09-8.pdf

http://www.organic-africa.net/fileadmin/documents-africamanual/training-manual/chapter-09/Africa_Manual_M09-8.pdf

http://www.plantwise.org/

http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/108615

http://www.irac-online.org/documents/moa-classification/?ext=pdf

http://www.caes.uga.edu/extension/habersham/anr/documents/Organic.pdf

http://epi.yale.edu/files/pops_final.pdf


http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/environment/compliance/22cfr216

Effects of Modern Agriculture

http://mjcetenvsci.blogspot.co.il/2013/10/effects-of-modern-agriculture.html

Hazardous pesticides and health impacts in Africa

http://www.pan-uk.org/attachments/101_Hazardous_pesticides_and_health_impacts_in_Africa.pdf

Insect Damage, Postharvest Operations

http://www.fao.org/3/a-av013e.pdf

LSUAG Center

http://www.lsuagcenter.com/en/crops_livestock/crops/

Insect pests of rice

http://books.irri.org/9712200280_content.pdf

Insects as pests

http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/course/ent425/text18/pestintro.html

Potential groundwater contamination from intentional and nonintentional storm water infiltration

https://books.google.com/books?id=kIzoGxF9GvUC&pg=PA5&lpg=PA5&dq=fungicides+potential+

groundwater+pollutants&source=bl&ots=mcyfhV5R2v&sig=vARUKmI3kXUbKpElLwErHGp-

Ytk&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAWoVChMI3Ljf-

6TyyAIVhTUmCh0G_ANN#v=onepage&q=fungicides%20potential%20groundwater%20pollutants&f

=false

An introduction to insecticides

http://ipmworld.umn.edu/ware-intro-insecticides

Fungal diseases of pearl millet

http://www.tifton.uga.edu/fat/fungaldiseasesPM.htm

Pest monitoring

http://pesticidestewardship.org/ipm/Pages/Monitoring.aspx

Recognition and Management of Pesticide Poisoning

http://npic.orst.edu/RMPP/rmpp_main2a.pdf

Organic Africa Net

http://www.organic-africa.net/fileadmin/documents-africamanual/training-manual/chapter-

09/Africa_Manual_M09-22-low-res.pdf

Crops pests and diseases

http://africasoilhealth.cabi.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/519-ASHC-manual-English.pdf

http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/environment/compliance/22cfr216

http://mjcetenvsci.blogspot.co.il/2013/10/effects-of-modern-agriculture.html

http://www.pan-uk.org/attachments/101_Hazardous_pesticides_and_health_impacts_in_Africa.pdf

http://www.fao.org/3/a-av013e.pdf

http://www.lsuagcenter.com/en/crops_livestock/crops/

http://books.irri.org/9712200280_content.pdf

https://books.google.com/books?id=kIzoGxF9GvUC&pg=PA5&lpg=PA5&dq=fungicides+potential+groundwater+pollutants&source=bl&ots=mcyfhV5R2v&sig=vARUKmI3kXUbKpElLwErHGp-Ytk&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CCsQ6AEwAWoVChMI3Ljf-6TyyAIVhTUmCh0G_ANN#v=onepage&q=fungicides%20potential%20groundwater%20pollutants&f=false





http://ipmworld.umn.edu/ware-intro-insecticides

http://www.tifton.uga.edu/fat/fungaldiseasesPM.htm

http://pesticidestewardship.org/ipm/Pages/Monitoring.aspx

http://npic.orst.edu/RMPP/rmpp_main2a.pdf

http://africasoilhealth.cabi.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/519-ASHC-manual-English.pdf


Minimizing vegetable disease

http://plantclinic.cornell.edu/factsheets/minimizeveggiediseases.pdf

Vegetable diseases

http://vegetablemdonline.ppath.cornell.edu/cropindex.htm

US National Pesicide Information Center

http://npic.orst.edu/ingred/mfgrdata.htm

Wilt disease

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4356456/

http://agriculture.vic.gov.au/agriculture/pests-diseases-and-weeds/plant-diseases/vegetable/potato-diseases/potatoes-bacterial-wilt

Chinchona diseases

https://archive.org/stream/reviewofliteratu09lomb/reviewofliteratu09lomb_djvu.txt

http://plantclinic.cornell.edu/factsheets/minimizeveggiediseases.pdf

http://npic.orst.edu/ingred/mfgrdata.htm

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4356456/



https://archive.org/stream/reviewofliteratu09lomb/reviewofliteratu09lomb_djvu.txt

MISSION-WIDE AGRICULTURAL PESTICIDE EVALUATION REPORT … · 2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide...

Documents

Transcript of MISSION-WIDE AGRICULTURAL PESTICIDE EVALUATION REPORT … · 2017 USAID/DRC Mission-Wide...