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MANUAL 2010AGRO PROCESSING AGRO PROCESSING

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE

COMPENDIUM OF PROCESS FLOW TECHNOLOGY IN FRUIT & VEGETABLE PRESERVATIONEDITED BY

DR. OUDHO HOMENAUTH. DIRECTOR - NARI

1AgroManual | Revised Edition



ContentsTable of

Introduction 8

General procedure for fruit and vegetable preservation 9

Methods of reducing deterioration 16

Food spoilage: causes, effects and prevention 18

Packaging of food material 20

The ABC of Good Manufacturing 23

Quality assurance in the food industry 24

Process technology 27

Banana Banana Jam 27Banana ketchup 27Banana Raisin 28Banana In Syrup 28Banana in Toffee 28

Bread fruitBreadfruit flour 29

CarambolaCarambola all purpose sauce 29

CarrotsCarrot in brine 29Carrot halva 30

CashewCashew all purpose sauce 30Cashew in syrup 30Cashew jam 31Cashew Jelly 31

CassavaCassava Bread Sticks 32Cassava croquettes 32Casssava Mini Bread 32Cassava Pan Cake Mix 33

CherryCherry Jam 33Cherry Marmalade 33

Composite flourComposite flour 34Cookies 34

Dehydrated Boulanger 34Ginger 35Peppers 35

DunksDunks Prune 35

GingerGinger Flavoured Pepper sauce 36

GooseberryGooseberry all purpose sauce 36Gooseberry prune 36

Green seasoningGreen seasoning 37

GuavaGuava toffee 37

InstantInstant Rice 38

LemonLemon powder 38

MangoMango (candied 38

OchroOchro in brine 39

OrangeOrange marmalade 39Orange powder 40

PapawPapaw in syrup 40Papaw jam 40

Passion fruitPassion fruit in syrup 41Passion fruit all purpose sauce 41

PineapplePineapple in syrup 41Pineapple jam 42Pineapple all purpose sauce 42

Plum rosePlum rose in syrup 42

PumpkinPumpkin jam 43Pumpkin seeds (dehydrated) 43

RiceRice Noodles & Pasta 43

ContentsTable of

Root cropsCassava flour 44Sweet potato flour 44Yam Powder 44

Seasonings Broadleaf thyme 45Celery 45Fine leaf thyme 45Garlic 46Onion 46

SorrelSorrel all purpose sauce 46Sorrel powder 47

Sweet pepperSweet pepper in brine 47

TomatoesTomato in brine 47Tomato marmalade 48Tomato spicy ketchup 48

Bibliography 48



The Government has embarked on an Agricultural Diversification Programme that seeks to widen its production base in the light of serious challenges to traditional economic activities caused by the erosion

of preferential treatment, volatile commodity markets and cli-mate change. The plan to develop non-traditional agriculture products is central to this process and will reduce the depen-dency on revenue earned from traditional but most impor-tantly it will create an increase in employment and incomes, especially in rural areas, a reduction of poverty and maintain food security.

Whereas before all efforts were concentrated on produc-tion of primary products, we are now embarking on what is called the Commodity Chain approach. This chain encom-passes the complete sequence of operations which, starting from the raw material, or an intermediate product, finishes downstream, after several stages of processing or increases in value, at one or several final products at the level of the consumer.

The time has come for us to build on an agro- industrial base to underpin strive to render the agriculture sector com-petitive nationally and internationally. As it is, this is a very ef-fective method to overcome the very stringent SPS measures that are demanded by markets regionally and internationally.

This manual which was developed by the Ministry’s re-search unit – the National Agricultural Research Institute, is a very significant development; due to the fact that this is the first time ever such a manual as been produced in Guy-ana. It emphasizes the seriousness of the Ministry’s thrust to develop the agro- industry as part of the Government’s Vi-sion on transforming the Agriculture sector and the National Economy.

It is also recognition of its commitment to support the Pri-vate Sector particularly the local food manufacturing en-terprises and to encourage more involvement of the local Private sector in the Agriculture Sector. Once we have completed the development of the Amalia Falls hydro-power plant as source of clean energy, in keeping with the Low Carbon Develop-ment Strategy, there will be great potential for an ex-

FOREWORD

plosion of agro industries as there will be available reliable and affordable energy. The production of value added products can be an important revenue earner and one only has to look at the supermarket shelves and see the wide array of value added products from the Agriculture sector to recognize that this is indeed a huge commercial sector.

The production of this manual is only one of the ways the Ministry is committed to the agro processing industry. I there-fore would like to commend the Director and Staff of National Agricultural Research Institute, the Guyana Manufacturers and Services Association (GMSA) and other stakeholders for the production of such a valuable manual which would provide a very guide for the processing of agricultural products.

I commend this manual to all those interested in agro-pro-cessing and hope that it contributes to our vision of developing a vibrant agro-processing sector.

Hon. Robert M. Persaud, MBA, MPMinister of Agriculture



GMSA President’s Message

Quite apart and distinct from the dominant role the Agricultural Sector has played and continues to play in the economic development of Guyana, this contribution has within recent times assumed even

greater significance with the advent of the international food crisis which has given rise to the accelerated implementation of food security measures at the National levels.In as much as our Agricultural Sector has been contributing significantly to National Development and GDP, this performance is being threatened by the effects of climate change, as evidenced by the increasing occurrence of El Nino and La Nina phenomena brought about by Global Warming. This situation is further compounded by substantial losses and/or wastage due to insufficient post harvest intervention aimed at maximizing recoveries thereby optimizing value added potential of our products in most of the Agricultural Sub Sectors. It is likely that this position can be further exacerbated with the advent of recent bold initiatives taken by the government to expand Traditional sectors and intensify the development efforts at Non Traditional Sectors. The opportunities to be created by the implementation of the Low Carbon Development Strategies must see us penetrating and sustaining export market opportunities amidst fierce competition, stringent quality standards and robust trade barriers. The Government’s on-going agriculture diversification project will also give us impetus to be responsive to opportunitiesAgro-processing can be best defined as a set of techno-economic activities, applied to all produce originating from Agricultural Farm, Livestock, Aqua-cultural Sources and Forests for their conservation, handling and added value potential in order to allow for their usage and/or consumption as food, feed, fiber, fuel or as industrial raw materials.

Against this background, Guyana Manufacturing and Services Association Limited (GMSA) is of the view that greater emphasis should be placed on the establishment of a bona fide Agro-processing Industrial Sector in Guyana as has been done in other developing countries viz: India, South Africa, Ghana, Peru etc in order to achieve the following objectives:- Minimization of product losses by overcoming seasonality and removing perishability constraints- Maximization of product added value- Implementation and sustenance of quality, reliability and environmental standards consistent with international norms- Enhance food security and improve livelihoods of Guyanese.- Minimization of processing costs and hence maximization of export market potential- Finally, ensuring that that there is equitable distribution of the added value particularly as it relates to the primary producer.In this context, GMSA is indeed pleased to be associated with the Ministry of Agriculture but more particularly the R & D Unit NARI in the development of this Manual. Moreover it is our considered view that this collaborative effort would ensure that we deliver on our mandate to our membership i.e. provision of institutional capacity to initiate, advocate and promote programs and policies for the development and growth of the manufacturing and related services sectors. Additionally it would also serve to further strengthen the Public/Private Sector partnership not only in respect to the Fruits and Vegetables Sub Sector but to other sub sectors as well. For these reasons it is our intention to continue to strengthen our relationship not only with the Agriculture Ministry and its agencies, but with

other stakeholders as well such as the Guyana National Bureau of Standards (GNBS), Guyana Revenue Authority (GRA), Institute of Applied Science and Technology (IAST), etc in order to accelerate the establishment of a fully fledge and vibrant Agro-processing Industrial Sector in Guyana.

Clinton Williams - President Guyana Manufacturing and Services Association Limited



INTRODUCTION

Publisher • Lokesh SinghEditor • Dr. Oudho Homenauth, NARI, Ministry of Agriculture

Design & Production • Donald Brower Sales & Advertising • Susannah Morgan, Adrian Pryce

Photography • M. Motielall / NARI / AMS Cover Photo • Anil Ramlall

The production of perishable produce in tropical countries such as Guyana has been revolutionalised in recent times to take into consideration the creation of a harmonious relationship between demand and supply. The implementation of policy initiatives by the Government seek to position the marketing sector as the pivotal force behind the production and export capacity.

The concept of producing directly for markets subscribes to both the fresh commodity and processed forms. However, the current figures for the production of value added products both for local and export markets of some of the major fruits and vegetables indicate a very low level of operations. At the same time a large proportion of wastage occurs as the consumption of fresh produce remains insignificant. This represents not only losses related to food with respect to nutritional and health benefits but also economic losses.

The significant postharvest losses of perishable produce especially in the tropics have the genesis in the particular climatic conditions which in the absence of expensive technology cannot sustain the quality in an acceptable condition. The high temperatures and other stressful factors will initiate degradable processes such as high respiratory rates, dehydration, microbial infections, shriveling and other unfavourable effects. This will ultimately result in low shelf life and reduced quality of fresh produce for both the local and particularly the export markets.

The conversion of fresh produce to processed forms represents a suitable paradigm for minimizing wastage and adds value to a particular produce. A number of preservation techniques can be applied to perishable crops in a way best suited to the product type and attuned to the market requirements. This can assist in attaining the long term objective of establishing agro-industrial and agro-business operations in Guyana which in its present nascent form is only partially impacting at the economical level.

The agro-industrial initiatives will impact decidedly at the social level in resolving social ills such as poverty, unemployment and drug addiction. In addition, the development of cottage type industries may blossom which can enhance the empowerment of women and young people at the business level. The transformation and metamorphosis from a primary produce supplier to a product provider can propel Guyana to an advanced level and aid in fulfilling the agricultural policy objectives.

This manual seeks to provide information to the private sector on the types of value-added products for which business opportunities exist. The technologies mentioned were tested by the National Agricultural Research Institute and are recommended for implementation.

The Guyana Agro Manual is published by Advertising & Marketing Services (AMS)for the Ministry of Agriculture and the Guyana Manufacturers & Services Association

Reproduction of any material contained herein without written approval, constitutes a violation of copyright.

Though every effort has been made to present the information contained in this publication accurately, all opinions however constitute the author’s judgement. Advertising & Marketing Services

(AMS) accepts no liability for any inadvertent inclusions or omissions from this publication.

Editorial, Advertising and Correspondence to: Advertising & Marketing Services (AMS)

213B Camp Street, P.O. Box 101582, Georgetown, Guyana, Tel: (592) 225 5384 Fax: (592) 225 5383 Email: [email protected]

Fresh fruit and vegetable storage techniques

Once fruit is harvested, any natural resistance to the action of spoiling micro-organisms is lost. Changes in enzymatic systems of the fruit also occur on harvest which may also accelerate the activity of spoilage organisms.

Means that are commonly used to prevent spoilage of fruits must include:

• care to prevent cutting or bruising of the fruit during picking or handling;• refrigeration to minimize growth of micro-organisms and reduce enzyme activity;• packaging or storage to control respiration rate and ripening; and • use of preservatives to kill micro- organisms on the fruit.

A principal economic loss occurring during transportation and/ or storage of produce such as fresh fruit is the degradation which occurs between the field and the ultimate destination

due to the effect of respiration. Methods to reduce such degradation are as follows:

• refrigerate the produce to reduce the rate of respiration;• vacuum cooling;• reduce the oxygen content of the environment in which the produce is kept to a value not above 5% of the atmosphere but above the value at which anaerobic respiration would begin.

When the oxygen concentration is reduced within 60 minutes, the deterioration is in practice, negligible.

Appropr iate post harvest techniques

It is essential that the appropriate post harvest techniques used to ensure that the quality of produce is maintained.

Some of these important considerations are given below.

Harvest maturity. This is particularly important with fruit that is to be exported. Fruits need to be harvested at the correct time to ensure uniform ripening. For example, papaya should be harvested between the one stripe stage (one yellow stripe showing at the blossom end) and the quarter-ripe stage

(some yellow of the blossom end) as shown in Figure 1.

GENERAL PROCEDURES FOR FRUIT AND VEGETABLE PROCESSING



Harvest method. The appropriate harvesting method must be used for perishable crops with a view to minimizing damage. In the case of hot peppers, these should be harvested by grasping the fruit in the hands with the thumb and forefinger and pressing against the stem (Figure 2). With respect to tomatoes (Figure 3), pickers should grasp the fruit firmly but gently and pull upward with the thumb and forefinger pressed against the stem.

Handling and packaging systems. Harvested produce must be handled and packaged properly to minimize losses. Some examples of proper packaging are shown in Figures 4 and 5. Improper packaging is illustrated in Figures 6 and 7.

Fig 2. Harvesting of peppers

Fig 4. Layer packing of pineapple for transport

Fig 6. Improper packing of pineapple for transport

Fig 3. Harvesting of jointed tomatoes from plant

Fig 5. Passion fruit packed 2kg cartoon

Fig 7. Passion fruit handled poorly

Fig 8. Wax peppers exhibit a noticeable surface shine.

Pre-cooling. This is the first step in good temperature management. Freshly harvested crops hold heat from the sun at ambient temperature. This is usually high and should be removed as quickly as possible before shipping, processing, or storage.

Chemicals. There is a very strong health lobby against the use of chemicals during the post harvest period.

Coatings. The process of slowing down the metabolism of fruit and vegetables by coating them with a material which affects their gaseous exchange is used commercially on a number of products. For example, the waxing is known to increase the shelf life of harvested produce such as peppers (Figure 8).

Controlled environment transport. Refrigerated transport is highly recommended for perishable crops. Temperature control is critically needed for long distances. The New Guyana Marketing Cooperation (NGMC) has recently imported refrigerated trucks to assist farmers in this regard.

Preservation by reduction of water content: drying/dehydration and concentration

Micro-organisms in a healthy state may contain in excess of 80% water. They get this water from the food

in which they grow. If the water is removed from the food it also will transfer out of the bacterial cell and multiplication will stop. Partial drying will be less effective than

total drying, though for some micro-organisms partial drying may be quite sufficient to arrest bacterial growth and multiplication.

Bacteria and yeasts generally require more moisture than moulds, and so moulds are often found growing on semi-dry foods, e.g. bread, where bacteria and yeasts find conditions unfavourable.

Slight differences in relative humidity in the environment in which the food is kept or in the food package can make great differences in the rate of micro-organism multiplication. Since micro-organisms can live in one part of a food that may differ in moisture and other physical and chemical conditions from the food just millimeters away, we must be concerned with conditions in the “microenvironment” of the micro-organisms. Thus it is common to refer to water conditions in terms of specific activity.

The term “water activity” is related to relative humidity. Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor in the air to the vapour pressure of pure water at the same temperature. Relative humidity refers to the atmosphere surrounding a material or solution.

Water activity or aW is a property of solutions and is the ratio of vapor pressure of the solution compared with the vapor pressure of pure water at the same temperature.

When we speak of moisture requirements of micro-organisms we really mean water activity in their immediate environment, whether this be in solution, in a particle of food or at a surface in contact with the atmosphere. At the usual temperatures permitting microbial growth, most bacteria require a water activity in the range of about 0.90 to 1.00. Some yeasts and moulds grow slowly at a water activity down to as low as about 0.65.

Qualitatively, water activity is a measure of unbound, free water in a system available to support biological and chemical reactions. Water activity, not absolute water content, is what bacteria, enzymes and chemical reactants encounter and are affected by at the micro-environmental level in food materials.

Two foods with the same water content can have very different values depending upon the degree to which water is free or otherwise bound to food constituents.

Drying/dehydrationThis technique of drying is probably

the oldest method of food preservation practiced by mankind. The removal of moisture prevents the growth and reproduction of micro-organisms causing decay and minimizes many of the moisture mediated deterioration reactions.

It brings about substantial reduction in weight and volume, minimizing packing, storage and transportation costs and enable storability of the product under ambient temperatures. These features are especially important for developing countries. The sharp rise in energy costs has resulted in increased interest in this process world-wide over the last decade.

Heat and mass transferDehydration involves the application

of heat to vaporize water and some means of removing water vapour after its separation from the fruit/vegetable tissues. Hence it is a combined/simultaneous (heat and mass) transfer operation for which energy must be supplied.

A current of air is the most common medium for transferring heat to a drying tissue and convection is mainly involved. The two important aspects of mass transfer are:

- the transfer of water to the surface of material being dried; and- the removal of water vapor from the surface.

In order to assure products of high quality at a reasonable cost, dehydration must occur fairly rapidly. Four main factors affect the rate and total drying time. These are:

- the properties of the products, especially particle size and geometry;- the geometrical arrangement of the products in relation to heat transfer medium (drying air);

• the physical properties of drying medium/ environment; and• the characteristics of the drying equipment.

Surface area. Generally the fruit and vegetables to be hydrated are cut into small pieces or thin layers to accelerate heat and mass transfer. Subdivision speeds drying for two reasons.

• large surface areas provide more surface in contact with the heating medium (air) and more surface from which moisture can escape: and• smaller particles or thinner layers reduce the distance heat must travel to the centre of the food and reduce the distance through which moisture in the centre of the food must travel to reach the surface and escape.

Temperature. The greater the temperature difference between the heating medium and the food the greater will be the rate of heat transfer into the food, which provides the driving force for moisture removal. When the heating medium is air, temperature plays a second important role.

As water is driven from the food in the form of water vapour it must be carried away, or else the moisture will create a saturated atmosphere at the food’s surface which will slow down the rate of subsequent water removal. The hotter the air the more moisture it will hold before becoming saturated.

Thus, high temperature air in the vicinity of the dehydrating food will take up the moisture being driven from the food to a greater extent than cooler air. Obviously, a greater volume of air also can take up more moisture than a lesser volume of air.

Air velocity. Not only will heated air take up more moisture than cool air, but air in motion will be still more effective. Air in motion, that is, high velocity air, in addition to taking up moisture will sweep it away from the drying food’s surface, preventing the moisture from creating a saturated atmosphere which would slow down



subsequent moisture removal. This is why clothes dry more rapidly on a windy day.

Some other phenomena influence the drying process and a few elements are summarized below.

Dryness of air. When air is the drying medium of food, the drier the air the more rapid is the rate of drying. Dry air is capable of absorbing and holding moisture. Moist air is closer to saturation and so can absorb and hold less additional moisture than if it were dry. But the dryness of air also determines how low a moisture content the food product can be dried to.

Evaporation and temperature. As water evaporates from a surface it cools the surface. The cooling is largely the result of absorption by the water of the latent heat of phase change from liquid to gas. In doing this the heat is taken from the drying air or the heating surface and from the hot food, and so the food piece or droplet is cooled.

Time and temperature. Since all important methods of food dehydration employ heat, and food constituents are sensitive to heat, compromises must be made between maximum possible drying rate and maintenance of food quality.

As is the case in the use of heat for pasteurization and sterilization, with few exceptions drying processes which employ high temperatures for short times do less damage to food than drying processes employing lower temperatures for longer times.

Thus, vegetable pieces dried in a properly designed oven in four hours would retain greater quality than the same products sun dried over two days. Several drying processes will achieve dehydration in a matter of minutes or even less if the food is sufficiently subdivided.

DRYING TECHNIQUESSeveral types of dryers and drying

methods, each better suited for a particular situation, are commercially

used to remove moisture from a wide variety of food products including fruit and vegetables.

While sun drying of fruits crops is still practiced for certain fruits such as pineapple, atmospheric dehydration processes are used for bananas, pineapples and vegetables; continuous processes as tunnel, belt trough, fluidized bed and foam-mat drying are mainly used for vegetables.

Solar drying of fruits and vegetables

Surplus production and specially grown crops may be preserved by natural drying for use until the next crop can be grown and harvested. Natural dried products can also be transported cheaply for distribution to areas where there are permanent shortages of fruit and vegetables.

The methods of producing sun and solar dried fruit and vegetables described here are simple to carry out and inexpensive. They can be easily employed by grower, farmer, cooperative, etc.

The best time to preserve fruits and vegetables is when there is a surplus of the product and when it is difficult to transport fresh materials to other markets. This is especially true for crops which are very easily damaged in transport and which stay in good condition for a very short time. Preservation extends the storage (shelf) life of perishable foods so that they can be available throughout the year despite their short harvesting season.

Sun and solar drying of fruits and vegetables is a cheap method of preservation because it uses the natural resource/ source of heat: sunlight. This method can be used on a commercial scale as well at the village level provided that the climate is hot, relatively dry and free of rainfall during and immediately after the normal harvesting period. The fresh crop should be of good quality and as ripe (mature) as it would need to be if it was going to be used fresh. Poor quality produce cannot be used for natural drying.

Dried fruit and vegetables have certain advantages over those preserved by other methods. They are lighter in weight than their corresponding fresh produce and, at the same time, they do not require refrigerated storage. However, if they are kept at high temperatures and have a high moisture content they will turn brown after relatively short periods of storage.

Different lots at various stages of maturity (ripeness) must NOT be mixed together; this would result in a poor dried product. Some varieties of fruit and vegetables are better for natural drying than others; they are not difficult to reconstitute. Some varieties are unsuitable because of their irregular shape which results in wastage where trimmed and cut.

Damaged parts which have been attacked by insects, rodents, diseases, etc. and parts which have been discoloured or have a bad appearance or colour, must be removed. Before trimming and cutting, most fruit and vegetables must be washed in clean water.

Trimming includes the selection of the parts which are to be dried, cutting off and disposing of all unwanted material. After trimming, the greater part of the fruit and vegetables are cut into even slices of about 3 to 7mm thick or in halves/quarters, etc.

It is very important to have all slices/parts in one drying lot of the same thickness/size; the actual thickness will depend on the kind of material. Uneven slices or different sizes dry at different rates and this will result in a poor quality end product. Root crops are sliced with a hand slicer or vegetable cutter; bananas, tomatoes and other vegetables or fruit are sliced with stainless-steel knives.

Some fruit and vegetables, such as bananas and sweet potatoes, brown very quickly when left in the air after peeling or slicing; this discolouration is due to an active enzyme called phenoloxidase. To prevent the slices from going brown they must be kept under water until drying can be started. Salt or sulphites in solution give better protection. However, further

processing should follow as soon as possible after cutting or slicing.

BLANCHINGBlanching is exposing fruits and

vegetables to hot or boiling water as a pre-treatment before drying (Figures 9 and 10). It has the following advantages:

• Helps to clean the material and reduce the amount of micro-organisms present on the surface;• Preserves the natural colour in the dried products; for example, the carotenoid (orange and yellow) pigments dissolve in small intracellular oil drops during blanching and in this way they are protected from oxidative breakdown during drying; and• Shortens the soaking and/or cooking time during reconstitution.

During hot water blanching, some soluble constituents are leached out. These include water-soluble flavours, vitamins (vitamin C) and sugars.

Blanching is a delicate processing step as time, temperature and the other conditions must be carefully monitored.

A suitable water-blanching method in traditional processing is as follows:

• the sliced material is placed on a square piece of clean cloth; the corners of the cloth are tied together;• a stick is put through the tied corners of the cloth;• the cloth is dipped into a pan containing boiling water and the stick rests across the top of the pan thus providing support for the cloth bag.

The average blanching time is six minutes. The start of blanching has to be timed from the moment the water starts to boil again after the cloth bag has been dipped into the pan. While the material is being blanched the cloth bag should be raised and lowered in the water so that the material is heated evenly.

When the blanching time is completed the cloth bag and its content should be dipped into cold

water to prevent over-blanching. If products are over-blanched (boiled for too long) they will stick together on the drying trays and they are likely to have a poor flavour.

Green beans, carrots, okra, and cabbage should always be blanched. The producer can choose whether other products need blanching. Blanching is not needed for tomatoes and sweet peppers. Tomatoes are dipped into hot water for one minute when they need to be peeled but this is not blanching. As a rule fruits are not blanched.

USE OF PRESERVATIVESPreservatives are used to improve

the colour and keeping qualities of the final product for some fruits and vegetables. Preservatives include items such as sulphur dioxide, ascorbic acid (Figure 11), citric acid, salt and sugar and can either be simple or compound solutions.

Treatment with preservatives takes place after blanching or, when blanching is not needed, after slicing. The following procedures should be followed:

• put enough preservative solution to cover the cloth bag into a container/pan;• dip the bag containing the product into the preservative solution for the amount of time specified; and• remove the bag and put it on a clean tray while the liquid drains out. The liquid which drains out must not go back into the preservative solution because it would weaken the solution.Care must be taken after each dip

to refill the container to the original level with fresh preservative solution of correct strength. After five lots of material have been dipped, the remaining solution is discarded; i.e. a fresh lot of preservative solution is needed for every five lots of material. The composition and strength of the preservative solution vary for different fruits and vegetables.

Sodium bicarbonate (Figure 12), is added to the blanching water when okra, green peas and some other green vegetables are blanched. The chemical raises the pH of the blanching water and prevents the fresh green colour of chlorophyll being changed into pheophytin which is an unattractive brownish-green colour.

The preservative solutions in the fruit and vegetable pre-treatment can only be used in enameled, plastic or stainless-steel containers; never use ordinary metal because solutions will corrode this type of container.



OSMOTIC DEHYDRATION.In osmotic dehydration the prepared

fresh material is soaked in a heavy thick liquid sugar solution and/or a strong salt solution and then the material is sun or solar dried. During osmotic treatment the material loses some of its moisture. The syrup or salt solution has a protective effect on colour, flavor and texture. This process is shown in Figure 13.

This protective effect remains throughout the drying process and makes it possible to produce dried products of high quality. This process makes little use of sulphur dioxide.

SUN DRYINGThe main problems for sun drying

are dust, rain and cloudy weather. Therefore, drying areas should be dust-free and whenever there is a threat of a dust storm or rain, the drying trays should be stacked together and placed under cover.

In order to produce dust-free and hygienically clean products, fruits and vegetable material should be dried well above ground level so that they are not contaminated by dust, insects, livestock or people. All materials should be dried on trays designed for the purpose; the most common drying trays have wooden frames with a fitted base of nylon mosquito netting. Mesh made of woven grass can also be used.

Metal netting must NOT be used because it discolors the product.

The trays should be placed on a framework at table height from the ground. This allows the

air to circulate freely around the drying material and it also keeps the food product well away from dirt. Ideally the area should be exposed to wind and this speed up drying, but this can only be done if the wind is free of dust. The process of sun drying of cassava is shown in Figure 14.

With 80 cm x 50 cm trays, the appropriate load for a tray is 3 kg; the material should be spread in even layers. During the first part of the drying period, the material should be stirred and turned over at least once an hour. This will help the material dry faster and more evenly, prevent it sticking together and improve the quality of the finished product.

Products for sun drying should be prepared early in the day; this will ensure that the material enjoys the full affect of the sun during the early stages of drying.

At night the trays should be stacked in a ventilated room or covered with canvas. Plastic sheets should NEVER be used for covering individual trays during sun drying.

Dry or nearly dry products can be blown out of the tray by the wind. This can be protected by covering the loaded tray with an empty one; this also gives protection against insects and birds. A typical solar dryer which encompasses all of the above requirements is shown in Figure 15.

SHADE DRYINGShade drying is carried out for

products which can lose their color and/or turn brown if put in direct sunlight. Products which have naturally vivid colors like herbs, green and red sweet peppers, chilies, green beans and okra give a more attractive end product when they are dried in the shade.

The principles for the shade drying are the same as for sun drying. The material to be dried requires full air circulation. Therefore, shade drying is carried out under a roof or thatch which has open sides; it CANNOT be done either inside convectional

buildings with side walls or in compounds sheltered from wind. Under dry conditions when there is a good circulation of air, shade drying takes little more time than normally required for drying in full sunlight.



A knowledge of deterioration factors and the way they act, including the rates of deterioration to a specific category of food, means that it is possible to ascertain the causes and seek to alleviate this undesirable process by implementing fruit and vegetable preservation techniques.

In order to maintain their nutritional value and organoleptic properties and because of technical - economical considerations, certain basic methods involved in reducing food deterioration are generally utilized.

Technical methods for reducing food deterioration

The technical methods for reducing/minimizing food deterioration are summarized below:

Physical • Heating• Cooling• Lowering of water content (Drying/dehydration). Concentration• Sterilized filtration• Irradiation• Other physical means (high pressure, vacuum, inert gasses)Chemical • Salting

• Smoking• Sugar addition• Artificial acidification• Ethanol addition• Antiseptic substance actionBiochemical - Lactic fermentation

(natural acidification - Alcoholic fermentation.

From the above list of possible methods of reducing deterioration, several procedures for fruit and vegetable preservation have been developed. These procedures and the ensuing practical application are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Procedures for fruit and vegetable preservation

Procedures Practical applicationsFresh storage Fruits, vegetables

Cold storage Fruits, vegetables

Freezing Fruits, vegetables

Drying/dehydration Fruits, vegetables

Concentration Fruit and vegetable juices

Chemical preservation Fruit semi-processed

Preservation with sugar Fruit products/preserves

Pasteurization Fruit and vegetable juices

Sterilization Fruits, vegetables

Sterilizing filtration Fruit juices

Irradiation Fruits, vegetables

These preservation procedures have two main characteristics. These are:

• some of them are applied only to one or some categories of food; others can be used across the board and thus have a wider application (cold storage, freezing, drying/dehydration, sterilization, etc.); and • some guarantee food preservation on their own while others require a combination with other procedures, either as principal or as auxiliary processes in order to ensure preservation (e.g. smoking has to be preceding by salting).

Combined preservation procedures

In practice preservation procedures aim at avoiding microbiological and biochemical deterioration which are the principal forms of deterioration. These procedures are generally much more effective when used in a combined form.

Fresh fruit and vegetable storage can be combined with:

• storage in controlled atmosphere where carbon dioxide and oxygen

levels are monitored, increasing concentration of carbon dioxide and lowering that of oxygen according to fruit species. Application of this combined procedure requires airtight storage rooms;• storage in an environment containing ethylene oxide (this accelerates ripening in some fruits such as tomatoes, bananas, mangoes); and • Cold storage can be combined with storage in an environment with the addition of carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, etc., according to the nature of product to be preserved.

Preservation by drying/dehydration

Fresh fruit and vegetables are dehydrated up to the point where their weight is reduced by 50% and then they are preserved by freezing. This procedure (freezing/drying) combines the advantages of drying (reduction of volume and weight) with those of freezing (maintaining vitamins and to a large extent, organoleptic properties).

A significant advantage of this

process is the short drying time required (complete drying not required). The finished products after defreezing and rehydration/reconstitution are of a better quality compared with products obtained by dehydration alone.

Preservation by concentration, carried out by evaporation, is combined with cold storage during the warm season, for example with tomato paste (when water cannot be reduced under the limit needed to inhibit moulds and yeasts, e.g. aW = 0.70-0.75).

Chemical preservationChemical preservation involves: • acidification of the food medium (lowering pH); and• using combined chemical preservatives.

Preservation by lactic acid fermentation (natural acidification) can be combined with cold storage for pickles in order to prolong storage time or shelf-life. Preservation with sugar is combined with pasteurization for some preserves having a sugar content below 65%



What is food spoilage?Food spoilage is the deterioration

in food which makes it unsuitable for human consumption (sour, rotten or mouldy) and / or a carrier of disease germs. Most fresh food spoils within days if stored without care in warm surroundings.

When is food spoilt?It is necessary to recognize when food

is spoilt. Spoilt food has the following properties:

(i) Offensive smell; (ii) Mouldy surface; (iii) Strongly sour or sharp flavour;(iv) A different colour;(v) Gas development (e.g. bulging tins); and (vi) Slimy surface.

The food, when consumed, can cause symptoms such as diarrhea, stomach pains, nausea and vomiting, stomach infections or cramps. In very serious cases it can lead to death.

How is spoilage caused?Spoilage is caused by: • Microorganisms (moulds, yeasts and bacteria);

• Continuation of various life processes in food (over ripening in fruit); and • Reaction in the food itself (chemical reactions leading to changes in colour and taste). Spoilage by microorganisms occurs

the fastest. Microorganisms are the most important causes of spoilage. This type of spoilage can be easily combatted. Enzymatic spoilage is usually stopped by heating (blanching, pasteurization, sterilization). Chemical spoilage is of minor importance and is very difficult to prevent. Some preservation methods quicken this type of spoilage.

Which micro- organisms cause spoilage in food?

Not all microorganisms cause spoilage. Some cause desired changes in food (eg. in cheese and yogurt preparations). These are caused by useful micro-organisms of which there are thousands of types. They are usually not visible with the naked eye, which means that serious infections and food poisoning can be caused without the food being visibly changed. Microorganisms that cause food spoilage are moulds, yeast and bacteria.

Moulds can grow on almost all types of food. They usually can be seen directly on food and can alter the taste, making it rancid. They often grow at low temperatures, in sour products, and on dry products such as grains or bread. Some moulds can produce poisonous and often cancer causing substances, called toxins especially in moist seeds such as peanut, maize or soybean.

Yeasts can also cause spoilage. They often multiply at low temperatures and in sour products.

Bacteria can grow in fresh food (meat, fish, milk, vegetables) which is not sour. Some bacteria can cause infection and poisoning as well as spoilage. A number of bacteria can form spores, so that they are less sensitive to preservation techniques and can begin to grow again after insufficient heat treatment is removed.

When can spoilage and / or food poisoning occur?

Food poisoning and spoilage occur only when microorganisms have multiplied in the food. Their growth in the food is dependent on:

• The nutrients in the food: water, proteins, carbohydrates, minerals, and sometimes vitamins must be present. Milk and meat are types of food where these nutrients are present in large quantities and which, therefore, spoil quickly.• Acidity: most bacteria grow best in neutral conditions such as those found in milk, meat and fish. Moulds, yeasts and some bacteria can still grow in sour products (eg. Yoghurt, fruits)• The amount of water available for microorganism: microorganisms grow poorly in dry products (powdered milk, grains) as compared to watery products (milk, meat, fish, vegetables). • The temperature at which the food is stored: the ideal temperature for the growth of micro-organisms is between 7 and 55˚C. Below - 10˚C moulds do not usually develop; at temperatures above 80˚C they usually die. Spore poisons are often resistant to temperatures above 100˚C. • The oxygen level: some micro-organisms need oxygen to grow, while others cannot grow in the presence of oxygen.• The time between infection and processing of the food (preservation or consumption) because time is needed for new micro-organisms to adapt to the new food. The actual rate at which the bacteria grow is dependant on the combination of the factors mentioned. A watery product at 25˚C will spoil much quicker than a dry sour product at 5˚C.

How does contamination take place?

Contamination can be caused by people (germs on skin, intestines, cuts, throat or hand), soil, dust, sewage, surface water, manure, and other spoiled food. Contamination can also take place through badly cleaned apparatus, domestic animals, pets, vermin or slaughtering animals in an unhygienic way. Contamination after a preservative treatment is especially dangerous, e.g. contamination of cooked meat by placing it on the same plate where fresh meat was stored.

How can contamination be prevented?

FOOD SPOILAGE: CAUSES, EFFECTS AND PREVENTION

In order to prevent/minimize contamination, a number of practices should be followed. These include:

a) Use good personal hygiene. Wash hands thoroughly with warm water and soap after using the toilet, handling cuts and infection, doing dirty work and before touching food;b) Change towels and wash clothes regularly;c) Keep food on smooth surfaces which can be washed well (stainless steel kitchen block, smoothly polished wood, tiles, and stone); d) Keep the places where food is stored clean by regularly washing with bleached water. e) Wash all tools used for food regularly. f) Cover all food properly; g) Try to keep all pests away from where food is kept. h) Never store left-overs at room temperature. i) Ensure proper hygiene when animals are slaughtered. j) Use clean water and where necessary boil the water before use.

Prevention is a means of reduction

Preservation is a suitable process used in extending the storage life of products which otherwise quickly decay. Preservation processes can be conducted in two ways;

(l) By retention of the original qualities and properties of the food; and(ll) By radical changes which result in new products with completely new qualities and properties.

Preservation is based on the delay or prevention of spoilage by micro-organisms. This can be done in three ways.

(1) Removal of microorganisms This is a very costly method which can only be used with liquids, eg. filtering of drinking water.

2) Killing of micro-organismsThis is usually done with heat. When

all micro-organisms are killed by the heat treatment the process is called sterilization, and the product can be stored for a long time. When a short heat treatment is given, so that not all micro-organisms are killed, the process is called pasteurization, and the product can only be stored for a limited time. The acidity of the food is very important in the process of heat sterilization. Micro-organisms and spores die faster after heating in an acid product than in a less acid product, and sterilization in the former is therefore quicker. Micro-organisms grow less easily in acid products. A product’s sourness is indicated by its acidity, expressed in pH. The more sour a product is, the greater the acidity and the lower the pH. Food is generally grouped in there categories based on the acid content (Table 2)



Table 2: Classification of food products based on acid content

Group pH ProductsWeak acid neutral >4.5 Most vegetables, milk, meat and fish

Acid 4.0 – 4.5 Tomatoes, pears, Pineapples.

Strong acid <4.0 Citrus products, Cherries, Noni

3) Suppression of microbial activity An environment in which micro-organisms can no longer grow, or can grow only very slowly, is created. There are various ways in which this could be achieved (lowering of the temperature and reduction of water content).

Low temperatureProducts remain fresh in the

refrigerator (2-4˚C) for 4-7 days; they can be stored for much longer periods in the deep freeze (-20˚C). Low temperature must be accurately maintained, and high demands are made on the freezer and energy supply and food quality. Because of the high costs of energy needed for freezing, this method may not be suitable for use in food for extended periods.

Reduction of the water contentDrying is the oldest method of

preserving food. When sufficient water is removed from a product, micro-organisms can no longer grow. The amount of water to be removed varies with the product itself. The simplest and cheapest method is to dry the products in the open air (with or without sun). Somewhat more expensive and difficult methods make use of driers in which the products are artificially dried with heated air. Sun-dried products are of slightly less quality due to the breakdown of certain vitamins in sunlight.

PACKAGING OF FOOD MATERIAL

There are many requirements and functions for packaging; special consideration should be given to ensure that:

a) That these are non toxic and compatible with the specific foods;b) Sanitary protectionc) Moisture and fat protection;d) Gas and odour protection;

e) Light protection;f) Resistance to impact;g) Transparency;h) Tamper proofness;i) Easy to open; j) Pouring features;k) Reseal features;l) Ease of disposal;m) Size, weight, shape limitations;n) Appearance, printability; ando) Low cost.

Primary and secondary containers

Some foods are provided with efficient primary containers by nature, such as nuts, oranges and eggs. In packaging these, we only need a secondary outer box, wrap, etc. to hold units together and give protection.

Other foods such as milk and fruit concentrates often placed primary containers such as plastic liners which are then packaged within protective cartoons or drums. In this case the secondary container provided by the cartoon or drum greatly minimizes the requirements that must be met by the primary container.

Except in special instances, secondary containers are not designed to be highly impervious to water vapour and other gases, especially at zones of sealing.

Hermetic closure Two conditions of the greatest

importance in packaging are hermetic and non-hermetic closure.

The term hermetic means a container which is absolutely impermeable to gases and vapours, including its seams. Such a container, as long as it remains intact will automatically be impervious to bacteria, yeasts, moulds, dirt and dust since all of these agents are considerably larger than gas or water vapour molecules (Figure 16).

On the other hand, a container which

prevents entry of microorganisms, in many instances will be non – hermetic (Figure 17).

A container that is hermetic not only will protect the product from moisture gain or loss and from oxygen from the atmosphere, but is essential for strict vacuum and pressure packaging.

The most common hermetic containers are rigid cans and glass bottles, although faulty closures can make them non – hermetic. With very rare exceptions, flexible packages are not truly hermetic.

Glass containers are hermetic provided the lids are tight. Lids will have inside rings of plastic or cork. Many glass containers are vacuum packed and the tightness of the cover will be augmented by the atmospheric pressure pushing down the cover.

Fig 16: Hermetic closure

Fig 16: Hermetic closure

Hazards FactorsClimatic Atmospheric humidity

Light (UV)

Temperature

Rain

Biological Insects

Bacteria and Moulds

Mites

Rodents and Birds

Product Handling

Stacking

Chemical composition

Types of stores

Customer appeal

Transport

Price

Mechanical

Films and Foils (plastic)Films and foils have different values for moisture and gas permeability, strength, elasticity, inflammability and resistance to insect penetration. Many of these characteristics depend on the film’s thickness. For the most part, such films are used in the construction of inner containers. Since they are non – rigid, their main functions are to contain the product and protect it from contact with air or water vapour. Their capacity to protect against mechanical injury is limited, particularly when thin films are considered.

Plastic sheetsCellophane paper can be used for packing dried products, eg. dried fruit leathers. Polyethylene sheets can be used for packing and giving protection to dehydrated products. They are flexible, transparent and have a perfect resistance to low temperatures and impermeability to water vapour. The sheets can also be easily heat sealed.

LaminatesVarious flexible materials such as paper, plastic films and thin metal foils are also used. Glass Containers As far as food packaging is concerned,

glass is chemically inert, although the regular problems of corrosion and reactivity of metal closures will apply. The principal limitation of glass is its susceptibility to breakage which may be from internal pressure, impact, or thermal shock, all of which can be greatly minimized by proper matching of the container to its intended use and intelligent handling practices.

Coatings of various types can markedly reduce each of these types of breakage. These coatings, commonly of special waxes and silicones lubricate on the outside of the glass. As a result impact breakage is lessened by bottles and jars glancing off one another.

Jars for sterilized/pasteurized canned products.These can replace metal cans. They do not react to food content. They are transparent and can be manufactured in various shapes. They also use cheap raw materials and are reusable. They are however heavier than metal cans of the

same capacity and are more fragile.

Jars for products without heat treatment.For marmalades, jellies and jams, glass jars with non hermetic closures using metal glass or rigid plastic caps are used (Figures 18-19).



Glass bottles These receptacles are widely used for finished products which need pasteurization (tomato juice, fruit juices etc.) and those

which are preservers (fruit syrups).

Paper packaging As primary containers, few paper products are not treated, coated or laminated to improve their protective properties. Paper

from wood pulp and reprocessed waste paper are bleached and coated or impregnated with such materials as waxes and plastics (Figure 20).

Fig 20: Paper packaging

Fig 21: Plastic wraps

These are some basic tenets for good manufacturing processes that need to be followed.

Always remember it is food you are packaging for someone to eat

Be careful to protect the food from becoming contaminating with germs, filth, chemicals and pests.

Clean up regularly and thoroughly using detergents, sanitizers and good quality water

Do not eat in the food processing area. Use restrooms and lunchrooms for this purpose.

Equipment not in use must be properly stored .

Fog or steam in a food processing facility will condense on walls and

Plastic sheets These include Kraft paper which is the brown unbleached heavy duty paper commonly used for bags and for wrapping. It is

seldom used as a primary container. Are example of a plastic wrap is shown in Figure 21

“Tin can”/ tinplateThe tin can is a container made of tinplate. Tinplate is a rigid and impervious material consisting of a thin sheet of low carbon

steel coated on both sides with a thin layer of tin.But tin is not completely resistant to corrosion but its rate of reaction with many food materials is considerably slower than that

of steel. Where tin reacts unfavourably with a particular food the tin itself may be lacquer coated.

The ABC of GOOD MANUFACTURING

ceilings. Protect food and food contact surfaces from these liquid droppings.

Glass will break and scatter. Light-

bulbs in food processing areas must be shielded to protect food from flying glass.

Hands carry bacteria and other contaminants. Wash them thoroughly with soap and water before handling food and after using the washroom.

Insecticides and other pesticides used around the processing facility are hazardous. Store these in a locked cabinet away from food preparation areas.

Jewellery should not be worn by personnel who are preparing and packaging food.

Keep unnecessary items out of the processing area. Personnel belongings should be stored in specific designated areas.

Light is important in receiving, processing and packaging areas. Adequate lighting is important if workers are to do their jobs effectively.

Mold grows quickly on most foods and on warm , moist surfaces. Food must be rapidly handled and food contact surfaces cleaned frequently and thoroughly to prevent mold growth.

Non food usage such as packaging materials e.g. bags, bottles and cartons should be sterilized to prevent contamination of the food to be packaged.



Operations of closing and sealing packages and containers must be completed quickly and effectively.

Processing conditions such as times and temperatures must be adhered to strictly. Under-processing can lead to spoilage, while over-processing results in a product which is soft and discoloured.

Quality put into food by nature begins to decline immediately after the product is harvested, but much can be done to preserve it through careful and quick handling.

Repair of equipment should be

conducted outside of the processing area or when processing is not in progress.

Store ingredients away from pests and other sources of contamination.

Tobacco, gum, candy and similar items in any form must not be used around food.

Use of good quality potable water in processing and cleaning is essential.

Very important are the packaging containers. These must be cleaned and sanitized before filling. Containers must be sealed promptly once filled.

Waste materials and litter can

contaminate. Do not allow them to accumulate in areas where food is being prepared.

Xtra precautions of hats, properly fitting hair nets and clean clothing always pay off when handling food.

You are a key factor in these good manufacturing practices.

Zee its not so hard and the rewards are great-satisfied consumers buying your product time after time the products you have prepared – so ensuring profits.

The aims of Quality Control in the Food Industry are to:

(i) Ensure compliance with government regulations;(ii) Maintain or improve the quality grade, thereby enhancing product value in the market place; and(iii) Reduce the probability of spoilage and resultant hazards to consumers and economic losses.

Quality Control Programme:A quality control program can be

started with a minimum of expenditure and expanded as the needs arise. The first requirement for a quality control programme is the designation of a quality control supervisor who should be responsible to top level management.

Good Manufacturing Practices There are some key requirements for

good manufacturing practices. These are summarized below:

Adequate attention must be paid to the following for personnel involved in manufacturing.

• Any person who has an illness, open lesions (boils, sores,

infected wounds) and any other abnormal source of microbial contamination must not work in any food processing operation. This can result in the food, food contact surfaces or food packaging materials becoming contaminated. Employees must wear clean outer garments, maintain a high degree of personal cleanliness and conform to hygienic practices. • Employees must wash their hands thoroughly and if necessary they must sanitize their hands before starting (or absence from their workstations) work. • Remove all unsecured jewelry. • Wear effective hair restraints. • Don’t store clothing or other personal belongings in food processing areas. • No food and beverage consumption or tobacco use must be allowed in food processing area. • All necessary steps must be taken to prevent employees from contaminating foods with microorganisms or foreign substances.

QUALITY ASSURANCE IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY

• Persons monitoring the sanitation programs must have the education and/or experience to demonstrate that they are qualified.• Food handlers and supervisors should receive training that will make them aware of the danger of poor personal hygiene and unsanitary work habits.

Maintenance Plants and grounds:(1) Grounds around a food processing plant which are under the control of this plant must be free from conditions such as: improperly stored equipment, litter, waste or refuse, uncut weeds or grass close to buildings, excessively dusty roads yards or parking lots, inadequately drained areas which might cause potential foot borne filth or breeding places for insects or microorganisms and inadequately operated systems for waste treatment and disposal.(2) Plant layout should provide enough space for sanitary arrangement of equipment and storage of materials.(3) Floors, walls and ceiling must

be constructed so that they are cleanable and must be kept clean and in good repair.(4) Prevent cross contamination of food products.(5) Have effective screening or other protection to keep out birds, animals and vermin such as insects and rodents.(6) Adequate ventilation to prevent contamination of foods with odors, noxious fumes or vapors.(7) Light bulbs, skylights or any other glass must be of safety type or protected so that glass contamination cannot occur in case of breakage.

Sanitary operationsThe plant and all fixtures must be kept

in good repair and be maintained in a sanitary condition. Cleaning operations must be conducted in a manner that will minimize the possibility of contaminating foods or equipment surface that contact food.

Pest ControlNo animals or birds are allowed

anywhere in the plant. A program must be in effect to prevent contamination by animals, birds and pests, such as rodents and insects. Insecticides and rodenticides may be used as long as they are used properly. Pesticides must not come into contact with food or packaging materials.

Sanitation of Equipment and Utensils

Utensils and equipment surfaces that are in contact with food must always be kept clean to prevent food contamination. Equipment that are not in use should be cleaned so as to prevent the accumulation of dust, dirt, food particles, etc. when equipment are used in a continuous production operation, they must be clean and sanitized on a predetermined schedule.

Sanitary facilities and controlsWater Supply: Any water coming into

food or processing equipment must be safe and of adequate sanitary quality.

Plumbing: should be of adequate size and design to supply enough water and

not create a source of contamination or unsanitary condition. Plant layout must have adequate floor drainage so as to prevent a backflow of dirty water into plant.

Toilet facilities Toilets and hand washing facilities must

be provided inside the food processing plant. Tissues must be provided. Toilet must be kept in good repair. Toilet rooms must have self closing doors. Doors must not open directly into plants. Signs must be posted directing employees to wash hand after toilet use. Adequate and convenient hand washing and if necessary, hand- sanitizing facilities must be provided in the plant where the nature of employees jobs requires that they wash, sanitize and dry their hands.

GarbageRubbish disposal must be handled

in a manner that will not attract or harbor pests or create contaminating conditions.

Equipment and UtensilsThe following are the necessary pre-requisites for equipment and utensils used in manufacturing. i Must be designed and constructed so that they can be easily cleaned and not adulterate food with lubricants, fuel, metal fragments, contaminated water, etc.ii Equipment contact surface is non-toxic and non-corrosion resistant.iii Equipment is manufactured to minimize accumulation of food participles, dirt and organic matter.iv Equipment systems must be maintained in a sanitary condition.v Instruments and controls used for measuring, regulating, or recording temperatures, pH, acidity, water activity, etc shall be adequate in number, accurate and maintained.

Processes and ControlsImplementation of processes and

controls in manufacturing is a key ingredient for successful operations. Attention should be paid to raw materials, ingredients and equipment used for manufacturing operations.

Raw Materials and IngredientsRaw materials and ingredients use for

manufacturing must:(1) Be inspected and sorted to ensure that they are clean, wholesome and fit for processing human food.(2) Be stored under conditions that will protect against contaminants and deterioration. (3) Be washed or cleaned to remove soil and other contamination with clean water. (4) Not contain levels of micro-organisms that may produce food poisoning or other disease or they shall be treated during the manufacturing operations so that the product will not be adulterated. (5) Comply with national and international official levels before they are incorporated into finished food. (6) Be stored in containers, and under conditions which protect against contamination.

Equipment used for Manufacturing Operations

Special attention must be given to equipment used in manufacturing operation. These are listed below.(1) Food processing equipment must be kept in a sanitary condition and undergo frequent cleaning and sanitizing.(2) Manufacture food under conditions that will minimize the potential for undesirable microbiological growth, toxin formation, deterioration or contamination. Careful monitoring of such factors as time, temperature, humidity, pressure, flow rate etc. The objective is to assure that mechanical breakdowns, time delays, temperature fluctuations or other factors do not allow the foods to decompose or become contaminated.(3) Food kept under conditions that prevent the growth of undesirable micro-organisms.(4) Sterilizing, irradiating, pasteurizing, etc shall be adequate to destroy or prevent the growth of undesirable micro-organisms.

AgroManual | Revised Edition27

AgroManual | Revised Edition

(5) Work in process should protect against contamination.(6) Equipment, containers and utensils should constructed to protect against contamination.(7) Finished products must be protected from contamination.(8) Food or materials that are contaminated must be disposed of in a manner that prevents other food from being contaminated.(9) Mechanical manufacturing steps such as washing, peeling etc shall be performed to protect against contamination by providing adequate protection from contaminants that may drip, drain or be drawn into the food. This can be done by adequately cleaning and sanitizing all food contact surfaces and by using time and temperature controls at and between each manufacturing step(10) Filling, assembling, packaging and other operations should be performed in a way that the food is protected against contamination. (11)Food such as but not limited to dry mixes, nuts, intermediate moisture food and dehydrated food, that rely on the control of water activity for preventing the growth of micro-organisms should be processed to and maintain at a safe moisture level.(12)Food such as but not limited to acid and acidified food that relies principally on the control pH for preventing the growth of undesirable micro-organisms should be monitored and maintained at a pH of 4.6 or below.(10) If ice is used and comes into contact with food it must be made from clean potable water. (11) A coding system should be utilized that will allow for positive lot identification in the event it becomes necessary to identify and segregate lots of food that may be contaminated.

(12) Records should be kept for a period of time that exceeds the shelf life of the product.

Quality Assurance (for large scale Commercial Operations)

Of all functions in the food industry, Quality Assurance (QA) requires many diverse technical and analytical skills. QA personnel continually monitor incoming raw materials and finished products to ensure compliance with compositional standards, microbiological standards, and various governmental regulations. A QA manager can halt production, refuse acceptance of raw material, or stop the shipment if specifications for a product or process are not met.

The major functions of the QA Department are:

Compliance with specifications Legal requirements, industry standards, internal company standards, shelf-life tests, and customers’ specifications.

Test procedures Testing of raw materials, finished products, and in-process tests.

Sampling schedules Utilize a suitable sampling schedule to maximize the probability of detection while minimizing workload.

Records and reporting Maintain all QA records so that customer complaints and legal problems can be dealt with.

Trouble shooting Solve various problems caused by poor quality raw materials, erratic supplies and malfunctioning process equipment; and investigate reasons for poor quality product to avoid repetition.

Special problems Customer complaints, production problems, personnel training, short courses, etc.

A typical QA Department may have a chemistry lab, a raw materials inspection lab, a sensory lab and a microbiology lab. All of these disciplines work together to assure that the food we consume is of the highest quality. After all, it is quality which will ensure a customer confidence.

GENERAL QUALITY ASSURANCE (HACCP: HAZARD ANALYSIS CRITICAL CONTROL POINTS)

Fruit and vegetables as raw materials start as living cells and vary in composition, colour, flavor, structure and nutrient content. In describing a process is the preparation of detailed specifications for ingredient and packaging materials to ensure that final product performance and composition specifications can be met with the specified process and equipment. This is only possible if ingredients are preprocessed to the desired specifications.

The Processing of foods must be separated into two broad areas.

(a) Preparation of raw fruit and vegetables for further processing to consumer products or ingredients.(b) Assembly of preprocessed ingredients to finished consumer products.

Typical operation used in converting raw fruit and vegetables to processed ingredients for packaging and preservation or prior to a further heat treatment processing are as follows:

Harvesting or gathering • Transport • Storage • Washing • Size • Grading • Peeling (removal of outer surface) • Size reduction • Separation of waste • Sorting • Inspection • Storage.

Process description for quality control

One of the important aspects of a product is its safety in terms of microbial contamination, freedom from hazardous chemicals and absence of foreign materials such as metals non-edible parts such as pits or woody tissue, dirt, insect parts or other extraneous material. Microbial safety of processed fruits and vegetables is of prime importance from a quality viewpoint. The processing operations should ensure that microbial safety can be achieved with a minimum opportunity for failure of the finished product to meet specifications.

PROCESS TECHNOLOGYIngredients Amount ProcedureBanana 1.36kg *Peel and cut banana into small pieces.

Sugar 1kg *Add banana pieces and water into a blender and puree the mixture.

Water 200ml *Pour over into a pot, add sugar with spices and stir continuously until sugar dissolves under slow heat

Lime juice 22.5ml *Add lime juice and stir until a jam like viscosity is obtained.

Spices To flavour *Allow to cool, and then pack in sterilized jars/containers

Shelf Life: 3-6months

Banana Jam

Banana Ketchup

Ingredients Amount Procedure

Banana 4 *Blend raisins, onions, garlic, tomato paste, bananas, with 165ml vinegar

Sugar 227g *Process until smooth and pour into a large, stainless steel pan.

Water 680g-900g *Add 165ml vinegar and other ingredients to mixture and stir.

Raisins 227g *Boil mixture over medium-high heat, stirring often.

Spices 5g *Reduce heat to low and cook uncovered, stirring the ketchup occasionally for 1 hour and 15 minutes.

Onions 149g *If too thick and begins to stick, add water (up to 250ml) and cook for 15minutes.

Garlic 2 cloves *Ketchup is finished when texture is thick enough to coat a metal spoon.

Tomato paste 149g *Remove from heat and cool for 15minuites. Ketchup is then strained.

Vinegar 300ml *Cool product to room temperature, pour into glass bottles, cover, and refrigerate and use within 1 month.

Maizena 227g N.B. Banana ketchup is especially good as a condiment with meat.

Pepper 2.5g

Cinnamon 5g

Nutmeg 2.5g

Cloves 1.25g

Yield 3-1/2 cups

Shelf Life: 1 month

PROCESS TECHNOLOGY

26

Ingredients Amount Procedure Bread fruit *Select and peel good breadfruit

*Slice bread fruit thinly and lay onto trays

* Dehydrate / dry in the sun until crisp

*Mill/ground crisp chips, using a mill, into flour


PROCESS TECHNOLOGY →→→ PROCESSTECHNOLOGY →→→Banana Raisin Bread Fruit Flour

Banana Syrup Carambola All Purpose Sauce

Banana Toffee

Carrots in Brine


Banana 455g *Make syrup using sugar, water, spices and lime juice

Sugar 227g *Place banana slices into syrup and boil for 10-15 minutes.

Water 130ml *Peel banana, and then slice as desired.

Lime juice 15ml *Fill into sterilized containers (glass jars) and seal.

Spices To flavour *After cooling, containers are dried, labeled and stored

Shelf Life: 6 months

Ingredients Amount ProcedureCarambola 680g *Wash and sort carambolas

sugar 680g *Slice fruit, extracting the seeds

garlic 2 cloves * Boil for about thirty minutes and then extract juice from the pulp.

pepper 2 *Add ingredients to juice extract and boil.

salt 5g *Stir continuously until a sauce consistency is obtained.



Banana pulp 1 kg *Select good quality fruit. Fruit should not have infection, mould or rot

glucose syrup 100g *Wash fruit in clean water

milk powder 160g *Banana should be steamed for 5 minutes.

hydrogenated fat 100g *Heat until pulp is dissolved, stirring continuously

*Add to fruit pulp all ingredients and stirring continuously.

* Continue heating until mixture reaches slightly thick. *Pour onto metal trays in a thin layer or spread on an oily clean surface *Mark and cut the sheet of toffee while it is cooling *Cool to room temperature. *Pack in moisture proof plastic bags or glass jars.

*Store in a cool, dry place.



Carrot 1 large *Select, wash and peel carrots.

Salt 5g *Place carrots on a board and cut in quarters and then slice thinly.

Water 250ml *Pack sliced carrots in container in a standing position.

Vinegar 15ml *Make brine of water, vinegar, salt and lime juice, boiling for ten minutes

Lime juice 15ml *Pour brine into container and cover.

*Store at room temperature or in refrigerator.


Ingredients Amount Procedure Banana *Peel, and then dice ripe bananas (sweet fig) into small pieces. *Place onto trays and dehydrate using a dehydrator for 8-10 hrs at 50 0C until completely dry and slightly dark brown.

*Store in an airtight container and at room temperature.




Ingredients Amount ProcedureCarrots 250g *Select fresh carrots free from rots or mould.

Milk 100ml *Remove the skin from the carrots

Ghee or butter 50g *Wash carrots in clean water

Sugar 120g *Grate carrots to a fine pulp

Grounded cardamom 5g *Add milk to the shredded carrots

*Boil gently for 25 minutes or until all

liquid has evaporated.

*Add other ingredients.

*Cool mixture to room temperature. *Spread on a greased tray in a layer 3-4 cm thick. * Cut into rectangles. *Store in a cool place.

Shelf Life: 1 week

Ingredients Amount ProcedureCashew 1.8kg *Sort and wash cashews.

Sugar 1kg *Boil with water

Water *Extract fruit pulp from juice.

Spices *Boil juice extract with sugar until a thick consistency is obtained.


Carrot Halva

Cashew Jam

Cashew All Purpose Sauce

Cashew Jelly

Cashew in Syrup

Ingredients Amount ProcedureCashew 680g *Wash and sort cashews.

Sugar 680g *Slice fruit, extracting the seeds.

Salt 5g *Boil for about thirty minutes and then extract juice from the pulp

Garlic 2 cloves *Add ingredients to juice extract and bring to a boil.

Peppers 2 *Stir continuously until a sauce consistency is obtained.


Ingredients Amount ProcedureCashew 4 lbs *Sort and wash cashews.

Sugar 2 lbs *Boil with water.

Spices *Extract fruit pulp from juice.

Water *Boil juice extract with sugar until a very thick consistency is obtained.

*Spread onto a tray and allow cooling at room temperature.

*Cut into desired shape.

Shelf Life: 12months


Cashew 680g *Make syrup using sugar, water, spices and lime juice.

Sugar 2.27g *Slice cashew as desired.

Water 130ml *Place cashew slices into syrup and boil for 10-15 minutes.

Spices To flavour *Fill into sterilized containers (glass jars) and seal.

Lime juice 15ml *After cooling containers are dried, labeled and stored.


PROCESS TECHNOLOGY →→→ PROCESSTECHNOLOGY →→→



Ingredients Amount ProcedureCassava flour 227g *Add ingredients together and knead.

Wheaten flour 113g *Leave dough to rise for 1 hour

Salt To taste *Roll small pieces of dough in form of sticks.

Butter 10g *Grease pan with butter.

Yeast 5-10g *Place bread sticks onto pan and bake for 20minuites.

Seasoning To flavour *Cassava bread sticks are used with a dip.

Cube ½ Warm water

Yield: 12 Bread sticks

Shelf Life: 2-3 days

Ingredients Amount ProcedureCassava flour 45ml *Peel cassava and place in hypochlorous acid diluted in water (1 drop to 1 liter) for 10 minuets.

Wheaten flour 15ml *Refrigerate cassava for 24 hours.

Baking powder 5 ml *Slice cassava and place to dry.

Sugar 25ml *Dry chips are grind.

Spice 5ml *Add all ingredients.

*Package and store. NB. Butter and Milk are added in cooking process (egg is optional).


Ingredients Amount ProcedureCherries 1.6L *Sort and wash cherry.

Sugar 1kg *Boil with water and sugar

Spices if desired *Extract fruit pulp from juice. Boil juice extract with sugar until a thick consistency is obtained. completely


Ingredients Amount ProcedureCassava 680g *Peel, wash and boil cassava.

Salt To taste *Drain and Mash Cassava

Seasoning: pepper To taste *Blend and add all ingredients to mash onion, eschollet cassava.

Spices *Whist egg to make batter.

Egg 1 *Cut small pieces from dough and roll to 4 inches in length.

Bread crumbs *Coat with bread crumbs, package and freeze or coat croquettes with batter and roll in bread crumbs.

*Fry in oil until golden brown.

Yield: 15 croquettes

Shelf Life: 1 months Frozen croquettes

Ingredients Amount ProcedureCassava flour 560g *Add all ingredients and knead.

Wheaten flour 227g *Leave dough to rise for 2 hours

Butter To taste *Take small pieces of dough and make

to shape desire.

Lard 10g *Grease pan with butter.

Sugar 20g *Put small mini bread onto pan and

bake for 15-20minuites.

Salt 5g

yeast 10g

Warm water Yield: 15 Mini breadShelf Life: 2-3days

Cassava Bread Sticks

Cassava Pan Cake Mix

Cherry Jam

Cassava Croquettes

Cassava Mini Bread Cherry Marmalade

Ingredients Amount ProcedureCherries 1.6L *Wash and sort cherries. Allow to drain for fifteen minutes and then weight.

Sugar 2kg *Blend three pounds of the fruit an leave three pounds whole. Pour into a pot.

Citric acid 15g * Add ingredients and boil for 30 minutes on medium heat.

*Test for jell-point: drop a small amount of hot cherry marmalade on a chilled plate.

*Return to the freezer for 2 minutes. If surface forms a skin, it has reached jelling point; if still syrupy, continue cooking and test again in 5 minutes.

*Cool for 15 minutes, spoon into half- pint sterilized jars leaving 1/4-inch headspace and seal.

Shelf Life: 6months




Ingredients Amount Procedure Pepper 100g *Select fully red peppers free of pest and disease and wash.

Salt 10g *Slice peppers in halves and remove seeds.

Water 500ml *Prepare osmotic solution with salt and water

*Place peppers in osmotic solution for 9 hours.

*Drain peppers and place in sun to dry.

*Package and store the dry product in dry area.


Ingredients Amount Procedure Dunks *Wash and select smooth firm fruit.

Sugar *Steam for 10 minutes and soak for three days.

Spices *After three days, boil for 10 minutes on slow heat.

Water *Drain and dehydrate for 10 hrs in a dryer.


Ingredients Amount ProcedureCassava 58% *Select mature (cassava, sweet potatoes) and prepare by sorting, washing, peeling, etc.

Sweet potatoes 38% *Raw sweet potatoes and cassava are sliced to 5mm thickness.

Wheaten 4% *Produce is dried to suitable moisture content at 50ºC.

*The dried produce is weighed, then milled into flour.

*The flours were tested to determine the levels of cooking properties.

*The flours were mixed in the appropriate quantities based on nutritional, chemical composition and compatibility.

*The finished product was appropriately packaged.

N.B. Use for baking cookies and bread.


Ingredients Amount ProcedureComposite flour 140g *Composite flour was used to prepare cookies.

Egg 1 *Add ingredients

Butter 30ml *Composite flour is mixed and kneaded with

Baking powder 1ml *The mixture is cut into different shapes.

Sugar 1ml *This is followed by baking until the cookies obtain a golden brown colour.

*The finished product is packaged and stored.


Composite Flours

Dehydrated Boulanger

Dehydrated Ginger

Dehydrated Peppers

Dunks Prune

Cookies

Ingredients Amount Procedure Boulanger *Select firm clean Boulanger and wash.

* Slice to 8mm thickness

*Place in sun to dry.

*When crisp package and store. N.B. Used for cooking, by rehydrating in hot water followed by normal. Shelf Life: 5 months

Ingredients Amount Procedure Ginger *Select and wash ginger, removing outer peel (skin)

*Slice ginger and spread onto trays

*Dry in the sun until moisture has been completely removed and ginger is crisp.

*Package and store at room temperature.





Ingredients Amount ProcedurePepper 5lbs *Select good quality, firm hot pepper.

Salt ½ lb *Remove stem and wash pepper in clean water to remove any dirt

Ginger 1 lb *Blend pepper with 2 cups of vinegar

Vinegar 2-1/4 cup *Add salt to mixture

Sugar ¼ cup *Cut or chip 1 lb ginger and 1 head garlic into small pieces and blend with ¼ pt vinegar.

Oil ¼ cup *Add sugar and mix thoroughly

Garlic 1 head *Hot cooking oil and pour it on top of pepper sauce.

Shelf Life: 12-18 months

Ingredients Amount ProcedureCelery 3 stalks *Peel, trim and wash ingredients and let drain.

Eschallot 4 blades * Cut all ingredients in small pieces, so that blending becomes easier.

Thyme (fine leaf) 1 bunch * Add all ingredients into food processor and blend well.

Thyme (broad leaf) 1 stem * Pour into bottle and seal.

Vinegar 125ml

Onions 2

Garlic 1 head

Peppers 2

Salt 5g

Shelf Life: 6months

Ingredients Amount ProcedureGuava Pulp 1 kg *Select good quality fruit. Fruit should not have infection, mould or rot

Glucose syrup 100g *Wash fruit in clean water and pulp.

Milk powder 160g *Heat until pulp is dissolved, stirring continuously

Hydrogenated fat 100g *Add all ingredients and stir continuously.

*Continue heating until mixture reaches slightly thick.

*Pour onto metal trays in a thin layer or spread on an oily clean surface

* Mark and cut the sheet of toffee while it is cooling.

*Cool to room temperature.

*Pack in moisture proof plastic bags or glass jars.

*Store in a cool, dry place.

Shelf Life: 6months

Ingredients Amount ProcedureGooseberry 1L *Choose nice gooseberry (not too sour), wash and sort.

Water *Slice fruit, extracting the seeds.

Pepper 2 *Place fruit in a bowl and boil for about thirty minutes and then extract juice from the pulp.

Salt 15ml *Add garlic, pepper, seasoning, salt and sugar to juice extract and boil again.

Sugar 2.5kg *Stir continuously until it has obtained a thick consistency

Garlic 4 clove


Ingredients Amount ProcedureGooseberry 0.5L *Wash and select smooth firm fruit.

Sugar 1kg *Steam for 10 minutes and soak for three days.

Spices To flavour *After three days, boil for another 10 minutes on slow heat.

Water *Drain and dehydrate for 10 hrs in a dryer.

Shelf Life: 6months

Ginger Flavoured Pepper Sauce Green Seasoning

Guava Toffee

Gooseberry All Purpose Sauce

Gooseberry Prunes




Ingredients Amount ProcedureBrown Rice 1kg *Brown rice is used to prepare this product.

*The rice is sorted to remove broken rice, stones and other impurities, followed by washing.

*It is then placed in cotton cloth and steamed in hot water for 45 minutes.

*Dehydrate by air drying at room temperature for 10 hours or at 60ºC for 2 hours.

N.B. Add instant rice to boiling water and cook for 10minutes Yield: 1kg


Ingredients Amount ProcedureSmall ochroes *Select young ochroes (Soft).

Water 250ml *Cut stems of ochroes and place in a standing position in the container

Citric acid 10g *Boil brine comprising of vinegar, salt, water and citric acid.

Salt 10g *Pour brine into container with ochro and cover.

Vinegar 7.5ml *Store at room temperature or in refrigerator.


Ingredients Amount ProcedureOranges 30 *Peel oranges and cut in half, squeeze out juice and reserve in a large bowl and discard seeds.

Sugar 4.5L *Put the juiced halves onto a cutting board and dice, then place in a cotton cloth and tie tightly.

Ginger 340g *Place the cloth into the large bowl of juice.

* Slice peel to 2.2cm and add to bowl with the rest of ingredients.

*Refrigerate for 24 hours.

* Transfer the ingredients from the cloth into a large pot followed by the liquid and boil.

*Add 6 cups of water; simmer for 1 1/2 hours until peel is soft.

*Add sugar and ginger, boil and stir constantly with a wooden spoon.

*Boil for 20 minutes until sugar is dissolved and mixture is thickened.

*If the mixture foams up, add a pat of butter and the froth will subside.

*Test for jell-point: drop a small amount of hot marmalade on a chilled plate. Return to the freezer for 1 minute.

*If surface forms a skin, it has reached jelling point, if still syrupy, continue cooking and test again in 5 minutes.

Shelf Life: 6months

Ingredients Amount ProcedureLemon peel *Select, wash and peel lemons.

*Wash and remove inner white on skin of lemon.

*Slice lemon peel thinly and spread onto trays

*Dehydrate / dry in the sun until moisture has been completely removed.

*Mill crisp lemon peels using a regular mill into powder.



Ingredients Amount ProcedureMango 0.5kg *Peel fruit and weigh

Sugar (white) 20g *Dice into 2cm2

Water 250ml *Boil syrup for 15 minutes or until glossy look, add fruit and citric acid, and boil for another 15 minutes

Citric acid 5g *Leave to soak for 12-18 hrs.

Food colouring *Drain for 10-15 minutes.

*Dehydrate for 12 hrs in a dryer

Shelf Life: 3months

Instant RiceOchroes in Brine

Orange Marmalade

Lemon Peel

Mango (Candied)




Papaya Jam

Passion Fruit Sauce

Pineapple in Syrup

Ingredients Amount ProcedureOrange Peel *Select, wash and remove peel from oranges.

*Wash and remove inner white on skin, underneath peel.

*Slice thinly and lay out on trays

*Dehydrate / dry until crisp in the sun

*Mill crisp orange peel using a regular mill into powder


Ingredients Amount ProcedurePassion fruit 6 *Wash and sort fruit. Cut fruit in halves and extract seed and flesh.

Sugar 227g *Place the peel in a separate bowl and boil for 20 mins.

Water 130ml *Allow to sit for about ten minutes, use spoon to extract the whiter portion leaving the thin outer part.

Spices *Blend extract with water and then pour into a pot.

*If preferable, leave just like that and boil and place in jar with syrup.

*Boil with spices, sugar and juice extract until it acquires a thick consistency.

*Pour onto a tray for drying. Dust with white sugar/ icing sugar.

Shelf Life: 18months Ingredients Amount ProcedurePapaw 1 medium *Make syrup using sugar, water, spices and lime juice

Sugar 227g *Slice papaw as desired.

Spices *Place papaw slices into syrup and boil for 10-15 minutes.


Water 131ml after cooling, containers are dried, labeled and stored. Shelf Life:

Ingredients Amount Procedurepapaw 3 *Peel, and cut papaw into small pieces.

sugar 1kg *Add papaw pieces and water into a blender and puree the mixture.

water 197ml *Pour into a pot, add sugar with spices and stir continuously until sugar dissolves under slow heat.

lime juice 22ml *Add lime juice and stir until a jam-like viscosity is obtained.

spices to flavor if desired *Allow to cool, and then pack in sterilized jars/containers.


Ingredients Amount ProcedurePassion fruit 6 *Pick, wash, sort and pulp passion fruits.

Garlic 227g *Extract seed and place pulp into a pot and add two cups warm water.

Salt 5g *Blend garlic and pepper.

Pepper 1 *Pour into a pot and bring to a boil until it acquires a thick consistency.

sugar 454g

Shelf Life: 1month

Ingredients Amount Procedurepineapple 1 *Make syrup using sugar, water, spices and lime juice.

Sugar 227g *Peel Pineapple and then slice as desired.

Water 131g *Place pineapple slices into syrup and boil for 10-15 minutes.


Spices To flavour *After cooling containers are dried, labeled and stored.


Orange Peel Powder

Passion Fruit Peel In Syrup

Papaya In Syrup




Plumrose in Syrup

Rice Noodles & Pasta

Ingredients Amount ProcedurePineapple 1 *Wash, peel and cut pineapple into cubes.

Sugar 454g *Bring water to a boil then add pineapple cubes, boil until tender.

water *Add sugar with spices, stirring continuously until sugar dissolves and the mixture is creamy.

Spices *Add spices and stir frequently until a jam like viscosity is obtained.

*Allow to cool, then pack in sterilize jars/containers.

*Store at room temperature or in refrigerator.


Ingredients Amount Procedurepumpkin sugar 2.27Kg *Peel, remove seeds and cut pumpkin into cubes.

sugar 1.6Kg *Bring water to a boil then add pumpkin cubes, boil until tender.

water 265ml *Add sugar with spices, stirring continuously until sugar dissolves and the mixture is creamy.

Lime juice 22.5ml *Add lime juice and stir frequently until a jam like viscosity is obtained.

Spices To flavour *Allow to cool, then pack in sterilize jars/containers.

Shelf Life: 9months

Ingredients Amount ProcedurePapaw 1 medium *Make syrup using sugar, water, spices and lime juice

Sugar 227g *Slice papaw as desired.

Spices *Place papaw slices into syrup and boil for 10-15 minutes.


Water 131ml after cooling, containers are dried, labeled and stored. Shelf Life:

Ingredients Amount ProcedurePumpkin seeds 227g *Clean pumpkin seeds

butter 7.5ml *Soak overnight in strong salt water (1/4 cup salt to 2 cups water)

Optional: salt, garlic *Drain seeds the next daypowder, onion powder,seasoned salt *Toast/dry on a cookie sheet at 40oCor other seasoning for 3 -4 hours, until completely dry slightly and browned


Ingredients Amount ProcedurePlumrose 454g *Make syrup using sugar, water, spices and lime juice.

Sugar 227g *Slice plumrose as desired.

Water 131ml *Place plumrose slices into syrup and boil for 10-15 minutes.

Spices *Fill into sterilized containers (glass jars) and seal.

limejuice 15ml *After cooling containers are dried, labeled and stored

Shelf Life: 6months

Ingredients Amount Procedure Rice flour 200g *Add food colouring to flour and knead into dough.

Food colouring 8 grains Dough is placed in a cotton cloth and boiled for 7minutes at 85-90 ºC.

Water 130ml *The gelatinized dough is kneaded thoroughly for 30minutes.

*Dough is then steamed for 30minutes.

*This is followed by kneading for 30minutes.

*The steamed dough is extruded at 1.5mm.

*The noodles are dried at 80ºC for 90minutes then followed by open air drying for 3 hours.

*Moisture content of the dried noodles was analyzed.

*The final product is then packaged and stored.

Shelf Life: 9months

Pineapple JamPumpkin Jam

Pineapple Sauce

Pumpkin Seeds




Yam Flour Fine Thyme Seasoning

Ingredients Amount Procedure Cassava *Select Cassava free of damages from pest and diseases, and wash.

*Slice into thin chips 3 to 5mm.

*Place in the sun for complete drying.

*Chips are milled into powder.


N.B. Use for baking (cassava mini bread, cassava breadsticks).

Yield: 3:1 Fresh Shelf Life: 6months

Ingredients Amount Procedure Broad leaf Thyme *Select broad leaf thyme and remove leaves from stem.

*Blanch thyme in warm water for five minutes.

*Remove and spread leaves on a tray.

*Direct sun drying is used for dehydration.

*Dry leaves are milled to obtain powder.



Ingredients Amount ProcedureSweet potatoes *Select sweet potatoes free of damages from pest and diseases, and wash.

*Using a slicer, slice into thin chips.

*Place in the sun for complete drying.

*Chips are milled into powder.


Yield: 3:1 Fresh to dryShelf Life: 6months

Ingredients Amount Procedure celery *Sort celery and wash.

*Remove stems and place leaves in a bowl.

*Blanch celery leaves in warm water for five minutes.

*Drain to remove water

*Dehydrate using direct solar energy.

*Pulverize dried celery.



Ingredients Amount Procedure Yams *Wash and peel yams.

*Using a slicer, slice very thinly into chips.

*Dry until chips are crisps.

*Using a regular milled, grind dehydrated chips.


Yield: 2.5:1 Fresh to dryShelf Life: 6months

Ingredients Amount ProcedureFine leaf thyme *Wash, sort and remove leaves from stem.

*Place in warm water and blanch for five minutes.

*Remove water by draining thyme leaves.

*Spread onto trays and place in the sun until completely dry.

*Thyme leaves are grind into powder.



Cassava Flour Broad Leaf Thyme

Sweet Potato Flour

Celery Seasoning




Sorrel All Purpose Sauce Tomatoes In Brine

GARLIC POWDER

Ingredients Amount ProcedureGarlic *Wash and clean garlic.

*Cut garlic cloves into thin slices and lay onto trays.

*Dry in the sun until crisp and then mill into powder.


Ingredients Amount ProcedureSorrel *Pick, sort and wash sorrel fruit.

*Extract seed and place flower in a bowl.

*Spread flower onto tray and dehydrate / dry until crisp.

*Pulverize dehydrated sorrel flower.

*Package and store at room

temperature.


Ingredients Amount Procedure Sweet peppers 2 *Use desirable size of sweet peppers of various colours.

Salt 5g *Sort, wash and cut into halves, removing seeds.

Vinegar 7.5ml *Place halved sweet peepers on a board and cut length-side down, making slices (not very thin).

Citric acid/lime juice 15ml *Place into containers in a standing position.

water 250ml *Make brine comprising of water, vinegar, salt and citric acid.

*Pour brine into container and cover.

*Store at room temperature.

Shelf Life: 9months

Ingredients Amount Procedure Onion *Remove skin from onion

*Slice into rings and spread onto trays

*Dehydrate / dry until crisp

*Crisps onion rings are pulverize.


Ingredients Amount ProcedureSorrel 454g *Pick, wash and sort sorrel

Garlic 227g *Extract seed and place flowers into a

pot. Soak in two cups of warm water for three hours.

Sugar 454g *Blend soaked sorrel, garlic and pepper.

Salt 5g *Pour into a pot and bring to a boil until it acquires a thick consistency.

pepper 1 *Pour into sterilized container and store at room temperature or in refrigerator.

Shelf Life: 1month

Ingredients Amount ProcedureCherry tomatoes 3 *Pick Cherry tomatoes and wash and sort.

Water 250ml *Make brine of vinegar, water, lime juice and salt

Salt 5g *Place cherry tomatoes into container.

Vinegar 7.5ml *Pour brine into container, cover and store at room temperature.

Citric acid/lime juice 15ml


Garlic Powder Sorrel Powder

Sweet Peppers In BrineOnion Powder




Ingredients Amount Procedure Tomatoes 8 *In a large pot, combine the onions, tomatoes and oil, cover and cook over medium heat, for 1 hour.

Onions 12 *Remove from heat then add vinegar, salt, pepper and serve.

Olive oil 45ml

Vinegar 7.5ml

Salt 5g

pepper 1


Ingredients Amount ProcedureTomatoes 454g *Dice fresh ripe tomatoes and place in a large bowl.

Onion 1 *Squeeze to extract juice and strain juice in a pot.

Garlic 4 cloves *Blend onion and four cloves of garlic with 1/3 cup of vinegar.

Sugar 149g *Add other ingredients into pot with tomato juice.

Vinegar 125ml *Boil until it gets a thick consistency (texture looking like ketchup) and then strain again.

Salt 5g *Pour into container and store in a cool place.

Pepper 5g

Maizena 5g

Spice and cloves

Yield: 150ml Shelf Life: 6months

Tomatoe Marmalade

Tomatoe Spicy Ketchup

BIBLIOGRAPHYDauthy, E. M.1995 Fruit and Vegetable Processing, FAO Agriculture Services Bulletin 119, Rome.

Fellows P. 1997 Traditional Foods, Processing for Profit. Intermediate Technology Publications.Figuerola F. and Paltinieri. 1998 Small Scale Processing of Native and Introduced Amazonian Fruits and Vegetables.

Technical Manual.

PROCESS TECHNOLOGY →→→


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