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MINISTERS’ MESSAGE

British Columbians, like all Canadians, care deeply about the environment.By any standard, British Columbia offers a rich and spectacular landscape. Asstewards of the Province’s air, water, and land resources, British Columbians needaccurate, timely, and meaningful information on the state of the environment so thatinformed decisions about the future of the Province can be made. Such informationis also needed to help measure our progress in protecting and sustaining theintegrity of the environment for present and future generations.

It is with pleasure that we present the “State of the Environment Report forBritish Columbia.”

This State of the Environment Report gives us a snapshot of BritishColumbia’s environment and provides information on a number of environmentalbenchmarks or indicators which, like measures of economic performance,document current status and trends. This report can be used to makeenvironmentally responsible choices - choices that will reduce or minimize theimpact of human activities on ecosystems and promote long term sustainability ofthe environment.

This State of the Environment Report for British Columbia represents animportant step. The public has become familiar with a regular accounting on theeconomy from government, and should expect, and receive, a similar accounting onthe environment. Important first steps, however, should not be confused withdefinitive last words. While the following pages shed a great deal of light onenvironmental conditions in British Columbia, there is still much more to learn anddocument.

This report is the result of cooperative partnerships among many scientists,academics and government officials. The British Columbia Round Table on theEnvironment and the Economy and members of the public also served in anadvisory capacity and helped shape this report. To the many participants andcontributors, we extend our warmest thanks. To each of you who will be readingthe results of their work, we invite your comments.

John Cashore Mary CollinsMinister of Environment, Minister of State (Environment) Lands and Parks Government of CanadaProvince of British Columbia

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This State of Environment Report was prepared to increase understanding of theecological consequences of human activities in British Columbia. With increasedunderstanding, society can make more informed decisions and more responsiblechoices; ones which are environmentally sustainable over the long term. Timelyand accurate information on environmental conditions and trends is a necessarycomponent of environmentally sound decision making.

The following excerpts from the report provide a sense of some current environ-mental conditions and trends. But it is not a comprehensive summary. There arenevertheless three overall conclusions. First, considerable progress has beenmade over the last several decades in protecting and restoring the province’secosystems. Second, there’s lots of room for improvement - many long standingproblems remain unresolved, and new problem areas continue to be discovered.Third, human activities and environmental problems in B.C. are closely linked tothe rest of the world. Some of our activities have effects which extend far beyondprovincial boundaries, and the condition of our local environment is influencedby distant human activities and natural events.

Population growth• B.C. currently has about 3.3 million

people; by the year 2016 it isexpected to have 4.9 million - a50% increase in only 24 years. (pg. 7)

• The Lower Mainland, southeastVancouver Island and the GulfIslands make up less than 3% of thearea of B.C., but contain two thirdsof its people. (pg. 88)

• Between 1981 and 1986, theVancouver and Victoria urban areaspermanently converted over 50 km2

of rural land to urban uses. (pg. 93)

Waste generation• Despite progress in recycling,

British Columbians still generatemore waste per capita than anydeveloped country - about threetimes the rate of Sweden. It isestimated that 60% of the prov-ince’s 236 landfills will be full bythe year 2000 if current practicescontinue. (pg. 64)

• There is no facility in the provincefor the safe treatment and disposalof hazardous wastes. About 110,000tonnes are generated each year, inB.C., and while some are properlystored or recycled, others are disposedof along with ordinary wastes. (pg. 65)

• In the period between 1987 and1989, a person walking along the 20km beach of Pacific Rim National

Highlights

Energy consumption• B.C. has an energy-intensive

industrial base - about half theenergy consumed is for industrialuse, and a quarter for transportation.(pg. 5)

• British Columbians use about 20%more energy per person than theaverage Canadian, and about 300%more than the average Japanese.

Park would on average have seenone piece of debris for every steptaken. Most debris is styrofoam andplastics, followed by glass andmetal, paper, wood, and fishinggear. (pg. 86)

• Over half the households in B.C.are now using curbside recycling.(pg. 65)

STATE OF THE

ENVIRONMENT REPORT

FOR BRITISH COLUMBIA

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Rates of energy consumption haveremained more or less stable for thelast ten years. (pg. 5,8)

• Energy savings gained by B.C.Hydro’s Power Smart program forboth industrial and domesticcustomers are enough to supply allthe electricity for 70,000 homes forone year. (pg. 8)

• While improvements in technologyand pollution control equipment aregenerally reducing per capitaemissions of air pollutants, theseadvances may be overtaken byincreased population growth insome areas, particularly the LowerMainland. (pg. 17,89-90)

• Since the late 1970s, atmosphericsulphur dioxide levels have beendeclining in Trail, partly from zincsmelter modernization, and partiallyfrom a control program. (pg. 79)

Stratospheric ozonedepletion• The greatest damage to the ozone

layer from B.C. emissions is frombromine-containing halons (used infire extinguishers). The secondlargest source of ozone-depletingsubstances from B.C. was CFC lossfrom automobile air conditioners.The Province has recently intro-duced strict regulations to controlthe use of ozone-depleting gases.(pg. 12)

• Although trends are not yet avail-able for B.C., stratospheric ozonelevels over Edmonton have declinedsince the late 1970s, but areconsidered to be within the range ofnatural fluctuation. (pg. 12)

Global climate change• Globally, nine of the eleven

warmest years since 1854 occurredduring the period from 1980 to1991. In B.C., climate warmingappears to be taking place at a rateof around 0.4 - 0.8°C per century.This is indicated by measurementsof air and sea-surface temperatures,and studies of shrinking glaciers.These changes may be due tonatural climatic variations, or maybe a preliminary signal of globalwarming. (pg. 10)

Air quality• Smoke is one of the primary air

quality issues in many interior B.C.communities, particularly thosewith active forest products indus-tries. (pg. 14)

• With the elimination of leadedgasoline in 1990, atmospheric leadlevels dropped dramatically indowntown Vancouver and mostother sampled areas of B.C. (pg. 15)

• Urban air quality in B.C. has shownimprovements for some gases(carbon monoxide). For other gases,the situation remains a problem(sulphur dioxide, ozone, hydrogensulphide). (pg. 15-17)

• Ground-level ozone concentrationsin the Lower Mainland haveimproved over the last decade, buton about 100 days per year one ormore locations still exceed Federalstandards for desirable levels.Motor vehicles produce more thanhalf of the ozone-forming pollut-ants. The GVRD aims to reducetotal emissions by 50% by the year2000. (pg. 89-91)

Acidic deposition• No adverse effects from acidic

deposition have been found to datein B.C. forests. (pg. 13)

• Most acid rain concerns focus onsensitive aquatic systems, especiallyin the Coast Mountains. Sensitivelakes and acidic soils along theSunshine Coast and the north shoreof Burrard Inlet are being subjectedto elevated levels of acid inputs.Extensive surveys have turned upno evidence of significant acidifica-tion of lakes or streams. (pg. 14)

Water quality• The province has been monitoring

water quality since 1987. Estab-lished water quality objectives haveconsistently been met in over 90%of the samples checked. (pg. 26-27)

Water supply• Data collected around the province

over the last 30-70 years suggestaverage annual streamflows aredecreasing at southern sites andincreasing at northern sites. Similarpatterns have recently been ob-served in snowpack water storage.The causes of these changes are notknown. (pg. 18-19)

• There is currently no indication oflarge-scale “groundwater mining”in B.C. (pg. 30)

• Seasonal shortages of water haveoccurred in the Peace-Liard,Cariboo, Kootenays, Central Coastand Sunshine Coast. These short-ages may be due to a lack ofresources for tapping new supplies,rather than a lack of water. Watersupply is a major concern in parts ofthe Okanagan and ThompsonBasins. (pg. 19-21,82,99)

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• A recent study of drinking watersources for communities near pulpmills on the upper Fraser andThompson rivers showed noevidence of dioxin, furan or otherorganochlorine contamination.(pg. 28)

• Over 1.5 million people in B.C. livein communities which lack or haveminimal sewage treatment.(pg. 24,33)

• Microbiological contamination isthe greatest drinking water qualityproblem in B.C., mostly outsidemajor population centres. Theprovince has the highest incidenceof water-borne illness in Canada.(pg. 28)

• In 1990, the Province introducedregulations requiring reductions inthe discharge of chlorinated organiccompounds from pulp mills.Included are dioxins and furans.More stringent regulations werepassed in 1992. (pg. 22-24,33)

• Concentrations of the furan TCDFincreased in sediments in the Straitof Georgia after pulp mills beganchlorine bleaching in the early1960s. They now appear to bedecreasing, probably in response toimproved treatment at pulp mills.(pg. 93)

• In 1980/81, the Province orderedimproved treatment systems at acopper-lead-zinc mine dischargingwaste water to Buttle Lake. Sincethen, heavy metal concentrationshave dropped by more than 80%,and some recovery has beenobserved in the ecosystem. (pg. 85)

• Each year, about 800 millionjuvenile salmon and 1.5 millionbirds use the Fraser Estuary. Up to70% of the wetlands in the LowerFraser Valley have been lost, andwastewater discharges are aconcern. Actions to restore andprotect the Estuary are being takenby the Fraser River Estuary Man-agement Program, the Fraser RiverAction Plan, and other governmentand non-government institutions. (pg. 94-96)

• Sea otters, which were extirpatedfrom the B.C. coast by the 1930s,now number about 800. Thisrepresents a dramatic recoveryfollowing a re-transplant of 89individuals off the west coast ofVancouver Island during 1969-72.(pg. 55-56)

• The burrowing owl virtuallydisappeared from B.C., primarilybecause of habitat loss. A recoveryprogram re-introduced this speciesinto the south Okanagan Valley,transplanting owls from Washing-ton State into artificial burrows.(pg. 42-44)

Biological diversityand habitat protection• British Columbia has the greatest

diversity of birds and mammals ofany province in Canada. (pg. 41)

• At present in B.C., 721 species ofplants and animals are candidatesfor threatened or endangered status.Further research will likely add tothis list. Only four species arecurrently officially designated asendangered. (pg. 42)

• The south Okanagan has morevulnerable, threatened and endan-gered species (mammals, birds,reptiles and amphibians) than anyother area in B.C. Many speciesfound here exist nowhere else in theprovince, and some are not foundanywhere else in Canada. (pg. 83)

• The single most important factoraffecting wildlife in B.C. is habitatloss. (pg. 54)

Contaminants inecosystems• Since 1970, there has been a

downward trend in PCB levels ineggs of Double-crested cormorantsin the Strait of Georgia. (pg. 39)

• Since 1988 dioxin-related fishconsumption advisories have beenissued for a variety of fish speciesin areas near pulp mills. These areasinclude parts of the upper Fraser,Thompson, Quesnel, NorthThompson, South Thompson,Kootenay, and Columbia rivers.(pg. 37,48,80)

• Almost 900 km2 of coastal marinehabitat has been closed to commer-cial harvest of some shellfishspecies due to dioxin contamina-tion. (pg. 37-38)

• Dioxin levels in the eggs of Double-crested cormorants in the Strait ofGeorgia were high during 1983-89compared with levels detected inthe Bay of Fundy, the St. Lawrenceestuary, and Lake Ontario. Recentdata (1991) indicate a decline indioxin concentrations in eggs ofboth cormorants and herons. (pg. 38)

Protected areas• B.C. now has about 6.5% of its area

in protected status, double the levelin 1970, and the second highestamong Canadian provinces. A newProtected Areas Strategy is beingimplemented which calls for theprotection of 12% of the provinceby the year 2000. Nine new coastalprovincial parks were recentlydesignated. (pg. 67-70)

• A review of existing protected areasindicates that B.C.’s low elevation,highly productive old-growthecosystems are under-represented,as are wetlands, grasslands,northern boreal ecosystems andmarine ecosystems. (pg. 68)

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• The Province recently announcedthe protection of theKhutzeymateen Valley as grizzlybear habitat - the first area inCanada to be protected specificallyfor grizzly bears. (pg.87)

• The Government of Canada and theCouncil of the Haida Nation signedan historic agreement allowing forthe co-operative management of anarea of the Queen Charlotte Islandsknown as 'Gwaii Haanas'. (pg. 59)

• The percentage of currentlyprotected area is greatest for theSouthern Interior Mountains(13.1%); Georgia Depression(9.4%); and Northern BorealMountains (8.7%) ecoprovinces.The Sub-Boreal Interior (less than2.0%) and Southern Interior (1.8%)ecoprovinces have a small propor-tion of their areas in protectedstatus. The Taiga Plains and BorealInterior ecoprovinces have noprotected areas. (pg. 68)

• The amount of timber harvestedannually is projected to decline inthe near future in many areas of theprovince. This is due toreassessments of potential long termcutting rates, the need to satisfynon-timber values such as wildlifeand aesthetics, and the changing agecomposition of forests (replacementof old-growth forests with secondgrowth forests). (pg. 50)

• Between 1976 and 1986, the area ofland harvested for timber generallyexceeded the area that was refor-ested by planting efforts or naturalregeneration. However, since 1986reforestation has exceeded areaharvested, and there has been anincreased effort to replant thebacklog of harvested areas. (pg. 50 )

harvesting. (pg. 78)

• Since the mid-1980s, there has beena general coast-wide decline in theabundance of steelhead in NorthAmerica. Reduced steelhead runsare a concern in several VancouverIsland streams and the SkeenaRiver. (pg. 47)

• Fish populations in Okanagan Lakeand its tributaries have seriouslydeclined over the past two decades,due to a variety of factors. (pg. 82)

• Since the mid 1970s, populations ofkokanee (salmon) in Kootenay Lakehave been declining, threatening thepopulation of trophy-sized Gerrardrainbow trout. A lake fertilizationprogram has begun to boost foodsupplies for the kokanee. (pg. 80)

• Sanitary shellfish closures haveincreased in recent years withmunicipal sewage discharges beingthe largest sole source of closures.(pg. 34)

Fish• About 76% of B.C.’s salmon stocks

are considered stable or increasing,while 24% have declined. Declinescan be largely attributed tooverharvesting and habitat damage.(pg. 45)

• Over the past two decades salmonabundance has been sustainedlargely by enhancement efforts,such as supplementing decliningwild stocks with artificially-rearedfish. Overall, ‘enhanced’ salmonrepresent 15% of the commercialsalmon catch. (pg. 45)

• In 1941, there were only 1,100sockeye salmon spawning on theHorsefly River. By 1989, therewere 1.9 million spawners and 8.4million fish caught. This recoverywas due to careful control of

Forests• Forests cover about two thirds of

the province, and over half of theprovince is capable of producingtimber for commercial purposes.(pg. 48)

• Of the eleven major types of forestsin Canada, six are found in BritishColumbia. B.C. has a greaterdiversity of forest ecosystems thanany other province. (pg. 48)

• More than half of the province'scoastal forests are over 250 yearsold, whereas only 6% of interiorforests are that old. (pg. 48)

• North America has the largestcontinuous tract of coastal temper-ate rain forests on Earth. Approxi-mately half of this is in B.C.(pg. 43)

Agricultural land• All of the nearly 400,000 ha of

grain growing land in the PeaceRiver is classified as high erosionrisk, and 15% already showsevidence of erosion. Conservationfarming is being encouraged toimprove soil management. (pg. 74)

• The Lower Fraser Basin producesabout half the gross farm income inthe province. Between 1980 and1987, 750 ha of prime agriculturalland in the Lower Fraser Basin waspermanently lost to urban uses. Thesouthern third of Vancouver Islandfaces similar urbanization pressures.(pg. 93)

• In southwestern B.C., the area offarm land in the Agricultural LandReserve declined by 8.5% between1973 and 1990. (pg. 93)

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AcknowledgementsDevelopment of the first State of the Environment Report for British Columbia was a challenging task. A number of organizational questionshad to be answered, considerable information and data had to be gathered and presented in a manner that was accurate and meaningful. Moreimportantly, this report reflects the collective scientific knowledge, perspectives and contributions from a number of individuals and agencies.

Representatives from provincial and federal government agencies developed the structure and focus of the report, provided material to beincorporated, and extensively reviewed a series of drafts for accuracy and balance. The Westland Resource Group assisted governmentrepresentatives in developing an outline for the report. ESSA Environmental and Social Systems Analysts Ltd. synthesized all governmentagency contributions and review comments, together with other available literature and informative material, into a cohesive report. TheSouthern Interior case study was based on material provided by the Centre for Sustainable Regional Development at the University of Victoria.The Secretary of State undertook the French translation. Special acknowledgements are also extended to the B.C. Round Table on theEnvironment and the Economy and to many other contributors not listed below.

University of VictoriaGerry Walter Orland Wilkerson Tim MakiRandy Sunderman

Westland Resource GroupDavid Harper Wayne Biggs Mark Walmsley

ESSA Environmental and Social Systems Analysts Ltd.David Marmorek Pille Bunnell Trent BerryCarol Murray David Bernard Karen PauligJay Roop Doug Tait Jane Wolsak

Steering Committee

Ministry of Environment, Lands and ParksLinda Hannah Jim van Barneveld Jamie Alley

Ministry of Economic Development, Small Business and TradeLouise Arthur

Environment CanadaDon Bernard Terry Chiasson Harry HirvonenBrian MacDonald

Advisory Committee

Ministry of Aboriginal AffairsJacqueline Morgan Deborah Ainsworth

Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and FoodRon Bertrand Joe Truscott

Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum ResourcesBrian Braidwood Teresa Morris

Ministry of Environment, Lands and ParksWally Bergen Kul Bindra Dave BrownBrian Clark Hal Coulson Dan CroninMaureen DeHaan Don Eastman Elaine EllisonGlyn Fox Ron Hall Andrew HarcombeBill Hodge Greg Jones Ben KangasniemiAl Kohut Bob Lincoln Derrick LoweKen Lozoway Les McDonald Brian MoenKen Morrison Narender Nagpal Peter NewrothGeraldine Parke Alan Phillips Larry PommenJuanita Ptolemy Roland Rocchini Neil ShrimptonLes Swain Ron Thomas Jay van OostdamRick Williams Barry Willoughby

Ministry of Finance and Corporate RelationsThomas Beynon Gary Weir

Ministry of ForestsRay Addison Jim Crover John Marczyk

Ministry of HealthRay Copes Norm Hardy Andrew Hazlewood

Ministry of Municipal Affairs, Recreation and HousingErik Karlsen

Ministry of Tourism and Ministry Responsible for CultureJennifer Nichol

Ministry of Transportation and HighwaysMike Kent

Ministry of Women's EqualityAnnette Wall Leah Siebold

Agriculture CanadaMargaret Bancroft Pat Bowen Solke De BoerJohn Hansen Gerry Neilsen Laurens van VlietBernie Zebarth Sunny Szeto

Energy, Mines and Resources CanadaD.J. Templeman-Kluit

Environment CanadaVictor Bartnik Bette Beswick Ed WituschekDuane Brothers Al Colodey Dick BoakGeorge Derksen Allen Eade Alain DavidJohn Elliott Lee Harding Joan EamerDave Lacelle Adam La Rusic Gary KaiserRoger McNeill Kathleen Moore Hugh LiebscherSteve Pond Dave Scharf Hal NelsonBruce Thomson Taina Tuominen Eric TaylorSteve Wetmore Neville Ward Tony TurnerPaul Whitfield Peggy Ward Phil Whitehead

Fisheries and Oceans CanadaColin MacKinnon Brian Smiley Mike Nassichuk

Forestry CanadaWayne Coombs Dean Mills

Health and Welfare CanadaRichard Lawrence

Indian and Northern Affairs CanadaJohn Alexis Brian Martin

Industry, Science and Technology CanadaJohn Beveridge

Public Works CanadaColin Kingman

Supply and Services CanadaAl Shaw

Transport CanadaAlan McKenzie Boris Pavlov Robert Sisler

Western Economic DiversificationFrank Eichgruen Barbara Newton-Vedan

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ix

ContentsPerspectives ...........................................................1

The need for a State of the Environment Report .............................. 1

People are part of the environment ................................................... 4

Air ..........................................................................9

Global climate change .................................................................... 10

Stratospheric ozone ......................................................................... 11

Acidic deposition ............................................................................ 13

Water .....................................................................18

Our fresh surface waters ................................................................. 18

Drinking water quality .................................................................... 28

Groundwater ................................................................................... 29

Marine environmental quality ......................................................... 32

Plants and Animals ...............................................41

Biodiversity ..................................................................................... 41

Fish and aquatic invertebrates ........................................................ 44

Forests ............................................................................................. 48

Wildlife ........................................................................................... 53

Land .....................................................................58

Land suitability ............................................................................... 59

How we change the land ................................................................. 63

Protected areas ................................................................................ 67

Ecoprovinces.........................................................72

The Northern ecoprovinces............................................................. 73

Sub-Boreal Interior ......................................................................... 75

Central Interior ................................................................................ 77

Southern Interior Mountains ........................................................... 78

Southern Interior ............................................................................. 81

Coast and Mountains and Northeast Pacific ................................... 84

Georgia Depression ........................................................................ 88

Land under change................................................97

Future directions .................................................104

References..................................................................................... 106

Glossary ........................................................................................ 119

Index ............................................................................................. 123

a provincialperspective

an ecoprovincialoverview

a focus on theSouthern Interior

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1

Perspectives

Over the past twodecades, protectionof the environmenthas become a matterof urgent worldwideattention and

concern. There is a growing concernabout the environment that is espe-cially pronounced in our province.British Columbians have made it clearthat they want to secure for current andfuture generations both a healthyenvironment and a healthy economy.This is the essence of sustainabledevelopment.

Sustainable development requires thatinformed choices be based on goodenvironmental information. However,there are often conflicting opinions anda lack of information that is consistent,reliable, and easily accessible.

State of the environment reporting isseen as a step to help chart the coursetowards a sustainable future. The goalof this report is to inform BritishColumbians about the state of theenvironment and to measure ourprogress towards a sustainable future.State of the environment reporting willallow us to determine whether environ-mental conditions have improved, areremaining stable, or require efforts toturn around a disturbing trend.

Shaping the reportThis State of the Environment Reportfor British Columbia represents acooperative effort involving a numberof federal and provincial agencies.The British Columbia Round Table on

the Environment and the Economy andmembers of the public also helped toshape this report. This approach hasensured that the report is as compre-hensive, objective and relevant aspossible.

State of the environment reporting isnot new in Canada. The secondNational State of the EnvironmentReport was published in 1991 and anumber of other provinces (Saskatch-ewan, Manitoba, Quebec) haveprepared reports as well. BritishColumbia has benefited from thereporting experience in these otherjurisdictions and has applied a report-ing framework that will enablecomplementary environmentalreporting among jurisdictions overtime.

Several criteria guided the selection ofissues to be addressed in this report.These included: environmentalimportance (the risk posed to eitherhuman health or to ecosystems); thenature of the risk and whether it isincreasing or decreasing, local orwidespread; the social and economicimportance of the issue; and the degreeto which reporting on the issueadvances an improved understandingof the relationship between humanactivities and the environment.

We are still very much at the earlystages of reporting comprehensively onthe environment. There is much morethat could be reported, and should bereported on in the future. For example,it is often difficult to assess thesignificance of changes, especially

when benchmarks are lacking orinformation is incomplete. In othercases, the ability to evaluate thesignificance of information lags behindthe ability to generate data. Futurereports will address these gaps. It isimportant, though, that the task ofreporting on the environment is started.

The four fundamentalquestionsThe State of the Environment Reportfor British Columbia is developedaround four basic questions: What ishappening in the environment? Why isit happening? Why is it significant?and What are we doing about it?(Box 1.1). This framework is designedto inform British Columbians about thecurrent condition of the environment,and to better understand the linkagesbetween human activities and theenvironment.

The need for a State of the Environment Report

Box 1.1

The Four FundamentalQuestions

What is happening in the environment?

Why is it happening?

Why is it significant?

What are we doing about it?

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are interdependent. Removing oraltering even one, can have seriouscomplications for the entire system.

There is a need to move away from anemphasis on individual elements andmove towards a more comprehensiveecological approach. Such an ap-proach would report on the interrela-tionships and social and economiclinkages found in the environmentupon which we depend.

The environmental, social and eco-nomic processes that support humanlivelihood are highly interactive.Understanding these processes requiresa "systems approach" where societythinks, plans and acts in terms ofecosystems. An ecosystem approachstrives to look at how various system

Figure 1.1

Sustainable development

Sustainable communities depend on economic prosperity, social equity and environmentalvalues. These can be achieved more fully if they take into account the ecological limits of theworld upon which they are grounded.

An ecological andsustainable perspectiveBritish Columbia is a mosaic ofregions, many possessing uniquefeatures of worldwide significance.Each region is part of a larger commu-nity, and consequently, each contrib-utes to and is affected by larger scalechanges. Our place in this largercommunity places an obligation onBritish Columbia to promote eco-nomic, social and environmental healthat home and abroad.

Traditionally, we have often looked atenvironmental issues in isolation andnot within the context of the largerecological system within which wefind ourselves. An appropriateecological perspective on sustainabilitystarts with a view of the whole and anunderstanding that the environment,society and economy are part of amutually supporting system (Figure1.1). All of the elements in the system

“What is important is to change ourunderstanding of the world, to focuson ecosystems rather than onindividual species and organismsthat are a part of them. Suchchanged understanding of therealities around us will affectfundamentally how we live on ourplanet home.”

Stan Rowe10

Figure 1.2

The ecoprovinces of British Columbia

Southern Interior (Okanagan & South Thompson Basin)

Georgia Depression (Lower Mainland, Gulf Islands,

Sunshine Coast, Southeast Vancouver Island)

Northeast Pacific

Northern Boreal Mountains (North West B.C. Liard Basin)

Sub-Boreal Interior (Northern Interior)

Central Interior

Southern Interior Mountains (Kootenays)

Coast and Mountains

Taiga Plains (North East B.C.)

Boreal Plains (Peace River Area)

economicprosperity

social equity

environmentalvalues

environmental, social, and economic sustainability

3

Table 1.1

Some potential environmental indicators for British Columbia

Climate change• Emissions of greenhouse gases• Atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide• Air temperature, precipitation• Sea surface temperature

Stratospheric Ozone Depletion• Atmospheric concentrations of ozone-depleting

chemicals• Thickness of stratospheric ozone layer• Ultraviolet radiation

Air Toxics• Lead concentrations in urban air

Fresh and Marine Water Quality• Discharges to fresh and marine waters• Compliance with water quality objectives• Contaminants in ground water• Contaminant levels in sediments and biota• Areas closed to shellfish harvesting

Water Supply• Annual flow of major streams• Water levels in groundwater observation wells

Water Use• Water use per capita

Biodiversity• Species at risk• Areas of old-growth forest, riparian, grassland and

other habitatsWildlife and Fisheries

• Population levels of representative wildlife species• Salmon escapements (returns) and production

levelsBioaccumulation of Toxic Substances

• Mercury, dioxin levels in fish• Contaminant levels in human tissue• Contaminant levels in bird eggs

Forestry• Trends in rates of harvest and reforestation

Protected Areas• Land under protected status• Ecosystem representation in protected status

Land Use• Trends in forest land conversion• Changes in agricultural land use• Rates of soil erosion

Solid Waste• Percentage and amount of waste reduced,

recycled and reused

components - social and natural -interact with one another.Sustainability will be achieved whenenvironmental goals become social andeconomic goals, and there is a greaterdegree of integration between environ-mental, economic and social systems.

For example, when we examine ozonedepletion, we must discuss the implica-tions this may have for human health,natural systems, and economicproduction decisions. An ecologicalapproach requires discussion of thelinkages between production of ozone-depleting chemicals, their concentra-tions in the atmosphere, the impactsthis has on stratospheric ozone andlevels of ultraviolet radiation at thesurface of the earth, and the conse-quences this may have for cropproductivity or cancer rates.

To foster this perspective, an ecologi-cal classification system has beenadopted for British Columbia. Thisclassification consists of a hierachy ofecological units, ranging from broad tosmall. The broadest units are the 10ecoprovinces which are subdividedinto ecoregions which, in turn, aredivided into ecosections. Most of theinformation in this report is provided atthe ecoprovince level (Figure 1.2).The ecoprovinces of British Columbiaare integral components of the ecologi-cal classification of Canada. All thenation's ecoprovinces are nested withinone of the 15 ecozones of the country.

Each ecoprovince has a unique patternof biological and physical characteris-tics that tend to persist over time. Thenature of the ecological classificationsystem provides a spatial frameworkthrough which provincial, national andglobal environmental issues can belinked with regional and local ones.

Measuring our progressIn today’s world of informationoverload, there is the need for authori-tative, reliable and easy-to-useindicators by which to measureenvironmental conditions and ourprogress towards sustainability.Environmental indicators are importanttools for translating environmental datainto succinct information that can be

Land

Plants andAnimals

Water

Air

4

readily understood and used indecision-making.

We are all familiar with economicindicators - Gross Domestic Product,interest rates, unemployment rates andconsumer price indices that are used todescribe the state of the economy.Health experts rely on the rates of birthand mortality, and the incidence ofdiseases to describe aspects of thephysical health of a population. Thereis, however, no commonly acceptedcomparable set of indicators tomeasure the state of the environment.Indicators are essential if we are toimprove the capacity to monitor andreport on key environmental changesand trends. Indeed, indicators arenecessary if environmental considera-tions are to be integrated with eco-

nomic and social indicators in per-sonal, public and corporate decision-making.13

Developing and selecting environmen-tal indicators is not an easy task. Manyconceptual and technical difficultiesmust be overcome. To be effective,indicators must meet certain tests.They must be scientifically credible,responsive to change, representativeand supported by sufficient data toshow both regional patterns and trendsover time. Moreover, environmentalindicators must be relevant to issues ofpublic concern and they must beunderstandable. Extensive publicconsultation, research and monitoringwill be required before environmentalindicators can become a part of oureveryday language, culture andactivities.

Some of the potential indicatorsoutlined in this report, such as carbondioxide emissions, document thecontribution of particular humanactivities to global climate change andcan be viewed as a measure of stress tothe environment. Indicators, such asair temperatures or contaminants insediments, assess the physical andchemical condition in the environment.Other indicators, such as salmonproductivity and the abundance ofwildlife species, represent biologicalresponse to natural and human-inducedstresses. Taken together, thesepotential indicators provide a profile ofthe state of the environment in BritishColumbia. They can be used indocumenting trends and measuringprogress towards sustainability (Table 1.1).

Figure 1.3

The environment is our home

The environment is not simply something “out there” that we take care of for ethical reasons. Weare part of the environment. We depend on it, and what we do affects it.

People are part of the environmentBritish Columbia isa special place; it hastremendous ecologi-cal diversity andrichness that isunique in Canada

and to most other parts of the world.Humans are very much a part of this

environment. It is a communal homethat we share with other living things,and our “housekeeping” affects it(Figure 1.3). Human welfare isultimately dependent on maintainingthe environment and its componentsystems.

Being part of this environment,however, means that we must ulti-mately look at ourselves. There isgrowing evidence that we have beenneglecting our environmental responsi-bilities in British Columbia. We arefacing a garbage crisis as we run out oflandfill sites. The number of threatenedand endangered species has beengrowing. Some fresh water and marineecosystems are showing signs of stressas contaminants from a variety ofactivities accumulate. There is growingconcern about our ability to preventand respond to environmental emer-gencies such as oil or chemical spills.

There is also evidence of positivechange. The past decade has seen someimprovements in environmentalquality. Levels of the chemical DDThave declined in Great Blue Heroneggs, land area under protected statushas increased, pulp mill discharges ofdioxins and furans show markeddeclines, and lead emission levels inurban areas have declined. Suchpositive changes reflect society’sability to tap our environmentalknowledge and put our commitment,

5

ingenuity and technology to work toimprove and protect environmentalquality.

Ecological limitsThe environment cannot accommodateall the impacts that result from humanactivities. There are limits. There is areal danger of overfishing,overharvesting, or overstressing ourland. In most cases, we do not knowexactly what the ecological limits are,but we do know that exceeding them

Figure 1.4

Energy use by sector

About half the annual energy used in B.C. is forindustrial use, and a quarter is for transporta-tion. 4

may cause irreversible damage to theenvironment. If the environment isdamaged, our economy will bedamaged. Living within environmentallimits will allow us to sustain oureconomy as well as our environment.We have to take these real limits intoaccount when we try to determine ourpopulation density, production andconsumption patterns, and life style.1

Various processes are already in placeto avoid or minimize the environmentalimpacts of human activities (Box 1.2).

energy consumption/person/year (Gigajoules)

0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Japan

W. Germany

Sweden

Norway

U.S.

Washington

Canada

B.C.

350

Our economy depends onthe environmentIt is easy to appreciate the beauty andrichness of British Columbia’s naturallandscape. It takes a little more thoughtto recognize how much of oureconomy is directly tied to the qualityof the environment. Fishing, forestry,ranching, mining and other resourcebased industries provide 20% of theprovincial gross domestic product.They also provide most of our exports.Economic analysis shows that resourceindustries are responsible for 23% ofall our jobs. The environment alsodirectly supports tourism, recreation,and other service sectors.2

The environment provides BritishColumbia with one of the world’s bestenergy supplies. Energy has been animportant factor in economic growthand industrial development in theprovince. The province’s low energyprices have resulted in an energy-intensive industrial base - about halfthe energy used in B.C. is for industrialuse (Figure 1.4). Production ofimportant B.C. products such as paperand metals requires a large amount ofenergy. In terms of total energy use,B.C. residents are therefore largeconsumers of energy, compared toboth the average Canadian and citizensin other developed countries (Figure1.5). As we export these energyintensive products, we are in effectexporting energy.3

Figure 1.5

Per capita energy use

Canada as a whole is an energy-intensive society. British Columbia uses even more energy perperson than the Canadian average. (One gigajoule is the energy equivalent of 29 litres ofgasoline) 3

transportation

49%

27%

15%

9%commercial

residential

industrial

Box 1.2

Environmental assessment in British Columbia

Environmental assessment is a process that systematically evaluates the potentialimplications, related socio-economic effects, and public concerns of a project andidentifies measures to prevent or minimize adverse impacts. The overall goal is to facilitateinformed decisions by providing a comprehensive understanding of the positive andnegative effects of a proposed project.

Provincially, environmental assessment of major projects is currently conducted as partof three Processes: Energy Project Review (energy generation, transmission and use);Mine Development Assessment (mining projects); and Major Project Review (industrialprojects). British Columbia is currently developing legislation which will consolidate theseprocesses into a single, comprehensive environmental assessment and project reviewprocess. The environmental impacts of activities other than major projects, (e.g. wastemanagement permits, water licences, and forest tenures) of which many thousands arereviewed each year, are assessed through a number of regulatory and planning processesthat allow for public and agency identification and management of potential impacts.15

Federally, the Environmental Assessment and Review Process (EARP) Guidelines Orderapplies to all proposals with a federal decision making authority. EARP will soon bereplaced by the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act. This Act has received RoyalAssent and is scheduled to be proclaimed in the summer of 1993. The Act will strengthenthe review process and provide greater certainty for proponents, as well as greatercooperation between federal and provincial governments in the assessments of projectswith overlapping interests.12

6

Figure 1.7

How do your choices affect the environment?

This diagram shows how the average Canadian household allocates its disposable income (gross revenue minus taxes and savings). Some ofthe consumer choices that make an environmental difference are shown for each type of expenditure. The difference we can make is not alwaysproportional to how much we spend.14

enjoy a standard of living and a rangeof social amenities far superior to thoseprovided to most of the world’sinhabitants. At this time we are aconsumer society, and that means thatour life style has a high impact on theenvironment (Figure 1.7).

One of the characteristics of a con-sumer society is a high level of wasteproduction. The more we consume, themore waste we generate — not onlythrough disposal of packaging andused goods, but also in the process ofmanufacturing and distributing thegoods. Waste may consist of effluentsdischarged into the water, emissions tothe air, or solids disposed on land.Much of the solid waste ends up inlandfills, which consume valuable landand produce leachates that cancontaminate surface water and ground-

Figure 1.6

Energy sources

B.C.’s energy is supplied through importedcrude oil, local natural gas and woodwaste,and hydroelectric power.4

Most of British Columbia’s energyneeds are satisfied by domesticsupplies of natural gas, hydroelectric-ity, and residue from wood processing(Figure 1.6). However the provincedoes not have enough oil, and thereforeimports 80% of its crude oil require-ments, primarily from Alberta.4

Our economy affects theenvironmentThe impact people have on theenvironment is determined by thenumber of people and by their lifestyle. About 20% of the world’spopulation lives in industrializedcountries such as Canada. Theyconsume, however, a disproportion-ately large share (about 80%) of theworld’s resources. British Columbians

housing

transportation & communication

clothingfood &

tobacco

household

personal goods & services

restaurants & hotels

health

recreation

do we use disposal programsfor hazardous products?do we use curbside recycling orrecycling depots?do we use pesticides or fertilizers?do we compost our organic waste?

•

•

••

does our vehicle meet safeemission standards?do we walk, cycle, or take public transit?do we use renewablefuels such as ethanol?do we dispose of spentfluids properly?

•

•

•

•

do we use disposable products?do we buy paper products made from recycled paper?do we take our own bags whenshopping?do we choose products withless packaging?

••

•

•

personal expenditures

20%

14%

4%5%

16%

8%

12%

6%4%

11%

•

•

•

•

•

do we have a programmablethermostat?do we lower thethermostat setting?do we use compactfluorescent light bulbs?do we turn out lightswhen not needed?do we dispose of spentfluids properly?

fuels

water

do we use a water-saving shower head and toilet tank?do we turn off the tapwhen we don't need it?do we fix leaks and drips?do we water lawns whenit's cool, and only whenneeded?

•

•

••

crude oil

woodwaste and other

22%

37%

22%

19%natural gaselectricity

7

58%

42%

2%

34%

64%

Organics

Other

Metals Glass

38%

5%5%

9%

34%

Paper

Plastics

9%

Residential

Commercial & Industrial

Recycling

Incineration

Landfill

Figure 1.8

Waste production

British Columbians are among the highest per-capita waste producers on earth.7

generation rate of waste (kg/person/day)0 0.5 1 1.5 2

Canada

British Columbia

United States

Australia

West Germany

Switzerland

Netherlands

United Kingdom

Sweden

2.5

Figure 1.10

Population growth in B.C.

The population of British Columbia has beengrowing steadily. This growth is expected tocontinue so that by 2016 there will be halfagain as many people.6

po

pu

lati

on

(m

illio

ns)

0

1

2

3

4

5

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

2020

158,000 were aboriginal. By 2016 it isexpected to reach 4.9 million (Figure 1.10).

B.C. is currently the fastest growingprovince in Canada. This is notbecause we have a higher birth rate,but because people like to move here.About half the people moving to B.C.come from other parts of Canada, therest come from other countries.6

Environmental impacts from peopleare generally greatest where people aremost concentrated. The population isnot evenly distributed throughout theprovince. Most of the people live in the

material can be composted or recycled,most of it is currently dumped inlandfills or incinerated (Figure 1.9).7

More people, more impactEven if each person has only a smallimpact, a large population can create asignificant stress. When BritishColumbia joined Canada in 1871, itspopulation was estimated at about40,000 people, of which about 25,000were aboriginal.2 By 1992, the totalpopulation had grown to about 3.3million, of which approximately

water. Landfills also emit gasessuspected of contributing to globalclimate change. Some kinds of wastehave particularly difficult disposalproblems, such as toxic materials andother contaminants (see Land chapter).

In 1990, the average BritishColumbian generated almost 2.2kilograms of waste every day, for aprovincial total of 2.4 million tonnes ofgarbage per year (Figure 1.8). Ap-proximately half of this waste comesdirectly from homes. Despite the factthat more than half of the waste

Figure 1.9

Source, composition, and disposal of solid wastes

Most municipal solid waste comes from residential sources. The largest component is organic material, most of which can be composted, andpaper, most of which can be recycled. Currently only a very small amount is recycled, and most of the rest goes to landfill. 5,7

8

Figure 1.11

Population growth rates

The population growth rate between 1986 and1991 was highest in the Lower Mainland andthe Okanagan.9

southwest corner of the province, andthe north is sparsely populated. Thedensely populated areas are likely tobecome even more dense as they aregrowing much faster than the sparselysettled areas (Figure 1.11).

We can make a differenceAs each one of us begins to recognizethe environmental implications of ourlife style — on global climate change,waste, or water quality — we begin tochange. Already a number of peopleare making the decision to switch fromcars to public transit, to recycle, and toconsciously reduce their overall levelsof material and energy consumption(Figure 1.12). This is an encouragingstart and a good foundation to build on.

“I believe all people started out connected to the land. People like theGitksan copied nature because they were surrounded by it, not protected fromit as we are. They saw the cycle of life, from the very smallest to the verylargest, all connected, and saw that the system itself punished any breaking ofthe cycle... The people saw and understood the checks and balances that wereexhibited by the cycle and chose to base their fundamental truths and author-ity and responsibility on something that has worked for millions of years.They fitted themselves to the full cycle of life.”

M. Wilson8

Many initiatives are underway to helpBritish Columbians make the transitionto a sustainable society. The followingare but a few examples:

• Utilities are helping consumersreduce energy demand. For exam-ple, B.C. Hydro’s Power Smartprogram provides information andfinancial incentives to encourageefficient use of electricity byresidential, commercial andindustrial users. The energy savingsgained by the Power Smart programby August 1992 were enough tosupply all the electricity needs for70,000 homes. Other energyconservation initiatives areunderway by B.C. Gas, the provin-cial government, and variousindustries.11

• An integrated solid waste manage-ment strategy has been adoptedthroughout B.C. The main thrust ofthe strategy is to facilitate thedevelopment of a "Reduce, Reuse,and Recycle" philosophy andinfrastructure. This is done throughfinancial assistance programs forlocal government and non-profitorganizations, education programsand a highly effective programtargeted at tires and batteries.

• Various measures to improve airquality are being proposed, particu-larly in the Greater VancouverRegional District (GVRD) andCapital Regional District (CRD).Several initiatives, including the AirCare program to control vehicleemissions, have already beenimplemented.

Figure 1.12

How much energy do we need?

Per capita energy use increased steadily dur-ing the 1960s and 70s, but has declined some-what since then. The question is whether wewill be able to further reduce the amount eachperson uses, keep it steady, or let it increase.11

ener

gy u

se (

Gig

ajou

les)

0

100

200

300

400

1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

In the long term, the survival of thehuman race will depend on our abilityto see ourselves as an integral part ofthe environment, and to harmonize oureconomic systems with naturalsystems, locally and globally. We mustmove towards a more sustainablesociety, one that is in harmony with theenvironment. We have started movingin this direction through changes inattitudes, policies, and regulations.

0%15%

17%

4%

7%

-1%9%

2%-2%

9

Of all the components that are essentialto life, air is probably the one mosttaken for granted. Historically, airquality and climate were periodicallymodified by natural contaminants, suchas those contributed by forest fires andvolcanic eruptions. Shifts in globalclimatic patterns took place slowly, butroutinely. Human activities have nowadded another potent force to thosealready transforming our atmosphere.

A description of the state of ouratmosphere requires that we look farbeyond traditional, narrow definitionsof air quality. To fully characterize ourchanging atmosphere we must examinelocal, regional, and even globalatmospheric issues. This helps us torecognize that while some of the manyforces shaping our atmosphere areunder our direct management as BritishColumbians, others are beyond ourimmediate control. Some issues are ofimmediate concern; others areunlikely to begin affecting our socie-ties and ecosystems until sometime inthe next century. Our understandingand awareness of air pollutants ischanging, and is becoming muchbroader and more comprehensive. Asa society we must adapt our activitiesand regulations to meet this improvedunderstanding.

There are over 1,000 climate andweather monitoring stations operatingin B.C. Information from thesestations, some of which have been inplace for over 100 years, is beinganalysed to detect historical changes inclimate. Currently, there are over 50air quality monitoring stations inoperation throughout B.C. In nearlyall cases, stations are specifically

Airlocated in areas that are either knownor suspected to have potential airquality problems. Areas expected tohave uncontaminated air, or that havecontaminants present at backgroundlevels, are not routinely monitored.This uneven distribution of monitoringstations makes it extremely difficult todraw provincial-level conclusionsregarding overall conditions and trendsin the quality of our atmosphere.

This chapter outlines the majoratmospheric issues facing BritishColumbia, starting with those that aremost global and distant in time, andworking toward those that are morelocal and immediate (Figure 2.1).

LocalRegional

Global

carbon dioxideCFC's, HCFC's

smokesulfur dioxidenitrous oxide

aciddeposition

methane

Stratospheric ozone depletionClimate change

Figure 2.1

Global, regional, and local atmospheric issues

Many atmospheric issues transcend boundaries of both scale and national identity. Forexample, worldwide emissions of greenhouse gases (e.g. carbon dioxide) and ozone-depletingsubstances (e.g., CFCs) determine the rate of global warming and stratospheric ozonedepletion. Levels of acid deposition are determined by emissions of acid-forming gases withinregional "airsheds". Concentrations of ground-level air pollutants (e.g., carbon monoxide) aredetermined by local emissions. Several gases have effects at multiple levels. For example,sulphur dioxide emissions have both local and regional effects.

10

Global climate change:adjusting to life in the greenhouse

We live in a kind ofnatural greenhouse.Although notsurrounded by glass,the Earth’s atmos-phere contains gases

that act like glass and help warm theplanet. These naturally occurringgreenhouse gases - mainly watervapour, carbon dioxide, methane, andnitrous oxide - effectively “trap” solarheat, much as glass traps heat in agreenhouse. Many human activities,such as burning fossil fuels, contributemore of these gases to our atmosphere.When this occurs, there can be anenhanced greenhouse effect, whichmay result in global warming. Al-though there is considerable contro-versy surrounding the possible rate ofwarming due to human actions, mostscientists now agree that our activitiescould increase global temperatures andchange precipitation patterns. Potentialeffects on British Columbians could bemany and significant.

Is the Earth getting warmer? Since1854 the eleven warmest years havebeen: 1944, 1973, 1980, 1981, 1983,1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, and1991. How about B.C.? There areseveral converging lines of evidencefor climate warming in our province. Arecent study of long-term temperaturedata from three B.C. regions indicatedthat warming appears to have beentaking place at a rate of between 0.4and 0.8 °C per century. As an example,figure 2.2 shows that the southern B.C.mountains have warmed slightly overthe past 100 years. Likewise, the seasurface at Cape St. James, at thesouthern tip of the Queen CharlotteIslands, has been slowly warmingsince the 1930s at a rate of around 1°Cper century. Studies of shrinkingglaciers in B.C. lend additionalevidence and indicate that our climatehas been warming at a rate of between1 and 2 °C during the last century.There is also limited evidence thatprecipitation amounts have changedslightly at some locations, but these

Figure 2.2

Temperate trends for the southern B.C. mountains

Graph shows differences between annual average temperatures in the southern B.C. mountainsand the 1951-1980 average temperature for that area (horizontal line). Although averagetemperatures have been increasing in the southern B.C. mountains during the past 100 years,the trend is not considered ‘significant’ when analysed statistically.1,2

-2

-1

0

1

2

tem

pe

ratr

ure

(°C

)

1 8 9 5 1905 1915 1925 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985

trends are even more difficult to detectthan those for temperature. Overall,available evidence suggests that B.C.’sclimate is becoming warmer with moreprecipitation in some locations and lessin others. It is certainly too early toannounce clear trends, and prematureto imply that observed changes are theresult of global warming; they may bejust part of long-term natural climatecycles.

Small as the reported temperaturechanges may seem, they are consider-ably more rapid than those evidencedduring our geological past. Forinstance, over the past 8,000 years,global temperature only varied about 2°C. A recent report by the Intergov-ernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC) suggests that global warmingin the years ahead may occur at a rateof 0.2 to 0.5 °C per decade (Figure2.3). At that rate, the Earth’s tempera-ture will increase in 125 years by anamount equal to the natural changesduring the previous 8,000 years!

Some of the possible effects of globalclimate change on the B.C. environ-

ment are described in a recent report.3

Global warming could affect mostparts of B.C.’s natural and humanenvironment, including forests,wildlife, fisheries, marine mammals,energy consumption, recreation, andwater resources. Specific regional-scale implications are difficult topredict, and would be far too numerousto elaborate here. Nevertheless, thereare some important general implica-tions. As climate patterns shift, theability of natural systems to supplyfood and fibre may be reduced. Forestregeneration may prove to have beenbased on inappropriate species. Someplant and animal species may beunable to adapt to new temperature andprecipitation patterns, and populationsmay disappear. Protected areas may bein the “wrong place” to serve conser-vation objectives. Rising sea levels(the IPCC estimates a rise of 21 - 71cm by the year 2070) may affectcoastal communities and ecosystems.Overall, virtually all sectors of B.C.could be affected to some degree ifglobal climate change occurs as rapidlyas predicted.

11

Figure 2.3

Global temperature anomalies: 1854 to 1990

Graph shows differences (anomalies) between annual average global temperatures and the1950-1979 average global temperature, represented by the horizontal zero line. These datahave not been corrected for the El Niño effect. The El Niño is a periodic climatic and oceanicfluctuation. Removal of this effect results in an even more marked warming trend.4

Tem

pera

ture

Ano

mal

ies

(°C

)

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0

0.2

0.4

1854 1874 1894 1914 1934 1954 1974

On a per capita basis, Canadians areamong the largest contributors in theworld of the main greenhouse gas,carbon dioxide. Each year we emitabout 4.4 tonnes of carbon per person,with most of this coming from burningfossil fuels. Like all provinces, B.C.contributes not only carbon dioxide(CO

2), but also several other green-

house gases, including methane (CH4),

chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs andhalons), nitrogen oxides (NO

x, N

2O),

volatile organic carbon compounds(VOC), and ground-level ozone (O

3).

The contribution of various gases tothe greenhouse effect depends on theirmolecular structure, as well as theiratmospheric concentration. Forexample, each molecule of methanehas 25 times the impact of eachmolecule of CO

2, while freon mol-

ecules are about 10,000 times aspowerful as CO

2.

In B.C., carbon dioxide emissions fromthe combustion of fossil fuels andbiomass account for roughly two-thirdsof our total greenhouse gas contribu-tion (Figure 2.4). Methane makes upanother 25%, mostly from landfillswith additional contributions fromhydrocarbon extraction and processing.Transportation activities are responsi-ble for most nitrogen oxides, while themajority of CFC emissions escapefrom automobile air conditioning.

British Columbians can contributedirectly to reducing greenhouse gasemissions by modifying behaviour and

consumption patterns. Canada andB.C. are committed to a national goalof stabilizing greenhouse gas emis-sions, at 1990 levels, by the year 2000.The B.C. greenhouse gas emissioninventories are helping formulatemanagement options in support of thisgoal. B.C. is also participating in theNational Action Strategy on GlobalWarming. Finally, maintaininghealthy, growing forests in B.C. canhelp by absorbing carbon dioxide fromthe atmosphere, thereby reducing thisgreenhouse gas for some decades.

Figure 2.4

Greenhouse gas emissions

Provincial data are for 1990 and only covergases released into the atmosphere from hu-man activities; natural emissions are not in-cluded. Biomass includes pulp liquor, hog fueland other wood residues.5

Planet Earth has itsown natural sun-screen that shields usfrom damagingultraviolet (UV)radiation from the

sun. A small amount of ozone, anaturally occurring gas, is located 20-40 km above the earth in a regionknown as the stratospheric ozone layer.If all the ozone in this layer werecompressed it would only form a layer

around the Earth's surface about asthick as the sole of your shoe. Thisimportant, but thin and fragile layer isnow being depleted by certain syn-thetic chemicals released to theatmosphere by human activities. Whenthese chemicals decompose, theyrelease chlorine and bromine atoms,which convert the ozone to oxygen,which has no ability to filter outharmful UV radiation. If the protectiveozone layer is substantially depleted,

greater amounts of damaging UVradiation will reach the Earth's surface.

Beginning in the summer of 1992,daily ultraviolet levels have beenrecorded at Saturna Island, in south-western B.C. Currently there areinsufficient data from this station toidentify trends. However, an Edmon-ton station has been conductingmeasurements to determine the amountof stratospheric ozone since the mid-

Stratospheric ozone: our radiation shield

CH4

NOx, NO2, VOC's and O3

CO2 (fossil fuels)

43%

23%

25%

6%

CFC's3%

CO2 (biomass)

12

Figure 2.6

Ozone-depleting gases in B.C.

Although combined, the ozone-depleting po-tential for CFCs and HCFCs are quite differ-ent. CFC production and importation will beeliminated by the end of 1995, while HCFCsare not scheduled to be phased out until 2030.7

Figure 2.5

UV Index

These are theoretical, clear sky UV Index values for the first week of July, calculated from ozonethicknesses measured from 1979 to 1992. The UV Index scale ranges from 0 to 10 and describesthe intensity of damaging ultraviolet-B radiation. A UV Index value of 10 is common in the tropicsduring the summer.6

substances remain in the atmospherefor a long time. Moreover, interna-tional efforts will be required tocontrol releases of ozone-depletingsubstances. In the meantime, we - andour ecosystems - may have to adapt toincreased UV radiation. But there ismuch that we can do to reduce B.C.’scontribution to this problem.

Important steps have already beentaken to stop stratospheric ozonedestruction. Seventy-seven countriessigned the Montreal Protocol onSubstances that Deplete the OzoneLayer in 1991. By signing this docu-ment, Canadians are committed tophasing out ozone-depleting sub-stances according to a schedulerecently negotiated in Copenhagen:halons in 1993, CFCs by the end of1995, and HCFCs by 2030. Environ-ment Canada is training trades-peopleto recover and reclaim ozone-depletinggases. The Canadian Council ofMinisters of the Environment isdeveloping a CFC/Halon EliminationStrategy. In B.C., new regulations tocontrol ozone-depleting substanceshave recently been introduced. Theregulations are the most comprehen-sive in Canada. The regulations, forexample, make B.C. the first provinceto prohibit, after 1997, the use of CFCsfor charging and recharging of motorvehicle air conditioners.

1950s. Records there show a decline instratospheric ozone thickness, startingin the late 1970s. The thinning hasoccurred during the late winter andspring, when ozone thicknesses arenormally quite high and the sun-anglerelatively low. Consequently, anyincrease in the intensity of UVradiation reaching the ground due toozone depletion has probably beensmall. A number of factors, such asweather and altitude, control the actualUV dose received on the ground.

The largest factor controlling the UVdose received by most humans is theirown behaviour. The increase inoutdoor leisure activity has alreadyresulted in higher exposure to UVradiation independent of naturalincreases in UV levels. Humanexposure to increased UV levels canresult in: more sunburns, prematureskin aging, skin cancers, cataracts andother eye diseases, and interferencewith the human immune system.These effects may represent a consid-erable cost to the health care system.Using sunscreens and minimizingexposure to intense sunlight can reduceeffects. To assist the public in makingchoices, Environment Canada providesUV Index Values throughout the year.The index value signifies the degree ofrisk for people involved in outdooractivities and the lower the indexvalue, the lower the risk. As can beseen in Figure 2.5, there are higher

dosages in southern B.C. than in thenorthern part of the province.

Exposure to higher amounts of UVradiation can also have serious impactson agriculture, forestry, fisheries, andnatural ecosystems. While humans cantake protective measures to reduceimpacts, managed ecosystems, such asfarms and forests, cannot be protected,and may experience decreased yields.Elevated UV levels may also damagenatural ecosystems, particularly marinefood chains; this could cause impactson B.C. coastal fish and wildliferesources.

Globally, chlorofluorocarbons (CFC)are the primary ozone-depletingsubstances released to the atmospherefrom human activities. CFCs are usedin refrigerants, aerosol cans, foamproduction, and as solvents. In B.C.,emissions of bromine-containinghalons (used in fire extinguishers)cause greater damage to the ozonelayer than CFC emissions (Figure 2.6).Halons destroy up to 16 times as muchozone as CFCs. In 1990, halons fromfire extinguishers accounted for thelargest emissions of ozone depletingsubstances in B.C.; CFC emissionsfrom automobile air conditionersconstituted the second largest source.

British Columbians cannot escapesome effects of the thinning of theozone layer even if releases of all suchgases were to instantly stop. This isbecause some ozone-depleting

<1%

3%

54%

carbon tetrachloride

halons

methyl chloroform

CFC/HCFC

total B.C.1990 production: 1011.8 tonnes

43%

UV Index0 - 44 - 77 - 9

9 - 10

LowModerateHighExtreme

5

6

7

13

Acidic deposition: sins of emissionAcidic deposition isa broader term thanacid rain and refersto the fact that acidscan be depositedfrom the atmosphere

in a variety of forms (e.g., rain, fog,snow, and particulates). Acid deposi-tion is formed in the atmosphere whensulphur and nitrogen gases combinewith moisture to form sulphuric andnitric acids.

Deposition of atmospheric acids is notthe main concern. Rather, concernsfocus on potential effects to land,water, and biota, as well as to people.When acid deposition levels exceedcertain thresholds, biota such as fishand amphibians can no longer inhabitthe acidified environment. Damage tosurface waters can occur when the pHdrops below 6 (lower pH levels meangreater acidity). Productivity of forestsand crops can be reduced as acidsremove nutrients from the soil. Suchproblems can occur when largeamounts of acid are deposited ontosensitive areas of the environment. Sofar, no adverse effects have beenfound on B.C.’s forests, and acid rainconcerns focus on sensitive aquaticsystems in the province.

Not all regions of B.C. are equallysensitive to acid deposition (Figure2.7). Those portions of B.C. that areconsidered vulnerable typically contain

Figure 2.8

Levels of acid deposition in B.C.

Parts of southwestern B.C. receive more total sulphate deposition than allowed by standards setby Sweden or Minnesota for protecting their sensitive surface water ecosystems. Note that thestandard set for eastern Canada which is intended to protect moderately sensitive freshwatersystems is higher than B.C.'s measured deposition rates. A target value of 8-12kg/ha per yearwould be required to protect more biologically sensitive waters.8,14

fresh water lakes and streams that areunable to neutralize atmospheric acids.When exposed to acid deposition, suchfreshwaters become more acidic.

B.C. produces acid-forming sulphurand nitrogen emissions. Major sourcesof sulphur dioxide (SO

2), in order of

importance, are natural-gas processingplants, pulp mills, smelters, oilrefineries, and power plants. The majorsource of nitrogen oxides (NO

x) is

motor vehicles.

Acid deposition is not a local phenom-enon, since acids formed from thesesulphur and nitrogen gases are typi-cally deposited at a considerabledistance from the point where theywere discharged to the atmosphere.B.C. shares several airsheds withWashington state, so there are sometwo-way transboundary exchanges ofsulphur and nitrogen gases, especiallyamong the Gulf Islands, lower Fraservalley, and in the Kootenays.

Major acid deposition patterns areknown for B.C. Figure 2.8 showssulphate loadings at 13 B.C. locationsduring 1985. In that year, the highestloadings were recorded at Victoria, andthe lowest at Smithers. Some of theacid deposited in Victoria was contrib-uted from a smelter in the Seattle areathat has since closed. However, morerecent data from five stations onVancouver Island show little or nochange since 1985. Precipitation atPort Hardy is still less acidic than atVictoria, and most rain falling onVancouver Island has an acidity levelthat is normal for coastal regions (pH5.0 - 5.6). Victoria’s precipitation,though, is more acidic, with valuesgenerally between pH 4.3 and pH 5.3.

Figure 2.7

Vulnerability to acid deposition

The rocks, soils and water of the Coast are less able to neutralize acidity than the B.C. interior.Areas identified as Class 1 have lakes and soils that are least tolerant of increased acidity; thosein Class 4 areas are most tolerant.8

Wet Deposition of Sulfate ( kg/hectare/year)

0 5 10 15 20

Smithers

Kamloops

Kelowna

Spectacle Lake

Cranbrook

Pender Island

Nanoose

Agassiz

Port Hardy

Kitimat

Vancouver

Squamish

Victoria

Swedish standard

Minnesota standard

Eastern Canadianstandard for

moderate sensitivity

Class 1Class 2Classes 3 & 4

14

Risk levels for all sensitive B.C.ecosystems have not yet been deter-mined. It is known that sensitive lakesand soils of low buffering ability alongthe Sunshine Coast and the north shoreof Burrard Inlet are being subjected toelevated levels of acid inputs. Thelong-term implications of currentdeposition levels are unknown.However, research has shown that acidlevels in Kanaka Creek (near Vancou-ver) sometimes rise during rainfallevents, later returning to normal.9 Thisphenomenon results from naturaldilution effects (which reduce avail-ability of neutralizing compounds) inaddition to acidic rainfall.10 A prov-ince-wide survey of 752 B.C. lakes,between 1977 and 1986, identifiedonly 10 scattered lakes that are high inacidity (less than pH 6)- mainly due tonatural processes.

What is being done about acidicdeposition? Canada signed an interna-tional protocol requiring stabilizationof NO

x emissions at 1987 levels by

1994. As well, the U.S./Canada Accordrequires reductions in NO

x emissions

from industrial sources and motorvehicles, and restricts Canadian SO

2

emissions to 3.2 million tonnes peryear. Target loadings have beenproposed for some areas of B.C. Aslong as acid deposition inputs do notexceed these target loading levels,sensitive lakes and streams should beprotected from adverse effects of aciddeposition.

Pollutants in urban andindustrial areasAir quality concerns in B.C. histori-cally focused on urban and industrialareas, and on a limited set of measure-ment variables (parameters). Emissionsfrom most industrial point sources (e.g.pulp mills, refineries, mines, smelters,saw mills) were inventoried, moni-tored, and regulated. Starting in themid-1970s, there has been a shift froman emphasis on emissions to ambient(overall) air quality. This reflects aconcern for ecosystem integrity as wellas human health. Objectives have beenset for key parameters, including TotalSuspended Particulates (TSP), sulphur

dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO

2),

and ground-level ozone (O3). Now the

B.C. government is addressing moreregional, diffuse sources, such asmotor vehicles and smoke from openburning. In the future there will likelybe an even greater focus on regional-scale air management.

Particulate contaminantsParticulate materials in the atmospherecan reduce visibility, cause harm tohuman health, and soil the surfacesonto which they settle. These materi-als, known as total suspendedparticulates (TSP), can include dust,pollen, ash, and smoke. If inhaled,these materials can be deposited in thehuman respiratory system and maydamage human health. Children, theelderly, smokers, and those sufferingfrom lung disorders may be especiallysusceptible to this type of air pollution.Total suspended particulates areprimarily a local problem, and eventu-ally all of these materials are depositedonto surfaces either locally or down-wind.

Province-wide, there have been nosignificant changes in TSP levels overthe past 8-10 years. However, there hasbeen a definite improvement in theGreater Vancouver Regional District(GVRD), with decreased annual TSPconcentrations, and fewer 24-hourepisodes with high levels of TSP. Thisdecrease has resulted from bettercontrol of industrial and vehicularemissions, and reductions in openburning periods. There have also beenefforts to control dust and smoke fromagricultural and forestry activities.Nonetheless, there are still significantproblems with fine particulates andvisibility in the GVRD in all seasons ofthe year when weather conditions aresuch that particulate materials are notdispersed.

Smoke managementUnlike TSP problems, smoke manage-ment is more of a rural, regional issuein B.C. Major smoke sources includeburning logging slash and sawmillresidues, prescribed burning toimprove wildlife habitat or rangelands,

burning debris from agriculture anddomestic gardening, land clearing, andhome heating. Main concerns includevisibility impairment and possibleimpacts on human health. Bothsuspended particulates and carcino-genic substances are important airpollutants in smoke. There are noquantitative estimates of the amount ofsmoke generated in B.C.

Three factors influence whether or notwood smoke reaches levels of concern:1) significant quantities of pollutantsmust be emitted; 2) local geographicconditions must constrain dispersion;and 3) certain atmospheric and weatherconditions must prevail. In mountain-ous terrain, smoke is often trapped inthe valleys. This can result in concen-trations of fine particulates rising tolevels that may affect human health.More often, though, the greatest impactis on aesthetics or visibility.

Several levels of government areactively addressing smoke manage-ment. The Province has preparedregulations to control smoke fromwaste burning during land clearing andis in the process of developing regula-tions for wood-burning appliances.The Ministry of Forests has a policy toreduce smoke emissions by 30%through controlled burning. Environ-ment Canada produces a VentilationIndex for 13 smoke-sensitive areas inB.C., which is used by forestry andagricultural managers to help selectsuitable periods for controlled burning.Regional smoke management planshave been developed for some regions.The GVRD has banned the use ofincinerators in apartment buildings,and municipalities in this area aretightening restrictions on open burning.Finally, several B.C. municipalitieshave adopted voluntary programs tolimit the use of wood-burning appli-ances during periods when meteoro-logical conditions could lead tounacceptable accumulation of smoke.In the future, B.C. may also have toaddress the issue of transboundarymovement of atmospheric contami-nants drifting south from B.C. to theU.S.A., where strict air quality andvisibility standards are in force forwilderness areas and national parks. As

15

well, B.C. will need to consider theissue of contaminants drifting northfrom the United States.

Atmospheric leadLead is a toxic substance that can befound in particulate form in air, withthe major source being leaded gaso-line. B.C.’s air quality objective forlead is less than 4 micrograms/cubicmetre (µg/m3) over a 24-hour period,and less than 2 µg/m3 (average) over ayear. Between 1974 and 1990, atmos-pheric lead concentrations in Victoria,Prince George, Kamloops, Kelownaand most of Vancouver were below 1µg/m3. During this period, concentra-tions in Trail commonly exceeded 1µg/m3 and sometimes reached over 2µg/m3. B.C.'s air quality objective forlead is to have annual average values ateach station less than 2µg/m3.

In downtown Vancouver, the highestrecorded atmospheric lead concentra-tion occurred in 1976, when the annualmean value was 1.29 µg/m3. Since thattime values have been steadilydropping (Figure 2.9).

With the elimination of leaded gasolinein 1990, atmospheric lead levelsdropped dramatically in downtownVancouver and most other sampledareas of B.C. Most lead samplingstations show annual average concen-trations near background levels, less

Figure 2.10

Ozone exceedances

Graph shows the province-wide exceedances of 1-hour Level A and B objectives for ground-level ozone. There were negligible Level C exceedances. There was little change until the early1990s, when A level exceedances declined. (Note: The configuration of the monitoring networkchanged during this period, so the influence of different locations on the percent of exceedanceschanges over time).12

than 0.1 µg/m3. The Southern InteriorMountains Ecoprovince sectioncontains a description of atmosphericlead concentrations in the Trail arearesulting from smelting activities, anda discussion of blood lead levels.

Gaseous contaminantsConcentrations of contaminant gases atground level are controlled mainly byterrain and prevailing meteorologicalconditions. Their impacts are local,and are primarily of concern due tohuman health implications. However,some studies now indicate that even atconcentrations acceptable to humans,some air pollutants can adverselyaffect other biota. For instance, someagricultural crops are much moresensitive to ground-level ozone thanmost humans. Consequently, toprevent considerable economic damageto agricultural crops, regional airquality objectives may need to beadjusted.

One of the tools used to examine airquality is to compare ambient dataobtained from the monitoring stationswith predetermined national objectivesor provincial standards. In BritishColumbia, these standards wereestablished in the 1970s and arecategorized into three groups. TheMaximum Desirable concentration(Level A) is set to provide long term

protection and the Maximum Accept-able concentration (Level B) providesadequate protection against adverseeffects on human health, vegetation,and plants. The Maximum Tolerableconcentration (Level C) specifiesamounts of air contaminants beyondwhich, due to a diminished margin ofsafety, appropriate and immediateaction is required to protect humanhealth. Ambient air quality at aparticular monitoring site may becharacterized by describing the numberof times these three levels of standardsare exceeded.

All available exceedance data from allprovincial stations for the 15-yearperiod 1978 to 1992 have beencompiled and form the basis forFigures 2.10 to 2.13. Provincialaverage values and trends are providedfor five gases: ground-level ozone,nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide,hydrogen sulphide, and carbonmonoxide.

Ground-level ozone (O3) is a major

component of urban smog. It can causeadverse effects on human health, and iswell known to affect most types ofvegetation including agricultural cropsand forest trees. Unlike stratosphericozone, which is a problem when it is inshort supply high in our atmosphere,ground-level ozone is a problem whenit is too abundant. Over the last 15

Figure 2.9

Atmospheric lead in Vancouver

Suspended particulate lead concentrationssteadily declined from 1975 to 1990. B.C.’s airquality objective for lead is to have annualaverage values at each station less than 2 µg/m3.11

Atm

osph

eric

Lea

d (µ

g/m

3 )

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1975 1980 1985 1990

% e

xc

ee

da

nc

es

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3 Level A (100µg/m3)

Level B (160µg/m3)

1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990

16

atmosphere. Through the 1980s therewas little change in the provincialaverage concentration for this gas(Figure 2.12), and there were frequentepisodes when concentrations ex-ceeded maximum acceptable (Level B)concentrations at particular locations.Highest exceedance frequencies wererecorded in Prince George and inCastlegar, where major steps haverecently been taken by industry toreduce this frequency. The situation atPrince George is described in the Sub-Boreal Interior Ecoprovince.

Carbon monoxide (CO) causes noirritation and has no detectable taste orsmell. This gas represents an acutehealth risk, since the body can becomestarved for oxygen when the gas isinhaled and absorbed into the blood-stream. The largest human-madesource is motor vehicles. Because ofhigh vehicle densities in the GreaterVancouver area, this is the only area ofthe province where CO is monitored.Average CO concentrations havefluctuated a great deal over the past 15years and showed no clear trend untilthe mid 1980s, when the frequency ofexceeding Level A concentrationsbegan to decline (Figure 2.13).Problems are now mainly confined towinter months and downtown Vancou-ver. During recent years there has beenan improvement in CO conditions inthe GVRD. This trend is probablyrelated to better pollution controldevices on new vehicles, but would bereversed in the future if there aresubstantial increases in numbers or useof motor vehicles.

In summary, gaseous contaminants inB.C. have shown some improvements,particularly in recent years, for somegases (ozone, carbon monoxide). Forother gases, the situation remainsproblematical (sulphur dioxide,hydrogen sulphide). While improve-ments in technology and pollutioncontrol equipment are generallyreducing unit emissions, these ad-vances are being overtaken by in-creased population and development.

To improve air quality throughoutB.C., the provincial government hasadopted a new policy requiringindustries discharging atmospheric

years there has been little change inprovincial ozone levels until the early1990s (Figure 2.10), when there was adrop in the frequency of Level Aexceedances. Despite this overallprovincial decline, there are areaswhere ground-level ozone is a signifi-cant emerging problem, such as theLower Fraser Valley (see GeorgiaDepression Ecoprovince). There aretwo other regions where ozone maybecome a problem in the future - theOkanagan and Greater Victoria - andthe Province is already monitoringozone in these areas.

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) contributes to

ozone (smog) formation and acidicdeposition, and can also adverselyaffect human health. Percentageexceedances at the monitoring stationsincreased from 1978 to 1985, and thenstayed more or less constant. Since1986, NO

2 concentrations have not

exceeded federal ambient air qualityobjectives.

Sulphur dioxide (SO2) can have a

detrimental effect on plants, buildingmaterials, and human health. Further-more, this gas is a major constituent inacidic deposition. During the 1980s,sulphur dioxide levels were relativelyhigh, and frequently exceeded provin-cial air quality objectives for bothLevels A and B (Figure 2.11). The

most frequent and significant episodesof high SO

2 concentrations occurred at

Port Alice, the site of a sulphite pulpmill on Vancouver Island, and atseveral locations near mining andsmelting facilities in the interior. InPort Alice, vegetation has beenaffected by sulphur dioxide emissions.For example, lichens have beeneliminated near the mill, and forestgrowth has been reduced up to 1.5 kmfrom this site.13 The situation at Trail isdescribed in the Southern InteriorMountains Ecoprovince section.Starting in 1990, there has been amarked improvement in sulphurdioxide exceedances across all stations(Figure 2.11), but there are still somelocations where concentrationsfrequently exceed provincial objec-tives.

Some industrial processes, particularlyKraft pulp mills, oil refineries, andnatural gas processing plants, releasemalodorous sulphur compounds to theatmosphere known collectively as totalreduced sulphur (TRS) compounds.Perhaps the best known of these ishydrogen sulphide (H

2S), identifiable

by its rotten egg smell. Although highconcentrations of hydrogen sulphidecan adversely affect human health, themain goal of the B.C. ambient airquality objective for this gas is to avoidobjectionable nuisance levels in the

Figure 2.11

Sulphur dioxide exceedances

Graph shows the province-wide exceedances of 24-hour Levels A, B, and C objectives forsulphur dioxide. Levels were high in the 1980s, but have shown marked improvements in the1990s. (See note in Figure 2.10).12

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990

% e

xcee

danc

es

A Level (160 µg/m3)

B Level (260 µg/m3)

C Level (800 µg/m3)

17

Figure 2.12

Total reduced sulphur exceedances

Graph shows the province-wide exceedances of 24-hour Levels A and B objectives for totalreduced sulphur. There was little change throughout the 1980s, but some improvement in 1990-91. (See note in Figure 2.10).12

agreement that will implement theManagement Plan for Nitrogen Oxidesand Volatile Organic Compounds,developed by the Canadian Council ofMinisters of the Environment. This iscomplemented by development of thenew provincial AirCare program thatrequires motor vehicle inspection andmaintenance to help reduce smog-formingemissions in the Lower Fraser Valley.

contaminants to use state-of-the-art,Best Available Control Technology(BACT). Other initiatives designed toimprove air quality include an interna-tional protocol to stabilize nitrogenoxide emissions at 1987 levels by1994, and the U.S./Canada Accord onSulphur Dioxide and Nitrogen OxideEmissions. The federal and provincialgovernments are also negotiating an

Figure 2.13

Carbon monoxide exceedances

Graph shows exceedances in the Lower Fraser Valley of 8-hour Levels A and B objectives forcarbon monoxide. There were negligible Level C exceedances. There was no clear trend untilthe mid-1980s, when the frequency of level A exceedances declined. (See note in Figure 2.10)12

Emerging issuesIn addition to the air quality issuesdescribed above, there are severalothers that are becoming more impor-tant in B.C. Of these, perhaps the mostpressing is that of air toxics. Includedhere are hydrocarbons, some of whichare carcinogenic (e.g. polynucleararomatic hydrocarbons - PAH, andvolatile organic compounds - VOC),arsenic (another carcinogen), andvarious toxic compounds (e.g.,hydrogen fluoride, ammonia).

ConclusionsOne of the reasons why the majorityof British Columbians take the airaround them for granted is that gener-ally we enjoy good air quality, mostof the time, and in most locations.However, with a growing populationand increasing level of industrial ac-tivity, there is a tendency for air qual-ity to become degraded. While muchhas already been accomplished in con-trolling and reducing emissions ofatmospheric contaminants, more re-mains to be done if we are to ad-equately protect our ecosystems andhuman residents.

At the same time we must continueredefining what is considered an airpollutant. As a society we must adaptboth our activities and our regulationsto ensure that we protect our preciousair resource. In doing so, we must beaware that we are affected not only bylocal contaminant sources, but alsoby regional or global atmospheric fac-tors. Where the forces shaping ourregional and global atmosphere areunder our direct control, we must ex-ercise our responsibility to managethose factors. Simultaneously, we dis-play wisdom when we begin seekingways to adapt to longer term changesresulting from forces beyond our im-mediate control, such as increasedUV radiation and global climatechange.

% e

xcee

danc

es

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990

A Level (3 µg/m3)

B Level (6 µg/m3)

% e

xcee

danc

es

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990

A Level (5,500 µg/m3)

B Level (11,000 µg/m3)

18

From one perspective,the supply of water isessentially endless sinceit is continuouslyrecirculated among

different parts of the hydrologic cycle(Figure 2.14). However, only a smallportion of this water is available forhuman use at any time (Figure 2.15).The only reliable measure of regionalwater supply is annual runoff orstream flow since this represents thefreshwater that is continuouslyrenewed through the hydrologic cycle.

Surface water suppliesIn British Columbia, it is easy tobelieve that supplies of freshwater arelimitless. Surface waters (streams,rivers, lakes and estuaries) cover 1.2million hectares, about 1.25% of theprovince.3 Runoff from B.C. formsone quarter of all the fresh flowingwater in Canada and 1.7% of the totalfrom all land surfaces on Earth.However, runoff varies enormouslywithin the province - under 10centimetres per year in the SouthernInterior to over 200 centimetres peryear on the west coast of Vancouver

Our fresh surface waters

WaterPerhaps due to historically abundantand high quality water supplies, BritishColumbians have not fully appreciatedthe substantial impacts on waterresources. The B.C. Round Table onthe Environment and the Economyidentified both water quality andquantity as major concerns in theprovince.1 The use, and sometimes

abuse, of water places more thanhumans at risk. Water links land, airand plants and animals, and sustainsthe province’s enviable complement ofnatural ecosystems, which are home toa diversity of wildlife second to nonein Canada. Water also transportsenvironmental contaminants withinand between ecosystems.

Figure 2.15

Distribution of water.

Only a fraction of the earth’s water reserves islocated on land and in a form which is appro-priate for most human uses. Although B.C.may contain more than an average amount offreshwater, water remains a scarce resourcein a global context. 2

Figure 2.14

The hydrologic cycle

Water is in constant motion. It enters the atmosphere through evaporation from land or watersurfaces or transpiration from plants and animals. In the atmosphere it condenses and falls toearth as either rain or snow. Once on the surface, it may be stored in ice caps and glaciers, inlakes, in underground aquifers or the oceans. This great recycling process is known as the water,or hydrologic, cycle. The natural quality of surface and groundwaters is largely a function of thecomposition of the rocks and soils over and through which it passes.

Island. This reflects similar variationin precipitation. Much of the waterflow is concentrated in a few majorrivers (Figure 2.16). Similarly, manyareas of the province experienceextremes in the seasonal availability ofwater. Provincial averages for variousindicators of water supply (e.g. total

evaporationtranspiration

precipitation

streamflow

surfacerunoff

groundwater flow

percolation

runoff volume of water impounded)may disguise these wide ecoprovincialvariations.

Water demand in B.C. is typicallyhighest in summer. Unfortunately, thisis usually the time of year when runoffis lowest. Seasonal shortages in

surface water

ground water

frozen95%

freshocean

.005%

1.6%

3.4%

19

Figure 2.16

River flow

Most of the runoff in B.C. is concentrated in a few rivers. The largest, and one of the mostimportant, is the Fraser River, which drains nearly one quarter of the province.75

domestic supplies have been reportedin the Peace-Liard, Kootenay, Cariboo,Thompson-Okanagan, Central Coastand Sunshine Coast regions. Shortageswere also experienced in the GreaterVancouver Regional District (GVRD)and Capital Regional District (CRD) inthe summer of 1992. This led to somewater rationing. One quarter of B.C.’sregional districts cite water availabilityas a future constraint on economicdevelopment.4 These water shortages,however, may not indicate actualshortfalls in the quantity of availablewater but rather concerns about thecost of tapping new supplies (e.g.reservoirs, water treatment, anddistribution systems). Many watersupply concerns in the provinceprobably reflect a lack of resources tobridge the gaps between supply anddemand. Even if resources wereavailable to bridge these gaps, diver-sions and impoundments would carryadditional environmental costs thatneed to be factored into decisions.

There is some evidence, however, oflong-term changes in actual watersupplies. Long-term data from aroundthe province suggest decreasingaverage annual streamflows at south-ern sites and increasing flows atnorthern sites.5 Similar trends havebeen observed in snowpack waterstorage.5 Only five of the 17streamflow stations and four of the 11snowpack monitoring stations, showedstatistically significant trends. Trenddetection is made difficult by naturalyear-to-year variations, a lack ofmonitoring stations with completerecords, inconsistent results amongstations, and flow alterations resultingfrom diversions or dams. Climatemodels suggest that global warmingmay further exacerbate this situationby significantly reducing summerprecipitation in southern B.C. whileincreasing summer evapotranspiration.

Figure 2.17 illustrates trends forrainfall, streamflow and snowpackdepth of the Fraser River Basin.Streamflow was low in the 1930s and1940s, high in the 1960s and 1970sand is currently slightly below thelong-term average. The causes ofthese observed variations are not yetknown. Changes in streamflow in the

Figure 2.17

Precipitation, snowpack and streamflow

A few stations have been selected to monitor precipitation, snowpack and streamflow in theprovince and to assess long-term trends. These graphs show representative data from theFraser River Basin, plotted as 10-year moving averages. The 1920 - 1950 period had lightprecipitation and low streamflow. Heavier precipitation and greater streamflow were apparentfrom 1960 to 1980. Maximum snowpack water storage, monitored for a much shorter period,shows a similar pattern between 1960 and 1980, but with a much more pronounced increase.These changes could be due to natural long-term variations, human activities,or somecombination of both.3

Snowpack

Precipitation

mm

300

400

500

600

1922 1942 1962 1982

Cub

ic m

etre

s/se

cond

2300

2500

2700

3100

2900

1922 1942 1962 1982

Streamflow

2500 1000 500

88300 35300 17700

cubic metres per second

cubic feet per second

Liard River

Peace River

StikineRiver

Fraser River Columbia

River

Skeena River

Nass River

20

Fraser River can potentially haveprofound effects. The river basindrains almost one-quarter of B.C., hastremendous biological diversity, andcontains two thirds of B.C.'s popula-tion (Box 2.1a)

Too many demandsor too little water?Water shortages may also result fromexcessive or incompatible demandsrather than insufficient supplies. Wateris used in almost every human activity.Water managers, distinguish between“withdrawal” and “in-stream” uses ofwater. Withdrawal refers to those useswhich actually remove water fromlakes or streams such as for agricul-tural, municipal, and industrialactivities. In-stream uses includehydroelectric power generation,navigation, recreation, fish andwildlife. Withdrawal can changestream flows and water levels, whichin turn can affect in-stream uses. Moredata are typically available for with-drawal uses than in-stream uses, so wefrequently have an incomplete pictureof water demand.

How much water is used in B.C., andhow is it used? B.C. accounted foronly 6.5% (2,755 million m3) of totalwater withdrawal in Canada in 1986.Over 60% of the national withdrawal,was used for thermal power generation(conventional and nuclear powerstations). Since most of B.C.’s poweris generated by hydroelectric plants (anin-stream use), very little water iswithdrawn for power generation. Thisreduces B.C.’s share of the totalnational water withdrawal. B.C.,however, accounted for more than 16%of total manufacturing, 13% of munici-pal, 17% of agricultural, and 16% ofmining water withdrawals in Canada.Manufacturing is the single largestwithdrawal use in B.C. (Figure 2.18).

Where does withdrawn water end up?Some water uses are considered to be“consumptive”. In consumptive usessome water is incorporated into finalproducts (e.g. soft drinks) or redistrib-uted to the atmosphere or land (e.g.irrigation), making it unavailable forfurther use downstream. By this

Box 2.1a

The Fraser River Basin

The Fraser River is the fifth longest river in Canada (1,375 km). That’s the distance fromVancouver to Regina. It’s average annual flow of 3,972 m3/sec is the third largest of anyCanadian river. This flow is enough to fill three olympic-size swimming pools in one second.The Fraser also has the fifth largest drainage basin in Canada (234,000 km2), drainingalmost one-quarter of British Columbia. This vast drainage basin is composed of numeroustributaries, streams and lakes distributed over 13 sub-basins and 6 ecoprovinces.

The Fraser River Basin is recognized internationally for its great biological diversity. Forexample, it shares top place with the Skeena River in terms of the diversity of native salmonspecies. It is also the greatest producer of salmon of any river in the world.6 Equallysignificant in terms of biological diversity, 21 species of waterfowl breed in the Basin, oneof the most diverse waterfowl communities in Canada. The Fraser River Estuary, located atthe mouth of the Fraser where it discharges into the Strait of Georgia, contains some of themost productive wildlife habitat in the Basin.

The Fraser River Basin has experienced dramatic changes over the last 100 years, raisingquestions about the sustainability of development. About two-thirds of the population of B.C.lives within the Basin (over 1.7 million people). The population is increasing rapidly,particularly along the lower Fraser. A recent assessment of water quality in the Basin, judgedoverall water quality conditions as fairly good in comparison to other drainage Basins inCanada, such as the Lower Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.7 Threats to waterquality, however, do exist. The major inputs of wastewater to the Fraser River system occurin its upper reaches at Prince George and Quesnel, from Kamloops through the ThompsonRiver, and in the lower Fraser River from Port Mann to its mouth.8 Almost 54% of industrialdischarges in the Basin come from interior pulp mills, while nearly 93% of municipal wastedischarges occur in the lower Fraser Basin.

Many localized or regional problems also exist in the Basin. Ecoprovincial topics discussedin Part 3 of this report include: air quality in Prince George, Williams Lake, and the LowerMainland; dioxins and furans in fish and sediment in the upper Fraser; problems withintroduced plant species in Shuswap Lake; groundwater contamination along the lowerFraser; marine water quality problems at the mouth of the Fraser; land use change in theLower Mainland; salmon stocks on the Horsefly River; and stresses to the Fraser RiverEstuary. These problems are being addressed through the Fraser River Action Plan (Box2.1b).

Williams Lake

Kamloops

Quesnel

Bulkley House

Vancouver

Prince George

N

21

Table 2.1

Types of surface water pollutants and some of their effects

Type of Examples PotentialPolutant negative effects

Biological • Micro-organisms • Threat to human andContamination • Introduced species animal health

• Sanitary shellfish closures• Beach closures• Loss of native species

Toxic Compounds • PCBs • Threat to human and• Chlorophenols animal health• Dioxins and Furans • Dioxin shellfish closures• Hydrocarbons • Fish consumption (e.g. gasoline,oil, PAHs) advisories• Trace metals (e.g. copper, lead, mercury, zinc)

Physical Pollutants • Suspended solids • Increased Turbidity• Sediment • Changed colour

• Odour• Reduced dissolved oxygen• Loss and reduced quality of fish habitat• Reduced productivity

Chemical Pollutants • Nutrients (e.g. Nitrogen, • Algal blooms Phosphorus) • Changed colour• Manure • Unpleasant taste and odour• Industrial effluents • Reduced dissolved

oxygen• Fish kills• Reduced biodiversity

Figure 2.18

Water use

Manufacturing is the largest single water userin B.C., followed by agriculture and municipaluse. Thermal power is a very minor user.Hydroelectric generation is not included underwithdrawal uses. The data are from 1986.9

Water licenses are one means ofregulating withdrawal use in B.C.Licenses are sometimes issued for in-stream uses such as storage, hydro-electric generation and sometimes forfisheries (e.g. ensuring adequateflow). At present, other in-streamvalues such as wildlife, recreation, oraesthetics are not explicitly accountedfor in this process. Withdrawal usecould also be controlled by anappropriate water pricing system toencourage conservation and improvedefficiency (Box 2.2). Recent surveysof per capita domestic water usesuggest that there is room for improv-ing the efficiency of our water use.

Monitoring all the various uses ofwater is a very difficult task. Differ-ent uses often present differentpotential environmental impacts andconflicts between users, and differentopportunities for reducing theseproblems. The Province is currentlycomputerizing information on waterlicenses (a potential indicator of

withdrawal use) and local supply. Thisshould provide some of the necessaryinformation regarding status and trendsin water use, and their environmentalimplications.

Surface water qualityThe quality of water varies naturallyfrom place to place and by season. Themost important factors influencingnatural water quality are the physicaland chemical composition of the rockand soils through which the watermoves. As water moves over orthrough these materials, it takes onsome of their chemical properties.Natural variations in water qualityinfluence the suitability of surfacewaters for various human uses,including drinking water.

There are many types of surface waterpollutants (Table 2.1). These pollutantscan originate from either point sourcesor non-point (dispersed) sources

definition of consumptive uses, only24% (651 million m3) of the waterwithdrawn in B.C. during 1986 wasactually consumed. Non-consumptiveuses (e.g. industrial process or coolingwaters) remove water from the streambut eventually return it at or near thesource. This discharged water, how-ever, is typically of a lower qualitythan when it was removed, and mayaffect other in-stream and withdrawalusers.

thermal power 2%

agriculture municpal22%

51%

3%

22%

mining

manufacturing

total water withdrawal2,755 million m3

Box 2.2

The value we attach to water:water pricing

Water licences are not the only way tocontrol water withdrawal. Water pricingcan also be a very effective tool, thoughcurrently it is under-utilized. Both the struc-ture and level of water rates influencewater usage.10 Flat rates (a fixed chargeregardless of quantity used) provide noincentive for conservation. Declining blockrates (i.e. lower rates with increasing quan-tities) may even encourage consumption.Water utilities frequently do not recoverthe full cost of supplying or treating munici-pal water. In 1987, the Federal WaterPolicy called for realistic water pricing torecover the full cost of water intake, treat-ment, distribution and wastewater dis-charge, and to encourage water conserva-tion. In B.C., nearly 78% of municipal wa-ter rates do not promote conservation.11

Although rates have increased substan-tially in recent years, B.C. still maintainsthe second lowest water prices in the coun-try.

22

Figure 2.19

Sources of surface water pollutants(Figure 2.19). In B.C., the main pointsources of surface water pollutants arepulp and paper mill discharges, otherindustrial effluent discharges, munici-pal sewage and stormwater discharges,acid mine drainage, and, periodically,chemical or petroleum spills. Examplesof non-point sources include acid rainfrom atmospheric deposition, nitratesand pesticides from agricultureactivities, sediment from forestryactivities, and toxic chemicals in urbanrunoff. Each type of pollution sourcehas different implications for waterquality and ecosystem health, anddifferent requirements for clean-up orcontrol. A selection of these activitiesand their impacts are discussed below.More information is generally avail-able for point sources than for non-point sources.

Inland pulp millsPulp and paper mill discharges havereceived the most attention of anyindustrial effluent discharges in B.C.Effluent from pulp and paper millscontains organic solids, numeroustoxic compounds (e.g. certain chlorin-ated phenolics and resin acids), andnutrients. Some discharged organicsolids (such as cellulose fibres) do notdegrade very rapidly, forming fibremats which smother bottom-dwellingcommunities and reduce fish habitat.This has occurred in the ColumbiaRiver downstream of Celgar pulp mill.

Organic solids in effluent are partlyconsumed by bacteria. Both bacterialbreakdown of solids, and oxidation ofsome of the chemicals, use up oxygenin receiving waters. This demand foroxygen is called the biochemicaloxygen demand (BOD) of the effluent.Dissolved oxygen is essential to mostaquatic life, so the greater the BOD,the greater the potential negativeimpact on aquatic life.

Discharges of BOD are regulatedunder the federal Fisheries Act andprovincial Waste Management Act(Box 2.3). Total discharges of BODfrom inland pulp mills have generallydecreased since the early 1970s,despite increases in pulp production.This is primarily due to on-going

Box 2.3

Discharge management permits

Over the past 30 years, the Provincial government has used a permit system to manage pointdischarges of waste to air, water and land. Waste Management Permits specify the quantityand quality of wastes which may be discharged. These permits determine the amounts ofsubstances a discharge may contain usually after treatment, such that it will not alterreceiving waters or impair their usefulness. The permits also outline the requirements formonitoring and reporting waste discharges to BC Environment. As of October, 1992, therewere 3,596 active permits in B.C.12

Not complying with these permits can have a number of regulatory consequences. Since July1990, BC Environment has released lists every six months containing the names ofnoncomplying or pollution concern industrial operations and municipalities. Since then, over98% of the permit holders have been in compliance. Of the 259 operations that have beenlisted on the five Noncompliance Lists since July 1990, only four have remained on the reportall five times. Only 12 of the 289 operations which appeared on the Pollution Concern Listshave remained there all five times.12 Unfortunately, these ‘repeat offenders’ are among thelargest licensed effluent volumes in B.C. It is hoped that such lists will allow public scrutinyand opinion to motivate clean-up. The Province has also stepped up investigations ofpollution offences and increased maximum penalties. The number of charges laid under theWaste Management Act increased by 40% between 1989 and 1990 (from 246 to 345charges).

improvements in secondary treatmentof effluents. Secondary treatmentsystems (e.g. aerated lagoons oractivated sludge) are designed toremove 70 to 95% of effluent BOD,and to render the effluent non-toxic tofish, as defined by regulations. All butone inland pulp mill currently havesecondary treatment. This mill isexpected to have secondary treatmentin place by mid-1993, which shouldgreatly reduce overall provincial BODloadings from inland pulp mills (Figure 2.20). About half of the totalprovincial inland loading of BOD

occurs within the Fraser River Basin(Box 2.1b).

The discharge of numerous chlorinatedorganic compounds and other woodextractives from the kraft processremains an on-going concern, and afocus of intensive research.76,77 Manychlorinated organic compoundsdischarged to waterbodies can persistand accumulate in aquatic ecosystems,with potentially detrimental impacts onbiota.13 Dioxins and furans are aspecific group of highly persistentcompounds formed during the chlorine

acid mine

drainage

industrialeffluent

urbanrunoff

agriculturalactivities

forestryactivities

non-point sourcespoint sources

spills sewageoufall

23

Since 1988, dioxin-related fishconsumption advisories have beenissued for parts of the upper Fraser,Thompson, Quesnel, North Thompson,South Thompson, Kootenay, andColumbia rivers for a variety ofspecies. Some sportfish, and fish thatare an important part of native peoples'traditional diet, have been included inthese advisories. Ongoing monitoringprograms are tracking the reduction ofthese compounds in various parts ofthe ecosystem.

The concentration of AOX (Adsorb-able Organically-bound Halogen) inpulp mill effluent is used to regulatedischarges of chlorinated organiccompounds in B.C. (Box 2.4). In 1990,the Province passed regulationsrequiring all mills to incorporatesecondary effluent treatment and toreduce AOX discharges below 2.5 kgof AOX per air-dried tonne of pulpproduced. Technological changes suchas chlorine dioxide substitution havereduced AOX loadings from mills incompliance with these regulations(Figure 2.21). Six of the seven inlandbleach kraft mills have already met orsurpassed the target of 2.5 kg of AOXper air-dried tonne. The one remainingmill is expected to comply by July,1993. In early 1992, a new regulationwas passed requiring further reductionsto 1.5 kg AOX per air-dried tonne by1995. The Province anticipateseliminating AOX discharges (or theuse of chlorine) by Dec. 31, 2002.

Decreases in AOX loadings are alsoevident in water quality indicators.Chloride is a good tracer of bleachedkraft effluent presence and has beendemonstrated to closely reflect AOXlevels in the receiving environment.Chloride concentrations in the FraserRiver have declined since pulp millscurtailed their use of chlorine (Figure2.22). National regulations have beendeveloped and implemented under theCanadian Environmental ProtectionAct (CEPA) to regulate the dischargeof dioxins and furans from bleach kraftpulp mills. The same process changesimplemented to reduce dioxin andfuran levels also reduce AOX (Figure 2.21). The Fraser River ActionPlan will help to monitor the effects of

Figure 2.20

BOD from inland pulp andpaper mills

Only one inland mill does not currently havesecondary treatment. It is scheduled to startsecondary treatment in1993, which will re-duce BOD loadings from inland mills.15

Box 2.4

Pulp mill initiatives

Pulp mills using chlorine to bleach pulpalso produce hundreds of compounds,many of which are toxic, persistent and/orbioaccumulate (accumulate over time inliving tissues). Chlorinated organiccompounds, of which dioxins and furansare a small part, are primarily producedthrough complex reactions between threesubstances: 1) the wood constituent lignin;2) lignin breakdown products releasedduring the chemical pulping process; and3) the chlorine bleaching agent.

Approximately 90% of the chlorine used inthe bleaching process is converted tochloride which has relatively littleenvironmental impact. The remaining 10%is bound to organic material. ThisAdsorbable Organically-bound Halogens(AOX) is used as a measure of the broadgroup of organochlorine compoundsformed during the bleaching process. AOXconcentrations in effluent are now used toregulate pulp mill discharges of thesecompounds.

Proven methods to reduce AOX formationinclude reducing the amount of chlorineused in the chlorination bleaching stage,changes in the pulping process, andsubstituting chlorine dioxide for chlorine.Secondary treatment can also lower AOXlevels in effluent. The B.C. Ministry ofEnvironment, Lands and Parks is currentlyresearching alternative strategies forregulating pulp mill effluent, (for example,regulating the amount of certain “indicatororganic compounds” in addition to AOX).Regulations under the CanadianEnvironmental Protection Act (CEPA) nowrequire virtual elimination of dioxins andfurans.16 “Virtual elimination” means thatamounts are not measurable in the effluentbased on current technology.

Figure 2.22

Chloride in water

Chloride is a good tracer of AOX levels inreceiving waters. Average chloride concentra-tions in the upper Fraser River at Margueriteduring winter low flow appear to have declinedsince the implementation of technologicalchanges and chlorine dioxide substitution inbleach kraft mills.15

Box 2.1b

The Fraser River Action Plan(FRAP)

FRAP is a six-year, $100-million program.Its goals are to reverse environmentaldegradation in the Fraser River Basin,rehabilitate degraded areas, and developa management program to achieve sus-tainable development. Specific objectivesinclude a 30% reduction in the dischargeof harmful industrial effluents by 1996,and the virtual elimination of releases ofpersistent toxic substances by the year2000. Another objective is to doublesockeye salmon stocks within 20 yearsfrom an average of 8 million fish in 1975-86 to 16 million. To attain these objectives,FRAP will be forming partnerships amongall concerned groups to develop a coop-erative management program for theFraser River Basin. The federal, provin-cial, and local governments recently signedan agreement establishing a Program Man-agement Board to promote sustainabledevelopment in the Basin.

bleaching process. They have beenfound in all components of theecosystem.14 These compounds are ofparticular concern in animals, plantsand sediments. This is because theytend to accumulate in media withhigher fat content (such as plants, fishand shellfish) or higher organic mattercontent (such as sediments). Theirpersistence and toxicity have potentialconsequences for both ecosystem andhuman health.

BO

D lo

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g (t

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and

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ay)

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1986 1987 1988 1989

Fraser River Basin

other areas combined

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0

2

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8

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1986

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24

sumed by bacteria in the receivingenvironment and therefore exert abiochemical oxygen demand (BOD).They also contain nutrients such asphosphorus and nitrogen which, likepulp mill effluent, may cause algalblooms in nutrient-sensitive waters.Municipal wastewaters also containsuspended solids, disease-causingmicro-organisms and toxic contami-nants (Table 2.1).

The quality of municipal sewageeffluents depends on the level oftreatment they receive. There are threecommon levels of treatment: primary,secondary, and tertiary. Primarytreatment involves the removal of largesolids and floating substances throughsettling and screening. Secondarytreatment is a biological treatmentprocess used to reduce suspendedsolids, BOD, and some contaminants.Tertiary treatment is generally used toreduce nutrient concentrations andfurther reduce toxic contaminants.Disinfection may be used in addition toany one of these treatment levels.

There are currently 64 secondary and 9tertiary treatment plants discharging tofreshwater in B.C. (marine dischargesare discussed in the section on MarineEnvironmental Quality below).Secondary and tertiary treatmentsserve 550,000 people. Only 6 primarytreatment facilities still discharge tofreshwaters. The two largest primarytreatment plants are at Annacis andLulu Islands in the Lower Mainland.They serve over 700,000 people andare currently being upgraded tosecondary treatment (see GeorgiaDepression Ecoprovince). The remain-ing four primary treatment plants,serving 26,000 people, are located atTrail, Nelson, Lillooet and Lytton.18

They each discharge into large watervolumes.

In B.C., municipal and industrialwastewater discharges require a WasteManagement Permit or a Liquid WasteManagement Plan with operationalcertificates under the Waste Manage-ment Act (Box 2.3). Permit require-ments consider the ecological sensitiv-ity of the environment receiving thewaste, such as its ability to accommo-

Figure 2.21

AOX and dioxins from bleached kraft mills

Technological changes and chlorine dioxide substitution at bleach kraft pulp mills have reducedAOX concentrations (kg per air-dried tonne of pulp) and average monthly loadings of AOX,bringing most mills into compliance with new provincial regulations. These changes have alsoreduced average monthly loadings of dioxins (2,3,7,8-TCDD). The 1995 concentration targetfor AOX is 1.5 kg/tonne. Data from the upper Fraser are used here to illustrate these reductions.15

River,17 they have not been a majorconcern elsewhere in B.C. Forexample, the natural turbidity of theFraser River reduces the amount oflight available for plant growth.

Freshwater municipalwastewater dischargesMunicipal sewage discharges canconsist of residential, commercial andindustrial wastewaters. Combinedsewer overflows (CSOs) are municipaldischarges composed of a mixture ofstormwater and municipal sewage;they occur largely in the LowerMainland. Wastes are partly con-

these abatement programs (Box 2.1b).

Nutrients such as nitrogen and phos-phorus are also released by pulp mills.While these nutrients are required tosustain aquatic plants, an oversupplycombined with light can lead toexcessive algal blooms. Algal bloomsare a massive “greening” of the watercolumn and lake or river bottom,reducing recreational values, increas-ing the cost of supplying drinkingwater and reducing aquatic habitatquality. Dissolved oxygen can beconsumed as these algae decompose,and this can affect fish populations.Though some of these effects havebeen a concern in the Thompson

Ave

rage

Dio

xin

(2,3

,7,8

-T

CD

D)

Load

ing

(mg/

day)

Quesnel

Prince George Area

Month

M A M J J A S O N D J F M A1991 1992

0

5

10

15

20

25

30 Month

AO

X

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4

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16

F M A M J J A S O N D J F M

Loading (kg/day x 1000)

Concentration (kg/tonne)

1991 1992

1990 target

25

date a given level of BOD. In early1992, the Province adopted a policy ofBest Achievable Control Technology(BACT). Consequently, at leastsecondary treatment will probably berequired at most locations, with furthernutrient removal required at sensitivesites (e.g. the Cheakamus River andlakes in the Okanagan area).

The provincial government plans towork with local governments toprovide secondary wastewater treat-ment throughout the province. Bothtechnical assistance and new optionsfor financing facilities may be pro-vided.19 These improvements shouldaddress concerns regarding BODloadings. The release of nutrients is aconcern in some areas, but existing orplanned tertiary treatment is expectedto address this problem.

Microbiological and toxic chemicalcontamination remain the greatestthreats from municipal discharges. Theability of treatment to remove toxiccontaminants changes with the type ofcontaminant and level of treatment.Toxic substances, however, maysimply become concentrated in thesludge. This reduces the beneficialuses of sludge as fertilizer and posesanother disposal problem on land. TheProvince is currently revising interimguidelines for the disposal of domesticsludge under the Waste ManagementAct. Control of contaminant sources isthe best method of controlling toxicsubstances in municipal wastewaterand sludge.

Urban runoff (stormwater) is apotentially larger source of toxiccontaminants than sewage treatmentplants. In most large urban centres,stormwater is typically collectedseparately from wastes destined forsewage treatment plants. Storm sewersand ditches discharge urban runoff atnumerous points in the lower FraserRiver Basin. There are 22 combinedsewer overflow points on the MainStem and North Arm with averageannual flows of 22 million m3.

Urban stormwater often contains awide variety of contaminants, (includ-ing solids such as plastics), from roads,

parking lots, industrial and commercialareas, and residences. The quantities ofcontaminants vary but many arepersistent, potentially toxic, and athreat to aquatic organisms. Thisproblem has not been monitoredsystematically. British Columbia, likeother Canadian jurisdictions, currentlyhas few regulations controllingstormwater discharges. Thoughstormwater discharged via outfallscomes under the Waste ManagementAct, few permits have been issued forsuch discharges. The Province has alsodeveloped urban runoff quality controlguidelines.20

Mining -acid rock drainageThe main environmental impacts ofmining are site disturbance fromexploration activities and minedevelopment, contaminated tailings,pond effluents, groundwater seepage,alkaline rock drainage and acid rockdrainage. Acid rock drainage (ARD), ifuncontrolled, has the most significantimpact on water quality. It occurswhen sulphide minerals contained inrock are exposed to air and water,forming sulphuric acid. The sources ofARD in metal and coal mines includeunderground workings, open pit minefaces, waste rock dumps, tailingdeposits and ore stockpiles.

ARD is not necessarily confined tomining activities. ARD can occurwherever sulphide-bearing rock isexposed, such as in highway andrailroad rock cuts. Some naturalsprings are acidic, usually nearoutcrops of sulphide-bearing rocks.However, not all exposed sulphide-bearing rock results in acid drainage.Acid drainage does not occur if eitherthe sulphide minerals are non-reactiveor if the rock contains sufficientalkaline material to neutralize the acid.

When drainage water is acidic, it candissolve metals contained in the rock.Uncontrolled and untreated ARD,typically containing elevated levels ofmetals and sulphates, can have severeenvironmental and economic conse-quences for aquatic ecosystems. These

include elevated metal levels in fishtissue and changes in the biodiversityand abundance of plankton communi-ties.

How extensive is the ARD problem inBritish Columbia? There are eightoperating coal mines in B.C., none ofwhich is presently generating ARD.There are 16 operating metal mines inB.C., of which six generate ARD andseveral others have the potential to doso.21 These six mines are currentlycollecting and treating all acidicdrainage. There are approximately 72million tonnes of acid generating minetailings and 250 million tonnes of acidgenerating waste rock in B.C. (4% and8% of the Canadian total). Thisamount is increasing by 25 milliontonnes per year.22 The strongest acidmine drainage is produced from awaste rock dump at Equity Silver inthe Central Interior Ecoprovince. Themine is scheduled to close in 1993.23

Good planning can prevent or mini-mize ARD in new mining develop-ments. However, a larger problem isthat ARD can persist for hundreds ofyears at closed and abandoned minesites. At least five abandoned mines inB.C. are known to generate ARD. Oneexample is the Britannia mine adjacentto Howe Sound.21

Remediation is underway at a numberof abandoned sites, including theMount Washington mine on Vancou-ver Island and the Union mine nearGreenwood.24 In 1987, the B.C.Mining Association, mining companiesand the federal and provincial govern-ments together established the B.C.Acid Mine Drainage Task Force,which will coordinate and help fundresearch on ARD. Under the provincialMine Development Review Process,approval of mine development requirescompanies to conduct detailed studieswhich demonstrate that potential ARDproblems can be technically andeconomically managed.25 Companiesare also required to post bonds so thatARD from closed mines can bemanaged in perpetuity. The mostpreferable long-term form of control isprevention of acid generation reac-tions, such as through exclusion ofoxygen by flooding.

26

habitat and the attractiveness of astream or lake for recreation. Soilerosion can have a marked impact onwater quality and fish habitat, particu-larly in areas with steep slopes andhigh rainfall.

Fish-forestry guidelines have beenjointly developed by the federal andprovincial governments and the forestindustry. These guidelines are intendedto address potential negative effects onfish habitat. These guidelines, how-ever, have not always been followedby logging companies (see Plants andAnimals, section on salmon). TheMinistry of Forests is also developingwatershed sensitivity rating and terrainmanagement guidelines for coastalwatersheds based on 10 years offederal/provincial research in theQueen Charlotte Islands.28 Finally, theprovincial government and forestindustry are developing a ForestPractices Code to address environmen-tal concerns.

Water quality objectivesOver the past eight years, B.C. hasbeen developing water quality criteriaand objectives to protect water qualityfor a variety of uses.

Water quality criteria are recom-mended safe conditions or limits,applicable province-wide, to protecteach type of water use, such asdrinking, recreation, irrigation or useby fish and wildlife. Ambient waterquality criteria have been set for 15measures of water quality based on anassessment of current scientificinformation. These include: conditionsthat have a direct effect (pH), sub-stances that degrade water quality(nutrients, algae and particulatematter), substances that are toxic atlow levels (cyanide, PCBs), substancesthat are toxic at higher levels (variousforms of nitrogen, chlorine, fluoride),metals (aluminum, copper, lead,mercury, molybdenum), and microbio-logical indicators of risks to humanhealth (fecal coliforms).

Setting water quality objectivesinvolves taking the set of water qualitycriteria and adapting them to a specificbody of water. The aim is to protect its

Spills of hazardousmaterials to freshwaterSpills of hazardous materials representa potentially important impact onenvironmental quality. They aredifficult to monitor since they must bereported either by those involved or bya witness. The Province has recentlydeveloped a Dangerous Goods IncidentDatabase designed for assessing dataon reported hazardous chemical spills.The federal government also has a rolein assessing and recording hazardousspills.

The transportation industry (truck, rail,shipping) accounts for the largestnumber of known spills of hazardousmaterial. However, a much largernumber of spills are of unknownorigin. Possible sources include roadservice runoff and storm sewer inputs,leaking storage tanks and illegaldumping to sewers or freshwater.Although these incidents frequentlyinvolve smaller quantities of material,many such spills can add up to asignificant environmental impact.

Petrochemicals (oil and other hydro-carbon fuels) represent the materialmost often accidentally spilled orreleased to freshwater (Figure 2.23).Other spilled materials include organicand industrial effluents (e.g. sewage,landfill leachate, mine tailings andindustrial wastewater), industrial rawmaterials (e.g. ammonia, chlorine,creosote, crude oil and wood chips),and non-fuel oil.

The environmental impacts of thesespills varies with the quantity and typeof material spilled, and the characteris-tics of the receiving environment.Spills affect water quality, the plantsand animals living in aquatic ecosys-tems, and in some cases human health.Petrochemicals in particular have atendency to biomagnify (increase inconcentration) as they move throughthe food chain and are known tonegatively affect reproduction in baldeagles, seals and sea otters. They arealso extremely toxic to certain speciesof fish such as salmon.

The majority of incidents occur due tohuman error, equipment failures andvehicle accidents. Recent increases inthe number of reported incidents maybe the result of new provincial spillreporting regulations. They may alsoreflect heightened public awarenessdue to information campaigns (such asthe B.C. Handle with Care andRecycling programs). The Provincehas released guidelines for developingresponse plans in the event of anindustrial emergency, improved itsown emergency response capability,and provided marina operators withminimum performance standards andresponse capability requirements.27

ForestryForests, water, fisheries, wildlife andhuman activities are linked together bythe hydrologic cycle. This cycle can besignificantly changed by forestryactivities such as road construction,logging, slashburning and post-loggingoperations. These changes may includeincreased summer water temperatures,modified stream flow, soil erosion, andnutrient leaching. All of these changespotentially affect both fish and wildlife

Figure 2.23

Hazardous material spills

A total of 506 hazardous material spills tofreshwater were reported between April 1991and March 1992. Hydrocarbon fuels (oil andgasoline) were involved in the largest numberof spills. Materials in the "other" category in-cluded acid, anti-freeze, base, various indus-trial materials (e.g. adhesives, dry cleaningfluid, fire retardant), silt, paints and solvents,PCB/transformer oil, pesticides and manyunknown substances.26

industrial raw materials10%

industrial, effluent,sewage

16%

hydrocarbon-fuels

oil-unknown10%

waste-oil8%

other31%

25%

27

Figure 2.24

Water bodies with water quality objectives 29

Information on objectives attainment isone means of describing the state ofwater quality. However, there are fourlimitations to the data collected so far.First, objectives are set for a limitednumber of basins where problems areexpected to occur. This gives an overlypessimistic view when used to reportthe province-wide state of waterquality. Second, only limited resourcesare available to monitor whetherobjectives are being met. Confidencein the results from monitoring will beincreased through more complete andmore frequent coverage. Third,objectives need to be set for moresubstances of concern than has beenthe case so far, especially toxicorganics. Fourth, although someobjectives related to sediments, fishand other ecosystem-level phenomenahave been developed, more are neededin order to give more direct measuresof aquatic ecosystem health.

Water quality trendsIn 1985, the provincial and federalgovernments began a cooperativewater quality monitoring program. Itsgoal is to collect long-term datasuitable for detecting regional trends inambient water quality. Over 40 waterquality variables are being monitoredat 25 joint federal/provincial stationsand 15 federal stations. Since many ofthese variables vary naturally fromyear to year, detecting trends typicallyrequires at least five years of consist-ent, regular data collection. Sometimesmore than a decade of data are neededto detect subtle trends.

The effects of changes in regulationsor effluent loadings can be immedi-ately apparent in some monitoring data(Figure 2.22). To date only data for theFlathead and Similkameen Rivers havebeen assessed. No trends are apparentexcept those due to decliningstreamflows. Other data are currentlybeing assessed - these include ninestations in the Fraser Basin (monitoredfor overall water quality) and six smalllakes in southwestern B.C. (monitoredfor the effects of atmospheric deposi-tion of pollutants).

most sensitive use. While they are notlegally enforceable, the objectivesform a reference point for judgingwater quality at a particular site. Waterquality objectives have been set in 34bodies of water in the province (Figure2.24). These include large rivers suchas the lower Fraser, Thompson,Columbia and Peace rivers, theOkanagan Valley lakes, and a fewmajor marine areas such as BoundaryBay, Burrard Inlet and Kitimat Arm.Objectives for several other importantbasins are currently being developed.

Monitoring of basins to check forattainment of water quality objectiveshas been carried out annually since

1987. Objectives have consistentlybeen met in over 90% of the sampleschecked. Measures for which objec-tives were sometimes exceeded inmore than one basin included: meas-ures of general water quality (sus-pended solids, turbidity, pH, dissolvedoxygen), nutrients (phosphorus,nitrogen, and, chlorophyll-a, anindicator of excess nutrients), metals(copper, iron, lead, mercury, zinc), andorganics (chlorophenols). Thisprogram is used as a screening device.Objectives which are exceeded are oftenfollowed up by regional B.C. Ministryof Environment, Lands and Parks staff.

E 27

32

23

3

4

2

5

6

9

3331

30

29

24

22

21

20

2827

2625

19 18

17

16

15

1413

10

12

7

11

8

1

1. Upper Finlay River2. Charlie Lake3. Peace River4. Pine River5. Pouce Coupe River6. Bullmoose Creek7. Kathlyn, Seymour, Round, and Tyhee Lakes8. Bulkley River9. Lakelse Lake

10. Lower Kitimat River and Arm11. Nechako River12. Williams Lake13. Bonaparte River14. Toby Creek15. Columbia and Windermere Lake16. Okanagan Valley Lakes17. Cahill Creek18. Similkameen River19. Lower Fraser River from Hope to Kanaka Creek

20. Lower Fraser River from Kanaka Creek to mouth21. Boundary Bay22. Cowichan - Koksilah River23. Quinsam River24. N. Shore, Lower Fraser River tributaries25. Burrard Inlet26. Okanagan Tribs., Westbank27. Okanagan Tribs., Kelowna28. Oyster River29. Hydraulic Creek30. Bessette Creek31. Elk Lake (Victoria)32. Pender Harbour33. Columbia River (to Birchbank)34. Thompson River

34

28

Drinking water qualityFigure 2.25

Water-borne diseases

Rates for reported intestinal infections haveincreased between 1985 and 1989, with B.C.rates higher than those in other parts of Canada.Diseases reported in the graph are:Campylobacteriosis (1986-1989), Giardiasis,Salmonellosis and Shigellosis. The percent-age of total cases attributed to water wascalculated using estimates from the U.S. Centerfor Disease Control.32

Box 2.5

Giardiasis and other water-borne diseases

Giardiasis, more commonly known as“beaver fever”, is an intestinal infectioncontracted either through drinkingcontaminated water or close personalcontact with an infected person. Symptomsinclude diarrhea, abdominal cramps,nausea and/or vomiting, weight loss, andfatigue, lasting from one to three weeks.The disease occurs worldwide but isparticularly common in western Canadadue to the abundance of wildlife such asbeavers and muskrats which spread theinfection through fecal matter deposited inrunning waters. It is only one of severalwater-borne illnesses which may occur inB.C. The simplest preventative measure isto boil all water before drinking.30

bacterial standards became a legislatedrequirement in B.C. Chlorination andother processes of disinfection beinginvestigated include ultraviolettreatment, ozonation andchloramination. Chloramination, whichuses both ammonia and chlorine,generally produces better disinfectionat lower cost than chlorination.Chloramine and chlorine have compa-rable toxicity to fish. However,chloramine is more persistent, increas-ing the risk to fish, particularly in theevent of a spill or water main break inthe vicinity of fish habitat.

Some microbiological threats areresistant to chlorination. Filtration isextremely expensive, but has the addedbenefit of improving clarity. Fivecommunities in B.C. currently takewater treatment beyond chlorination.4

Integrated management of communitywatersheds is the best means ofpreventing contamination of drinkingwater supplies (Box 2.6).

an immediate corrective measure forsuspected microbiological contamina-tion of drinking water, have increasedsix-fold since 1986 (Figure 2.26).

Most water in B.C. requires only theminimal level of treatment (chlorina-tion and some settling) to meetCanadian Drinking Water QualityGuidelines. In 1992, compliance with

no. o

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es p

er 1

00 0

00 p

opul

atio

n

0

50

100

150

200

250

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

B.C.

Canada

Figure 2.26

Boil-water advisories

Boil-water advisories indicate when the qualityof water is unsafe for human consumption, andprovide one means of protecting human health.Such advisories have risen since 1986.34

num

ber

of b

oil-w

ater

advi

sorie

s

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

1986

1987

1988

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1990

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Surface waterssupply almost halfthe municipalwaterworks in B.C.,serving 85% of thepopulation. Many

natural factors influence the suitabilityof these drinking water supplies. Forexample, soil and rainfall patternsaffect water turbidity, hardness andmetal concentrations. Naturally highturbidity (such as in the NorthThompson River upstream fromKamloops) influences the ability ofmunicipal systems to collect and treatwater. Municipal and industrial wastedischarges, forestry, urban develop-ment and agricultural activities canalso influence drinking water quality.

Toxic contaminants in drinking waterare a major public concern. However,most of the chemicals detected insurveys of drinking water qualityacross Canada are at concentrationshundreds or even thousands of timesbelow Canadian Drinking WaterQuality Guidelines. Drinking water isnot believed to be a significant sourceof human exposure to contaminants .31

In B.C., a recent study of drinkingwater from communities near pulpmills on the upper Fraser andThompson rivers showed no evidenceof dioxin, furan or otherorganochlorine contamination -compounds which are of particularconcern at the moment in B.C.33

Microbiological contamination is thegreatest drinking water qualityproblem in B.C. The incidence ofintestinal infections in B.C. is muchhigher than in the rest of Canada.Moreover, rates of intestinal infectionhave generally increased over the pasteight years (Figure 2.25). The cause ofthese increases is not yet known. Theprimary sources of intestinal infectionsare contaminated food (70%) andwater (30%). Since 1980, there havebeen 16 outbreaks of waterbornedisease throughout the province as wellas two suspected outbreaks in 1991.34

Sixty percent of these outbreaks havebeen caused by Giardiasis (Box 2.5).Boil-water advisories, which provide

29

Box 2.6

Community watersheds in B.C.

About 300 watersheds provide the primary water supply for B.C. municipalities, regionaldistricts, water districts, water utilities and water improvement districts. Resource develop-ment in watersheds sometimes conflicts with the objective of providing safe, clean andabundant supplies of domestic water. In a recent survey, the majority of regional districtsidentified human activity in community watersheds as the major threat to drinking waterquality. These conflicts included logging, livestock grazing, public access for recreation,industrial accidents, hydroelectric generation and transmission, residential development,the exploration and development of oil, gas and minerals, and fisheries. The reportedproblems included increases in turbidity since the onset of logging, microbiological contami-nation from recreation, and contamination from agricultural runoff.4

A number of initiatives have been undertaken in the province to resolve these conflicts. In1980 a provincial interagency task force produced guidelines for forestry, agriculture,grazing and recreation in community watersheds.35 The guidelines are currently beingrevised in response to public input. In 1985, the Province also began “integrated watershedmanagement planning”. This process brings all concerned groups together to reach aconsensus on the management of their watersheds. Plans have been completed for 9community watersheds and plans for 13 more watersheds are underway. Water qualitymonitoring is currently being undertaken in 12 community watersheds to support thisprocess, evaluate existing water quality objectives, and develop new objectives.

Groundwater - our hidden treasureGroundwaterrepresents over 68%of the world’sfreshwater, and is amajor invisible linkin the hydrologic

cycle. Part of the precipitation fallingto the earth’s surface percolates intounderground aquifers (Figure 2.27).While groundwater movement isgenerally quite slow, it eventuallyreappears to augment surface runoff as

Figure 2.27

Aquifers

Groundwater exists almost everywhere underground. Water is found in soil pores, rockfractures, faults and joints. The level below which all of these spaces are entirely filled with wateris called the water table. This is also the level to which water will rise in a shallow well. An aquiferis a geological formation of permeable rock or loose material which may be developed to yielduseful quantities of water. Aquifers range in size from a few hectares to thousands of hectaresand thicknesses of a few metres to hundreds of metres.

Confined aquifers are located beneath a layer of impermeable materials. Confined aquifers canbe susceptible to draw-down (declines in volume) since they are poorly connected to surfacerecharge areas. There is, however, no evidence of draw-down in B.C. Unconfined aquifers riseup as far as the water table. Though easier to recharge, they are more susceptible tocontamination from pollution sources such as agriculture, industry and urbanization.

Figure 2.28

Groundwater use

Industry is the largest single user of groundwa-ter in B.C., followed by agriculture and munici-pal use. Figures for industrial use refer togroundwater which is self-supplied for eithercommercial or industrial purposes. Agriculturaluses includes both irrigation and water ex-tracted for livestock. Municipal use includesany use served by a municipal distributionnetwork. Rural use includes only domesticuses. The data are estimates made for 1981consumption.37

329 million cubic meters

18%

7%

20%

55%

municipal

rural

agricultural

industrial

Total Consumption:

a source of water in streams, rivers,marshes, lakes and ultimately theocean. In some areas (e.g. parts of theLower Mainland), groundwaterdischarging into streams provides theprimary source of summer streamflow.

Figure 2.30

Well-interference

A large well may “draw-down” the local watertable, thus interfering with nearby, smallerwells.

water table

watertable

well

salt waterintrusion

impermeable layer

confined aquifer

unconfined aquifer

30

Groundwater may also discharge assprings and free-flowing artesian wells.In B.C., groundwater supplies water toover half of the people living outsideof Greater Victoria and GreaterVancouver.

Groundwater useThe extraction of groundwater is notregulated in B.C. There are no waterlicences issued, as there are for surfacewaters. Consequently, there is verylittle information regarding provincialtrends in use. Because its extraction isnot regulated, groundwater is also notpriced, except to the extent that usersmust pay the actual cost of developingthe resource.

B.C. relies on groundwater for about9% of its total water use.37 This volume(an estimated 329 million m3 in 1981)represents 25% of all the groundwaterextracted in Canada. The largestgroundwater user in the province isindustry, followed by agriculture,municipalities (composed of domestic,commercial and industrial urban users)and rural domestic users (Figure 2.28).

Groundwater suppliesThe provincial government’s WaterManagement Program operates anetwork of 150 groundwater observa-tion wells. Information on water levelsand various groundwater qualityparameters is used in groundwaterevaluation. Based on observationsfrom these wells, there is at present noindication of large-scale “groundwatermining” in B.C. (Figure 2.29).“Groundwater mining” refers to asituation where extraction exceedsaquifer recharge from infiltration ofprecipitation and surface watersources. In most areas of B.C., aquifersare connected with the surface, andrecharge areas experience high rates ofannual precipitation. Well levels,however, fluctuate seasonally, reflect-ing seasonal changes in recharge(precipitation) and extraction. Concernabout groundwater mining has beenexpressed by residents in some areas ofthe province (e.g. Cache Creek valley).

Figure 2.29

Water levels in observation wells

Though there are natural seasonal fluctuations, there has been no overall lowering trend in theaverage levels of observation wells in major provincial aquifers.38

Localized supply concerns often occurbecause of uncontrolled, large-scaleextraction by individual users. Thisphenomenon, known as well-interfer-ence, may reduce water supplies and/orquality in smaller surrounding wells(Figure 2.30). This has been observedin the Lower Mainland (Surrey andAbbotsford), on some Gulf Islands,and on Vancouver Island. Wellinterference can also affect observationwells, making it difficult to discernaquifer-wide trends in groundwatersupplies.

Conflicts between groundwater andsurface water occur where surface

water withdrawal is fully allocated andgroundwater extraction is uncontrolled.This has occurred in Cherry Creek(Kamloops), Chimney Creek(Williams Lake), and KalamalkaLake.39 These conflicts may increase inthe future if interest continues to growin using groundwater as a source offreshwater (Figure 2.31). Groundwatersupplies become attractive when thecosts of engineering surface watersupplies rise (i.e. dams, reservoirs, andtreatment facilities). They also receivemore consideration with increasedchemical or microbiological contami-nation of surface supplies.

Figure 2.31

Groundwater inquiries

Groundwater inquiries have increased dramatically in recent years suggesting a growinginterest in groundwater supplies.38

num

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ries

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31

Groundwater qualityGroundwater quality varies naturallywith local geological conditions.Human activities also influencegroundwater quality. The main sourcesof chemical threats to groundwaterquality include industrial discharges ofsolid or liquid waste to land, chemicalspills, urban runoff, landfills, leakingunderground storage tanks (primarilygasoline and diesel), agriculture(manure, fertilizer and pesticidestorage or application), septic fieldsand mine drainage (Figure 2.32).Groundwater contamination can occurvery slowly and is often difficult,expensive or impossible to clean uponce it has occurred. Shallow aquifersin highly permeable soils are moresusceptible to contamination thandeeper, more confined aquifers (Figure2.27). While contamination may belocalized, groundwater frequentlytransports contaminants to nearbylakes and streams.

Microbiological contamination isgenerally not a problem in groundwa-ter because of natural filtrationprovided by soil and rock, and longunderground residence times. How-ever, local microbiological contamina-tion has occurred due to poor well and

Figure 2.32

Sources of groundwater contamination

septic tank construction and mainte-nance, and improper well abandon-ment.

Nitrate and pesticidecontaminationThe B.C. Water Management Programhas identified nitrate contaminationnear Abbotsford, Osoyoos, GrandForks, Armstrong, and Oliver.39 Insome instances, nitrate concentrationsexceed Canadian Drinking WaterQuality Guidelines (e.g. Abbotsfordaquifer). Nitrates can reduce the abilityof blood to carry oxygen. Infants areparticularly at risk from drinking well-water with high concentrations ofnitrates. Contamination of groundwaterwith nitrates may result from intenseagricultural activities (e.g. fertilizeroverapplication or improper manuremanagement) and land disposal ofdomestic sewage effluent (e.g. poorlysited or functioning septic fields).Agricultural activities are also a sourceof pesticides in groundwater. Pesticideshave been detected in low concentra-tions in some areas (see GeorgiaDepression Ecoprovince). However,the health implications of those lowconcentrations are not well-understood.

In 1992, the provincial governmentpassed the Agricultural Waste ControlRegulation under the Waste Manage-ment Act. A Code of AgriculturalPractice for Waste Management isattached to this regulation. The codedescribes practices for using, storingand managing agricultural waste in anenvironmentally sound manner. In1992, the provincial government, B.C.Federation of Agriculture and thePoultry Industry of B.C. togetherreleased Environmental Guidelines forPoultry Producers.40 Guidelines forother types of producers are currentlybeing developed. As with other sets ofenvironmental guidelines, properimplementation is required.

Leaking storage tanks,landfills and spillsLeakage from aboveground andunderground storage tanks, such asthose used by gas stations to storepetroleum products, has led to pollu-tion of soil and groundwater for manyyears. In 1989 the Canadian Council ofMinisters of the Environment (CCME)developed an environmental code ofpractice for underground storage tanksystems containing petroleum prod-

industrialwaste

storageunderground

minedrainage

landfill

point sources

urbanrunoff

septicfields

pesticidesfertilizers

atmosphericcontaminants

non-point sources

32

ucts. The code is currently beingamended, and a code is being devel-oped for aboveground storage tanks. Inkeeping with the code, the Provincereleased draft provincial regulationsfor comment. The regulations will setstandards for new tanks, requirementsfor monitoring, and criteria forupgrading or replacing existing tanks.41

Similarly, the federal government hasdrafted guidelines under the CanadianEnvironmental Protection Act (CEPA)for underground tanks on federal lands.Until these provincial regulations andfederal guidelines have been legislated,tank owners in B.C. are encouraged tofollow the applicable drafts.

Landfills and industrial sites, particu-larly older and abandoned ones, alsopose a threat to groundwater quality.These older sites are not generallyregulated or managed, and are oftenpoorly constructed. They have alsoreceived less study.

Spills represent a less frequent butpotentially important source ofcontaminants in groundwater. Duringthe period from April 1991 to March1992, spills to groundwater representedonly 2% of total reported spills towater (both fresh and marine). Most ofthe 34 spills to groundwater reported tothe B.C. Ministry of Environment,Lands and Parks over that periodinvolved hydrocarbon fuels (e.g. oiland gas) and organic effluents (e.g.sewage).27

Saltwater intrusion andcross-contaminationSaltwater intrusion can also reducegroundwater quality. This is a problemin some coastal areas where high ratesof groundwater extraction, particularlyduring periods of low precipitationsuch as May to October, causesseawater to move into freshwateraquifers. This has been identified as aproblem in the Gulf Islands, theSaanich Peninsula, and Belcarra Park.This problem can be avoided by betterwellfield design near the ocean.

Unlined wells can also cross-contami-nate aquifers by introducing older andhighly saline water in deep aquifers to

younger and less saline water inshallower aquifers (Figure 2.33). Thisimpact is often confused with seawaterintrusion, particularly on the GulfIslands where both types of problemoccur.42

Reforming groundwatermanagementThe Province is considering a numberof important new initiatives to protectand manage groundwater. Theseinclude increased monitoring (particu-larly of community wells) and newlegislation to regulate groundwater useand protect its quality. Proposedinitiatives may include legislativeauthority to certify well drillers,establish standards for well construc-tion and license groundwater use.19

generally focused on site-specificissues, for the most part consideringonly potential threats to marineenvironmental quality.43,44 Indeed, dataon marine environmental quality, bothstatus and trends, are largely absent.The exceptions to this general rule arebacterial contaminants in shellfishgrowing waters, and chemical contami-nant levels (e.g. dioxins) in fish andshellfish destined for human consump-tion and in bird tissue. Althoughmarine waters are currently not

The coastline ofB.C. is composed of27,000 km ofshoreline, islands,estuaries, fjords andbays, containing a

rich abundance of wildlife, fish, andforests (Figure 2.34). These resourcesdepend on an abundant supply of highquality water. There are, however, nodata on long-term, coast-wide trends inmarine environmental quality. Previ-ous assessments and reviews have

Marine environmental quality

Figure 2.33

Well cross-contamination

Cross-contamination refers to the movementof salt water from deep aquifers into shallowfreshwater aquifers along improperly sealedwell casings.

Figure 2.34

The B.C. Coast

Three ecoprovinces (Coast and Mountains,Georgia Depression and Northeast Pacific)make up the marine environment of BritishColumbia.

saline

fresh

Vancouver

Victoria

Queen CharlotteIslands

VancouverIsland Howe

SoundTofino

Bella Coola

Kitimat

Strait ofGeorgia

PrinceRupert

33

governed by any comprehensive waterquality legislation, they are subject togeneral provisions of the federalFisheries Act and the provincial WasteManagement Act. Provincial waterquality objectives, which are notenforceable, have been set in a limitednumber of areas including BoundaryBay, Burrard Inlet, Kitimat Arm andPender Harbour. Objectives arecurrently being developed for SecheltInlet, Malaspina Strait and HoweSound.

Potential threats to marine environ-mental quality include pulp and paperdischarges, other industrial discharges,toxic and persistent organics (e.g.PAHs, oil), rural runoff, municipalwastewater discharges, dumping ofdredged material, mine tailing releases,spills or related environmental acci-dents, and aquaculture. The nature ofthese threats encompasses microbio-logical contamination (e.g. viruses andbacteria); toxic contaminants (e.g.dioxins, furans, PCBs, heavy metals,and petrochemicals); nutrients (e.g.nitrogen and phosphorus); and physicalcontaminants (e.g. suspended solids,sediment, and persistent debris) (Table2.1). Some of these potential threatsare discussed below.

Coastal pulp and papermill dischargesThere are ten pulp and paper millswhich discharge effluent into marine orestuarine waters along the B.C. coast.These effluents contain large quantitiesof organic waste and numerous toxiccompounds. The impact of pulp andpaper mills on Canadian marine andestuarine ecosystems was recentlyreviewed by Environment Canada.45

Coastal pulp mills can damageintertidal communities through effluenttoxicity and log-booming. Releases ofsettleable wood chips, bark andcellulose fibres also smother bottom-dwelling habitat. Approximately 3,400ha (34 km2) of the seafloor have beenaffected by wood fibre dischargedfrom coastal mills. These mills havetraditionally only had primary treat-ment. As a result of more stringentregulations, many coastal mills

installed long outfalls and diffusers inthe late 1970s and early 1980s. Thisresulted in significant recovery ofintertidal communities.44

Despite increases in pulp production,both BOD (biochemical oxygendemand) loadings and effluent toxicityhave been reduced by coastal pulpmills through the installation ofprimary and secondary treatmentworks. As of the end of 1992, six ofthe ten coastal pulp mills had fullsecondary treatment. By the end of1993, three of the four remaining millswill have implemented full secondarytreatment (two already have partialsecondary treatment). The remainingmill should have secondary treatmentby the end of 1995. Expanded second-ary treatment should significantlyreduce effluent BOD and toxicity(Figure 2.35).

Coastal bleach kraft pulp mills are themajor source of the dioxins and furanswhich have been detected in shellfishand have resulted in coastal dioxinclosures (see below). Under CEPA,discharge limits for dioxins and furansare used to regulate releases of thesepersistent organochlorines. In caseswhere technological changes have

been implemented at mills to controldioxins and furans, AOX loadings(tonnes/day) declined 45 to 90%between 1989 and 1991.45 Eightcoastal mills have already met orsurpassed the provincial target of 2.5kg AOX per air-dried tonne of pulp.This has been achieved throughtechnological changes such as chlorinedioxide substitution, which alsoreduces discharges of dioxins andfurans. The provincial governmentanticipates eliminating AOX dis-charges by the end of 2002.

Marine municipalwastewater dischargesMunicipal wastewater can consist ofresidential, commercial and industrialwastewaters. Like pulp mills, it alsoexerts a biochemical oxygen demand(BOD) on receiving waters. Dischargesto calm, poorly mixed marine environ-ments such as shallow estuaries maydeplete oxygen, causing fish kills.These same discharges are alsoimportant sources of suspended solids,microbiological contamination andtoxic contaminants. Toxic contami-nants (e.g. heavy metals) may persistand accumulate in sediments or biota,regardless of where they are dis-charged. Microbiological contamina-tion is a widespread concern, asreflected in coastal shellfish closures(see below).

The quality of sewage discharges isdependent on their level of treatment(see discussion in freshwater sectionabove). There are nine untreateddischarges to marine waters in B.C.,serving some 204,000 people. Fromlargest to smallest, these are Victoria,Prince Rupert, Masset, NorthCowichan, Port Alice, Port McNeill,Port Edward, Queen Charlotte City andTofino. There are also seven primarysewage treatment plants on the B.C.coast, serving over 660,000 people.The largest is Iona Island in the LowerMainland, followed by Lion’s Gate,Nanaimo, Ladysmith, NorthCowichan, Zeballos and Alert Bay.Twenty-one secondary sewagetreatment plants, serving just over110,000 people, also discharge tocoastal waters.18

Figure 2.35

Marine BOD from pulp andpaper mills

Six out of ten coastal pulp and paper mills havefull secondary treatment. Two additional millshave partial secondary treatment. By the endof 1993, nine out of ten of the mills will have fullsecondary treatment, with the remaining millexpected to implement secondary treatmentby the end of 1995. Increased secondarytreatment will significantly reduce BOD loadingsto coastal waters.15

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Heavy metals and the toxic organicsthat associate with particulate matterare largely removed by secondarytreatment. These contaminants,however, accumulate in the sludge,reducing the number of potential usesof sludge and posing another type ofdisposal problem. Effective sourcecontrol is the best means of controllingtoxic contaminants in both treatedsewage and sludge.

Shellfish closuresThe B.C. Coast yields an abundance ofshellfish (e.g. crab, prawn, clam,mussel, scallop and oyster) for humanconsumption. To be safely eaten, thesemust be harvested from areas withoutsewage contamination or dangerouslevels of toxins and pathogens, bothnatural and human-produced. Fecalcoliform counts are typically used toassess sewage contamination. Theseare intestinal bacteria originating fromwarm-blooded animals. There arecurrently about 160 sanitary closures inB.C. per year, encompassing 72,000hectares of coastline.15 The total areaof closures has increased since 1972(Figure 2.36). This increase is notthought to be due solely to an increasein sampling effort but may reflect anactual worsening of the problem.Multiple pollution sources account forthe largest area of closures. Municipalsewage discharges are the largest solesource of closures. Other sources ofcontamination include agriculturalrunoff, boat sewage discharges andnon-point source urban runoff (includ-ing septic seepage). Additionalshellfish closures have occurred as aresult of dioxin contamination (seebelow).

Ocean dumpingThere are 20 active ocean dump sitesin British Columbia, most of which arerarely used. The greatest quantities ofmaterial have been dumped at thePoint Grey and Sandheads dump sitesat the mouth of the Fraser River. Thetotal amount of material dumped offB.C.'s coast increased from 1986 to1990, and then dropped significantly in1991 (Figure 2.37). Dredge and

Figure 2.36

Shellfish closures

Sanitary shellfish closures have increased in recent years. The majority of closures are due tomultiple pollution sources. Marine sewage discharges are the largest sole source of closures.The data presented do not include closures due to paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP).15

excavation spoils represent the largestproportion of material being dumped.

Under the Canadian EnvironmentalProtection Act (CEPA), EnvironmentCanada is responsible for controllingocean dumping. The Regional OceanDumping Advisory Committee

(RODAC), composed of representa-tives from both federal and provincialagencies, reviews all dumping permits.Regulations developed under CEPAoutline substances which are prohib-ited or restricted from ocean disposal.All material destined for oceandisposal must meet stringent Contami-nant Testing Guidelines. RODAC hasdeveloped regional guidelines for bothdioxins and polynuclear aromatichydrocarbons (PAHs) which have beendetected in dredge materials from areasnear pulp mills and in industrialharbours.

Monitoring is conducted at activedump sites. Results from 1979 to 1987have been published46 and an update ofthis information is being compiled byEnvironment Canada. There is noevidence of increases in contaminantsto levels of concern at any active dumpsite.15 Funding has been providedthrough the Green Plan to allowincreased dump site monitoring andresearch.

Figure 2.37

Ocean dumping

The quantity of material dumped along theB.C. coast increased from 1986 to 1990 andthen dropped significantly in 1991. Mostdumped material is from dredging, though thevolume from excavation has been increas-ing.15

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Figure 2.38

Significant marine spills

Marine spills are considered significant when the quantity spilled exceeds one tonne, or whensensitive habitats are affected. The number of significant spills decreased dramatically in 1976due to changes in tanker technology, stiffer penalties and a new vessel management system forharbour traffic. Increases since 1976 may be due to increased tanker traffic. Significant spillsmake up one-sixth of all spills reported to Environment Canada.47

Oil and chemical spillsOil and chemical spills are randomstresses on coastal ecosystems. Thesespills, however, may have significantshort- and long-term impacts. Theactual impacts depend on the volumeand type of material spilled, thelocation, weather conditions and theproximity to sensitive environments.The most common impact of oil spillsis bird kills. Oil and chemical spills aretoxic and can kill fish in the receivingenvironment.

While large oil spills may occurvirtually anywhere along the coast,they are more likely in areas withhigher navigation risk. In addition,some areas are more ecologicallysensitive to these spills, increasing thechances of negative environmentalimpacts. In B.C., the area of greatestnavigation risk is the waters surround-ing the southern third of VancouverIsland from the entrance to the Strait ofJuan de Fuca to the southern portionsof the Strait of Georgia. This is also aregion of great ecological sensitivity tospills.

Between 1972 and 1992 the federalgovernment recorded 437 significantmarine spills (i.e. greater than onetonne or affecting sensitive habitat)

(Figure 2.38). The number of spillsdecreased dramatically in 1976 due tochanges in tanker technology, stifferpenalties and a new vessel manage-ment system for harbour traffic. Recentincreases may be due to increasedtanker traffic. The provincial Danger-ous Goods Incident Database recordeda total of 901 spills of all sizes tomarine ecosystems between April 1991and March 1992. The largest numberof spills involved oil and otherhydrocarbon fuels and industrial ororganic effluents (Figure 2.39).

The federal and provincial govern-ments have developed an Oil SpillResponse Information System in orderto address concerns about oil spills.The system provides information onsensitive shorelines that requireprotection or clean-up, as well assuggestions regarding appropriatecountermeasures in the event of anactual spill. In addition, the provincialand federal governments have imple-mented a number of recommendationsfrom the Joint States/British ColumbiaOil Spill Task Force set up in 1989following the Nestucca oil spill (seeCoast and Mountains/Northeast PacificEcoprovinces). The Province iscurrently evaluating procedures at oilhandling facilities and the CanadianCoast Guard is evaluating offshoretransportation by the oil industry.These actions are expected to greatlyreduce the risk of major spills.

AquacultureSeveral species of shellfish and finfish,including salmon, are commerciallycultured along the B.C. coast. Thepublic has expressed concern aboutsome aspects of marine salmon farmswhich have increased in numbers fromabout ten farms in the early 1980s toabout 135 farms in 1989/90. Due to arecent industry consolidation, 105farms currently operate on the coast.Public concerns include impacts onwater and sediment quality aroundsalmon farms, the use of chemicals,improper management and disposal offish mortalities, disease transmission towild stocks and general siting con-flicts. These concerns are beingaddressed by the industry and theprovincial government throughregulations, licensing, guidelines andcodes of practice. Uncertaintiesregarding behavioural and geneticeffects of escaped fish on wild salmonstocks are still being investigated.

The main water quality impact frommarine salmon farming is deposition ofuneaten fish food and fecal material onthe sea floor, possibly smotheringimportant habitat for bottom-dwellingorganisms. Recent studies to investi-gate this effect have concluded thatsuch impacts are largely confined to

Figure 2.39

Marine hazardous material spills

A total of 901 spills to marine waters werereported from April 1991 to March 1992. Themajority of these spills involved oil in someform or another, followed by other types ofhydrocarbon fuels (gasoline), and organic orindustrial effluents (sewage, mine tailings andindustrial wastewater).26

industrial raw material6%

industrial effluent7%

fuel27%

oil-unknown37%

waste-oil6%

other17%

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areas directly beneath seacages.48

Another recent study, indicates thatbottom-dwelling communities at well-flushed sites may recover completelywithin 2-3 months after a farm hasbeen moved, whereas recovery maytake several years in areas of lowcurrents.49 Similarly, the provincialgovernment has recently completed a5-year study of the Sechelt Inlet, anarea that has been heavily used by thefish farming industry. Preliminaryconclusions are that no significantwater quality impacts have occurred.

The provincial government hasdeveloped guidelines for both thesiting and operation of fish farms.50,51

Based on recommendations of the1986 Gillespie Inquiry on FinfishAquaculture, the provincial govern-ment imposed a mandatory environ-mental monitoring program on salmonfarmers. This program requiresquarterly data reports from salmonfarmers on water quality, solid wastehandling and sewage disposal. The

data from this program are currentlyunder review and will be used tomodify or revise the program, ifnecessary. The provincial governmentlicenses farms on the basis of athorough analysis of farm size, site-suitability and plan feasibility.

There are also some trout rearingfacilities on lakes and streams. Threecommercial lake cage facilities and 20upland hatcheries rear salmon smolts(young fish) on two lakes. Somemembers of the public have voicedconcerns about potential environmentalimpacts from lake cage smolt rearing.The Province is supporting a compre-hensive three-year study of environ-mental effects at existing lake cage fishfarms.

Toxic contaminantsA vast number of pollutants arereleased to the marine environmentfrom human activities (Table 2.1).Those pollutants capable of causing

Figure 2.41

Bioaccumulation andbiomagnification

Bioaccumulation refers to the increase in lev-els of toxic substances in an organism overtime, due to continued exposure. This can onlyhappen if the substances do not break downquickly, and are essentially “stored” in somepart of an organism. Biomagnification refers tothe increase in the concentration of contami-nants as they move up the food chain. Apredator unknowingly “collects” whatever toxicsubstances happen to be in the food that itconsumes. These two processes are alsosometimes referred to as bioconcentration.53

through food chain

biomagnificatio

n

bioaccumulation over timeFigure 2.40

Movement of toxic substances

Contaminants such as heavy metals and organochlorines enter the marine environment froma variety of sources. These include atmospheric fallout, precipitation, river discharge, runoff fromland surfaces, and discharges directly to the ocean (e.g. industrial and municipal outfalls or spillsand dumping). Many of these contaminants adhere to silt or other particles, which eventually fallto the seabottom and become buried by newer sediments. Fish and other aquatic organisms,may take in and accumulate these substances. This occurs through either direct contact withcontaminated sediments or sources, or by eating other organisms (e.g. plankton and inverte-brates) living near these sources.

harm to the environment or human lifeare considered toxic under the 1988Canadian Environmental ProtectionAct (CEPA). Toxic substances may bepersistent or non-persistent in theenvironment depending on how longthey take to break down and what theybreak down into. Toxic substancesmay be taken up by aquatic organismseither directly (e.g. gills) or throughtheir food. If an organism is unable tobreakdown or eliminate a substance, itmay bioaccumulate. These substancesmay subsequently becomebiomagnified in the food-chain,making “predators” good potentialindicators of environmental contami-nants (Figures 2.40 and 2.41). Evenlow-level concentrations of manycontaminants are known to affect long-term marine environmental quality.52

The following sections provide a briefsummary of some of the informationavailable on substances of concern inB.C.’s marine environment.

bottomsediment

wetdeposition

foodchain

suspended sediment

resuspension

effluent

runoff

spray

feeding

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deposition

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37

Figure 2.42

Mercury in crabs

Average mercury levels in edible crab tissue and in other fish in the vicinity of a mercury-cellchlor-alkali plant in Howe Sound decreased following imposition of stricter environmentalcontrols in the early 1970s. The plant recently closed.58

Howe Sound, near a mercury-cellchlor-alkali plant. Stricter environmen-tal controls have essentially eliminatedmercury contamination of shellfish atthis site (Figure 2.42).

Dioxins and furansDioxins and furans are chlorinatedorganic compounds. They may beformed as by-products of combustionprocesses such as incinerators andpower boilers, or chemical processessuch as bleach kraft pulp mills andchemically treated lumber. Bothdioxins and furans persist in theenvironment and may be extremelytoxic. Of the 210 known forms ofthese contaminants, 2,3,7,8-TCDD(tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin) is themost toxic. Health and Welfare Canadahas published a maximum residueguideline for this form of 20 parts pertrillion (ng/kg) in fish for humanconsumption. This is equivalent toabout 20 grains of sugar in an Olym-pic-sized swimming pool. Long- termexposures to 2,3,7,8-TCDD in mam-mals have resulted in immune systemdamage, liver dysfunction, impairedreproduction, birth defects and cancer.However, chloracne (a temporary skincondition) is the most common health

effect to date that has been conclu-sively linked to dioxin exposures inpeople.

In 1987, Environment Canada analysedsamples of marine sediments, fish andinvertebrates obtained near coastalpulp mills and other industries fordioxins and furans. The majority offish samples contained no detectableresidues of the most toxic form ofdioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD). However,some shellfish samples of oysters andcrab were near or well above Healthand Welfare Canada guideline of 20parts per trillion (ng/kg). Less toxicforms of dioxins and furans weredetected at some sites. Scientistsidentified the chlorinated bleachingprocess in kraft pulp mills as the majorsource of these contaminants.

Subsequent sampling revealed elevatedlevels in three locations: Port Mellon,Woodfibre and Prince Rupert.59 Thisled to closures of crab, prawn andshrimp fisheries in these areas inNovember 1988. Further monitoringled to additional closures of shellfishfisheries in November 1989 in thevicinity of Kitimat, Gold River,Crofton, Nanaimo, Powell River,Campbell River, and Cowichan Bay.Five of these closures were extended in

Heavy metalsTrace metals such as lead, mercury,cadmium, arsenic and copper occurnaturally in the water, sediment, andbiota. Elevated levels of these metalsare frequently found in sedimentsaround such sources of contaminationas industrial and municipal effluentoutfalls and ocean dumping sites.These metals are usually in a form thatis not readily taken up by organismsand so pose little direct threat tomarine life. However, in some circum-stances not fully understood, heavymetals can change into forms availableto organisms, making them highlytoxic. Contaminated sediments maypersist as sources of metals, particu-larly to bottom-dwelling organismsand their predators, causing deteriora-tion in marine environmental quality.

Environment Canada has detectedtrace metal concentrations insediments, fish, and invertebrates atsome 75 locations along the B.C. coast,at varying distances from pollutionsources and ocean dump sites.54,55,56,57

Studies in these areas, have revealedrelatively uncontaminated sediments,with no evidence of wide-spreadaccumulation in marine food webs.There has been localized contamina-tion of both sediments and biota,particularly invertebrates living insediments containing high metalconcentrations. Continuous samplingover several years and a variety of siteshas generally not been undertaken toprovide data regarding trends. How-ever, sediment monitoring nearmunicipal outfalls has revealed trendsof increasing trace metals. The levelsare lower than those found nearharbours, pulp mills and coastalmining sites.

Health and Welfare Canada hasestablished acceptable limits formercury in fish and shellfish intendedfor human consumption. In most areas,average concentrations are below theguidelines of 0.5 mg/kg (0.5 parts permillion) wet weight. The highestshellfish tissue concentrations ofmercury in B.C. (as high as 13.4 mg/kg) were detected in the early 1970s in

Health and Welfare Guidelineav

erag

e m

ercu

ry c

once

ntra

tion

(ug/

g)

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

1970

1972

1974

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

38

1990 on the basis of new data suppliedby the companies involved. Today,almost 900 km2 of coastal area isclosed to harvesting of certain species(Figure 2.43). Some of these closureshave been in the vicinity of sawmillswhich formerly used pentachloro-phenol (heavily contaminated withdioxins and furans) for antisapstaincontrol.

Great blue heron and double-crestedcormorant eggs are valuable indicatorsof persistent chemicals such as dioxinsand furans in coastal waters.60 In the1980s, eggs analysed from 20 heroncolonies and 12 cormorant coloniesthroughout the Strait of Georgiashowed dioxin and furan contamina-tion.61 Dioxin levels in eggs of double-crested cormorants in the Strait ofGeorgia were high compared withlevels detected in the Bay of Fundy,the St. Lawrence estuary, and LakeOntario.53 Studies have shown thatelevated levels of dioxin in heron eggswere associated with effects ondeveloping embryos.62,63,64

Data from 1991 show a downturn indioxin concentrations in herons andcormorants (Figure 2.44). In 1989,

Figure 2.43

B.C. coastal dioxin closures

As of May 1992, about 1% of the total potential shellfish (crab) harvesting area in B.C. was closedas a result of dioxin contamination. In almost all cases, the primary source of dioxins is believedto be pulp and paper mills. Potential sources in Cowichan Bay and Kitimat include pentachlo-rophenol (formerly used as a wood preservative by sawmills) and contaminated wood chips. Thesources in Victoria are not known. There is substantial overlap between these dioxin closuresand sanitary shellfish closures (Figure 2.36).65 The total area available for harvest is calculatedas the area between the low water line and the 200m contour along B.C.'s coast.

Figure 2.44

Dioxins in sea bird eggs

Dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD) levels in the eggs ofgreat blue herons and double-crested cormo-rants have declined in recent years. The databelow are from colonies at Crofton, one of themost contaminated sites where eggs weresampled. Recent declines may reflect effortsby the nearby bleach kraft pulp mill to reducedioxin emissions.61

mammals from the Arctic or the St.Lawrence River. Furan concentrations(2,3,7,8-TCDF), however, were higherin the B.C. mammals. The sample sizewas too small to provide definitiveconclusions.66

The Province also undertook anextensive two year monitoring study oforganochlorines in various componentsof the ecosystem, including soils,sediments, foliage, shellfish and fish,sludge, ash, runoff and leachate.Preliminary results show that levels ofdioxins and furans in B.C. vary a greatdeal from place to place. Concentra-tions appear to fall within the rangefound in comparable sites from otherparts of the world.67 However, adetailed inventory of the number andextent of contaminated sites, and moreinformation on the rate of contaminantdischarges, is required to assess thesignificance of these observations.

government regulation and the demandfor alternative pesticides eliminated theuse of chlorophenols (heavily contami-nated with dioxins and furans) forantisapstain control by the B.C. lumberindustry. Chlorophenols, however, arestill used for heavy duty processing ofpoles. Since 1988 many pulp mills inthe Strait of Georgia have reduced oreliminated dioxins and furans indischarges into marine waters inresponse to new CEPA regulations(Figure 2.21).61 The decline in dioxinlevels in herons and cormorants mayindicate a rapid cleansing of thesesubstances from the food chain,Continued monitoring is beingconducted to verify this.

The Province supported a recent studyof organochlorine levels in sevenharbour porpoises and one killer whalefrom the Strait of Georgia. Dioxin(2,3,7,8-TCDD) concentrations werelower in these mammals than in marine

0

50

100

150

200

250

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

toxi

n le

vel (

ng/k

g 23

78-T

CD

D)

Great Blue HeronDouble-crested Cormorant

Open Area76 367 km2

contribution of eachclosure to total (km2)

Prince Rupert

Powell River

Vancouver Harbour Kitimat Victoria Harbour

Howe Sound

Nanaimo Gold River

Campbell River

Crofton Cowichen Bay

25.4

238.1

15.4583.3

286.7

31.556.7

52.5

91.813.2

Closed Area873 km2

39

Due to the variety of toxic effects seenin animals and the various dioxinsources in B.C., concern has beenraised about increased human exposurein the province. Researchers at theUniversity of British Columbiarecently undertook a study for the B.C.Ministry of Environment, Lands andParks and Ministry of Health to assessthe levels of dioxins and furans inhuman tissues. Dioxin and furan levelsin British Columbia residents werefound to be similar to those of resi-dents in other parts of Canada, as wellas to those of industrial populationswith no known exposure to dioxins andfurans.68 Populations from agriculturaleconomies tended to have lower levels,and groups with known exposurestended to have higher tissue concentra-tions.

PCBsPolychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) areanother type of chlorinated organiccompound. PCBs used to be incorpo-rated in a variety of products includingplastics, inks, carbonless paper, paints,casting waxes and electrical transform-ers. They are highly persistent in theenvironment and accumulate in livingtissues following ingestion of even

minute quantities. Although theireffects on human health are notcompletely known, there is evidencethat they cause cancer and birth defectsin some mammals, and reducedreproduction in fish.

Concerns regarding impacts on bothhuman health and the environment ledto widespread controls of this sub-stance in many parts of the world. InNorth America, their manufacture wasended in the early 1970s. All non-electrical uses of PCBs in Canada werebanned in 1977 under the federalEnvironmental Contaminants Act.Subsequent federal and provincialregulations were developed to controlthe use, transportation, storage anddisposal of PCBs in B.C. Safeincineration technologies are beingapplied to the destruction of those instorage in certain regions of Canada.

PCBs have low solubility in water andtend to concentrate in sediments.Sediment data collected in areas awayfrom industrial activities generallyhave PCB concentrations ranging fromnon-detectable to about 0.1 mg/kg (orparts per million). Though concentra-tions are quite variable, higher levelshave been observed in areas aroundvarious industrial sites and in a number

of harbours including Victoria andVancouver (ranging from 2.2 to 17.0mg/kg).44 A recent survey oforganochlorine levels in variousecosystem components in B.C., foundcontamination to be highly site-specific. PCBs were generally presentin higher concentrations than othercontaminants.67

Although few studies of PCBs in biotahave been undertaken in B.C., scien-tists have identified PCBs in somemarine species.53,66,69,71 The recentstudy of one killer whale and sevenharbour porpoises in the Strait ofGeorgia (described above) found lowerlevels of PCBs than in marine mam-mals from the St. Lawrence River.These levels were also lower thanconcentrations found in previousstudies on six killer whales and twofalse killer whales in the Strait ofGeorgia.73,74 Again, the sample sizewas too small to draw definitiveconclusions.66

Concentrations of PCBs in certainseabird species have been monitoredsince the early 1970s. Seabirds aregood biological indicators of toxiccontaminants which biomagnify up thefood chain (Figure 2.41). For example,double-crested cormorants feed nearthe shore and do not migrate, thereby‘sampling’ local pollution. Since1970, there has been a declining trendin the level of PCBs in eggs of thedouble-crested cormorant in both theStrait of Georgia and the Atlantic coast(Figure 2.45). Other seabird speciesalong the BC coast have been sampledfor PCBs but levels were relativelylower.53 Levels of PCBs at these sitesare currently below concentrationsknown to threaten the health ofseabirds.72 This trend follows a declinein PCB use due to voluntary andregulatory actions in Canada and othercountries since 1977.70 However, PCBscontinue to persist even though strictcontrols are in effect, suggesting thatlarge amounts remain in the marineenvironment. The federal governmentplans to continue research and moni-toring efforts related to PCBs and otherorganochlorines in seabirds andmammals.

Figure 2.45

PCBs in cormorant eggs

Seabirds are good indicators of contaminants in marine environments. PCB concentrations indouble-crested cormorant eggs on the Pacific and Atlantic coasts have generally declined sincethe early 1970s due to stricter controls on the use, transportation, storage and disposal of PCBs.Data are from colonies at Mandarte Island, B.C; Ile aux Pommes, Que.; and Manawagonish,N.B.78

0

2

4

6

8

10

1970

1972

1974

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

Strait of Georgia

St. Lawrence estuary

Bay of Fundy

* P

CB

s (p

pm w

et w

t.)

in D

oubl

e-cr

este

d C

orm

oran

t egg

s

* PCB values are arithmetic means and are presented as the sum of all PCB compounds

40

ConclusionsB.C. is blessed with a greater thanaverage share of the world’s water.Overall, both water supplies and wa-ter quality appear to be in good shape.There are, however, some localizedconcerns.

Seasonal shortages of surface waterare a problem in some areas. Many ofthese shortages reflect a lack of re-sources and infrastructure for tappingsupplies. There is currently no indica-tion of large-scale groundwater min-ing in the province, but concern forgroundwater depletion has been ex-pressed by residents in some areas.Pressures on groundwater are likelyto increase with growing interest inthis largely invisible, and currentlyunregulated, resource. Water supplyconcerns may also reflect excessiveor incompatible demands. More in-formation on actual use of both sur-face water and groundwater is re-quired to fully assess options for re-ducing demand and resolving userconflicts.

Much of the information regardingboth surface and groundwater qualityis related to specific human activities.The largest single public concern re-

garding water quality is toxic con-taminants. Levels in drinking waterare generally well below Health andWelfare guidelines. Contamination ofgroundwater with nitrates and pesti-cides remains a concern in some verylocalized areas. The greatest threat todrinking water in B.C. is microbio-logical contamination. While im-proved treatment will reduce thisthreat, prevention remains the bestsolution.

Toxic contaminants in sediments, fish,shellfish, and birds have been ob-served in both freshwater and marineecosystems. Fish and shellfish con-sumption advisories and closures havebeen issued in some areas in order toprotect human health. Existing orplanned regulations on contaminantdischarges from some sources (e.g.dioxin and furan from pulp mills) areexpected to reduce contaminant lev-els in the environment. Guidelineshave been developed for controllingother contaminant sources (e.g. urbanstormwater, agriculture and storagetanks).

There is a limited amount of informa-tion from which to draw province-

wide conclusions concerning the stateof water. In some cases, long-termdata are available only on a site-specific basis or at a limited numberof locations, such as groundwaterobservation wells or streamflowgauging stations. Given limited re-sources, environmental agencies tendto focus monitoring efforts in prob-lem areas. In other cases, data areavailable over a wider area but for ashorter period of time, limiting theability to detect trends.

Interpretation is limited by the typesof indicators monitored. More infor-mation is typically available forstresses on water rather than the ac-tual state of water. The Fraser RiverAction Plan is developing a set ofintegrated monitoring stations to as-sess the condition of the Fraser Riv-er’s aquatic ecosystems. This willhelp to provide a template for thedesign of future monitoring on theactual state of water.

41

Plants and AnimalsBiodiversity

Biodiversity is thevariety of life on theplanet. It is impor-tant for a number ofreasons. First, wehave an ethical

stewardship responsibility for otherliving things with which we share theplanet. Second, high species diversitycontributes to ecosystem stability.61

Third, biodiversity has immeasurableaesthetic value; provides food,medicine and other products ofenormous economic value; andgenerates critical ecosystem servicesessential to all life (Box 2.7). Biodiver-sity can be described at three differentlevels: genetic diversity (variationsamong individuals or populations ofthe same species), species diversity(the variety of species in an area), andecosystem diversity (the variety ofecosystems across the landscape).

Species diversity- B.C.’s rich inheritanceBritish Columbia has the greatestdiversity of birds and mammals of anyprovince in Canada.1 B.C. comprisesabout 10% of Canada’s land area, buthas over half of its vascular plant andvertebrate animal species (Table 2.2).It is estimated that 1,000 species ofmoss and liverwort, 1,000 lichenspecies, 10,000 species of fungi and35,000 insect species are also presentin B.C. Of species native to Canada,9% of the breeding birds, 12% of thereptiles, 17% of the mammals (exclud-ing marine mammals) and 27% of the

amphibians are exclusive to B.C.2

Over 25% of the freshwater fish nativeto B.C. are found nowhere else inCanada.

In addition to their diversity, thepopulation sizes of a number of speciesin B.C. have global significance. Theprovince has 75% of the world’s stonesheep, 60% of the world’s mountaingoats, 50% of the world’s blue grouse,at least 50% of the world’s trumpeterswans, and 25% of the world’s grizzlybears and bald eagles.3,4

Table 2.2

Plants and animals in Canada and British Columbia

This table presents numbers of species for selected plant and animal groups in Canada andB.C., and number of species introduced to B.C.6,7,8,9,10

Note: These numbers come from a variety of sources and are not necessarily fully comparablebecause of differences in date of reference and taxonomic treatment. They provide a generalpicture of the species diversity in B.C. and Canada, and the proportion of B.C.’s species that arenative. Additional species are regularly recorded due to the expansion of home ranges and moreintensive searches by professional biologists and naturalists.

a The numbers for vascular plants include some subspecies as well as species.b Includes native and introduced species.c 22 of these are also freshwater fish.

Canada B.C.b introducedto B.C.

vascular plantsa 4153 ~2579 557

freshwater fish 181 83 15

marine fish ~900 ~387c 3

amphibians 41 20 2

reptiles 41 19 4

birds 580 454 14

mammals 199 143 12

Number of Species

Box 2.7

Ecosystem services

Biodiversity is essential to maintain eco-system processes that support all life.These include: maintaining the gaseouscomposition of the atmosphere, climatecontrol, regulating the hydrological cycle,generating and maintaining soils, cyclingnutrients necessary for the growth of livingthings, and decomposing waste materi-als.5

42

The total number of species is only oneaspect of species diversity. Thenumber of individuals of a species isalso important. The province’s RedList contains species that are candi-dates for legal designation as endan-gered or threatened, while the BlueList contains sensitive or vulnerablespecies. The number of species onthese lists roughly indicates thenumber of species at risk. Over timethese lists illustrate the general successor failure of wildlife management andconservation efforts. Table 2.3 presentsa snapshot of the current situation inB.C. This can be compared with futurelists to evaluate the success of currentefforts to maintain biodiversity in theprovince.

Introduced SpeciesIntroduced species are species that arenot native, or do not naturally “be-long”. They can seriously affect anarea’s biodiversity by displacing orreplacing native species. Lackingnatural predators, parasites, and othernatural controls, species not native toan area can increase in numbers andtake over enough of the availablehabitat to limit the populations orhabitat of native species. This canreduce both the stability and theproductivity of an ecosystem. Also,imported animals bring in their ownparasites and diseases. Table 2.2 liststhe numbers of introduced species

within selected plant and animalgroups in B.C.

Purple loosestrife is an aquatic weedthat has recently invaded at least 37wetland sites in B.C. The problem issuspected to be much larger, but this isdifficult to document because ofinaccessible terrain. Eurasianwatermilfoil is another introducedaquatic plant that is fouling aquaticecosystems of British Columbia (seeBox 3.1, Southern Interior section,Ecoprovinces chapter). Knapweed is asubstantial problem for southern B.C.grasslands, and its invasion intoburrowing owl range was one of themany factors that contributed to thedecline in burrowing owl numbers inthe province. Knapweed has alsosignificantly displaced forage vegeta-tion for grazing livestock and wildlifein southern B.C. grasslands. Intro-duced rats and racoons pose seriousthreats to ground-nesting seabirds onoffshore islands, some of which areglobally significant populations. Forexample, 75% of the known worldpopulation of ancient murrelets breedin B.C., as do 80% of the known worldpopulation of Cassin’s auklets.12

Genetic diversityIndividual plants and animals withinthe same species still differ from eachother as a result of genetic variation.This variation within species is an

important aspect of biological diver-sity. For example, much of thediversity among freshwater fish in B.C.is due to subspecies, groups ofpopulations and unique populations.

Genetic diversity enables species toadapt to changes in their environmentover time. It is difficult and costly tomeasure genetic diversity, and there-fore difficult to assess its current statein B.C. Changes, such as the conver-sion of natural forests to managedstands and the enhancement of wildfish stocks with hatchery-reared fish,reduce genetic variation in naturalecosystems.

Maintaining genetic diversity isdifficult. It requires conservation ofwild species across a wide range ofnatural habitats and protecting areas inwhich plants and animals can evolve.

Ecosystem diversityB.C. is Canada’s most ecologicallydiverse province or territory. It hasfour of the world’s five major types ofclimate. It encompasses 10ecoprovinces and has more distinctecosystems than any other province inCanada, from coastal rain forests, todry interior grasslands, to alpine tundraand northern boreal forest. Some ofthese ecosystems occur nowhere elsein Canada, such as Garry oak wood-lands and coastal temperate rainforest.

Garry oak woodlandsGarry oaks are the dominant treespecies in one of B.C.’s rarest types offorest. The Garry oak woodlands arefound on Vancouver Island, the GulfIslands, and at two known sites on themainland. Less than 5% of theiroriginal range exists on the SaanichPeninsula and the rest is found inwidely scattered fragments resultingfrom continued urban expansion.13

Urbanization and agriculture havereduced Garry oak woodlands in otherareas as well as has the control of fire.Natural fires and fires set by aboriginalpeoples helped to maintain thestructure of these woodlands.14,15

Finally, the introduction of exoticspecies such as Scotch broom hassignificantly changed these areas.16

Table 2.3

Species and subspecies at risk in British Columbia

vascular freshwaterplants fish amphibians reptiles birds mammals

Red List 629 28 4 4 31 25

Blue List 215 7 2 5 53 27

Extirpated 28 1 0 2 4 4

Number of Taxa

Red-listed species are candidates for legal designation as endangered or threatened under theB.C. Wildlife Act. Of the candidates on the Red List, only four species have been legallydesignated as endangered under the B.C. Wildlife Act: burrowing owl, white pelican, sea otter,and Vancouver Island marmot. No species have yet been legally designated as threatened.Sensitive or vulnerable species and subspecies appear on the Blue List. The Committee on theStatus of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) produces similar lists of species at risk,but use slightly different criteria. Since this table includes subspecies, the numbers at risk cannotbe compared to the total numbers of species in Table 2.2.6,7,11

43

Grasslands

Unforested dry grasslands cover lessthan 0.5% of B.C.’s land area. Thepristine natural, unaltered grasslandsthat existed in south central B.C. priorto European settlement have essen-tially vanished.17 Much of thegrasslands in the Okanagan Valleyhave been completely replaced bysettlement, orchards and crops. Thestructure and species composition ofthe non-cultivated grasslands in thisarea have been significantly altered byfire suppression, introduced species,and grazing by cattle.18 Many of thelow elevation grasslands of thesouthern interior are considered to befire-induced ecosystems. This meansthat they depend on periodic fires tomaintain proper species composition.Historically, fires occurred as often asevery 6.4 years in grassland sites in theKootenay Trench.19 Modern firesuppression and subsequent treegrowth have substantially reduced theamount and productivity of thesegrasslands, affecting both wild anddomestic animals.

Today, many grasslands are dominatedby introduced species. Cattle and horsegrazing pressures are high in the bunchgrasslands of the Okanagan, parts ofthe Fraser Valley and the EastKootenays. Some grasslands in theseareas have also been taken over bycultivation for agriculture. Grasslandsmost closely resembling conditionsprior to European settlement are found

only in areas inaccessible to cattle, orareas without a year-long watersupply.17,20 Only some alpinegrasslands remain relatively unaffectedeither by human activity or introducedspecies.

Grasslands also provide habitat for alarge number of diverse species, manyof which are now rare or endangered.The southern grasslands contain mostof the vertebrate species at risk in theprovince.18

Wetlands

Wetlands are waterlogged areas inwhich the water table is at or justbelow the surface, such as bogs, fens,swamps, and marshes. These produc-tive wetlands provide for a great dealof biological diversity, and are vital tomigratory birds. Just over 6% of B.C.is covered by wetlands. Figure 2.46shows a breakdown of this value byecoprovince. The northeast corner ofB.C. has the highest percentage of itsarea covered by wetlands. There are nogood estimates of the past or currentchanges in wetland area across theprovince. However, conversion ofwetlands to agricultural, reservoir andurban uses are known to have causedsignificant wetland loss and altera-tion.22

Coastal temperate rain forests

Trees in coastal temperate rain forestsgrow to very large sizes and exception-ally old ages. Such ecosystems havethe highest standing biomass of any

ecosystem on earth, and provide fortremendous biodiversity.23 Coastaltemperate rain forests occur in a fewscattered spots around the world, andare considered rare on a global scale.North America has the largest continu-ous tract of coastal temperate rainforests on earth, approximately half ofwhich is in B.C.

A study of 354 primary watersheds(land draining into a stream systemthat flows into the ocean) in the coastaltemperate rainforests in B.C. foundthat 20% of them are undisturbed byindustrial activity, 13% are slightlymodified, and 67% have had somelevel of development (Table 2.4). Tenof the 354 watersheds are protected intheir entirety, and 14 are partiallyprotected. Six of the fully protectedwatersheds are pristine (in a natural,unaltered state). Most of the fullyprotected watersheds are relativelysmall.

Only 30 to 50 hectares of the 275,000hectare (2,750 km2) Kitlope Riverwatershed have been modified (bylogging) and the rest of the watershedis pristine. This may be the onlycoastal temperate rain forest watershedof this size, in nearly pristine condi-tion, left in the world.23 The KitlopeRiver watershed is consequently anarea of major conflict as it has the

Table 2.4

Rainforest watersheds

Pristine Modified Developed Total

5,000-20,000 61 [6] 37 [2] 143 (4) 241 [8](4)

20,000-100,000 11 (1) 8 [2] 69 (2) 88 [2](3)

>100,000 0 1 24 (7) 25 (7)

Total 72 46 236 354

This table presents the development status and protected status of primary watersheds in B.C.’scoastal temperate rainforests. Pristine watersheds show virtually no evidence of past humanactivities, and any past removal of trees covers less than five hectares. Modified watershedshave less than 2% of their area — or for watersheds larger than 10,000 hectares, less than 250hectares — affected by development activity. Protected watersheds have their entire area withina National Park, Provincial Park, Park Reserve, Ecological Reserve, Recreation Area orWilderness Area.24 [ ] = protected, ( ) = partially protected

Watershed Size(hectares)

Figure 2.46

Wetland habitat

Wetlands are not evenly distributed. Someecoprovinces may have small wetlands scat-tered across the landscape; others may haveonly a few large wetland areas.21

3%3%

3%

6%

13%

4%7%

4%27%

44

potential to provide for a number ofuses. The area provides a uniqueopportunity for preservation or,alternatively, an important opportunityfor economic development.

Conserving biodiversityConservation of habitat is often mucheasier than restoring it. For example,burrowing owls are presently desig-nated as endangered in B.C., and atone time virtually disappeared from theprovince. This was due to a combina-tion of factors, which included thedestruction and loss of habitat. Tenyears ago, a recovery program wasbegun that involved bringing familiesof owls from Washington State to thesouth Okanagan Valley, and “trans-planting” them into artificial burrows.The goal was to re-establish enoughowls to sustain a provincial population.The burrowing owl recovery programwas sponsored by the Habitat Conser-vation Fund. The fund is administeredby the Province and receives fundingfrom, among other sources, surchargeson hunting, angling, guiding andtrapping licences. Though successful inre-establishing a limited number ofbreeding pairs in B.C., it is still unclearif the program will result in a self-sustaining population. The transplantprogram was very expensive, and was

replaced in 1992 with a captivebreeding and release program aimed atbroadening the number of release sitesin suitable locations in the province.

The B.C. Conservation Data Centrehas begun to locate, document and mapthe last remaining natural stands ofGarry oak woodlands. Volunteers andadvocacy groups are increasing publicawareness of how important thiscommunity is to biological diversity.However, management practicesdesigned to simulate the naturalprocesses and disturbances whichhistorically maintained these commu-nities must be implemented if theendangered Garry oak woodlands areto survive in the province.

The South Okanagan Critical AreasProgram (SOCAP) is one initiativeaimed at protecting B.C.’s grasslands.SOCAP has identified and mappedhigh concentrations of threatenedcommunities and species. Many ofthese represent the northern-mostpopulations in their ranges and aretherefore potentially vulnerable toclimate change.

A number of government agencies andnon-government organizations in B.C.are working on research and inventoryprojects to identify, map and conservebiodiversity. For example, the B.C.

Conservation Data Centre is compilinginformation on rare and endangeredplants, animals and habitats; theEndangered Spaces Project is involvedin mapping the distribution of impor-tant species and habitat; a CorporateResource Inventory Initiative has beenundertaken by several provincialministries to fund biodiversity inven-tory studies and other research; gapanalysis is being done as part of theinteragency Protected Areas Strategyto identify high biodiversity areas thatare not already sufficiently protected;and several non-profit organizations,working in partnership with govern-ments, are purchasing lands withcritical ecosystems.

At the United Nations Earth Summit inRio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992, Canadawas one of the first of many countriesthat signed a Convention on BiologicalDiversity. The objective of theConvention is to conserve biologicaldiversity, to ensure that it is used in asustainable manner and that thebenefits arising from the use of geneticresources be shared.25 British Colum-bia is preparing a B.C. BiologicalDiversity Strategy, and a member of anational group that is preparing aCanadian Strategy, due to be com-pleted near the end of 1994.

Fish and aquatic invertebrateslargely by enhancement efforts (Box2.8), such as supplementing decliningwild stocks with artificially-reared fish.Despite this and other enhancementmeasures, some commercially-important stocks have declined, suchas the coho and chinook in the Strait ofGeorgia. Sockeye and pink salmon inthe Fraser River have significantly re-built their numbers since the FraserCanyon slide in 1913.

Biologists estimate that the presentsalmon harvest taken by commercial,recreational and aboriginal fisheriestogether account for approximately75% of all salmon offspring whichsurvive to adulthood. Commercialenterprises catch most of these salmon,although a growing proportion,

ocean). They are of particular eco-nomic importance in B.C. Five speciesof salmon (sockeye, pink, chum, cohoand chinook) spawn in over 3,900streams and rivers in the province, andtheir young swim and feed hundreds ofkilometres offshore in the PacificOcean. The status of salmon stocks isdifficult to determine. The bestavailable indicators are sustainedharvests and spawning stock estimates.Province-wide, about three quarters ofthe salmon stocks are considered stableor increasing based on those repre-sentative salmon streams for whichbiologists have sufficient informationon spawning trends. (Figure 2.47).However, over the past two decadessalmon abundance has been sustained

B.C. has an abun-dance of freshwaterand marine life.Many speciesprovide unique,world-class opportu-

nities for recreational and commercialuses, and have sustained aboriginalpeoples for centuries. Fish andinvertebrates are also essential toB.C.’s natural ecosystems and are themajor food source for top predatorssuch as grizzly bears, killer whales,seals, sea lions and bald eagles.

SalmonSalmon are anadromous fish (fish thathatch in fresh water but grow up in the

45

Figure 2.47

Salmon stocks

Based on available trend data for representa-tive salmon stocks between 1976 and 1990,76% of B.C. salmon stocks are consideredstable or increasing, and 24% have declined.An unknown number of stocks have been lostfrom small coastal streams. Salmon enhance-ment has made a significant contribution insustaining stocks classified as stable or in-creasing.26

Box 2.8

Salmon enhancement

The Salmonid Enhancement Program was started by the Department of Fisheries andOceans in 1977 to maintain and increase the abundance of anadromous salmon stocks inB.C., and the public is actively involved in hundreds of Enhancement projects. Waterstorage, bank stabilization, fishways and side channel construction are some of the projectsthrough which fish habitat is restored or improved. Hatcheries are also used to rear fish.Biologists assess the outcome of these projects in order to distinguish between enhancedand wild stocks in the fisheries. In particular, care and attention must be given to the geneticand ecological interactions between and within stocks.

Overall, enhanced salmon now contribute about 15% of the salmon caught in B.C.commercial fisheries. In some areas such as the Strait of Georgia, enhanced coho salmonaccount for almost half of the catch.

marine and freshwater ecosystems.B.C.’s increasing fishing pressure isresulting in shorter fishing seasons,reduced bag limits, lower allocations,limited participation in the fisheries,and restricted fishing gear. A numberof initiatives support salmon manage-ment: the Pacific Salmon Treaty,signed with the United States in 1985;Salmon Stock Management Plans,prepared since 1986; the SalmonidEnhancement Program (Box 2.8);annual evaluations carried out by thePacific Stock Assessment ReviewCommittee (PSARC); the 1988 B.C.Coastal Fisheries Forestry Guidelines;and the Aboriginal Fisheries Strategyimplemented in 1992. In 1992 theDepartment of Fisheries and Oceansannounced a plan to reform theallocation and licencing process on thewest coast. The new process will leadto a more independent review and

allocation system. B.C. also supports agrowing aquaculture industry. Salmon,along with trout and shellfish, arecultured along B.C.’s coast, andprovide an opportunity to reduceharvest pressure on wild stocks.

Pacific herringPacific herring is a small, silver-coloured fish which, because of itsmigratory and nearshore spawningconcentrations, is vital food for otherfish, birds and mammals, includingpeople. In the 1950s and 1960s, Pacificherring populations were wronglybelieved to be large enough to sustainintensive harvesting. The biomass ofB.C.’s herring (a measure of stocksize) soon plummeted to a fewthousand tonnes (Figure 2.48), in partdue to a simultaneous decline innatural survival of eggs and young

Figure 2.48

Herring catch and stock

The trend in the commercial catch and the stock biomass of Pacific herring in B.C. has fluctuatedgreatly during the past 40 years. This is believed to be a result of both natural factors and harvestpressure.27

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especially of the chinook and coho, aretaken by recreational fishers andaboriginal people. More salmon havebeen caught commercially in B.C.during the past ten years than in anycomparable period over the past 40years. Scientists attribute this to highfish production resulting from favour-able climatic and ocean conditions. In1991 over 4,300 commercial vesselsharvested over 80 thousand tonnes ofsalmon, with a landed value (the valueof the fish when they are caught) ofnearly $170 million. This representsabout 9% of the world’s supply of wildsalmon.28

In addition to fishing pressures,destruction of fish habitat fromchemical spills, stream blockages andother impairments poses risks tosalmon populations, especially in theirvital spawning streams. For example, arecent survey of selected forest cutblocks on Vancouver Island found thatlogging has had some adverse effectson 64% of the 53 surveyed streams.Impacts judged as major (35%) andmoderate (27%) were found mainly instreams with the highest potential tosupport fish, including salmon spe-cies.29

Clearly, governments and all fishinggroups must work together to managesalmon. The need to protect salmon forhuman uses must be balanced againstthe need to protect them as part of

stable 49%

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46

Figure 2.49

Halibut catch and stock

The commercial catch and stock biomass of Pacific halibut in B.C. has declined over the pastfew years, likely due to by-catch in Alaskan waters.32,33

fish. The fishery collapsed and closedin 1968. The herring populations beganto recover, enough to allow cautiousresumption of fisheries in the late1970s for the herring’s roe (ripe eggs)and its spawned eggs on kelp. In recentyears, about 150 seine vessels and1,327 gill net vessels have annuallylanded from 30 to 45 thousand tonnesof herring worth up to $80 million.Since 1983, commercial fishing ofherring has been tightly managed.

Variations in oceanic conditions off thewest coast of Vancouver Islandstrongly affect the survival of herringand their principal predator, Pacifichake. Both fishes have exhibitedmarked 16-year variations in abun-dance over the past 50 years or so,which is believed to be a result of ElNiño (a periodic change in circulationof the equatorial Pacific that results inwarmer temperatures along the B.C.coast).

Pacific halibutand other groundfishThe halibut fishery is one of the oldestcommercial fisheries on the Pacificcoast. Halibut has always been highlyvalued by consumers, and the landedvalue is often over $5 per kilogram,compared with $3 for salmon. Over thepast 15 years, the amount of halibut inB.C. waters has ranged between about15 to 20 thousand tonnes of biomass(Figure 2.49). In the early 1900s,halibut populations throughout theNortheast Pacific were severelydepleted, primarily due to overfishing.The Canada-United States Conventionfor the Preservation of the HalibutFisheries began to address this in 1923,and halibut populations graduallyrebuilt. Halibut populations againdeclined in the late 1960s to early1970s, due mainly to accidentalcatches (by-catch) of halibut by foreignhigh-seas trawlers. This affectedhalibut numbers in B.C.’s waters.Canada and the U.S. declared a 200mile fishing jurisdiction in 1979,stopping foreign fishing and its by-catch. This contributed to a shortrecovery of B.C.’s halibut populationsin the mid 1980s. Once again, how-

Marine invertebratesB.C.’s ocean waters house about 3,800species of marine invertebrates,representing about 3.5% of the world’smarine invertebrates.30 However, thereare little or no data on their conditionand trends. Their status must beinferred from survey and harveststatistics. Trends from province-widerecords of commercial catches ofshellfish (crabs, shrimp, prawns,clams, oysters and so on) indicate thatthe amount harvested has increasedabout 400% since 1960. The harvesthas also broadened from 15 species in1981 to over 30 species in 1992. Thesechanges reflect a demand amonginternational markets for more variedseafood, and may also result from newharvest techniques and approaches.

Harvest rates, pollution and naturalfluctuations all play a role in determin-ing population numbers. Some marineinvertebrate communities changedramatically from year to year becauseof climate or ocean fluctuations,whereas others gradually change over alonger period. Some species havenaturally small, restricted populationsdue to their slow and sporadic repro-duction, long lifespan or spacelimitations. Overharvesting of suchspecies is easy, and can lead to theircomplete removal from an area. Thishappened to B.C.'s abalone (a large

ever, the by-catch of juvenile halibuthas increased in Alaskan waters, andB.C.’s halibut stocks are againdeclining. The International PacificHalibut Commission and the Canadiangovernment have recently persuadedU.S. harvesters to reduce the by-catchby 25% by 1993. The Department ofFisheries and Oceans has begun anobserver program on Canadiantrawlers to reduce domestic bycatch ofhalibut, now presently about 5% of thehalibut biomass.

While the commercial catch of halibuthas decreased in the last 5 years, thecommercial harvest of othergroundfish populations has increased.Most groundfish populations, such asthe sablefish, Pacific hake and Pacificcod, are known to be in good shape.However, the lingcod of the Strait ofGeorgia, inshore rockfish and Pacificocean perch along the whole coast aresuffering from overfishing. Today thecatching capacity of the commercialfleet far exceeds the sustainable yieldof these stocks. This calls for strictcontrol by limiting Total AllowableCatches, using shorter seasons, closingareas, reducing trip limits and othermeasures. As well, an expandingsports fishing industry for groundfishis placing further pressures on thesestocks.

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Factors affecting freshwater fish

There has been little recent change inthe status of most populations offreshwater fish in the province. Thereis a great deal of fishing pressure insome areas; more people in southernB.C. want to fish than can be supportedby the existing water and biota. Thishas caused reductions in somepopulations of fish sought by anglersin certain areas at certain times. Mostfish populations in the northern half ofthe province are not experiencing thesame levels of fishing pressure.Aboriginal fisheries for freshwater fishtake place throughout the province butrarely affect the overall status of mostspecies.

Many areas of the province experiencefactors other than fishing whichthreaten or reduce fish populations,such as reductions in the quantity andquality of water, and the removal orreduction of riparian habitat. Habitatdisruptions from a wide variety ofhuman activities remain the majorenvironmental problem facing mostanadromous and freshwater fishspecies and populations.

Fish are good indicators of environ-mental health and have been describedas miner's canaries for ecologicalchange. Thirty-six species or subspe-cies are presently listed and tracked bythe British Columbia ConservationData Centre due to their status asendangered, threatened or vulnerable,

as defined by the B.C. Wildlife Act.There are serious concerns about thesurvival of some populations of thesefish (e.g. Salish sucker, white sturgeonand the Enos Lake sticklebacks).

In some cases, a number of factorscontribute to the decline of freshwaterfish populations. Since the mid-1980sthere has been a general coast-widedecline in the abundance of steelheadin North America. Summer steelhead,which enter rivers in late summer butdo not actually spawn until thefollowing spring, are known to occurin 25-30 streams on Vancouver Island.Recent stock monitoring of these fishsuggest that the numbers of fishcurrently returning to these streams areonly 50-60% of the potential (Figure2.50). Reasons for this decline includereduced marine survival, commercialand native fishery interception (acci-dental or incidental catches), wide-spread freshwater habitat deteriorationmainly related to logging, and poach-ing losses.34 Some populations maydeserve “vulnerable” or “threatened”status if current trends continue orworsen.

The Skeena River system produces aninternationally famous summersteelhead run of large, aggressive fishwhich has attracted recreationalanglers worldwide. In most yearsapproximately 50% of these fish areintercepted by Alaskan and Canadiancommercial fishing vessels. This,

edible grazing snail with a mother-of-pearl shell). In 1991, much of B.C.'sabalone fishery was closed to commer-cial and recreational divers because theanimals were getting smaller and morescarce.31 Many invertebratepopulations are fully-exploited bycommercial, recreational and aborigi-nal users, and increased levels ofharvest may affect their sustainability.

Other anadromous andfreshwater fishBritish Columbia's diverse naturallandscape provides a wide variety ofecosystems and creates the conditionsfor species and genetic diversity. Thefreshwater fish fauna of B.C. contains83 named species, plus another three orfour species that have not yet receivedformal scientific names. If subspecies,groups of populations and uniquepopulations are included, the numbersmore than double. Like all species andpopulations, each is suited to a specificset of conditions. These conditionsinclude such things as oxygen andother chemical tolerances, temperaturelimits, food items, predation, competi-tion with other species and with fish ofthe same species, and many others.

While many species are generallysmall and known to most peoplesimply as “minnows”, 38 species aremuch larger and well known. Besidesthe five species of pacific salmon, themost valued species are anadromoussteelhead and its freshwater form(rainbow trout), cutthroat trout andDolly Varden. These fish are the basisfor B.C.’s world renowned freshwatersport fisheries, and many traditionalaboriginal fisheries. However, thepublic values fish for other reasonsbesides their direct use for food andangling. They enjoy watching fish orjust knowing they are alive in ourwaters and will continue to be there inthe future.

B.C. is the third largest province inCanada, yet Saskatchewan, Manitoba,Ontario and Quebec each have four toten times B.C.’s surface area offreshwater. Although there are notmany species of freshwater fish inB.C., discovery of new subspecies andunique populations is not uncommon.

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Figure 2.50

Steelhead on Vancouver Island

Summer steelhead counts on two rivers on Vancouver Island illustrate the decline in steelheadpopulations that is evident along the B.C. coast.34

48

combined with incidental catch and byhabitat alterations (logging, highwayand railway construction, mining andsettlement) have contributed tosignificant reductions in stocks ofsummer steelhead.

The quality of freshwater fish in B.C.is generally very good, with some site-specific exceptions. Public healthadvisories, due to elevated levels ofmercury contamination, have beenissued on consumption of walleye inthe Columbia River at Trail, lake trout(char) in Pinchi Lake in northern B.C.,and Dolly Varden in Williston Lake.An advisory has also been issued onthe consumption of the liver of any fishfrom Atlin Lake due to toxaphenecontamination. Advisories have alsobeen issued on certain species of fishin areas of the Columbia and Fraserrivers adjacent to and downstream ofpulp mills because of dioxin and furanconcentrations. Tissue samples of sixspecies of fish from 54 B.C. lakesconsidered relatively unaffected byhuman pollution were recentlyanalysed for the presence of 14 heavymetals. All metal concentrations wereconsiderably below acceptable levelsof contamination and only mercurygave any indication ofbioaccumulation.35 Very few cases oftissue abnormalities are reported fromthe nearly 10 million fish taken eachyear from freshwater, an indicationthat such growths are rare in ourfreshwater fish populations. Thepercentage of angler-caught fish thatare actually eaten is the highest of anyprovince in Canada, which suggests

Figure 2.51

Recreational freshwater fishing

Although fishing effort (angler days) and catchhas decreased slightly from 1980 to 1990, thenumber of fish kept have decreased dramati-cally. To conserve fish populations, anglershave adopted a catch and release ethic, andcurrently return over half of their catch.7

ForestsForests cover nearlytwo-thirds of BritishColumbia (63.7%).36

In addition to thisabundance offorests, the province

has an unusual diversity of forestecosystems. Of the 11 major forestregions of Canada, six are found inB.C., more than any other province.37

Each forest region has distinct differ-ences in the species composition andage of trees. For example, the forests

on B.C.’s coast are much older thanforests in the interior. More than halfof coastal forests are over 250 yearsold (55%), whereas only 6% of interiorforests are that old (Figure 2.52). Overhalf of the interior forests are 120 yearsold or younger (54%).

Forest disturbancesB.C.’s forests are susceptible to anumber of natural disturbances,including fire, wind storms, freeze

damage, droughts, landslides, insects,and disease. They are also subject tohuman disturbances, such as logging,and to a lesser degree, land clearing forurban development and agriculture. Ofthese disturbances, insects, wildfiresand logging have disturbed the largestarea of British Columbia's forest sincethe beginning of the century(Figure 2.53).

Actually catching fish may not be themost important factor in sportfishingenjoyment. In a 1990 survey todetermine what motivates an angler’sdesire to fish, relaxation and thesurroundings rated higher among B.C.anglers than reasons relating toactually catching fish. Lack of pollut-ants in fish and the quality of the waterare ranked by anglers as the two mostimportant factors determining theirchoice of fishing destinations.38

The Fisheries Program Strategic Plan1991-1995 has two primary objectivesto achieve sustainable fish populations:conservation of wild stocks, andprotection and management of fishhabitat.39 Conservative catch limits,angling regulations and a moderneffective fish culture system (Box 2.9)are combined to modify anglingpressure on wild native stocks in areasof high fishing pressure, while at thesame time satisfying the demand forquality angling opportunities.

Box 2.9

Stocking freshwater with fish

Approximately 11,000,000 fish are raisedand released in over 1000 B.C. waters eachyear. With a few exceptions, they are theprogeny of wild fish populations. Managersdo not use perpetually captive brood stockselected for fast growth and high egg pro-duction. Lakes are stocked with hatcheryraised fish if there is no natural reproduc-tion, or if the natural reproduction rate is nothigh enough to take full advantage of theproductivity of the lake.

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B.C. supports the third largest freshwa-ter sport fishery in Canada, as well asthe largest saltwater sport fishery. In1990, 390,000 people spent 4.5 milliondays angling and caught 9.6 millionfish (Figure 2.51). That is an averageof over two fish per day. They spent$457 million: $187 million for directangling-related expenses, $13 millionfor guided fishing trips, and $257million on major purchases such asboats, special vehicles and propertywholly attributable to sport fishing.38

This level of expenditures is estimatedto support 5,300 person years ofemployment in various segments of thesport fishing and tourist industries.

49

Figure 2.52

Forest age

The age distribution of trees in B.C.'s interiordiffers from coastal forests. A much greaterproportion of coastal forests are over 250years old.40

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Figure 2.53

Forest disturbances

Disturbances affect forests in different ways and to different degrees. Logging typically removes50-80% of the biomass of a forest, fire removes 20-60%, and insects remove 5-10%.41

InsectsInsects can have major impacts onforests. During the past year, jointfederal-provincial insect diseasesurveys found that 98,000 hectares ofB.C. forest were affected by barkbeetles (particularly mountain pinebeetle in lodgepole pine forests).Another 690,000 hectares were

Figure 2.54

Area affected by pine beetles and spruce budworms

“Affected” means that over 10% of the trees have been killed by these pests. In 1987, the area affected by spruce budworm equalled 1.5% of B.C.’sproductive forest.42

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affected by defoliating insects (insectsthat strip off the leaves and needles),such as western spruce budworm inDouglas fir forests east of the CascadeMountains. This area adds up to 1%of the province’s forested area.Figure 2.54 shows the total area ofB.C.’s forests affected by these twoinsects over the past 20 years. During

the past year about 1.7 million cubicmetres of timber were destroyed bybark beetles, 1.6 million by defoliatinginsects, and 1.4 million by rootdisease.43 Insect damage has led tosalvage logging of some very largeareas. Salvage logging involvesharvesting the timber before its woodvalue is further damaged or destroyed

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by the insects, and also aims to removethe threat of further insect spread.

Diseases are also significant factorsaffecting forest health. Root rot andwhite pine blister rust are just twoexamples. Blister rust was introducedto B.C. and has virtually wiped out theuse of white pine as a commercial treespecies.

FireThe annual area disturbed by wildfireshas decreased over the last 30 years.The largest annual area disturbedoccurred in 1958, during which over800,000 hectares burned. Since themid-1960s, the average area of forestland affected by wildfires has droppedwell below pre-1965 numbers. Theannual average for the last ten years isjust under 95,000 hectares, which isless than 0.2% of the productive forestland in B.C.44 The ecological implica-tions of these changes vary by ecosys-tem. It is generally believed that firesuppression has resulted in forests thatare at greater risk to insects anddisease, especially in the southerninterior.

Timber harvestThe Ministry of Forests considers 51.8million hectares (54.5% of the prov-ince) to be “productive forest land”,land that is biologically capable ofproducing commercial timber. Wheneconomic viability or environmentalsensitivity is considered, about onehalf of this area is available for timberharvesting. The quality of forested landis highly variable, with the mostproductive forest lands generally foundon valley bottoms along the coast andin the interior wet belt.

Figure 2.55 shows the annual timberharvest over the past decade. Theamount of timber harvested annually inB.C. is projected to decline in the nearfuture in many areas of the province.Past and current timber harvestingactivities are changing the compositionof B.C.’s forests. Existing forests withhigh volumes of timber are beingharvested and replaced with younger,smaller trees, and in the future anincreasing proportion of the timberharvest will come from these “secondgrowth” forests. These future forest

Figure 2.55

Area harvested for timber

The total area harvested in B.C. each year increased throughout most of the 1980s but hasstarted to drop off in the last few years. Most of this area is clearcut.46,47,48,49

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Figure 2.56

Reforestation

The rate of reforestation has increased dramatically in the last five years, as a result of replantingon recently harvested sites as well as efforts to replant the backlog of Not SatisfactorilyRestocked (NSR) sites. Net harvest = harvested area - roads. Net reforestation = planting +natural regeneration - failure. An 80 - 120 year time lag is expected between the time a forestis replanted and the time it is ready to be harvested.50

coast by 34% to account for revisedestimates of commercially operablearea, as well as other forest values suchas aesthetics and wildlife.

To maintain productive forest land andsustain the forest industry, harvestedareas must be reforested (Figure 2.56).Since 1987, industry has been requiredby provincial law to reforest harvestedareas. The Ministry of Forests hasbegun an audit of all reforestationplans filed in B.C. since 1987 toinvestigate the degree of compliance.In 1989, it was estimated that therewere 3.8 million hectares of NotSatisfactorily Restocked (NSR) forest

stands are expected to be harvested atan earlier age and will thereforecontain a lower volume of timber perunit area than the original forest.Changing public values and a conse-quent increase in demand for non-timber resources will also likely resultin a decrease in timber harvest in thefuture.

The Ministry of Forests is reviewingall Timber Supply Areas to decidewhether to maintain, increase ordecrease the volume of timber har-vested. For example, the Ministry hasalready reduced the timber harvestvolumes on British Columbia's mid-

51

understory patches; and broken ordeformed tree-tops, boles and rootdecay. The age at which a forestdevelops these old-growth characteris-tics varies significantly across theprovince, depending on the foresttype, climate, site characteristics, andthe history of disturbances in the area.

In B.C. there is no agreed-upon singledefinition of old-growth, although mostdefinitions specify a stand age greaterthan 150 years. Ministry of Forestscurrent inventory information necessi-tates that 140 years be the minimum agefor depicting old-growth forests.Figure 2.52 indicates the size of theareas where old-growth attributes maybe found. Note that only some of theseareas will possess all the attributesnecessary for designation as old-growth (Figure 2.58).

The on-going debate over how old-growth forests should be managed is areflection of conflicting values(Box 2.12). Some values require thepreservation of old-growth while othersrequire its harvest. The complexity ofmanaging for old-growth is furthercomplicated by not being able tocompare all values in the same terms.For example, tourism and timber values

Box 2.10

Forest functions:a tall order for trees 56

A forest is much more than just trees.Forests are complex and diverse ecosys-tems that serve a host of functions: theyfilter the air, and moderate local climaticfactors such as temperature, humidity, windspeed and rainfall; they store significantamounts of carbon that might otherwise becontributing to the “greenhouse” effect andglobal warming; they affect the flow of wateron and in the ground, and serve as moisturereservoirs; they contribute to soil produc-tion and prevent soil erosion; and theyprovide habitat for a huge range of livingorganisms from grizzly bears to fungi.

land in B.C., that is land not growingtrees to its full potential.45 Harvesting,wildfires, and pest outbreaks occurringbetween 1982 and 1989 accounted forapproximately 1.1 million hectares ofthis NSR (29%). The British ColumbiaMinistry of Forests has plans in placeto reforest these areas. The remaining2.7 million hectares (71%) originatedfrom harvesting, fires, pests and othercauses prior to 1982. Much of this landis considered inaccessible, uneconomicor is classified as poor or low sitequality. Approximately 440,000hectares are considered good ormedium site quality. The remainingareas are expected to regeneratenaturally over time.

Forest valuesIn 1991, exports of all forest productsfrom B.C. were valued at $8.4 billion.This represented 55.4% of the value ofall products exported from the prov-ince that year.51,52 This includes bothraw materials and fabricated products.That same year, the forest industrysupported approximately 84,000 directand 126,000 indirect jobs.51,53 Forestryis vital to many towns in B.C.

Public values have changed over theyears, and people no longer considerforests as simply a timber resource. Inaddition to performing a wide varietyof ecological functions (Box 2.10),forests are valued for their beauty,recreational opportunities, and spiritualsignificance.

Figure 2.57

Recreation use of provincial forests

British Columbians use the provincial forests for a number of recreation activities. Participationis measured by the number of adult user days. On the average each adult participates in 2.4activities per day of use.54

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Recreation is a major use of B.C.’sforests. Annual recreational use ofprovincial forests administered by theBritish Columbia Ministry of Forests isover 40 million user-days, twice thatfor provincial parks. Nature study,including scenic viewing, is the mostcommon activity in these forests(Figure 2.57).54 The Forest Servicemanages 1,300 recreation sites and5,000 kilometres of trails. About 42%of B.C. residents have used a ForestService recreation site in the past fiveyears.55 Considerable commercialrecreation activity also occurs in theprovince's back country areas. Adven-ture tourism is one of the fastestgrowing industries in B.C.

Old-growth forestsOld-growth forests in B.C. have becomea very high profile topic both within andoutside of the province. A great deal ofattention has been focused on how muchold-growth is left and how they shouldbe managed (Box 2.11).

Old-growth forests have a number ofdistinct features: large trees, widevariation in tree spacing, a full rangeof tree sizes, large dead trees (bothstanding and fallen), multiple canopy(tree-top) layers, canopy gaps and

52

Box 2.12

The value of old-growth

Sixteen different values of old-growth for-ests have been identified through B.C.’s

Old-Growth Strategy:57,58

bequest for future generationsbiodiversitycommunity recreationcommunity stabilitygathering of food and medicinegeoclimaticgrazingheritagehunting, trapping and fishingscience and educationspiritual and aestheticsymbolictimber and manufactured productstourismwaterwilderness

Striking a balanceSeveral initiatives throughout theprovince address the challenge ofbalancing conflicting timber and non-timber demands in forest management.The Ministry of Forests is currentlypreparing a Forest Practices Code. TheCode will establish the mandatory anduniform application of rules, policiesand procedures which guide forestmanagement. The Code will help theProvince meet its social and economic

Nowhere in British Columbia is the issue of the future of old-growth forests as contentiousas on the coast. The majority of forest growth greater than 250 years old is found in coastalareas. At the crux of the debate over the future management direction for coastal old-growth forests is the dilemma of mutually exclusive societal values. Many old-growthforests provide a unique opportunity for preservation or, alternatively, an importantopportunity for economic development. Making a sound choice based on insightful viewson both short and long term implications is a key societal challenge.

Highlights

• 5.1 million hectares (almost 65 percent) of the 7.9 million hectares ofthe productive coastal forest land base are over 120 years old.

• 2 million hectares of mature, coastal forest are considered operable fortimber harvesting.

• 2.9 million hectares of mature coastal forest are considered inaccessi-ble for harvesting and will remain indefinitely as coastal old-growthforests. A large proportion of this area is at higher elevations.

• about 200,000 hectares of coastal old-growth forests are protected inparks and wilderness areas. More than half of this total is protected onVancouver Island.

• low elevation, highly productive old-growth forests are under-repre-sented in existing protected areas.

• an additional 400,000 hectares of coastal old-growth forests have beenidentified for possible protection in British Columbia's Protected AreasStrategy.54

Box 2.11

Coastal old-growth forest

Figure 2.58

Coastal old-growth

This figure shows the portion of productive coastal forest land that has trees older than 120 yearsof age. Old-growth forests can be found in this age group, but not all forests in this categorypossess the required attributes to be considered old-growth. 40

can be more readily translated intomonetary terms than can spiritual oraesthetic values.

A review of existing protected areasindicates that B.C.’s low elevation,highly productive old-growth ecosys-tems are under-represented. An Old-Growth Strategy project was launchedin 1990. Its objectives were to bothconserve representative areas of old-growth forests in B.C., and to design amanagement framework to integratethe broad spectrum of old-growthforest values. A Provincial ProtectedAreas Strategy team is evaluatingnearly 200 study areas for theirpotential contribution to a provincialprotected areas network. These studyareas include 14 of the 15 old-growthareas temporarily deferred from timberharvest in 1990.

accessible for timber(2 million ha.)

inaccessible fortimber harvesting(2.9 million ha.)

protected old-growth(0.2 million ha.)

total coastal forest7.9 million ha.

forests over 120 years of age

forests < 120 years old2.8 million ha.

65%

53

needs by recognizing objectives for abroad range of resource values,including the long term ecologicalsustainability of forest ecosystems. TheCommission on Resources and

Environment (CORE) is developing aprovincial land use strategy that willrecognize environmental protectiontogether with economic developmentin land use decision making. Initiatives

Box 2.13

Marbled murrelet

Recently, a small seabird on the Blue List has been receiving a great deal of attention in B.C.Marbled murrelets spend most of their time out on the ocean, can swim underwater, andcome ashore only to breed. They normally range as far as 70 kilometres from shore. Theyare found on both the Asian and the North American sides of the north Pacific ocean. TheNorth American population breeds along the coast from Alaska to northern California. B.C.has an estimated 36,000 birds, accounting for about 20-30% of the North Americanpopulation. Not enough data have been collected to indicate trends in the size of thispopulation.

Murrelets have a low reproductive rate, producing only one egg per year, and probably donot breed until at least three years of age. Although some have been found nesting on theground in treeless portions of Alaska, current research indicates that marbled murrelets aredependent on old-growth coastal forests for nesting habitat. Very few nests have been foundin B.C., and all have been found on large mossy limbs high in the canopy of coastal old-growth forests. Its low reproductive rate and particular habitat requirements makes thespecies extremely vulnerable to a number of dangers: oil spills, drowning in fish nets, andhabitat destruction through timber harvest. The bird has therefore been added to B.C.’s BlueList, and in 1991 was listed as threatened by the Committee on the Status of EndangeredWildlife in Canada (COSEWIC).

Loss of nesting habitat through logging is considered the greatest threat to marbledmurrelets. A number of research and inventory studies have been conducted to learn moreabout its habitat requirements, behaviour, and vulnerabilities. These studies have involvedthe federal and provincial governments, universities, industry and many volunteers fromenvironmental groups. This work has provided important data against which future trendscan be compared, and its continuation is important to provide the basis for futuremanagement decisions.

are underway to prepare broadRegional Plans. More detailed Landand Resource Management Plans willallocate forests and other resources tovarious uses.

Wildlife are veryimportant to BritishColumbians. B.C.’swildlife supportmany uses andproduce many

benefits: recreational, scientific,subsistence, cultural and commercial.On an average day, over 270,000people in B.C. participate in a wildlife-related activity. Over a whole year, thisadds up to over 100 million person-days. A 1983 provincial surveyshowed that over 87% of B.C. resi-dents are interested in wildlife; 75%are involved in wildlife-associatedactivities in or near their homes; and94% feel that wildlife is an importantaspect of their trips.

The early 1980s saw a decline in thenumber of hunters in B.C., followed bya levelling-off in the mid- and late1980s. Big-game hunting has remainedrelatively stable. Big-game guiding,geared mainly to nonresident hunters,has long been an important economicactivity in rural B.C., especially in thenorth, and is growing rapidly. Guidesare expanding their services to includemore residents, and to provide viewingand photographic safaris in the non-hunting season.

The commercial use of wildlife is alsogrowing. Farming of upland gamebirds and ranching of some furbearersis well developed. Game farming ofbison, fallow deer and reindeer is nowpermitted. Trapping is a traditionalactivity in the province, especially inrural and northern communities and foraboriginal people. In 1987-88, raw fursales amounted to $5.2 million. Aknowledge of the existence of wildlifeis important to many BritishColumbians, even if only observedthrough books and magazines, filmsand television, lectures and wildlife art.

WildlifeResidents and visitors spend substan-tial sums of money on wildlife-associated activities — for transporta-tion, food, accommodation, equipment,guide fees, traplines, and preparing andshipping fur pelts. Such spendingoccurs in all parts of B.C., making avital contribution to many ruraleconomies. Direct and indirectexpenditures by recreational andcommercial wildlife users create rippleeffects that support the equivalent ofover 12,000 person-years of employ-ment for provincial residents.

The status of wildlifeB.C. has more species of wildlife thanany other province in Canada. TheMinistry of Environment, Lands andParks currently maintains WildlifeSpecies Evaluation Lists. Wildlife on

the Red List (66 species and subspe-cies of amphibians, reptiles, birds andmammals) are candidates for legaldesignation as endangered or threat-ened under the B.C. Wildlife Act.Wildlife on the Blue List (89 speciesand subspecies of amphibians, reptiles,birds and mammals) are consideredsensitive or vulnerable (Box 2.13).Wildlife on the Yellow List are notconsidered to be at risk, and aremanaged to meet particular publicuses. Wildlife appreciation, hunting,guiding and trapping are the four majordemand categories. In 1991, there were94 species on the Yellow List (Table2.5 shows the status of some of thesespecies). The populations of 34 ofthese species were considered stable,25 were increasing (or considered“stable to increasing”), and 13 weredecreasing. The remaining 22 species

54

either had fluctuating populationnumbers, some increasing and somedecreasing populations, or unknowntrends.

Similarly, the Canadian WildlifeService of the federal government hasdeveloped a status report and estimatedpopulation numbers of seabird speciesthat breed in colonies along the B.C.Pacific Coast (Table 2.6). Theirinventory was completed in 1990 andincluded all known colonies and newlydiscovered ones. Population trends formost of these seabirds are largelyunknown as there is a lack of reliablehistorical data. Most seabird speciesare nocturnal burrow-nesters and aredifficult to census. In 1980 only ahandful of seabird colonies wereprotected. Today all but a few arewithin Ecological Reserves or NationalParks.

Factors affecting thestatus of wildlifeThe single most important factoraffecting wildlife populations in B.C.is habitat loss. Forestry, agriculture,urbanization, and the construction ofreservoirs, highways and roads areamong some of the pressures changingor destroying wildlife habitat in B.C.For example, some ungulates requirespecial types of habitat called “winterrange” during periods of heavy wintersnow. Large clearcut areas maydeprive them of this shelter. However,while clearcutting destroys habitat forsome species it provides habitat forothers.

A complex set of factors affect birdpopulations. The reproductive biologyof Cassin's auklets, rhinoceros aukletsand ancient murrelets has been studiedin detail and efforts to understand therelationship between these birds andtheir physical environment have beeninitiated. Predation by rats andracoons introduced to the QueenCharlotte Islands has been recognizedas a threat to some colonies. Some ofthese seabird species have also beenstudied for organochlorine contami-nants (see Water chapter).

Table 2.5

Species on the Yellow List

This table presents the status of selected species on the Yellow List. These species werechosen to represent the range of wildlife on the Yellow List. Species on the Yellow List are notat risk, and are managed to meet specific public demands.62

Table 2.6

Status of seabird species on the British Columbia Pacific coast 60

Status Species Population Size (if known)

stable to beaver 400,000-600,000increasing cougar 3,000

moose 175,000mountain goat 55,000ospreyRocky Mtn. elk 40,000

stable Barrow's goldeneyecoastal black-tailed deer 200,000mule deer 150,000

stable to black bear 120,000decreasing

decreasing clouded salamanderlynx 20,000-80,000sharp tailed grouse

variable gray wolf 7,500ruffed grouse 3-4 million

Status Species Estimated Commentsnumber

threatened marbled murrelet 36,000 loss of nesting habitat

rare horned puffin 60 found with tufted puffin(at limit of range) thick billed murre 20 Triangle Island only

uncommon Brandt's cormorant 200 irregular breeder

variable tufted puffin 78,000 most on Triangle Islanddouble-crested cormorant 4,000 restricted to Strait of Georgia

increasing glaucous-winged gull 58,000

abundant Cassin's auklet 2,700,000(trends unknown) Leach's storm-petrel 1,400,000

rhinoceros auklet 720,000ancient murrelet 540,000 some impact from

rat predationfork tailed storm-petrel 400,000pelagic cormorant 9,000 widespread coastal breederpigeon guillemot 9,000 scattered, difficult to censuscommon murre 9,000 scarce breeder, most on

Triangle Island

55

Queen Charlotte Islands in Alaska,which may have taken over the foodresources of the depleted populations.

Harbour seals and sea lions are animportant link in the marine foodchain. They consume marine fish, andare in turn preyed upon by Orca (killerwhales) and sharks. Presently growingpopulations of seals and sea lions haveprompted some commercial fishharvesters to call for animal controlmeasures. The Department of Fisheriesand Oceans is now studying the diet ofharbour seals and their impact onsalmon stocks.

Two distinct types of Orca, differing inappearance and behaviour, occur alongthe B.C. coast. “Residents” occur ingroups of 5 to 50 animals and feedprimarily on fish. “Transients” usuallytravel in groups of 1 to 7 animals andeat seals, sea lions and other marinemammals. Residents appear to bedivided into northern and southerncommunities, with the boundary beingsomewhere around central VancouverIsland. Since population studies beganin the 1970s, the size of the northerngroup has increased by 2.9% per year,reaching 198 animals in 1991 (Figure2.61). In contrast, the size of southerngroup has increased by 1.3% per yearto 90 whales. This slower rate ofincrease is largely due to the fact thatjuvenile whales were captured from thesouthern group for exhibits in zoos andaquaria from the mid 1960s to the early

Poaching is a concern for certainspecies, such as black bear. Improperhandling of garbage contributes toanother major wildlife concern -problem bears (discussed in Coast andMountains Ecoprovince). Marine oilpollution can threaten seabirds andother marine animals, and driftnetfishing has resulted in the death ofenormous numbers of marine life(Box 2.14).

Actions are being taken to conservehabitat. Eleven Wildlife ManagementAreas have been designated for thepreservation of important wildlifepopulations. The Habitat ConservationFund, created in 1981, has supportedover 366 wildlife enhancementprojects including prescribed burningof vegetation, the placement of nestingstructures for waterfowl, small birdsand mammals, and the regulation ofwater levels in marshlands. It has alsofinanced the purchase of large areas ofland from private owners for fish andwildlife habitat. The Pacific coast iscritical to both migratory birds andresident wildlife. In recognition of this,government agencies and NGOs (non-governmental organizations) in BritishColumbia, Washington, Oregon andCalifornia have formed a partnershipknown as the Pacific Coast JointVenture under the North AmericanWaterfowl Management Plan. The goalis to secure, enhance and restore

coastal wetlands and associated uplandhabitat along the Pacific coast fromB.C. to northern California.

Marine mammalsB.C.’s coastal waters are inhabited bylarge numbers of seals, sea lions,whales and dolphins, many of whichreside year-round or are regularmigrants. Commercial whaling andsealing played a major role in B.C’searly history, but today marinemammals in their natural surroundingsare valued more for wildlife viewing.

As late as the 1960s, people huntedseals and sea lions in B.C. to reducetheir predation on salmon. The pelts ofthe animals also had commercial value.Harbour seal populations reachedhistoric lows of 10,000 animals beforereceiving protected status in 1970.Since then, harbour seals have in-creased in abundance by over 12% peryear, and now number about 100,000(Figure 2.59). Similarly, Steller sealion populations decreased from about14,000 to 4,000 animals from 1913 to1970. Numbers counted at B.C.breeding rookeries indicate that theyhave slowly increased at a rate of about2.5% per annum since they wereprotected in 1970 (Figure 2.60).Biologists suspect that the recovery ofthe B.C. populations may be slowed byan expanding rookery just north of the

Figure 2.60

Sea lions

The numbers of Steller sea lions counted atbreeding rookeries in B.C. have increasedfrom record lows in the 1970s, but are still wellbelow numbers earlier in the century. 26

Box 2.14

Driftnets: liftingthe “curtains of death”

Asian fleets have historically used thou-sands of kilometres of fine filament nets tocatch large squid in the Pacific Ocean.These nets also ensnare tonnes of NorthAmerican salmon and hundreds of thou-sands of marine mammals, seabirds, andother marine life (by-catch).

Over the past four years, the provincialand federal governments have hosted anumber of events (including the NorthPacific Driftnet Conference in Vancou-ver) to focus international attention on theissue. Canada also participated in aninternational observer program to quan-tify the by-catch problem and help devisesolutions. As a result, a global ban onhigh seas squid driftnet fishery came intoeffect at the end of 1992.

Figure 2.59

Harbour seals

Harbour seals received protected status in1970, and have since become increasinglyabundant in B.C.26,59

num

ber

of h

arbo

ur s

eals

(th

ousa

nds)

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

num

ber

of s

ea li

ons

(tho

usan

ds)

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

0

56

Figure 2.62

Sea otters

The sea otter is one of the four wildlife specieslegally classified as endangered under theB.C. Wildlife Act.26

Figure 2.61

Orca (killer whales)

The numbers of southern resident Orcas in B.C. is relatively stable. The number of northernresidents was increasing during the past two decades but now also appears stable.59,26

1970s. Efforts are being made toprotect important resident Orca habitatsuch as Robson Bight (Box 2.15).There are about 150 transient individu-als, that range from Washington Stateto southeast Alaska. Relatively little isknown about them. A population of atleast 150 killer whales has recentlybeen found to inhabit the offshorewaters of B.C., but little research hasbeen conducted.

Sea otters were extirpated by huntingalong B.C.’s coast by the early 1930s.Between 1969 and 1972, 89 Alaskan

800

nu

mb

er

of se

a o

tte

rs

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

19

84

19

85

19

86

19

87

19

88

19

89

19

90

19

91

19

92

sea otters were transplanted to theBunsby Islands on the northwest coastof Vancouver Island. By 1977, asecond colony had naturally formed atNootka Island, 70 km south. Overall,the population has steadily increasedby about 18% per year, now number-ing about 800 animals (Figure 2.62).A colony has also been discoveredsouthwest of Bella Bella, and is nowestimated at approximately 200animals. Sea otters prey heavily on seaurchins, which in turn graze on marineplants such as kelp. When otters

disappeared, a major predator of seaurchins was eliminated. Urchinnumbers exploded, decimating manyof the kelp “forests” and their associ-ated algae communities along the outerB.C. coast. It is anticipated that as seaotter populations grow, sea urchinpopulations will again be checked andthe kelp habitat will recover. On theother hand, some research scientistsare concerned that the expanding seaotter population may threaten theshellfish fishery.

Box 2.15

Robson Bight - beaches for whales

Protection of Orca habitat has lead to some controversies between land use pressures atRobson Bight on the northeast portion of Vancouver Island. A large section of this Bight wasrenamed the Robson Bight (Michael Bigg) Ecological Reserve. Killer whales gather thereannually to “rub” themselves on several unique beaches (called the rubbing beaches) whichare comprised of small smooth stones very uniform in size. The Bight is located at the mouthof the Tsitika River valley. Those concerned about the whales fear that sediments fromupstream logging activities may enter into the Bight and damage the Orca’s habitat, and thatthe logging activities themselves could adversely affect whale behaviour. Increasingnumbers of whale-watching boats compound the potential threat.

In 1991, a Killer Whale Committee was appointed by the Federal Minister of Fisheries andOceans and the Provincial Minister of B.C. Parks to examine the impacts of human activityon the Orca in Johnstone Strait. A number of recommendations were made to the respectivegovernments, one of which was a five-year moratorium on logging activities in the lowerportion of the Tsitika Valley. Timber harvesting activity has since been suspended. Anintensive study initiated by the British Columbia Ministry of Forests in 1991 will help toestablish the degree of stream siltation within the watershed and the extent to which thecause is natural or the result of human activity.

0

40

80

120

160

200

1974

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

Northern residents

Southern residents

num

ber

of O

racs

57

ConclusionsB.C. has an impressive range of bio-logical diversity, significant on bothnational and global scales. Loss orchange of habitat, introduced speciesand increasing development activi-ties are several factors threateningsignificant portions of this diversity.To ensure the conservation of biodi-versity, land- and water-use decisionsmust be based on a sound understand-ing of ecosystems and the processesthat maintain them. Although a greatdeal of research and cataloguing hasbeen accomplished, the biodiversitypicture is not yet complete. There isstill much more to learn about B.C.’sbiological diversity, and how best toconserve it.

Most information on the state of fishin B.C. focuses on species targeted bythe commercial, recreational and abo-riginal fisheries. Three quarters ofB.C.’s salmon stocks are judged to bestable or increasing. One quarter aredecreasing, including coho andchinook in the Strait of Georgia. Thestocks of other marine fish species for

which we have data are fluctuating,primarily due to fishing pressure.There has been no noticeable changein the populations of most species offreshwater fish in B.C. However,freshwater fish in the southern half ofB.C. are experiencing high fishingpressure. Fish harvest is only one ofa number of factors that has led tosignificant reductions in steelheadalong the coast. Over the past twodecades salmon abundance has beensustained largely by enhancement ef-forts. The annual stocking of fresh-water with 11,000,000 fish has helpedreduce angling pressure on wild na-tive Freshwater stocks.

Approximately two-thirds of B.C. isforested, and about half of these for-ests are mature. Large stands of old-growth trees can still be found in themore inaccessible areas of the prov-ince, and some of these are coastaltemperate rainforests of global sig-nificance. Much of the current inven-tory information about forests focuseson forestry-related data. This will

likely change as forest managementadapts to the recent shift in forestvalues from timber to a broader spec-trum of ecological, social and culturalvalues.

Although there are estimates of popu-lation size and/or stability for over200 wildlife species, there is littletrend data illustrating how thesepopulations have changed over time.Marine mammals are the exception,and the species for which we havedata appear to be doing well. Of the636 vertebrate species — excludingfish — in B.C., four are legally desig-nated as endangered, 66 have lowabundance and are being consideredfor legal endangered or threatenedstatus, and 89 are considered to be atrisk. The single most important factoraffecting wildlife in B.C. is habitatloss (or change). Wildlife will benefitfrom increased habitat conservationas greater management considerationis given to biodiversity and other non-timber values of our forests.

58

Who governs the land?At the time of Confederation thegovernment viewed the lands andwaters of B.C. as a wild and untamedworld that was ripe for resourcedevelopment. In the late 1800s andearly 1900s the federal and provincialgovernments systematically tookpossession of all the lands and watersof British Columbia and assigned theaboriginal people to some 1,650widely scattered reserves. The moraland legal issues generated at that timepersist today, as the aboriginal peoplecontend that they never willinglyrelinquished their rights (Box 2.16).2

Crown land covers 93% of the prov-ince (Figure 2.63). The provincialgovernment issues tenures or licensesthat enable private access to resourcesfrom public lands. Around the turn ofthe century about 6 million ha ofCrown land were transferred to privateownership. Since then the rate oftransfer has been much slower - a totalof about 2 million ha in the last 70

LandBritish Columbia is a province with adramatic interplay between mountains,ocean and weather. B.C. has two majormountain belts, both running fromnorth to south. The western mountainscreate a coastal zone of numerousislands and fjords with about 27,000km of shoreline (if it were straight itwould be only 7,000 km long). Thesemountains are a barrier to weathersystems coming in from the Pacific.On the ocean side the climate is mildand moist; on the inland side it is muchdrier with greater temperature ex-tremes. Some of the inland area issemi-desert. The eastern mountainsplay a similar role by blocking the flowof cold Arctic air to the central core ofthe province. The two mountain beltsare separated by a diverse and complexarea of basins, plateaus, highlands, andhills. North of the mountains, in thenortheast part of the province, B.C.extends into the great plains.1

The geology of B.C. is the most variedof all the provinces in Canada. Theland is composed of lavas, granites,shales, sandstones, and metamorphicrocks. These have been folded, faulted,gouged by glaciers, and eroded bywind, water, and gravity. Within thesecomplex geological structures aresignificant deposits of coal, copper,gold, silver, molybdenum, lead, zinc,natural gas, and oil.2 On the surfacethere is a thin layer of soil. Soil is amixture of mineral and organic matter.In addition to being essential for thegrowth of plants, the soil also holdslarge volumes of groundwater andlarge amounts of carbon, most ofwhich came from atmospheric carbondioxide. Thus the soil plays a key rolein both the hydrologic cycle and globalclimate.2

Figure 2.63

Land ownership

Most of the land in British Columbia is ownedby the Crown. The most common humanuses of crown land are forestry, grazing, rec-reation, and mining.8

years.8 Long term tenures areintended to promote investment inresource development, generateemployment, provide governmentrevenues, and encourage sustainablemanagement practices. In B.C. today,most of the forestry, mining andrecreation activities occur on Crownland. Most farm production andurban development occur on privatelands.

Box 2.16

Aboriginal interests in land and natural resources

"As history shows, the relationship between First Nations and the Crown has been atroubled one. A new relationship which recognizes the unique place of aboriginal peopleand First Nations in Canada must be developed and nurtured."

"Land, sea and natural resources have always been at the centre of contention betweenFirst Nations and the federal and provincial governments. To First Nations, their traditionalterritories are their homelands. Hereditary title is the source of all of their rights within theirtraditional territories. The land, sea and natural resources have supported their families,communities and governments for centuries, and form the basis of the aboriginal spiritual,philosophical, and cultural views of the world."

"Treaty negotiations in British Columbia provide an opportunity to recognize First Nationgovernments on their traditional territories. These treaties will be unique constitutionalinstruments. First Nations peoples view land, sea and resources as fundamentalcomponents of modern treaties. They will identify, define and implement a range of rightsand obligations, including existing and future interests in land, sea and resources."

(Excerpts from: The Report of the British Columbia Claims Task Force, June, 1991.)42

private 6% federal 1%

provincial93%

total land area = 94,780,000 hectares

59

Much of the federal Crown land inB.C. is held as reserves for the use andbenefit of British Columbia’s FirstNations. There are 1,676 reserves inBritish Columbia, 350 of themoccupied, with a total land area of344,000 hectares. This land base isdivided amongst 196 Bands with anon-reserve population of 46,000 and atotal population of 91,000.

First Nations also use substantial areasof Crown lands and waters for tradi-tional activities, including shellfishharvesting, fishing, hunting, gathering,trapping, and the harvesting ofmedicinal plants. They are increas-ingly involved in resource and environ-mental management activities throughco-management and joint stewardshipagreements, and through the TreatyNegotiation process. Important co-operative examples are the agreement

for a protected area in Gwaii Haanas(South Moresby) on the Queen CharlotteIslands, and the Fishery Commissionsestablished under the Department ofFisheries and Oceans AboriginalFisheries Strategy. Treaty negotiationsin British Columbia constitute anopportunity to formulate a new relation-ship with First Nations on their tradi-tional territories. The British ColumbiaTreaty Commission, a tripartite organi-zation appointed by First Nations,Canada and the Province, is intended tooversee the treaty negotiations processwithin British Columbia.

As the population and economy ofB.C. have grown, demands on land forhuman use have increased. We havecome to recognize that the land base isindeed limited, and we have becomeaware of the need for both sustainableuse and conservation.

During the last decade the need forimproved land allocation, manage-ment, and resolution of land useconflicts has sparked several initiativesincluding the Commission on Re-sources and Environment (CORE), theRound Table on the Environment andthe Economy, the Old-Growth Strat-egy, the Forest Resources Commis-sion, the Protected Areas Strategy, andthe Parks and Wilderness Plan for the90s. The new provincial land usestrategy will incorporate three levels ofplanning: provincial, regional andcommunity. The provincial level willset principles, goals and policies.Negotiation processes will take placeat a regional level to determine broadland use allocations. Specific resourceand environmental issues will bemanaged at the community level.5

Figure 2.64

Some lands can support many uses

Most of the land in B.C. is capable of supporting forests. Some of the forested land is also suitablefor grazing, but grazing can take place on some non-forested lands as well. The suitability ofthe land for wildlife depends on the species. Many kinds of land are suitable for recreation, roadsand other human developments. Land suitable for crops is limited. (This figure does not indicateactual proportions of land suitable for various uses.)

Box 2.17

Capability and suitability

Capability the maximum potentialof an ecosystem toprovide a desirablevalue (e.g.. agriculture,forest, recreation)

Suitability the ability of an ecosys-tem to accommodate aspecific use

Land suitabilityLand use is compli-cated by divergentvalues. Some peoplevalue land as acommodity, some-thing with economic

value that can be used productively,bought and sold. Others value land aspart of a life sustaining ecosystem. Thedynamics of public opinion andeconomics in British Columbiainfluence the distribution of landamong competing uses.

A given area of land may be used for avariety of purposes such as agriculture,timber, wildlife, recreation, or conser-vation (Figure 2.64). However, not allecosystems have equal capability tosatisfy a particular human value, andmost are better suited for some usesthan others (Box 2.17). Althoughmultiple uses are often possible, westill have to make some difficultchoices.

Decisions about land allocation arecritical for both the environment andsociety. These decisions requireknowledge of how much land issuitable for each use. The province is

developing several compatiblecomputer information bases(Box 2.18). These will give usersaccess to all land information sourcesin the provincial government. The datawill allow users to consider the manyvariables involved and make decisionsthat take into account trade-offsbetween land capability, environmentalimpacts, and divergent values. About40% of the province has been mappedthrough the Terrain Resource Informa-tion Management program.

forestry arable landprotected areas rangeland development

recreation

60

In addition to providing forage forcattle, many rangeland areas alsosupport significant wildlifepopulations such as big horn sheepand elk. The potential for the prov-ince’s rangeland to support anincreased level of grazing is notknown. However in some areas,particularly the semi-arid interior, theability of the ecosystem to supportgrazing has been approached if notexceeded.

Land for agricultureVery little of the land in BritishColumbia (less than 1%) has thecombination of soil and climate tosupport a wide variety of crops. Theregions with the largest area of land

being used for crops are found in theBoreal Plains and the Central Interior.The Lower Mainland has the bestclimate and soils, and generates morethan half the dollar value of farmsales. Even in the Lower Mainlandonly 4% of the land is good farmland.10

Because of British Columbia’smountainous terrain, farm land isusually limited to the valleys, wherefarming must compete for space withother uses. In order to protect thelimited agricultural land, the Agricul-tural Land Commission Act hascreated an Agricultural Land Reserve(ALR). Lands under this classificationare not to be used for other purposes -though some golf course use has been

Box 2.18

Keeping track of land

Land Data B.C.

automated system that makesland data accessible and availableto all users

Baseline Thematic Mapping(BTM)

digital tool that provides data onland use, ground cover andtopography

Terrain Resource InformationManagement (TRIM)

computer based mapping systemthat is a basic component forgeographic information systems(GIS) 12

Land for forestsBritish Columbia has approximately51.8 million hectares of productiveforest land (Figure 2.65). Of this, 43.3million ha is provincial Crown landmanaged by the Ministry of Forests fortimber production, recreation, andwildlife. Of this land, about half isconsidered suitable for growingcommercially harvestable timber. Therest is either inaccessible, non-commercial forest types, environmen-tally sensitive, or Not SatisfactorilyRestocked (NSR).9 Productive forestland does not include all land withtrees; some range land also has forestcover, and many protected areas areforested. About two thirds of B.C. iscapable of growing some kind offorest.

Land for rangeRangeland is land that has usableforage for grazing and includesgrasslands, open forests, forestedrange, wet meadows, and pasture land.There are approximately 10 millionhectares of rangeland in BritishColumbia. Most of this area can onlysupport a low density of grazinganimals (Figure 2.66). The vastmajority of rangeland is Crown rangeadministered by the Ministry ofForests.8

Figure 2.65

Forest land

Forested land includes productive forests, parks and rangeland. Productive forests cover overhalf of B.C., but less than half of the sites have a good or medium capability for the growth oftrees.8,9

Figure 2.66

Rangeland

The better the rangeland, the less area is required for each head of cattle for one month (AUM).In good areas cattle need two ha each per month, and in medium areas 5. Most of the rangelandin B.C. is of low productivity, so that more than 10 ha are required per AUM.8

good 8%

medium 36%

poor 48%

low 8%

54.5%

productive forest land(51.8 million ha)

low 77%

medium 19%

9%

good 4%

rangeland10.1 million ha

61

Access and utilitiesAccess corridors and utilities are builtfor several purposes: roads for publictransport, forestry, and mining;reservoirs for hydroelectric energy;and transmission lines and pipelinesfor conveying energy from where it’sproduced to where it’s needed. Theseare all important to people, as theyprovide settlement, employment anddevelopment opportunities. They alsohave social and environmental costs.Both costs and benefits are large relativeto the extremely small area of land (lessthan half a percent)8 that is actuallyused. We do not have good quantita-tive data on how access and utilitiesaffect the state of the environment.

Figure 2.68

Land disturbed by mines andrestored

The area disturbed by coal and metal mineshas been increasing, but the proportion re-stored has remained fairly constant over thelast decade. Mines generally are not restoreduntil they become inactive.11

Roads are vital commercial links andprovide access and employment forlocal communities. They are necessaryfor economic development based ontimber harvesting and mining, and thedevelopment and maintenance ofremote energy sources. Roads alsoprovide access to remote lands forrecreation. This access and develop-ment leads to a variety of impacts.Direct impacts of construction, such asdamage to streams, are largely control-led through a variety of guidelines. It ismore difficult to control indirectimpacts, such as interruption of habitatcontinuity and the disturbance orhunting of wildlife. Good road accessto an area often leads to furtherdevelopment. This means that both thepositive and negative impacts of roadstend to increase over time.

Reservoirs, transmission lines, andpipelines provide for the flow ofenergy to society. Reservoirs can alsohave benefits in terms of flood control.The costs of this energy supply includethe loss of land, and impacts on fish,wildlife, traditional ways of life, andthe visual quality of the landscape.Valuable valley bottom wildlife habitatand agricultural or forest land is lostwhen flooded by reservoirs. (Examplesof the impact of reservoirs are dis-cussed for the Sub-Boreal Interior andthe Southern Interior Mountains in theEcoprovinces section). Modified watercourses and changed flow patternsaffect fish spawning, rearing andmigration. Transmission lines and theircleared rights-of-way can affect theaesthetics of wilderness and residentialareas.

Linear developments, especially roads,are easier to build in valley bottomsand flat lands. Potential land useconflicts are greatest in these areasbecause they are valuable for wildlife,urban development, agriculture andother activities.

RecreationMany different sorts of land can beused for recreation. Some peoplevalue wilderness areas; others preferthe amenities available in high useareas. In any case the suitability of the

Figure 2.67

Agricultural Land Reserves

Only a small proportion of the land in British Columbia is suitable for agriculture, and only a smallproportion of this is capable of producing high crop yields.8

permitted within the ALR. Almost allof B.C.’s high quality farm land hasbeen placed in the ALR. Of the 4.7million ha (5% of B.C.) in the ALR,about a quarter is considered primeagricultural land (Figure 2.67).

Mineral and petroleumresourcesAbout 5% of the province’s subsurfaceland has a high potential for mineraland coal production, while another20% has moderate potential. Inaddition, extensive areas of theprovince’s northeast and offshore areashave a potential for petroleum produc-tion. Some of this potential has alreadybeen realized, but many knowndeposits remain undeveloped.8

Only a small area of land is actuallyused for the extraction of minerals andpetroleum resources. Of the 74,000hectares of land that have been setaside for mining activity, 31,000hectares have been disturbed. Regula-tions call for site restoration, but mostof the restoration cannot logically takeplace while the mine is still active. Justover a quarter (27%) of the disturbedarea has been restored (Figure 2.68).11

cum

mul

ativ

e he

ctar

es

(tho

usan

ds)

0

10

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30

1969

1973

1977

1981

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disturbedrestored

other(1.8 million ha)

highly productive(1.1 million ha)

suitable for some crops(1.8 million ha)

Agricultural Land Reserves (ALR)(4.7 million ha)

5%

62

land for recreational use is directlylinked to the state of the naturalresources. Recreation and tourism arehighly dependent on the quality of theenvironment, including the land, air,water, plants and animals. Tourism isaffected by diminishing wilderness andold growth forests, marine and freshwater pollution, degradation of fishand wildlife habitat or populations, anddegradation of visual resources. At thesame time, tourism can be a majorcontributor of stress to the environ-ment.

There is the need for better informationon the relationship between tourismand environment. In view of this, theWorld Tourism Organization hasundertaken an initiative to develop aset of internationally accepted indica-tors to improve understanding abouttourism’s links with, and impacts onthe environment.12

Human settlementsAbout 80% of B.C.’s population livesin urban areas. The Georgia Depres-sion has many large urban areas whichhouse 88% of the population in thisecoprovince. Even in the remote areasover half the people are urban based(Figure 2.69).

The major urban centres in BritishColumbia are growing in area (Figure2.70). Between 1981 and 1986,Kamloops had the highest rate ofgrowth in area (8.5%). However, itstotal area only increased by 5 km2,compared to 34 km2 and 17 km2 forthe Vancouver and Victoria areas,respectively.14 In a large urban centreeven a small percent growth can leadto a large increase in total area.Nevertheless, smaller urban centres areabsorbing rural land at a faster ratethan large ones, through the sprawl ofshopping areas, transport networks,and low density housing.

Because human settlements tend tocentre on the most productive land, thepermanent removal of land fromagricultural use is a concern. Theamount of prime agricultural landconverted by the major urban areas inB.C. has declined since the implemen-

Figure 2.69

People in urban areas

In most ecoprovinces over half the populationlives in urban areas. The two extremes are theGeorgia Depression with almost 90% urban,and the Northern Boreal Plains with no urbanareas.14

also limit the biodiversity of riversystems. Reduction of wetlands canfurther impact surface andgroundwater quality.

On a local scale urban sprawl can be amajor concern. For example, in theLower Mainland more than 600hectares of rural lands are converted tourban uses every year.17 Urban sprawlis an inefficient use of land and divertscapital for roads, parks, schools, andother services from city centres to theirmargins. Increased areas of pavementcan affect the hydrology of ground andsurface waters. Water quality, plantspecies, fish and wildlife are allthreatened by pollution from runoff.Urban sprawl also generates longcommutes that consume large amountsof fossil fuel and impact air quality.

The impact of settlements goes farbeyond the land area actually coveredby housing and other amenities. Thepeople in settled areas require re-sources that are garnered from thesurrounding lands, whether these areland-based products such as food,timber, minerals and energy, orwhether they are land as a place forrecreation and renewal.

We have a growing population thatneeds to live somewhere. The chal-lenge is to either contain populationgrowth or improve our planning so thatthe impacts of urban growth areminimized.

Figure 2.71

Urbanization of farm land

Between 1981 and 1986 a total of 6,778 hec-tares of rural land was converted to urban usein B.C. Of this, 1,244 hectares (18%) wasprime agricultural land.15

18%prime agricultural land

other rural land82%

tation of the Agricultural Land Reservein 1974. Between 1981 and 19861,244 hectares of prime agriculturalland were converted to urban use(Figure 2.71). Just under half of thisland was in the Lower Fraser Valley(see Georgia Depression Ecoprovince).15

Human settlements also encroach ontoflood plains as the flat land is easy tobuild on. Not only are these develop-ments prone to flood damage, but they

56%63%

88%

38%

61%

67%

77%

0% 79%

area

(km

2 )

0

5

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Kel

owna

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aim

o

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ce G

eorg

e

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lliw

ack

Kam

loop

s

Vic

toria

(CR

D)

Van

couv

er(G

VR

D)

Figure 2.70

Growth of urban areas

Although Kamloops had the highest rate ofgrowth in land area between 1981 and 1986;Vancouver and Victoria (GVRD and CRD)showed the greatest increases in area.14

63

How we change the land

Figure 2.72

Factors affecting land productivity

Factors that affect productivity include pest and fire frequencies, water availability and quality,erosion, toxic contaminants, fertilizers, and invasive species. Climate change can influencemany of these factors.

Prior to the arrival ofEuropeans, nativeuse of the land hadlittle impact on theecosystems of B.C.European settlers

brought in new attitudes and technolo-gies that had more impact on the land.Higher per capita impacts weremultiplied by the much higher rate ofpopulation growth that came with thenew technologies. The industrial agehas brought new sets of demands andnew impacts. We have become awarethat many of these impacts reduce theability of the land to support humandevelopment and natural ecosystems.Sustainable use of renewable resourcesdepends on protecting the productivecapacity of the land.

Productivity andproductive capacityHuman activities affect the yield ofproducts from the land such as crops,wildlife, and timber— products that wevalue. They are like the golden eggs inthe fable about the goose who laidgolden eggs. The rate of laying golden

eggs is the productivity of the land. Agoose that is very well cared for willproduce eggs at close to its maximumpotential rate.

Humans can also change what the landis capable of producing under idealconditions. This is the productivecapacity. Although the differencebetween productivity and productivecapacity is very important in the longterm, it is often difficult to discriminatebetween the two.

In general, we assume that the landproduces as much as it is capable of,but this varies with many other factorsincluding weather, losses to insects anddisease, and competition by other

“The ‘ecological footprint’ ofurban living extends to othercountries, and is a continuing drawon global resources”

Bill Rees, 199218

Box 2.19

Soil and recovery

The ability of nature to recover from dam-age depends on the time scale of theprocesses that have been affected. Veg-etation can regrow in a few years if theland has not been degraded. Even oldgrowth forests can regrow in a few hun-dred years. However, if the soil is lost,recovery is much slower. Lost soil takes avery long time to replace, several hundredyears per centimetre. It would take thou-sands of years to generate enough soil forproductive growth.

species (Figure 2.72).

Productive capacity can be reduced inmany ways: erosion, compaction,reduction of the organic matter and litterlayers, salinization, and changes to thewater table. Other changes, such asimproved drainage and enhancementof soils can increase the productivecapability. The ability of the land torecover from damage is closely relatedto its productive capacity (Box 2.19).

Loss in productive capacity is some-times called land degradation. Landdegradation is often slow, and there-fore difficult to notice. Reduction inproductivity due to land degradation isalso difficult to recognize becausethese changes are small compared tothe changes caused by other influ-ences, such as climatic variation.Reductions in productivity may also betemporarily masked by increasedinputs such as pesticides or fertilizers.19

The amount of money spent onfertilizer in B.C. has been increasingsince 1971, but it is not clear howmuch of the increase is due to inflationand price increases.13 Household use offertilizers and pesticides is on the highside of average compared to the otherprovinces in Canada (Figure 2.73).

In order to measure soil degradationprocesses, 22 Agricultural BenchmarkSites are being established acrossCanada, including one in the FraserValley. These sites, representingvarious agro-ecosystems, will serve asenvironmental indicators for majoragricultural practices through longterm monitoring. Soil loss rates underdifferent crops are also being measuredin both the Peace River region (since1980) and the lower Fraser Valley(since 1989). Data from these longterm studies are not yet available.

erosion

productivecapacity

fertilizers

invasivespecies

toxiccontaminants

pests

fire

climate change water

availability

64

Erosion and degradation impacts arebeing addressed through a variety ofprograms. The B.C. Ministry ofForests has issued guidelines that dealwith erosion control related to roadconstruction and logging.21 A NationalSoil Conservation Program has beenestablished to help farmers adopt cropand animal production systems that areboth environmentally sound andeconomically viable. In BritishColumbia the program began in 1990and continues until 1994. Fifteenproducer conservation groups havebeen formed to carry out education anddemonstration projects to help farmersimplement soil conservation practices.As a further commitment to soilconservation, the Green Plan forAgriculture is currently being devel-oped for British Columbia (seediscussion of conservation farming inthe Northern ecoprovinces section).

Waste and contaminantsMost (64%) residential, commercialand industrial solid wastes in B.C. aredisposed in landfills. There are 236landfills, of which 60% are expected toreach capacity by the year 2000 ifgeneration rates are not slowed. Only2% of the land area in B.C. is suitablefor landfill siting. Most suitable sitesare located in valley bottoms and are instrong competition with other users.16

While the majority of landfill materialsare relatively innocuous, some havethe potential to endanger the environ-ment and human health. Leachates cancause serious local water pollution.Landfill sites can also create wildlifeproblems. They attract such species asgrizzly bear and black bear. This leadsto problem encounters with people.Landfills also support large scavengerpopulations, such as ravens, whichreduce other bird populations throughpredation.

Contaminants can be introduced to theenvironment through discharges,landfills, storage, and transport ofhazardous materials. They can findtheir way into the soil, groundwater,and adjacent water bodies, sometimesaffecting critical habitat or prospectiveprotected areas. The geology and soils

Figure 2.73

Household use of fertilizers and pesticides

Households with lawns, yards, or gardens may use more chemicals on a given area thancommercial growers. Although the amounts are not known, about half the households in B.C.(with outdoor space) use fertilizers and about a quarter use pesticides.13

Box 2.20

Radon,a natural contaminant

Radon is a naturally occurring product ofthe radioactive decay of uranium. It isfound as a colourless, odourless gas insoil, rocks and groundwater. The amountof radon in homes is determined by theuranium content of the surrounding ground,how tightly packed the ground is, and theconstruction of the house. Radon seepsthrough dirt floors, through cracks in con-crete walls or floors, and around drains andjoints. If an area is not well ventilated radonconcentrations can build up to a level thatis a health hazard. Current studies areinvestigating the link between radon expo-sures in homes and cancer. Radon hasbeen found in some areas of the SouthernInterior Ecoprovince, but is a very localizedconcern.

of a region determine the capacity ofthe land to absorb contaminants ofvarious types. In some areas the soilchemistry can buffer the impacts ofcontaminants, whereas in other areasporous ground can lead to rapidpollution of soils and groundwater.22

Many contaminants, such as inorganicmetals, occur naturally and can havenegative effects on people (Box 2.20).Distinguishing these from thosepollutants released by humans is anintricate and painstaking business.

Contamination of soils and water have

been with us since the early days ofindustrial activity in the province.Historic contamination through dumps,leaks, spills, and discharges hasresulted in a backlog of sites requiringcleanup. Site contamination hasbecome a major environmental issue,particularly where former industrial orcommercial lands are being re-developed. Liability for cleanup costsand for possible future claims relatingto development is recognized as aprime concern. Purchasers and lendinginstitutions are increasingly aware ofproblems associated with contaminatedsites. This may trigger a site investiga-tion and discovery of a contaminatedsite (Figure 2.74).24

National criteria have been developedfor the assessment and remediation ofcontaminated sites.25,26 New legislationis being drafted to deal effectively withcontaminated sites, and a provincialregistry of contaminated sites isplanned.

In British Columbia about 3,100companies and municipalities holdprovincial permits which allow them todischarge wastes into the environment.Of these, a small but significantnumber (about 3%) fail to comply withall the conditions of their permits.Provincial legislation provides forquick action in situations that pose an

% o

f hou

seho

lds

PEI NS NB Man Que BC Ont Sask AltaNfld0

20

30

40

50

60

10

fertilizerspesticides

65

ment strategy for B.C. The provincialstrategy (Box 2.21) for the manage-ment of solid waste adopts the “3R”hierarchy to Reduce, Reuse andRecycle before materials even enterthe waste stream. After these opportu-nities have been optimized there aretwo further measures; to Recoverenergy and materials from the col-lected wastes and to dispose of theResidue in an environmentally soundmanner.

The overall target of the provincialwaste management strategy is a 50%

reduction in the waste generated percapita by the year 2000. Achieving thisgoal will require a remoulding of oursocietal values. Some social changehas already been achieved, as shownby participation in various recyclingprograms (Figure 2.75). Tire collectionand battery recycling both surpassedthe target capture rates (of 90% and99.8% respectively) within the firstyear of the program. Further progresswill be monitored through a provincewide computerized Municipal SolidWaste Tracking System.30

Figure 2.75

Use of curbside recycling

Curbside recycling is now available to more than half of the urban households in Canada. Whereit is available, most people use it. BC ranks among the top provinces in both availability and useof recycling. This figure shows recycling of metal cans — the numbers are similar for glass andpaper, and a little less for plastic.13

Figure 2.74

Awareness of sitecontamination

In Victoria, the number of files on sites sus-pected of contamination or undergoing cleanuphas been growing. This increase in file num-bers is primarily due to increased awarenessas well as increased land exchanges andredevelopment. The actual number of con-taminated sites in the province is not known.23

num

ber

of fi

les

0

100

200

300

400

500

1991 19921990

immediate threat. Where there is noacute threat, negotiation is tried first,then prosecution. Since the publicationof Non-Compliance Pollution Concernlists in December, 1991, 95 cases(about 50%) have been satisfactorilydealt with and removed from the list.27

Special or hazardous wastes are thosewhich need special handling ordisposal practices to eliminate orreduce the hazards they pose to peopleor the environment. They may bepoisonous, chemically reactive,corrosive or flammable; or they mayincrease the incidence of cancer, birthdefects or undesirable changes in thecells of living organisms. On escape tothe environment they may accumulatethroughout the food chain. The dangerof improper handling is of particularconcern when wastes are beingtransported. In 1991 a total of 200,000tonnes were moved into, from, oraround B.C. 28

Although most industrial specialwastes are appropriately managed,many small firms and householdsimproperly dispose of pesticides,herbicides, paints, varnishes, cleansers,oil, batteries, and disinfectants. Thesehazardous wastes end up in the sameplaces as regular wastes.29

A number of initiatives have beenundertaken to develop a waste manage-

Box 2.21

Provincial targets for waste disposal 30

Municipal Solid • reduce by 50% per capita by the year 2000

Waste (garbage) • special targets for tires, oil, batteries, beveragecontainers, packaging, litter, etc.

Hazardous Wastes • reduce by 50% by 2000

• legislation, regulations, and an effective managementsystem for hazardous household wastes by 1993

• a comprehensive hazardous waste managementsystem by 2000

Contaminated Sites • an inventory, site assessment criteria, remediationcriteria, and legislation

Biomedical Wastes • a comprehensive system and regulations by 1995

Pesticides • reduce by 25% by 2000

• research, information, training, monitoring

service used

PEI NB Nfld Que NS Man Alta BC Sask Ont

service available

% o

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10

20

30

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80

66

several agencies, although Health andWelfare Canada has the main responsi-bility for ensuring food safety. Theseagencies routinely collect samples offood suspected of pesticide residueeach year, and test them for up to 130pesticides. Sampling during 1989 and1990 showed that no meat or dairyproducts exceeded acceptable limits,though approximately 2-4% of thesuspected samples of produce con-tained unacceptable pesticide residues(Figure 2.78).

Not all pesticides are of equal concern.Some degrade rapidly, or remainwhere they are put. Others persist and/or move around to where they are notwanted, and many persistent pesticidesaccumulate in living organisms.Because of our dependence onpesticides, and the variability in theirimpacts, regulation has to be specificand complex.

The Province has been developing newdirections for pest management. Thestrategic objectives include promotionof integrated pest management,regulation of sale and use of pesticides,monitoring of effects on humans andthe environment, and public informa-tion concerning risks, opportunities,and alternatives associated withpesticide use.

Integrated pest management (IPM) isan ecological approach to suppressingpest populations. All available controltechniques (including pesticides) areconsolidated in a unified program toavoid economic damage and adverseeffects on human health and theenvironment. The government hassupported the development of IPMstrategies in agriculture for more than20 years.

Integrated control of orchard mites wasinitiated in the Okanagan Valley in themid-1960s. Careful monitoring ofharmful plant-feeding mites andbeneficial predatory mites resulted inmore effective control with fewerpesticide applications. At the presenttime, IPM programs are available for atleast 15 different tree fruit, berry andvegetable crops in B.C. (Box 2.23).Almost half of the cranberries, carrotsand onions and more than a third of the

PesticidesPesticides are used in many areas oflife where there is a need to controlundesirable organisms. In BritishColumbia about 120 different pesti-cides are used for agriculture, forestry,domestic and industrial purposes(Figure 2.76). Wood preservativesmake up the largest amount of pesti-cide sales by weight (75%) followedby herbicides, fungicides, and insecti-cides.31 The area of agricultural landtreated with pesticides increasedbetween 1971 and 1986 (Figure 2.77).About $22 million worth of pesticidesare applied in British Columbia eachyear.29

The use of pesticides has been anenvironmental topic for severaldecades, and concerns remain aboutboth human health and environmentalimpacts (Box 2.22). Effects on habitats

kg a

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(in

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1987 1988 1989 1990 19910

50

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200

miscellaneous

rail and road

mosquitos

utilities

forestry

Figure 2.76

Pesticide use under permit

The use of pesticides on Crown land has stabilized or decreased in the last few years.31

and biodiversity are growing concerns.The public is also concerned aboutinvoluntary exposure to pesticides andthe potential consequences to humanhealth. The major source of involun-tary exposure is through residues onfood or in water, though pesticideapplication may also lead to directcontact. In the Fraser Valley variousfederal and provincial agencies havemonitored drinking water for pesti-cides. None of the pesticide concentra-tions exceeded Canadian DrinkingWater Quality Guidelines though someexceeded Canadian guidelines for theprotection of aquatic life (see GeorgiaDepression, Ecoprovinces section).32

Pesticide residues in both imported anddomestically grown foods are tested by

Box 2.22

Gypsy moth spray program

During the spring of 1992 some areas ofthe Lower Mainland were sprayed with abiological pesticide to combat the risk of anAsian gypsy moth infestation. The OrderIn Council for the spray program was is-sued on the condition that a study of thehealth effects of the spray be undertakenby an impartial agency. The UniversityHospital at U.B.C. submitted a compre-hensive report that indicated no significanthealth effects.7

Figure 2.77

Agricultural pesticides in use 14

1976 19861971 1981

area

(th

ousa

nds

of h

ecta

res)

100

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600

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0

total area croplandtotal area sprayed for weedstotal area sprayed for insects

da

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ilab

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67

Figure 2.78

Pesticide residues in fruits and vegetables

Fruits and vegetables suspected of exposure to pesticides are tested to determine the level ofpesticide residue. Of these a small percent exceeded legally acceptable limits in 1989 and 1990.The limits are designed to ensure that people can eat foods for a lifetime without sufferingadverse effects.33

Box 2.23

No coddling for the codlingmoth

That worm in the middle of an apple isprobably a codling moth larva. The codlingmoth is a major pest of apples and pears,and its control requires multiple applica-tions of pesticide annually. The sterileinsect release (SIR) program is raisingmassive numbers of sterile male codlingmoths. When these sterile males matewith wild females, no offspring are pro-duced, and the pest population graduallydies out.34

visi

tors

in m

illio

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1950

1955

1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

0

5

10

15

20

25

potatoes in B.C. are grown under IPMprograms. The most successfuladoption of IPM has been the B.C.greenhouse vegetable industry, wherethe use of biological control agentshas reduced the use of insecticides byas much as 90%.36

Several government agencies havealso promoted the biological controlof weeds in B.C. To date, fourdifferent biological control agentshave been established on knapweed ininterior grasslands. In total, 42 speciesof biological control agents have beenintroduced to control 15 species ofweeds in this province.36

Use of herbicides to control vegetationunder transmission lines is beingreplaced or supplemented by othermethods. For example, grasses andlegumes are planted as forage for cattleand wildlife, which help keep thevegetation low through their grazingactivity. In some areas sheep areintroduced to maintain low growth,and physical controls such as pruning,cutting, and clearing are used. Wherechemicals are used, they are oftenapplied selectively - capsules areinjected into stems, or a wipe-onherbicide is applied to freshly cutstems to prevent re-sprouting. In thepast year B.C. Hydro used only 20% of

the herbicides that they would haveused 10 years ago.39

The province has developed morestringent regulation of pesticide use.Pesticide permits are now issued byregional offices rather than throughVictoria. A new program for trainingand certifying farmers and commercialusers who use federally restrictedpesticides has been introduced over thelast three years. Since January 1, 1992,all purchasers and users of federally-restricted pesticides have been requiredto be certified pesticide applicators.The federal and provincial govern-ments are also conducting detailedmonitoring surveys, and researchingways of reducing pesticide residues ingroundwater in areas of intensive farming.

Protected areasThere are manydifferent types ofprotected areas inBritish Columbia.They includenetworks of parks,

wildlife areas, recreation areas,wilderness areas, ecological reservesand more. They range in size from vastwilderness expanses to tiny pockets ofnature a few hectares in size.

The purposes of protected areas arediverse. They not only satisfy culturaland recreational needs of the public(Figure 2.79) but also contribute toachieving environmental goals. Theyallow essential ecological processes tooperate, help maintain biologicaldiversity, and promote the sustainableuse of the natural environment.Protected areas are an essentialcomponent of the province's land usestrategy.

Figure 2.79

Visits to protected areas

Protected areas provide a distinctive range ofoutdoor recreation opportunities. Visits toB.C. park sites have increased rapidly in thelast few decades. Visits to the national parkshave increased in a similar way.41

vege

tabl

esfr

uits

domestic

imported

domestic

imported

no detectable residues residues less thanmaximum limits

residues exceeding maximum limits

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

68

freshwater in the province. BritishColumbia compares well with the otherprovinces in Canada with respect toprotected areas (Figure 2.81).

To promote conservation of naturalecosystems, various national andinternational organizations (BrundtlandCommission, International Union for theConservation of Nature, World WildlifeFund Canada and the Canadian federalgovernment) have promoted conserva-tion targets.37 The Green Plan commitsthe federal government to the target ofsetting aside 12% of Canada’s totalarea as protected space. In addition tomaking direct contributions, thefederal government is charged withencouraging and facilitating otherinstitutions and individuals to makesuch contributions.

What ecosystems arebeing protected?British Columbia is composed of awide variety of ecologically distinctunits, each with characteristic speciesand features. It would be easy tosatisfy the 12% goal of area protectedby simply taking the least desirableareas and designating them as “pro-

Figure 2.80

Area protected over time

Before 1920 little attention was paid to protect-ing ecosystems. Early parks were largelymotivated by scenic values. Since the 1970smore and more attention has been focused onecosystem protection.14

How much should weprotect?Over the last century there has beenincreasing attention and commitmentto the creation of parks and otherprotected areas (Figure 2.80).

There are currently well over 800protected areas in British Columbia,encompassing over 6 million hectares,owned or managed by various levels ofgovernment or non-governmentorganizations. These areas cover about6.5% of the total area of land and

PEI

Manitoba

Newfoundland

Nova Scotia

NWT

Quebec

Saskatchewan

Canada

Ontario

Yukon

B.C.

Alberta

New Brunswick

percent land in protected status0 2 4 6 8 10

Figure 2.81

Area protected in each province, territory and federal lands

Only Alberta has a higher percentage protected* area than B.C. The NorthwestTerritories has a much larger area protected, more than any province.40

tected”. That is not the intent. A greatdeal of effort is being made to ensurethat the protection is evenly distributedamong ecoprovinces, and among thesmaller ecological units (ecosections)within each ecoprovince (Figure 2.82).The Protected Areas Strategy isdesigned to protect all major ecosys-tems and most unique characteristics.

Although some ecological units have asignificant proportion of their area inprotected area status, significant gapsremain in achieving full representation.Marine ecosystems, wetlands,grasslands and mid- and low-elevationforested ecosystems are, to a largeextent, poorly represented in existingprotected areas.6 For example, lessthan 0.1% of the marine environmentis in protected areas, and the level ofprotection afforded to marine areas thatare protected may be insufficient.35

The Province is developing a databasethat contains detailed information onthe ecological characteristics of eachprotected area. When it is complete itwill be possible to tell whether theprotected areas include all unique oruncommon elements of all ecosystems.

Figure 2.82

Area protected by ecoprovince

All ecoprovinces except the Taiga Plains andBoreal Plains include protected* areas. Sev-eral ecoprovinces are approaching the gen-eral guideline of 12% of the area protected.40

% o

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* Protected areas are as defined by IUCN categories I and II (see Table 2.7).

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Figure 2.83

Distribution of strictly protected areas

The percent area that is strictly protected (IUCN Levels I and II, see Table 2.7) has beencalculated for various parts of B.C. This map shows detail at the ecosection level, that is subunitsof the ecoprovinces.40

No protected area in the province islarge enough to include all criticalhabitat requirements of wide rangingmammal species such as grizzly bears,caribou and wolves. Many are becom-ing “islands in a sea of development”,their ecological integrity threatened byfragmentation and encroachment byother land uses such as hydroelectricdevelopment, logging, or mining.

Maintaining ecological integrityrequires attention to a variety of factorsincluding the size of the protected area,corridors connecting protected areas,management policies and the compat-ibility of adjacent land uses. A numberof specific actions, such as manage-ment plans and zoning frameworks,include these factors to enhance theability of protected areas to maintainnatural features and ecologicalprocesses.

Percent ecosection protection

over 12 %

8 - 12 %

4 - 8 %

1 - 4 %

0 - 1 %

none

How protected is protected?The term “protected area ” can cover awide range of use levels ranging fromno use by man, even for recreation, touses that are compatible with conserva-tion and recreation objectives. TheInternational Union for the Conserva-tion of Nature (IUCN) has developed aframework for classifying protectedareas according to their objectives andthe degree of human interventionpermitted (Table 2.7). Protected areasin B.C. have been classified accordingto this system. Some areas of B.C.have a good representation of whatIUCN considers “strictly protectedreserves”, whereas other areas, such asthe north and the interior, have fewerof these (Figure 2.83).

Setting aside an area does not in itselfensure its long-term protection ormaintenance of its ecological integrity.The ecological integrity of a naturalarea determines its capacity to with-stand internal and external stresses orthreats. Protected areas face manythreats, such as: recreation and tourismpressures; oil spills; introduction ofexotic species; incompatible land useswithin and next to protected areas, andglobal climate change.

Many protected areas in the provinceare too small to maintain their ecologi-cal integrity and biological diversity.

Table 2.7

Classification framework forprotected areas.

The International Union for the Conserva-tion of Nature (IUCN) has developed aframework for classifying protected areasaccording to the degree of human interven-tion. Categories I and II are considered tobe strictly protected.4

Category Example

I Scientific ReservesWilderness Areas

II National and ProvincialParks (and equivalents)

III Natural Monuments

IV Habitat and WildlifeManagement Areas

V Protected Landscapesand Seascapes

"A new protected areas strategy willdouble parks and wilderness areasin B.C. by the year 2000".

Premier Mike Harcourt, May 1992 38

Many programs, manysponsorsThe types of protected area programsin the province vary considerably. Amyriad of different programs are inplace, with assorted implications interms of legal securement, functionand management objectives (Table2.8). Federal protected area holdingsaccount for 10% of the total areaprotected in the province, whereas thearray of provincial mechanisms

70

account for no less than 89%. Al-though many programs contribute tothe protection of ecosystems, twoagencies, B.C. Parks and the CanadianParks Service, are the stewards fornearly 97% of the total protected areain the province.

Several natural features in BritishColumbia have been recognized byinternational conservation programs.Among these are two World HeritageSites, Ninstints on Anthony Island andpart of the Rocky Mountains. Onenational wildlife area (Alaksen) hasbeen designated as a Wetland ofInternational Importance under the

Ramsar Convention. The CanadianWildlife Service has prepared a list ofmigratory bird sanctuaries, and isidentifying potential Western Hemi-sphere Shorebird Network sites.

Completing the protectedareas systemIn 1992 the provincial governmentcommitted itself to doubling theexisting protected area system by theyear 2000. To assist in achieving thisgoal, the provincial governmentannounced a Protected Areas Strategyfor the province, which identified 112

large and 72 small study areas and atime table for their resolution.20 This isa starting point only and additionalstudy areas will be identified. Theoverall strategy for protected areas willinclude federal, provincial and regionalinitiatives such as parks, wildlife areas,ecological reserves, wilderness areas,and migratory bird sanctuaries.

Also in 1992, the provincial govern-ment established the Commission onResources and Environment (CORE)to oversee land use planning and movethe province on a path towards asustainable society. One of CORE’sprincipal tasks will be to help deter-mine what areas should be designatedfor protected area status based on theirnatural, cultural and recreation values.In the same year the B.C. Ministry ofForests released an Old-GrowthStrategy that recommends the protec-tion of important old growth forestsites within a network of protectedareas.

At the federal level, some naturalregions remain unrepresented inCanada’s National Parks system. Thefederal government is cooperating withthe provincial Protected Areas Strategyto pursue options for establishing threenew terrestrial parks plus severalNational Marine Parks in B.C.

The ecosystem management approachadopted by the protected areas strategymeans that protection andsustainability concerns will go beyondthe boundaries of the protected areas.The intent is not only to protect areaswithin the 12% target, but to promotesustainable management in the other88% of our province. Other processesare in place to deal with the other 88%,including (but not limited to) LandResource Management Planning(LRMP), Local Resource Use Plans(LRUPs), Forest Practices Coderevisions, and regional land useplanning under the Commission onResources and Environment (CORE).

Table 2.8

British Columbia’s mosaic of protected areas

There are many types of protected areas in British Columbia. Protected areas varyconsiderably in their scope, size, objectives, management policies and the level of legislativeprotection they afford. For example, Provincial Parks and Recreation Areas protectrepresentative landscapes, outstanding natural features and wilderness areas, offer recrea-tion and tourism opportunities and encourage scientific research and education. EcologicalReserves are protected natural areas where human intervention is kept to a minimum andnatural change proceeds unimpeded. The goals of Forest Service Wilderness Areas rangefrom preservation of natural landscapes to recreation and limited resource use. WildlifeManagement Areas focus on the protection of wildlife species.40

Program Legislation areas hectares

National Park / National Parks Act1 6 630,200National Marine Park

Ecological Reserves Ecological Reserve Act 131 land - 107,321water - 51,433

Provincial Parks/Recreation Park Act 393 5,240,294

Regional Parks Park (Regional) Act 78 13,384

Wilderness Conservancy Environment and Land 1 131,523Use Act

Wilderness Areas Forests Act 4 130,000

Migratory Bird Sanctuaries Migratory Birds 7 3,091Convention Act1

National Wildlife Areas Canada Wildlife Act1 5 2,301

Wildlife Management Areas Wildlife Act 11 19,299

Creston Valley Wildlife Area Creston Valley 1 6,900Wildlife Act

NGO Lands3

Nature Trust of B.C. 188 12,500

Nature Conservancy 17 22,054of Canada

Ducks Unlimited, Canada4 748 27,754

Total 1,590 6,398,054

1 Federal Act2 includes some marine waters3 incomplete4 land may be secured by government agencies

2

71

ConclusionsAlthough land is a fundamentalcomponent of our ecosystems, it isoften taken for granted. Our focus hastraditionally been on the resourcesobtained from the land, rather thanthe land base itself. The land basechanges slowly, so it is difficult tonotice impacts, except in local dra-matic circumstances. Recovery, ifpossible, is likely to be both slow andexpensive.

There are many things we don’t knowabout the state of the land in B.C. Notmuch is known about changes to theproductive capacity, such as soil fer-tility, or the effect of fertilizer andpesticide use on the land. There aren’t

even accurate data on the amountsbeing applied. Contamination of landis also very difficult to sample on aprovincial scale. Compared to air orwater there is little mixing, so re-gional scale sampling of contaminantsrequires more effort.

However, there is significant goodnews. The Agricultural Land Re-serve is keeping virtually all our bestagricultural land from other uses. Asa society we are developing muchbetter waste management practicesthat include less waste production andbetter handling of special wastes. TheProvince is also well along the way todeveloping a computer based land

information base which will enableresource managers to keep track ofland attributes, develop sustainableand coordinated management plans,and monitor land use change. Finally,the evolving Protected Areas Strat-egy is tackling a difficult problem ina systematic (ecosystematic!) way.

None of this will be easy, nor will it beaccomplished without effort and re-sources. The underlying question iswhether our society will continue topromote and support environmentalresponsibility over the long time framenecessary for sustaining our land base.

72

EcoprovincesThe ecoprovince classification forBritish Columbia has been developedto provide a systematic view of theecological relationships of the prov-ince. The hierarchy of ecosections,ecoregions and ecoprovinces offer aframework for interpreting complexinterrelationships between land, air,water and biota including humans.

The hierarchical system allows us tobetter understand an area in severaldifferent contexts: local, regional,provincial and national. Ideally, muchof the data to measure and track BritishColumbia's State of the Environmentwould be collected and/or compiledwithin this hierarchy. However, fewsuch data sets exist. Though informa-

tion has been gathered to addressparticular problems in particularlocations, it’s generally very difficultto see the overall regional picture. Atthose sites where data have beencollected, monitoring often has notcontinued for long enough to revealtrends. Nevertheless, some valuableinformation is available for each

Figure 3.1

Topics discussed in each ecoprovince

Although many issues are relevant in each ecoprovince, a number of topics have been selected. This map indicates the location of the topicsdiscussed on the following pages.

Southern Interior • water quality • water quantity • biodiversity

Georgia Depression • air quality • groundwater • marinewater quality • land pressures • Fraser River estuary

Northeast Pacific • oil spills • marine debris

Northern Boreal Mountains • contaminants in fish

Sub-Boreal Interior • air quality • mountain caribou • pulp mills • reservoirs, fish and wildlife

Central Interior • co-generation • salmon populations

Coast and Mountains • water and air pollution • mining impacts • grizzly bears • bears and people

Taiga Plains

Boreal Plains • water qaulity • farming

Southern Interior Mountains • air quality • water quality and fisheries • lake ecosystems

Atlin

Cassiar

Fort Nelson

Fort St John

Dawson Creek

MackenzieSmithersPrince Rupert

Queen Charlotte

City

Kitimat

Ocean Falls

Port Hardy

Port Alberni

Powell River

Victoria

Vancouver

Williams Lake

Kamloops

Vernon

Penticton

Revelstoke

Kelowna

Trail

NelsonKimberley

Cranbrook

Quesnel

Prince George

73

ecoprovince. This information is notalways in the form of graphs ofindicators, changing over time. Rather,it is often anecdotal information,describing a past, present or futureenvironmental problem.

What follows is a series of shortsummaries of a range of ecoprovincialtopics across British Columbia(Figure 3.1). These examples were

chosen to provide an overview of someof the more important topics withineach ecoprovince. The topics wereselected based on feedback fromcitizens to the B.C. Round Table on theEnvironment and the Economy duringtheir tour of the province in 1991, andthe knowledge of local environmentalscientists and planners. Space andinformation constraints do not permit

each ecoprovince to be describedcomprehensively. Taken together,however, these case examples provide adeeper understanding of how the generalenvironmental topics discussed in theprevious sections are manifested locally.They also point to some of the topicsrequiring more systematic monitoringand management in the future.

The Northern Boreal Mountains, Taiga Plainsand Boreal Plains

This section ismade up of thethree northernmostecoprovinces: theNorthern BorealMountains, theBoreal Plains, andthe Taiga Plains

(Figure 3.2). 1,2 The Northern BorealMountains form the western portion ofthis area, consisting of extensivemountains and plateaus, separated bywide valleys and lowlands. Much ofthe habitat here consists of high pine,fir or spruce forests, and rolling alpinetundra. The Northern Boreal Moun-tains are one of the few relativelypristine mountain landscapes leftanywhere, almost entirely without

Figure 3.3

Descriptive statistics

The Northern Boreal Mountains, Taiga Plains and Boreal Plains constitute 27.4% of B.C.'sland area, and are home to 1.7% of B.C.'s population.4,5

Figure 3.2

The northern ecoprovinces

The three northern ecoprovinces cover morethan one quarter of the area of B.C., but houseonly 1.7% of the total population. 1,2,5

white spruce forests. There are no largeprotected areas in either the BorealPlains or the Taiga Plainsecoprovinces, though there are somesmall ecological reserves. Precipita-tion in these three ecoprovinces isevenly distributed throughout the mildsummers and long cold winters. Ageneral description of the ecoprovinceis found in Figure 3.3.

commercial timber value. About 8.7%of the land in the Northern BorealMountains is protected area.3 As onemoves east, the landscape becomesdominated by level plateaus andlowlands. The plateaus, plains andprairies of the Boreal Plains containaspen parkland, spruce forests andsome sub-alpine fir. The Taiga Plainsis mainly composed of flat lowlandsthat support muskeg and black-and-

NorthernBoreal

Mountains

TaigaPlains

BorealPlains

Northern Boreal MountainsTaiga PlainsBoreal Plains

% pop.

0.10.21.4

% land

1746

other 31%

agriculture 9%

services26%

transport and storage

8%

manufacturing 7%

forestry 3%

total for 1986: 25 685

mining 8%

0 50 000

197119861991

rural urban

25 000

deciduous forest7%

coniferous forest44%

mixed forest23%

cultivated land 1%

tundra 15%

barren land 10%

total land area: 276 289 km2

% change(1986-91)1991

Dawson CreekFort St. John

10 98114 156

4.15.9

1 City and town boundaries for population data (for this and and all other ecoprovince descriptive statistics) are based on extent of urbanization and may include several municipalities.

Population in urban centres 1

% change from 1986-91: 5.8%

PopulationLand Cover

Labour Force

construction8%

74

Charlie Lakemanaging the future bylearning about the pastCharlie Lake is located 8 km awayfrom Fort St. John and serves both as afresh water supply and importantrecreational site for Fort St. John's14,000 residents. A study completedin 1985 suggested the overall waterquality of Charlie Lake was very poorand in need of improvement. Highloadings of phosphorous had created anutrient enriched (over-fertilized)condition in the lake. The results frompreliminary tests also suggested thelake had higher than normal levels offecal coliforms.6 The Ministry ofEnvironment, Lands, and Parks isexamining sediment cores sampledfrom the lake bottom in order tounderstand the historical nutrientchanges in Charlie Lake. The Ministryof Health has undertaken fecalcoliform studies of the lake to learnmore about its current coliform level.In addition, the Province is completingstudies to find the major sources ofnutrients, herbicides and pesticideswithin the watershed. The results fromthese studies will be used to helpdevelop a management strategy forCharlie Lake and its watershed.

Atlin Lakewhere are the contaminantscoming from?The liver of burbot is a traditionalaboriginal food. In 1991, scientistsfound high toxaphene levels in theburbot livers collected from AtlinLake. As a result, the B.C. portion ofAtlin Lake was covered by a generaladvisory, from the local MedicalHealth Officer, against eating any fish

liver. Toxaphene is used as apesticide, and may bioaccumulate inliving organisms, primarily in thefatty tissues. It may be harmful tofish consumers in high doses.

How did toxaphene enter the AtlinLake ecosystem? Although it is nowbanned in Canada, other countriescontinue to use the pesticide. In 1992,considerable effort was undertaken byfederal, territorial, provincial, andaboriginal groups to expand fish-testing programs. These programsaimed both to assess potential pointsources of contaminants and toevaluate the possibility that windsfrom distant sources transported thetoxaphene. Scientists surveyed otherlakes in the area for toxapheneconcentrations. Results indicate thatat least some of the toxaphene inAtlin Lake must have come fromdistant sources. However, scientistsstill do not know if long rangeatmospheric transport is a majorcontributing source of toxaphene.PCBs and other pesticides which arechemically similar to toxaphene, andare known to be transported world-wide via the atmosphere, were foundin Atlin Lake burbot livers in muchlower levels than toxaphene. Anotherpossibility is that there are as yetunidentified sources of toxaphene thathave leaked into Atlin and otherYukon River systems lakes.

Farming for the futureThe Peace River region contains halfof the cultivated crop area of BritishColumbia. The major crops aregrains, oilseeds, and fineseeds. Soilerosion is a serious problem here,partly due to current agriculturalpractices. The long, gentle slopes ofthe Peace River region show many

visible examples of damage by watererosion from farm runoff. Erosion maypartially or completely remove thetopsoil as well as the subsoil. Thisresults in low water holding capacity,poor nutrient content, low organicmatter and poor cultivation potential.These factors all contribute to poorerfarm production and increased sedimentloads in rivers. It is difficult to assessthe extent and severity of past soilerosion since rates of erosion vary withclimate, topography and soil surfacefeatures. However, all of the nearly400,000 ha of grain growing land in thePeace River region is classified as higherosion risk, and 15% already showsevidence of erosion.7 Soil erosion couldultimately seriously affect the environ-ment and economy of the Peace Riverregion.

The Canada - British Columbia SoilConservation Program promotesconservation farming to reduce soilerosion in an economical manner for thePeace River grain and oilseed produc-ers. Conservation farming meanscultivating the land in a manner thatprovides long term ecologicalsustainability, by reducing tillage,increasing winter soil cover with cropresidues, and improving the use ofgreen manures. These practices arebeing encouraged through variousincentives and technology and informa-tion transfer programs.

It is difficult to estimate to what degreeconservation farming will actually beincorporated into future farmingpractices. However, a recent surveyindicated that a majority of Peace Riverproducers plan to purchase conservationtillage equipment in the future; and thatthey believe their economic statuswould be maintained or improved byadopting soil conservation managementpractices.

75

Sub-Boreal Interior

Located in thenorth-centralportion of theprovince, thislandscape includesbroad level plateausbordered by the

Skeena, Omineca and Rocky Moun-tains.1,2 Much of this area lies in therainshadow of the Coastal Mountains,though the mountains receive higheramounts of precipitation. Precipitationis more or less evenly distributedthroughout the year. The summers arewarm, but in winter cold arctic airfrequently covers the ecoprovince.The Sub-Boreal Interior hosts denseconifer forests, alpine tundra, scatteredwetlands, and some deciduous forests.Less than 2% of this ecoprovince isdesignated as protected area.3 PrinceGeorge is the largest city in theecoprovince and the fifth largest city inBritish Columbia. A general descrip-tion of the ecoprovince is provided inFigure 3.4.

Air qualityreducing total reducedsulphur in Prince GeorgeIn general the air quality of thisecoprovince is very good, but in thePrince George area air quality has beena public concern for many years. In1981, the Ambient Air MonitoringProgram, a joint government/industryprogram, began monitoring the levelsof total reduced sulphur (TRS) andsulphur dioxide in the Prince Georgearea. TRS is responsible for anunpleasant odour, to which humans arevery sensitive. However, the presenceof TRS in the air is not considered tobe a health risk. TRS levels now onlyexceed permissible levels one half toone third as frequently as they did inthe early 1980s (Figure 3.5).

The improvement in air quality islargely due to emission reductionprograms carried out in 1989 and 1990at Prince George’s pulp mills. As pulpmills install more emission reduction

Figure 3.4

Descriptive statistics

The Sub-Boreal Interior constitutes 14.0 % of B.C.'s land area, and is home to 3.9 % ofB.C.'s population.4,5

1971

1986

1991

0 140 00070 000

rural urbandeciduous forest

1%

coniferous forest75%

mixed forest10%

tundra 7%

barren land 7%

total land area: 138 742 km2

% change from 1986-91: -1.1%

forestry 8% transport and

storage 7%

manufacturing 19%

agriculture 3%services

26%

construction 4%

mining 3%

other 30%

total for 1986: 64 510

% change(1986-91)1991

Prince GeorgeTumbler Ridge

62 7134 613

2.46.4

PopulationLand Cover

Labour Force

Population in urban centres

Figure 3.5

TRS in Prince George

In the late 1970s, levels of total reduced sulphur (TRS) exceeded objectives 60 - 70% of the time;now they exceed objectives 10 - 30% of the time.8

effluent with a method called steamstripping. This involves injectingsteam through concentrated effluentsbefore these effluents are sent tobiological treatment ponds. The steamstrips out the foul smelling TRS which

systems, further reductions in TRSlevels will occur. Currently, the largestTRS emission source is not the pulpmill stacks but the pulp mill effluentponds. To reduce TRS levels, manypulp mills are now treating their

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

0

A level (3 µg/m3)

B level (6 µg/m3)

% e

xcee

danc

es

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

76

is then directed to an incinerator whereit is burned (oxidized) to less odorousSO

2 (sulphur dioxide).

Mountain Cariboumanaging with uncertaintyThere are two distinct groups ofcaribou in British Columbia: NorthernCaribou and Mountain Caribou(Figure 3.6). Managing caribou andtheir habitat is difficult. It requires anunderstanding of how factors such ashunting, poaching, predation, climate,food and habitat availability affectcaribou populations today, and howthose factors may change in the future.Compared to the Northern Cariboupopulation (12,000), there are rela-tively few Mountain Caribou (1,700).The Ministry of Environment, Lands,and Parks has “blue listed” theMountain Caribou, which means it isconsidered sensitive or vulnerable.

well as actual habitat loss, is a majorconcern.

In 1988, wildlife groups, governmentagencies, and the local forest industryestablished a cooperative venturecalled Mountain Caribou in ManagedForests (MCMF). The goal of theprogram is to develop integratedsolutions that allow both loggers andcaribou to share the mountains. Afterfour years of research from thisprogram, there are no definite answers.However, the MCMF has concludedthat clearcuts in critical caribou habitatregions are not compatible with thelong term survival of cariboupopulations. They also agreed thatmaintaining suitable habitat is betterthan trying to recreate habitat lost toclearcutting. The MCMF is nowdeveloping a provincial strategy forcaribou habitat management.

Pulp mill effluentsa new monitoring approachIn 1987, the six pulp mills in the midto upper Fraser River Basin (Figure3.7) discharged more than 500,000 m3

of effluent per day. These mills are theprimary contributors to the 38-foldincrease in total wastewater dischargesto the upper Fraser between 1965 and1985. There was a 12-fold increase inthe Thompson River during the sameperiod. Although the effluent receivessecondary treatment, the treatedeffluent still represents several possiblethreats to ecosystems. These includewastewater impacts on overwinteringjuvenile salmon near dilution zones,effects on fish during low flow periods,effects on bird reproduction, and thecumulative long term impacts of toxic,persistent compounds on various biotaincluding humans.10,11,12

To address some of these concerns, thefederal and various provincial govern-ments facilitated workshops topromote the development of a consist-ent approach to pulp and paper millmonitoring in Canada. In 1989,Environment Canada selected theupper Fraser River as the area to carryout a major pilot study called Environ-mental Effects Monitoring (EEM).EEM provides an objective basis for

Figure 3.6

Caribou in B.C.

Mountain Caribou are found in southeast Brit-ish Columbia. In the winter months, they livein high elevations and feed mainly on lichens.9

Northern Caribou

Mountain Caribou

Understanding the factors that affectthe Mountain Caribou population isessential for their long term survival.Though some factors are consistentlyimportant (e.g. the availability oflichen as food), other factors change inimportance across different groups.For example, a recent study on theQuesnel Highlands population foundthat predation by wolves reduced thecaribou population during the late1980s. Fragmentation of habitat, as

Figure 3.7

Pulp mill effluents

demonstrating the effectiveness ofcorrective action and helps to identifyareas where improvements are needed.

The 1989 program provided a wellintegrated assessment of pulp milleffluent characteristics and theirenvironmental impacts on the upperFraser. The study recommended thatfurther research be carried out to assessthe medium to long term responses ofaquatic biota in the Fraser River.Major improvements are being made topulp mill effluent quality (see Waterchapter). EEM offers a method toassess the actual environmentalresponse to these improvements. EEMserves as a successful model that canbeing applied under the Pulp and PaperEffluent Regulations of the FederalFisheries Act (1992).13

The Williston Reservoirthe benefit of electricity but ...Williston Lake Reservoir is the largestbody of fresh water in British Colum-bia. The reservoir has a surface area of1,736 km2, more than two-thirds thesize of Greater Vancouver. It wasformed in 1968 by the completion ofB.C. Hydro’s Bennett Dam on thePeace River, about 90 km west of FortSt. John. Discharges from the lake pass

Vancouver

Williams Lake

Kamloops

Quesnel

Prince George

Lytton

Hope

F r a s e r Ri v e r

F r a s e r R

Thompson R.

Cariboo Pulp and Paper Company

Quesnel River Pulp Company

Weyerhauser Canada Limited

Intercontinental Pulp Company Limited

Northwood Pulp and Timber Limited

Prince George Pulp and Paper Company

77

from the station downstream toDinosaur Lake, through the PeaceCanyon Dam/Generating Station andthen enter the Peace River. Thegenerating station provides more than6.3 % of B.C.’s annual energy needs.

...loss of fish and wildlifeThere was an environmental costassociated with the creation of thereservoir. The flooding of several rivervalleys eliminated large areas of primewinter wildlife range, importantmigration corridors and fisherieshabitat. Reduced catch rates byanglers indicated declines in somespecies of sports fish such as rainbow

trout and Arctic grayling. Reservoirflooding also forced the relocation ofNative villages and ultimately de-stroyed a traditional way of life forthose in the region. The dam alsolessened river flow fluctuations at thePeace-Athabasca Delta in Alberta.This reduced the quantity and qualityof fish and wildlife habitat, whichdepended on seasonal flooding.14

In 1988, B.C. Hydro and B.C. Envi-ronment agreed to cooperate in a fishand wildlife compensation program forthe Williston Reservoir watershed.B.C. Hydro agreed to establish two $5million funds - one for fisheries and

one for wildlife, with the annualinterest from each fund used to financeactivities associated with the manage-ment of fish and wildlife in thewatershed area. For the short term, thegeneral emphasis of these programs isto determine the present state of thehabitat and populations of theseresources, and to implement manage-ment measures to ensure theirsustainability. Over the long-term,some projects will be undertaken toenhance fish and wildlife populationswhich were reduced due to theestablishment of the reservoir.

This ecoprovinceis east of the CoastMountains, betweenthe Fraser Basinand the ThompsonPlateau.1,2 Theextensive plateau

system includes the flat to rollingChilcotin, Cariboo, and Nechakoplateaus. While the area lies in theCoastal Mountain rainshadow, it is stillinfluenced by the moderating flow ofPacific air. Here the climate consists ofcold winters and warm summers.There are seven vegetation zones in theCentral Interior ecoprovince, rangingfrom dry sagebrush/grasslands to denselodgepole pine forests across most ofthe plateau’s uplands. There are manywetlands and small lakes. About 7.5%of the Central Interior is currentlyprotected area.3 The Central Interioraccounts for about 2% of BritishColumbia’s population. Williams Lakeis the largest community. A generaldescription of the ecoprovince isprovided in Figure 3.8.

Williams Lakegenerating electricity fromwood wasteSmoke is a problem in many interiorB.C. communities, particularly thosewith active forest products industries.

Figure 3.8

Descriptive statistics

The Central Interior constitutes 10.5 % of B.C.'s land area, and is home to 1.9 % of B.C.'spopulation.4,5

other 27%

agriculture 6%

transport and storage 7%

services26%

mining 3%

forestry 10%

construction 5%

manufacturing 16%

total for 1986: 30 055

0 60 000

197119861991

rural urban

30 000

barren land 5%

coniferous forest90%

mixed forest4%

grassland 1%

total land area: 103 747 km2

% change(1986-91)1991

SmithersWilliams Lake

5 02911 530

6.71.3

% change from 1986-91: 3.9%

PopulationLand Cover

Labour Force

Population in urban centres

Williams Lake is one such community.Five saw mills and a plywood mill,located near the city, presently burntheir waste residues in wood wasteburners. The resulting gases and fly ashare released to the atmosphere. The city is

in a river valley with restricted air flow.Together, these factors often combine toproduce degraded local air quality. And, inthe ecoprovince as a whole, smoke is theprimary air quality issue.

It is difficult to maintain satisfactory

Central Interior

78

air quality in Williams Lake with thetypes of wood waste burners currentlyin use. Consequently, they are beingreplaced with a single wood-burningboiler. This new facility, scheduled tobegin operation in 1993, will use woodresidues to produce electricity.Because wood wastes will be burned inthe new facility under a more control-led environment, greater emissionscontrol will be possible for contami-nants such as fly ash, and smokeproblems should be reduced. However,high temperature combustion in theboiler could result in increasedemissions of other air contaminants,such as nitrogen oxides. Atmosphericmonitoring has already been initiatedto establish background levels of NO

2,

ozone, and total suspended particulatesas a basis for assessing the overallatmospheric impact of the new plant.

Horsefly River sockeyea fast rising stockHistorically the Horsefly River wasone of the great salmon spawning areasof the Fraser River watershed. In thelate 1800s, this river reportedlyproduced many millions of juvenilesalmon. But this came to an abrupt endin the fall of 1898 when a dam,constructed to permit gold mining,dried up the Quesnel River andprevented salmon from returning tospawn in the Horsefly River. Two

1953

1957

1961

1965

1969

1973

1977

1981

1985

1989

0

2

4

6

8

10

mill

ions

of S

ocke

ye

catch

escapement

Figure 3.9

Horsefly River sockeye

Catch and escapement data for dominant (peak) years.15

3,000 spawning sockeye were ob-served at the Horsefly River grounds.

Since then, the size of the HorseflyRiver sockeye stock has grown steadilyand especially rapidly in the pastdecade (Figure 3.9). The Departmentof Fisheries and Oceans has carefullycontrolled catches to allow the stock torebuild. In 1989 nearly 1.9 millionsockeye returned to the Horsefly Riverto spawn and another 8.4 million werecaught by fishermen. This indicatesthat the stock has now been restored tolevels recorded in the early 1900s.

years later the mining operation wasabandoned, but the dam remained. Afish pass was built in 1903, and by1909 the salmon run appeared to berestored, with around 4 millionsockeye reported on the Horsefly Riverspawning grounds.

However, disaster soon struck the fishstocks again, this time in 1913-14during construction of the FraserCanyon railway line. Waste rockfalling into the river, and a massiverock slide at Hells Gate, severelyrestricted the migration of salmon. In1941 there were only 1,100 fishrecorded on the Horsefly Riverspawning grounds. Then, in 1945, theHells Gate fishway was opened, and

Southern Interior Mountains

This ecoprovincespans the vastmountain ranges ofsoutheasternBritish Columbia,including theColumbia Moun-

tains in the north and the RockyMountains to the east.1,2 Here, thewestern slopes of the mountainsreceive considerable amounts ofprecipitation, and snowfall is heavy

during the winter months. In thewinter, the Rocky Mountain trenchoften serves as an access route foroutbreaks of cold, arctic air, but in thesummer months this area has warm,clear weather. Dense conifer forestsare common in the Southern InteriorMountains ecoprovince, although dryforests do occupy the southern valleys,and alpine tundra and barren rock arefound near mountain summits. Of allthe B.C. ecoprovinces, this one

contains the highest proportion ofprotected land (13.1%), with themajority of the protected areas in thehigh mountains.3

About 5% of the population of BritishColumbia resides in the SouthernInterior Mountains ecoprovince.Cranbrook and Nelson are the twolargest communities. A generaldescription of the ecoprovince isprovided in Figure 3.10.

79

measured in Vancouver prior to theremoval of lead from gasoline. Asshown in Figure 3.12, atmospheric leadlevels have declined since the zincplant was upgraded in the early 1980s.Still, lead concentrations are higherthan background levels, as illustratedby measurements for 1974 and 1987 -years in which the smelters were notfully operational due to labour strikes.

In 1969, horses grazing in the vicinityof the smelter were found to havesevere lead poisoning. In a subsequentstudy, children near and downwind ofthe smelter were found to have highblood lead levels when compared withchildren living in the control commu-nity of Nelson. A more recent studyfound that average blood lead levels forchildren living in Trail dropped almost40% from 1975 to 1992 (Figure 3.13).Blood lead levels in Trail children arestill more than double the average forVancouver children (5.3 µg/dL -micrograms per tenth of a litre)). Theyare comparable with levels found inchildren living in Rouyn-Noranda, aQuebec smelter town (11.1 µg/dL).18,19

Individuals identified as havingelevated blood levels receive interven-tion and appropriate follow-up.

The discovery that some children inTrail have elevated blood lead levelshas raised concerns regarding smelterlead emissions. To identify pathwaysof human exposure to lead, and torecommend corrective actions, the

Figure 3.10

Descriptive statistics

The Southern Interior Mountains ecoprovince constitutes 13.6 % of B.C.'s land area, andis home to 4.9 % of B.C.'s population.4,5

Air qualitymanaging lead and sulphuremissionsAir quality across this ecoprovince isgenerally very good, but humanactivities have had major impacts incertain locations. For example, fornearly 100 years, Trail has been asmelting and industrial centre. Duringthis time, atmospheric emissions fromthe smelters have reduced local andregional air quality, affecting humanhealth, agricultural crops, and nearbyecosystems. Continuous efforts toimprove smelter technologies haveimproved local and regional airquality. However, sulphur emissionsremain a concern today, as do emis-sions of lead, zinc, and particulates.

In the early 1980s atmospheric sulphurdioxide (SO2) declined as a result oflower emissions from the moderniza-tion of the zinc smelter (Figure 3.11).Sulphur dioxide levels in Trail are alsocontrolled by a system, unique inBritish Columbia, where smeltingoperations are curtailed during periods 1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

sulp

hur

diox

ide

(µg

/m3 )

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

3 m

onth

str

ike

new

lead

sm

elte

r tr

ials

Figure 3.11

Sulphur dioxide in Trail air

Ambient concentrations at Butler Park. Horizontal line designates limit specified in provincialwaste discharge permit.16,17

of poor air quality. Further SO2

emission reductions are expected withreplacement of the old smelter,scheduled for completion in 1995.

The lead smelter is currently a majorsource of metals and particulates to thesurrounding atmosphere. Lead levels inTrail’s atmosphere are about twice that

transport and storage 6%

other 27%

agriculture 3%

services 31%

forestry 6%

construction 6%

mining 7%

manufacturing 14%

total for 1986: 71 440

1971

1986

1991

0 150 000

rural urban

75 000

deciduous forest9%

coniferous forest48%

mixed forest29%

barren land12%

perennial snowand ice 1%

total land area: 135 030 km2

% change from 1986-91: -0.4%

% change(1986-91)1991

CranbrookNelsonTrail

16 4478 7609 733

3.0 7.7-0.9

PopulationLand Cover

Labour Force

Population in urban centres

80

Figure 3.12

Lead in Trail air

Ambient concentrations of lead in suspended particulates at Butler Park. Shading indicates B.C.Pollution Control Objectives for lead (1.0 to 2.5 µg/m3).16,17

Water plunging over the HughKeenleyside Dam becomes supersatu-rated with air, and fish downstreamcan suffer from gas bubbles in theirtissues, much like divers who experi-ence the bends. Further downstream isa bleached kraft pulp mill at Castlegarwhich historically discharged un-treated effluent directly to the river.Recent studies there foundorganochlorine compounds (e.g.dioxins, furans) in fish tissues,prompting officials to issue anadvisory restricting human consump-tion of Mountain and Lake whitefish.Dioxin and furan contamination wassignificantly lower in the two mainsportfish species, rainbow trout andyellow walleye. Under recentlyapproved plans, the pulpmill is toinstall state-of-the-art pollution controltechnology in 1993. However, becauseorganochlorine compounds arepersistent and reside in riversediments, there may be some delaybefore these compounds disappearfrom Columbia River fish.

At Trail, slag and effluents dischargedto the river from smelting and indus-trial activities contain mercury andmany other contaminants. In the past,this resulted in mercury contaminationof yellow walleye. A health advisory,in effect since 1988, restrictedconsumption of this fish to one meal aweek; this advisory has recently beenlifted. Under modernization plans, thelead smelter will no longer be dis-

Lower Columbia Riverfisheries and water qualityThe lower Columbia River is animportant water body. It serves as asource of drinking water, and supportsa productive fishery. It also receivestreated and untreated industrial andmunicipal wastes. Water quality isgenerally good, but there are a numberof human activities that affect waterquality and fish populations.

charging slag or untreated effluents tothe river by the end of 1995. But again,mercury and other contaminants alreadyin the ecosystem are expected to persistfor a considerable period.

To monitor the environmental state ofthe river, the Columbia River Inte-grated Environmental MonitoringProgram was established in 1990 toexamine water and sediment quality,and aquatic biota.

Kootenay Lake kokanee -how to restore the food chain?Kootenay Lake has been renowned forits trophy rainbow trout, known asGerrard rainbow, which can reach upto 16 kg. Fishing resorts in the vicinitydraw visitors from around the worldand contribute significantly to thelocal economy.

Gerrard trout are at the top of a foodchain that includes kokanee salmon,microscopic animals (zooplankton),and microscopic plants(phytoplankton) (Figure 3.14). Sincethe mid 1970s, populations of kokaneesalmon, the main food source for theGerrard rainbow, have been declining(Figure 3.15). The cause lies at thevery bottom of the food web, with adwindling nutrient supply. The veryexistence of the kokanee population isnow at risk, and if the kokaneedisappear then the Gerrard rainbowpopulation will be in serious trouble.

Figure 3.14

Impacts on Kootenay Lake

5 m

onth

str

ike

3 m

onth

str

ike

1972

1974

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

lead

(µg

/m3 )

1

2

1990

0

range of B.C. Pollution Control Objectives

fishing

competition from stocked

Mysis

fertilizer plant

Libby dam

Duncan dam

Humanactivities

Ecosystemlinkages

Gerrard rainbow

kokanee salmon

zooplankton

phytoplankton

nutrient concentrations

Trail Blood Lead Task Force wasestablished in 1990. The Task Forcehas discovered a correlation betweenblood lead levels in children and leadlevels in soil and house dust. TheTask Force is now investigatingremediation measures to complementactions at the smelter to reduce leademissions.

Figure 3.13

Average blood lead levels

Data are for children living in Trail.20

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

aver

age

bloo

d le

ad le

vel

(µg/

dl)

0

5

10

15

20

25

81

fertilizer plant in Kimberley greatlyreduced inputs of man-made phospho-rus into Kootenay Lake. Now theannual supply of this critical nutrient isat its lowest level in recent geologicalhistory.

The next chapter in this story involves,ironically, an effort to increase fishproductivity. Around the middle of thiscentury, fisheries biologists introduceda small shrimp-like organism, Mysisrelicta, into Kootenay Lake in anattempt to provide another food sourcefor the Gerrard rainbow. Unfortu-nately, Mysis proved to be too large forjuvenile trout to consume; moreimportantly, Mysis also feed on thesame zooplankton as do the juvenilekokanee. During the period whenKootenay Lake was highly productivedue to abundant phosphorus supplies,this competition was of little impor-tance. But now that the lake is limitedby this nutrient, Mysis competition is aserious additional threat to the lake’skokanee salmon. There is no knownway to remove or eradicate Mysis fromKootenay Lake.

Faced with very few options, fisheriesbiologists started an experimentalprogram in 1992 to artificially fertilizeKootenay Lake by the addition ofphosphorous. It is hoped that this willincrease food production for kokanee,and thereby also enhance the foodsupply for Gerrard trout.

Figure 3.15

Kootenay Lake kokanee

Combined data for kokanee salmon spawning in the Lardeau River and in Meadow Creek.21

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

koka

nee

(mill

ions

)

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.4

1.2

Figure 3.16

Phosphorus in Kootenay Lake 21,22

1971

1973

1975

1977

1979

1981

1983

1985

1987

1989

1991

solu

ble

phos

phat

e (µ

g/L)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

The simple explanation for thekokanee decline is a reduction inavailability of phosphorus(Figure 3.16), the nutrient that controlsphytoplankton growth in the lake (see

Southern Interior

This is the southern-most portion of theinterior plateausystem, andincludes theOkanagan andThompson Basins

and their surrounding uplands.1,2 It liesin the rainshadow of the Coast andCascade mountains, which, combinedwith the intrusion of warm air from theWestern Great Basin to the south,creates some of the warmest and driestareas in the province. Higher elevations

receive regular rain and snowfall in thewinter, but this is the mildest area inthe interior. During the winter andearly spring, outbreaks of cold, densearctic air occasionally occur becausethere is not an effective barrier to thenorth. Habitats include dry grasslandsin the major valleys, ponderosa-pineand Douglas-fir forests, large deeplakes, and numerous small wetlandsand rivers. About 1.8% of the land inthis ecoprovince is protected as a parkor wilderness area.3

Although this ecoprovince comprisesonly 4% of the total area of BritishColumbia, it is home to about 11% ofB.C.’s population, and is growingrapidly. The largest cities in thisecoprovince are Kelowna andKamloops. A general description of theecoprovince is provided in Figure 3.17.(The section “Land under change”describes this ecoprovince in greaterdetail).

Figure 3.14). Construction of theDuncan and Libby Dams reducednatural nutrient supplies to the lake,which is downstream. In 1975,pollution control measures at the

82

fluctuations. An Okanagan LakeTributaries Plan was completed inMarch 1992 to identify resourceinformation in the Okanagan Basin,and recommend management strategiesfor the tributaries known to possesshigh fisheries values, particularly forkokanee and rainbow trout. The Planrecommends specific water quality andquantity measures for each of theseven streams. These measuresinclude water reservations, the transferor cancellation of unused waterlicences, improved management ofwater usage, and general waterconservation to decrease waterconsumption.30,31

Osoyoospesticides in groundwaterThe area around Osoyoos is intensivelycultivated for orchard crops, on whichchemicals are used to control pests.The geology in the area supports aplentiful groundwater supply, and thereis concern that pesticides used onorchards leach into the groundwaterand eventually seep into OsoyoosLake. As much as 18 million litres ofwater seep into Osoyoos Lake fromgroundwater every day.33 A prelimi-nary survey of groundwater in theOsoyoos area in 1987 found fivesamples out of 22 to contain detectablelevels of pesticides. Although theseconcentrations were low, their pres-ence indicates that the possibility ofgroundwater contamination still exists,and monitoring programs have beenrecommended.33

Nitrates in groundwaterNitrate contamination is evidentthroughout the Osoyoos area (see theWater chapter and Georgia DepressionEcoprovince for more information).Wells located both inland and near thelakeshore have shown high levels ofnitrate-nitrogen; 13 of 40 samples hadconcentrations equal to or greater than10 ppm, the Canadian drinking waterstandard. This contamination is likelydue to orchard fertilization.34,35,36

Evidence for this conclusion comesfrom the Groundwater Quality

Water managmentquantity and quality for bothpeople and fishWater is in great demand in theSouthern Interior. It is used fordrinking, irrigation, livestock watering,recreation and various industries.These uses affect both water quantityand water quality. Declines in waterquantity and quality, in turn, affectboth human uses and wildlife. There isthe potential for serious water useconflicts as well as concern for longterm fisheries and water management.

The water quality in the main valleylakes of the Okanagan Valley has beenaffected by human activity for manyyears. The main problem has beennutrient enrichment - overfertilizationwhich causes algal blooms, oxygenlosses and in extreme cases fish kills.Water quality problems came intosharp public focus in 1972 and broughtabout the Canada/B.C. OkanaganBasin Study.23 This multi-agencystudy resulted in many changes, someof which improved water quality and

Figure 3.17

Descriptive statistics

The Southern Interior ecoprovince constitutes 4.0 % of B.C.'s land area, and is home to11.2 % of B.C.'s population.4,5

other 33%

mining 2%

agriculture 7%

transport and storage 5%

services 32%

forestry 3%

construction 7%

manufacturing 11%

total for 1986: 148 000

0 200 000 400 000

197119861991

rural urban

deciduous forest1%

coniferous forest 75%

mixed forest9%

cultivated land 2%

grassland13%

total land area: 40 060 km2

% change(1986-91)1991

KamloopsKelownaPentictonWestbank

57 46657 94527 49413 551

8.019.715.428.4

% change from 1986-91: 15.4%

PopulationLand Cover

Labour Force

Population in urban centres

others of which slowed the rate ofdeterioration.24,25 There has been aconsiderable expenditure of money bythe B.C. provincial government andmunicipal agencies.26 Where it hasbeen possible to reduce nutrients frommunicipal sources or agriculturalsources, water quality improved.27,28,29

Where nutrient loadings increased,water quality has deteriorated some-what.

The fish resource has seriouslydeclined in Okanagan Lake over thepast few decades. Stream escapements(numbers of spawning fish) droppedfrom 450,000 in 1971 to between50,000 and 200,000 since 1974. Theaverage escapement in sevenOkanagan Lake tributaries is between7% and 56% of their escapementobjectives (Mission, Powers, Kelowna,lower Vernon, Peachland, Trepanierand Lambly Creeks). A variety offactors may be contributing to this,including water shortages, overfishing,habitat deterioration, disease, competi-tion, predation, and natural population

83

Monitoring and Assessment Program,which was initiated in 1983 to identifyproblem areas and concerns. Theprogram recommended furthersampling, and informing residents ofthe potential hazards of infantsdrinking water that has nitrate-nitrogenconcentrations above 10 ppm.36

Research is being done on “fertigation”- fertilization with irrigation water -which may reduce fertilizer input orallow fertilizer additions to be timedmore closely to plant growth.

Groundwater was also tested north ofArmstrong. In February of 1991, threeof 26 samples were found to haveconcentrations above 10 mg/L.Residents using these wells wereinformed of the possible risks. A 1991Water Quality Reconnaissance Studyrecommended increasing the aware-ness of landowners and water users ofhow to reduce water quality degrada-tion, and constructing an observationwell to monitor local groundwaterquality.40

Water qualityThe Hydraulic Creek watershed nearKelowna provides a source of drinkingwater for 3,500 people and irrigationwater for about 2,000 hectares ofagricultural land. The creek is alsoimportant for recreational fisheries;rainbow trout spawn in portions of thewatercourse, and every year HydraulicLake is stocked with 12-15,000hatchery trout. For years prior to 1984,low intensity selective logging tookplace in the watershed. In response to amountain pine beetle outbreak thatyear, there was a dramatic increase intimber harvest to salvage the wood thatwas still marketable. This acceleratedrate of harvest raised considerableconcern about water quality degrada-tion. Subsequent studies concluded thatwater quality, particularly turbidity (ameasure of water clarity) and sus-pended solids (particles), was beinggreatly affected by the loggingactivity.41,42 The response has been toset water quality objectives for fourwater quality characteristics, anddesign weekly monitoring to ensurecompliance.

BiodiversityThe northern-most end of the WesternGreat Basin of North America extendsinto the southern end of the OkanaganValley. The south Okanagan basin haslow levels of precipitation, hotsummers and mild winters. Thesesemi-arid ecosystems are small in size,extremely fragile, and particularlysensitive to disturbance. They alsoprovide habitat for some of the mostdiverse, unique and rare groupings ofplant and animal species in Canada.43

The south Okanagan basin has morecandidate species (mammals, birds,reptiles and amphibians) for vulner-able, threatened and endangered statusthan any other ecoprovince in B.C. (seeTable 2.3).44

Many south Okanagan species existnowhere else in B.C., and some are notfound anywhere else in Canada. Forexample, 15 of the 20 species of bats inCanada are present in the southOkanagan and two of these are foundnowhere else in Canada. At least 125invertebrate species found in the southOkanagan are found nowhere else inB.C., and 37 of these are foundnowhere else in Canada.43 The semi-arid habitats in the Lytton-Lillooet-Kamloops area are also rich in biologi-cal diversity.

Box 3.1

Eurasian watermilfoil

Eurasian watermilfoil, an aquatic plant introduced to B.C. approximately 20 years ago, hashad a substantial impact on aquatic systems. It spreads by fragments drifting downstream,and on boating equipment. Its fibrous root system and numerous stems form dense masses,which can hinder or prevent recreational use of lakes, streams and rivers. Native plant growthis displaced and fish spawning areas may be affected. Seven mainstream lakes and oneupper elevation lake in the Okanagan Valley are infested with this water weed, affectingapproximately 1,000 hectares of shoreline.37 Once these plants are established, it is almostimpossible to eradicate them. Continued action is therefore necessary to prevent furtherspread, and to allow water-based recreational activities. In 1991 approximately 150 hectaresof Eurasian watermilfoil was treated by de-rooting or harvesting throughout the OkanaganValley.

Eurasian watermilfoil was discovered in Shuswap Lake in 1981, and by 1987 it had spreadupstream into south Mara Lake and the lower Shuswap River. The Shuswap infestationtotalled 194 hectares in 1991.38 A Shuswap control program began in 1981 to delay thespread within Shuswap Lake and into downstream waters. The program includes theinstallation of bottom barriers, diver dredging, de-rooting and harvesting. In 1992, no spreadhad been documented into Little Shuswap Lake or the South Thompson River. However,Eurasian watermilfoil has expanded to about 200 hectares of shoreline area, mainly inSalmon Arm of Shuswap Lake.39 Eurasian watermilfoil has also been found in Nicola Lake.

In addition to helping minimize the further spread of Eurasian watermilfoil, the Ministry ofEnvironment, Lands and Parks has been studying native insects which feed on this plant. Thenuisance impact of this plant has been reduced in some situations by one particular insect,milfoil midge, which is now the subject of study to determine its potential as a biologicalcontrol agent.

A number of pressures threaten thebiological diversity in the SouthernInterior. Urbanization and agriculturaldevelopment are responsible for muchof the loss of natural habitat. Intro-duced species affect natural systems bycompeting with native species. Thereare many introduced species (asidefrom domesticated plants and animals)in this ecoprovince, including Eurasianwatermilfoil (Box 3.1), purpleloosestrife, diffuse knapweed, easternfox squirrel, European starling, Englishsparrow, chukar, ring-necked pheasantand gulls.43

Domestic species can also affect thediversity of native biota. Domesticdogs and cats are of concern in someareas because they prey upon nativeanimals species and are much moreabundant than natural predators.Unnatural increases in native specieshave also occurred. Native ravenpopulations in the Okanagan haveincreased substantially since 1965,mainly due to increasing quantities ofdumped garbage.

A wide variety of stresses affectwildlife, many of them indirectly.Livestock grazing can disturb the soil,and reduce the water supply in

84

temporary water pools on whichwildlife depend. Livestock grazingalso reduces fuel for natural wildfires.Reduced wildfires (due to bothlivestock grazing and fire suppression)changes plant species composition ingrasslands, thereby altering habitat.Timber harvesting reduces winterrange for some species, as well asnesting or roosting habitats such as treesnags for cavity-nesting birds and bats.

Approximately 3,000 deer are hit andkilled on highways by vehicles eachyear in the Okanagan sub-region, asare many more smaller animals. High

numbers of road-kills also sustainpredator populations at higher-than-usual numbers, by providing carcassesto scavenge. Also, new recreationtechnologies such as trail bikes,tricycles and quadracycles disturbsensitive wildlife as well as sensitivesoils, allowing the invasion of noxiousweeds.

As these pressures continue to grow, sodoes the likelihood that already-threatened species and habitats willdisappear and more species andhabitats will be placed at risk. In 1991,the region initiated the South

Okanagan Conservation Strategy.The strategy will develop and priorizemanagement activities for the conser-vation of natural habitat and uniqueplants and animals in the area.45

On a smaller geographic scale, the cityof Kelowna identified special naturalfeatures remaining within the city.These included rare, threatened orendangered plant communities andwildlife habitat, areas of significantbiodiversity, and biological linkagesbetween natural areas. The city alsodeveloped a framework for managingthese special features.46

Coast and Mountains and Northeast Pacific

This section iscomprised of twoecoprovinces: TheCoast and Moun-tains and theNortheast Pacific.1,2

Given the largemarine component and the substantialoverlap among issues, they arediscussed together.

The Northeast Pacific Ecoprovince isthe ocean portion of B.C. west of theContinental Slope to the 200 mile limitoff the west coast of Vancouver Island.It lies almost entirely in the ocean,where fresh water discharge from thecoast dilutes the upper layers of thesea. From late autumn to early spring,winds arrive from the southeast orsouthwest. From late spring to earlyautumn, coastal winds are generallyfrom the northwest. There are no urbanareas, nor protected areas in thisecoprovince.

The Coast and Mountains Ecoprovinceextends along the length of BritishColumbia’s coastline and encompassesthe western edge of the province. Itconsists of the Coast Mountains, theContinental Shelf, and most of BritishColumbia’s islands. The climate isdetermined mainly by the arrival offronts carrying moist air off the PacificOcean, causing high rainfall as thesefronts are lifted by the mountains. Thelandscape includes wave-beaten

Figure 3.18

Descriptive statistics

The Coast and Mountains ecoprovince constitutes 27.9% % of B.C.'s land area, and ishome to 9.0 % of B.C.'s population.4,5

construction 5%manufacturing

13%forestry 5%agriculture

1%

other 33%

transport andstorage 7%

mining 1%

services34%

fishing andhunting 1%

total for 1986: 130 290

0 150 000 300 000

1971

1986

1991

rural urban

1%

9%deciduous forest 1%

coniferous forest 62%

mixed forest12%

tundra 1%barren land15%

perennial snowand ice 9%

total land area: 192 771km2

% change from 1986-91: 9.4%

% change(1986-91)1991

Prince RupertTerrace

16 49516 074

16.49.1

PopulationLand Cover

Labour Force

Population in urban centres

shorelines, coastal plains and ruggedice-capped mountains cut by widerivers, fiords and estuaries. Vegetationconsists primarily of large temperaterainforests with alpine tundra on themountain summits. About 6.4% of thisecoprovince is protected area.3

Although it covers 27.9% of British

Columbia’s land mass, only 9% ofBritish Columbia’s population liveshere. Prince Rupert and Terrace arethe largest communities in thisecoprovince. A general description ofthe ecoprovince is provided inFigure 3.18.

85

About 58 km2 of Kitimat Arm areclosed to shellfish harvesting due todioxin and furan contamination. Themost likely sources of dioxins andfurans in the Arm are from thehistorical use of chlorophenols (a woodpreservative no longer in widespreaduse) and chlorophenol contaminatedwood chips. Elevated levels of PAHshave also been found in upper KitimatArm sediments. PAHs are a group ofcomplex organic molecules, derivedfrom combustion processes, thatinclude both benign and carcinogeniccompounds. Studies are underway toassess the fate and effects of PAHs inthis region. The Province is alsodeveloping water quality objectives forPAHs.

Studies conducted by Alcan indicatethat fluoride is currently the mostsignificant pollutant of concernaffecting the valley. Effects includedisappearance of lichens and reducedtree growth (primarily hemlock) insome areas. Reductions in fluorideemission rates have reduced fluoridelevels in leaf tissue (Figure 3.19). Theeffects on more sensitive species suchas lichens and mosses are not consist-ently monitored, but preliminaryinformation is encouraging. Fluoridealso can affect animals. It is concen-trated in their tissues, potentiallyinterfering with physiological func-tions and altering bones and teeth.Skeletal fluoride concentrations involes, shrews and mice are higherclose to the mill, possibly due tofluoride deposition from the air. Someof the fluorides emitted are also potentgreenhouse gases.

Emissions of fluoride to water are alsoa concern. In areas immediatelyadjacent to the smelter, levels offluoride as high as 246 mg/L have beenobserved. Out of concern for aquaticorganisms, the provincial governmenthas set ambient water quality objec-tives for fluoride of no more than 1.5mg/L. Water quality objectives alsoexist in Kitimat Arm for suspendedsolids, turbidity, cyanide, fluoride,ammonia, nitrite, pH, cadmium,copper, iron, and lead. In 1990, thoseobjectives checked were met, duringthe sampling period. Objectives for

some metals and for cyanide haveoccasionally not been met in previousyears.

Industry in Kitimat has recognized theneed for reduced emissions. Inresponse to stricter government andindustry standards for emissions andpublic pressure, local industries aredecreasing the amount of toxicmaterials being released into theenvironment. This is a long term,ongoing process which may takeseveral years.

Buttle Lakerecovery of an ecosystemSince 1966, a copper-lead-zinc mineoperated by Westmin Resources hasadded heavy metals (cadmium, copper,lead and zinc) to Buttle Lake. ButtleLake is a water reservoir located inStrathcona Park (B.C.’s oldest provin-cial park) on central Vancouver Island.The resulting increase in metalconcentrations in the lake causedincreased metal concentrations insalmon muscle and liver tissues, anddeclines in both the number of speciesand abundance of phytoplankton andzooplankton (microscopic floatingplants and animals, respectively).48

Metal levels reached a peak in

Figure 3.19

Fluoride trends

Trends in air emissions of fluoride from theAlcan smelter in Kitimat and concentrations inhemlock foliage, 1971-1988.47

hemlock flouride content

1970 1980

100

200

0

emissions

1990

hem

lock

flou

ride

cont

ent (

ppm

dry

wei

ght)

flour

ide

emis

sion

s (t

onne

s/da

y)

1

6

5

4

3

250

150

Kitimatcontamination of ecosystemsKitimat is an important coastal citylocated near the mouth of the KitimatRiver at the head of Douglas Channel.It is also the centre of an area ofintensive resource use and concen-trated industrial activity. Due to localtopography, most of the environmentaleffects of these activities are concen-trated within the long, steep sided inletof Kitimat Arm and the Kitimat RiverValley. Both are ecologically impor-tant areas supporting a wide variety ofboth resident and migratory wildlife.These animals have ecological,commercial and cultural importance. Inrecent years, concern has been ex-pressed about the potential effects ofindustrial emissions and resource useon these species, and on the peoplewho depend on them for traditionalfood, such as the Haisla Indians ofKitamaat Village.

The major sources of industrialeffluents and emissions are the Alcanaluminum smelter, the Eurocan pulpand paper mill which producesunbleached Kraft paper, and theMethanex petrochemical plant whichproduces methanol and liquid ammo-nia from natural gas.

Contamination and environmentalimpacts attributable to industries inKitimat have been measured over abroad area. Contaminants of mostconcern in the area include fluorides,dissolved aluminum, sulphur dioxide,dioxins, furans, and polycyclicaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).Chemical contamination attributable toKitimat’s industries has been measuredin sediments as far as 16 km down theinlet. There are also concerns abouttaste and odour problems in theeulachon (an important native foodfish) as a result of pulp mill dischargesto the Kitimat River. The pulp mill iscurrently incorporating a number ofmodifications to their pulp process(e.g. turpentine recovery, improvedbrown stock washing) and is pursuingother options (e.g. condensate steam-stripping) to resolve this concern.

86

1980/81. At that time, the provincialgovernment ordered improved treat-ment and collection systems at themine site to address concerns for thehealth of fish, other aquatic life in thelake, and downstream residents (thetown of Campbell River).

Recent studies of Buttle Lake indicatethat heavy metal levels in the waterhave dropped by more than 80% since1980/81 (Figure 3.20). As metalconcentrations have decreased,phytoplankton have become moreabundant. In addition, some, althoughnot all, metal-sensitive species ofphytoplankton and zooplankton havebegun to reappear in the lake. Concen-trations of metals in rainbow troutmuscle tissue have returned to back-ground levels. Cadmium levels in livertissue have also decreased signifi-cantly, while copper remains elevated.In addition, hepatic metallothionein, anindicator of metal stress in fish, hasbeen restored to normal levels.

oiled" while an additional 150 km wereconsidered to be "moderately" or"lightly oiled".

Figure 3.20

Zinc in Buttle Lake

Trends in surface concentrations of zinc atGold River bridge on Buttle Lake from 1970 to1990. 49

Jan. 15

Jan. 12

Jan. 7, 8

Jan. 5

Jan. 3

Jan. 4

Jan. 2

Dec. 30, 31and Jan. 1

ORIGIN OF SPILL

Dec. 23

Vancouver Island

Wash ing ton

Jan. 5

The most visible impact of theNestucca spill was the death of morethan 50,000 seabirds offshore fromboth B.C. and Washington. Otherimpacts included damage to severalthousand bird scavengers and predatorswho fed on oiled carcasses, and thedeath of at least one sea otter. Shellfishand crab fisheries in certain areas werealso temporarily closed. There wasalso evidence of widespread low-levelcontamination of sandy beaches,damaged eel-grass beds, and somesignificant oiling of saltmarsh habitat.Both the Nestucca oil spill and themuch larger Exxon Valdez spill inAlaska a few months later, heightenedconcern about shipping accidents andour ability to prevent, and respondeffectively, to such events (see WaterChapter).

In May of 1992, the federal andprovincial governments, along with theNuu-Cha-Nulth Tribal Council (NTC),successfully negotiated their environ-mental damage claims from theNestucca spill. The agreement includedpayment of $4.4 million towardsfederal clean-up costs, $1.2 milliontowards NTC clean-up and environ-mental costs, and $4.3 million to the

federal and provincial governments tobe used jointly for restoration andprotection of the environment.51

Persistent marine debriswhat goes out comes back!Marine debris includes all man-madeobjects made of plastic, metal, glass,rubber, and cloth that are lost ordiscarded into the marine environment,including open ocean, coastal waters,and beaches. About 95% of marinedebris collected from B.C. beaches in1990 was non-biodegradable.52

Because most marine debris takesyears to degrade in the environment, itpersists and accumulates.

The density of persistent marine debrisat Pacific Rim National Park rangedfrom 100 to 150 kg/km during surveysbetween 1987 and 1989. On average, aperson would see one piece of debrisfor every step taken on a walk alongthe 20 km beach. From 1987 to 1989in B.C. coastal waters there was athree-fold increase in the number ofpieces of marine debris (Figure 3.22).The causes of this increase are notknown. They may simply reflect

piec

es o

f deb

ris/k

m2

of w

ater

0

1

2

3

4

kg d

ebris

/km

of b

each

0

50

100

150

200

1987 1988 1989

1987 1988 1989

Figure 3.22

Marine debris

Trends in amount of marine debris observedon beaches and in water along the west coastof Vancouver Island, 1987 to 198952,54,55,56

Figure 3.21

Nestucca oil spill

About 150 km of the west coast of VancouverIsland were affected.50

tota

l Zn

(ug/

L)

1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

150

50

100

0

The Nestucca oil spillIn December 1988, 875 tonnes of oilwere spilled off Gray’s Harbor on thecoast of Washington State when thetug Ocean Service collided with itstow, the barge Nestucca. The tug wastrying to reattach a broken tow lineduring rough seas. Ocean currentsspread the oil slick hundreds ofkilometres northward, eventuallyreaching the west coast of VancouverIsland (Figure 3.21). About 2 to 3 kmof the Island coastline were "heavily

87

natural year-to-year variability. Mostcollected debris is polystyrene andplastics (77%), followed by glass andmetal (15%), paper and wood (5%),and fishing gear (3%).52

Marine debris can originate from manysources, both on land and at sea. In1987, marine park visitors lost ordiscarded an estimated 115,000 kg ofmarine debris. However, recreationalboaters, commercial fishermen, cargoships, and cruise and passenger shipsare the heaviest polluters of B.C.beaches, discarding or losing anestimated 850,000 kg of debrisannually. Recreational boaters accountfor almost half of this amount.52 Windsand oceanic currents also carry marinedebris from the central and easternNorth Pacific to B.C. beaches. Piecesof squid driftnet from the North Pacificsquid driftnet fleet have been foundalong the coast of B.C. and Alaska.57

Marine animals (e.g. birds, seals, andsea lions) can become entangled indebris or can ingest it, threatening theirsurvival. Debris is also a safety hazardsince it can get caught in propellersand motors, endangering people whoare fishing or boating. Debris whichcontains sharp objects also poses ahealth risk. At a minimum, marinedebris detracts from the aestheticenjoyment of beaches and coastalwaters.

In 1987, a Working Group on PlasticDebris established by the Departmentof Fisheries and Oceans recommendedto the federal government that a clearnational policy be implemented,recognizing plastics and other persist-ent debris in the aquatic environmentas an immediate and serious issue.Federal and provincial legislation hastried to deter marine polluters underthe Canada Shipping Act through theGarbage Prevention Pollution Regula-tions (1978). Other regulations includeSection 36 of the Fisheries Act.

The interested public, such as the B.C.Coastal Cleanup Campaign, Pitch-InCanada, schools and club groups, hasaided in removing debris from B.C.beaches while at the same timeproviding valuable data about theamount and types of debris present.

Khutzeymateen Valleyprotecting grizzly bearsSince the early 1970s, theKhutzeymateen Valley has been thefocus of conflict between timberharvesting interests and grizzly bears.Historically, only small amounts oftimber had been harvested from thevalley next to the estuary . The timberresource represents 3% of the annualallowable cut for the North Coasttimber supply area. In June 1988, theprovincial government decided tostudy the potential impacts of timberharvest on grizzly bears. The Ministryof Environment, Lands, and Parks andthe Forest Service jointly initiated theKhutzeymateen Project, consisting ofstudies of grizzly bears, fisheries, roadengineering, forest inventory, ecologi-cal habitats, and terrain and slopestability (Figure 3.23).

The Project found that theKhutzeymateen is important to grizzlybears in north coastal B.C. It con-

cluded that timber harvesting could notbe carried out without substantial riskto the grizzly bears due to reducedhabitat and increased mortality. TheProject also found that any unregulatedpublic access into the Khutzeymateenwould have tragic results for bothpeople and bears. The study reportrecommended that, in addition to thelarge grizzly bear reserve with nohunting (established in 1924) a smallerprotected habitat core with no huntingor logging should be established toassure future viability of the grizzlybear population. The Khutzeymateenwas recommended as the best candi-date for a protected habitat core innorth coastal B.C. On June 4, 1992,the provincial government announcedthe protection of the KhutzeymateenValley as grizzly bear habitat. Notimber harvesting will be permitted inthis area. This is the first area inCanada to be protected specifically forgrizzly bears.58

Figure 3.23

The Khutzeymateen valley - a haven for grizzly bears

The Khutzeymateen Project Area, which includes Larch and Cedar Creek, is located 45 kmnortheast of Prince Rupert and covers 443 square kilometres. The valley is a diverse collectionof glaciers, avalanche chutes, bogs, flood plains, a large estuary, and extensive areas of old-growth forests, occupying three biogeoclimatic zones (coastal western hemlock, mountainhemlock, and alpine tundra). Its river system supports runs of chinook, coho, chum, and pinksalmon. Seasonally, the area also supports approximately 50 grizzly bears and may play animportant role in the population dynamics of grizzly bears over a much larger area. Other wildlifefound in the valley include black bear, mountain goat, marten, beaver, seal, wolf, porcupine,wolverine and otter. Common birds include a variety of songbirds, waterfowl, raptors, grouse,shore birds, hummingbirds, swifts, woodpeckers, and kingfishers.58

K h u t z e y m a t e e n I n l e t

K a t e e n R i v e r

Kh

utz

eym

a t een R i v e r

0 1 2 3 4 5

k i l o m e t r e s

88

Bears and peopleBears are not always a good newsstory. There has been a large rise inbear complaints, disposal and reloca-tion in Terrace, Kitimat and Stewart inrecent years (Figure 3.24). These bearcomplaints are a direct result of bearand human interaction and the effectsof human activities on bear habitat.

Bear complaints occur when blackbears or grizzlies enter human settle-ments and are seen by people, causeproperty damage, threaten (or areperceived to threaten) human or animalsafety, or actually injure or kill humansor their animals. Most of theseincidents are a direct result of the wayhumans handle their garbage, livestockor fruit crops. In Terrace, Kitimat andStewart, the landfills are close toresidential areas. Residents andbusinesses in both Kitimat and Stewarthave poor garbage storage practices.

Electric fencing has been installedaround the landfills in Kitimat andStewart. Ministry of Environment,Lands and Parks staff are removinghabituated bears from these sites and

Figure 3.24

Concerns about bears

Bear complaints, disposal and relocation have risen significantly in recent years in Terrace,Kitimat and Stewart. These figures represent only complaints the Conservation Officer Servicehandles. R.C.M.P. handle many additional complaints. For example, in 1990, Stewart R.C.M.P.handled an additional 100 bear complaints, destroying a significant number of these bears.59

num

ber

of c

ompl

aint

s

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

num

ber

kille

d

0

10

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num

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40

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1989

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1991

1992

Stewart

Terrace

Kitimat

surrounding residential areas. Toreduce future bear habituation withgarbage, public information campaigns

have been launched to change bothpublic attitudes and garbage handlingpractices.59

Georgia Depression

This broad shel-tered basin har-bours the Strait ofGeorgia, andincludes the LowerFraser Valley, theSunshine Coast up

as far as Powell River, the GulfIslands, and the eastern side of Van-couver Island.1,2 An effectiverainshadow appears in the lee of theVancouver Island Range while moreprecipitation falls on the LowerMainland side. The moderate climateand flat lowlands in the GeorgiaDepression have resulted in a variety offorest habitats. These include Douglas-fir forests, arbutus and Garry oak

woodlands, as well as wetlands,agricultural lands, and large estuaries.These habitats support a rich diversityof wildlife species. About 9.4% of thisecoprovince is protected area.3

The Georgia Depression makes uponly 2.7% of the area of B.C., butcontains two-thirds of its people(Figure 3.25). The population densityhere is about 25 times the provincialaverage. People are attracted here bythe mild climate, a spectacular naturalenvironment, relatively abundant jobopportunities, and world class culturaland educational facilities, all withinclose proximity. During the 1971-1986period, this ecoprovince absorbed 69%

of B.C.’s overall population growth,and grew by almost half a millionpeople (Figure 3.25). Almost two-thirds of this increase occurred in theLower Mainland, one quarter onsoutheastern Vancouver Island, and theremainder (11%) on the Gulf Islands.The Gulf Islands population grewparticularly rapidly during this period -by 58%. The Islands’ many uniquequalities are likely to continue to drawmore and more people.

The population of the Greater Vancou-ver Regional District (GVRD) isexpected to grow by about 40% overthe next 25 years.60,61 Unless per capitaenvironmental impacts can be reduced

89

Ground-level ozonetransportation impacts onhealth and visibilityAir pollution in the Lower Mainlandcomes from many sources. Theseinclude motor vehicles (the majorpollution source), natural gas process-ing and forest industries, municipalincinerators, home heating and outdoorfires. Smog, a brownish haze, is amajor air quality problem. One of theprimary ingredients of smog is ground-level ozone, which in turn is formedfrom nitrogen oxides (NOx) andvolatile organic compounds (VOCs) onsunny, warm, calm days. Motorvehicles produce 64% of the NOx and54% of the VOC emissions.64

Air quality in the region deterioratesduring periods of limited air move-ment. At these times the high coastalmountains restrict movement ofregional emissions. Vancouver,Canada’s third largest city, is consid-ered the eighth worst city in Canadafor ozone problems (Figure 3.26). Oneadvantage Vancouver has over otherCanadian cities is that most of thepollution (82%) is generated fromwithin the Greater Vancouver RegionalDistrict, and is therefore potentiallyunder local control. The highestconcentrations of ozone form in theeastern portions of the region (such asPort Moody and Port Coquitlam)during hot summer days (Figure 3.27).Hourly ozone concentrations of 110-130 ppb can occur as far as 100 kmdownwind from the major sources ofNOx and VOC emissions. In spite ofimprovements over the last decade,there are still 100 days per year whenone or more stations have only fair airquality for part of the day due to highozone levels (Figure 3.28).

Computer models of ozone generationindicate that under projected emissionlevels for the year 2005, high ozonelevels will continue to cause fair topoor air quality conditions.86 Theseprojections assume current climateconditions. If hotter, dryer summersshould occur, air quality could furtherdeteriorate.

Figure 3.25

Descriptive statistics

The Georgia Depression ecoprovince constitutes 2.7% of B.C.'s land area, and is hometo 67.4% of B.C.'s population.4,5

by 40% over the same period, we canexpect increased stresses on the air,water, land and biota of thisecoprovince. The population ofVancouver Island, for example, isexpected to swell from a current levelof 559,000 to 777,000 within the next25 years. Most of this increase isexpected to be absorbed in existingmetropolitan areas along the east coastof the Island (Box 3.2).

Less than 5% of the population in thisecoprovince is directly employed in theprimary resource sectors of agriculture,forestry, mining, fishing and hunting(Figure 3.25). However, the totalnumber of people working in thesesectors far exceeds that of all otherecoprovinces. Furthermore, many ofthe jobs in other labour force catego-ries, such as manufacturing, depend oneconomically viable resource indus-tries. Other labour force sectors, suchas tourism, depend on a high qualitynatural environment, which canpotentially be impaired by resource

industries. Much of the economy of theecoprovince therefore depends onfinding a way to use resources so thatboth economic and environmentalsustainability are accommodated.

Box 3.2

Growth pressures onVancouver Island

Vancouver Island offers one of the mostattractive environments of any area ofCanada. As a result, the population ofVancouver Island is expected to grow from559,000 to 777,000 by the year 2016 - anincrease of nearly 39%.60 For the eastcoast of the island itself, growth has beenprojected to exceed 50% for the sameperiod. It is anticipated that rapid growthwill place major demands on the naturalresource base of the island. In view of thesheer physical constraints that the islandpresents, issues of water supplies, liquidand solid waste disposal, and fish andwildlife resources may be more seriousthan those experienced elsewhere.100

construction 6%

manufacturing 12%

agriculture 2%forestry 2%

other 37%transport and

storage 6%

services 35%

total for 1986: 970 955

1urban centres with population over 20,000

0 1 200 000 2 400 000

197119861991

rural urban

deciduous forest 2%

coniferous forest 69%

mixed forest18%

cultivated land 6%built-up areas 4% barren land 1%

total land area: 18 152 km2

% change(1986-91)

1991

VancouverVictoriaMatsquiNanaimoWhite RockChilliwackCampbell RiverCourtenayPort Alberni

1 409 361262 223

92 97562 73151 71237 94226 36121 41220 590

14.511.531.622.525.618.415.619.2

1.0

Population in urban centres 1

% change from 1986-91: 17.1%

PopulationLand Cover

Labour Force

90

The Greater Vancouver RegionalDistrict (GVRD) air quality programhas set a goal of reducing totalemissions by 50%, by the year 2000.This is only seven years away.Reaching this goal during a period ofrapid population growth will require amajor reduction in per capita emis-sions. Actions being considered by theGVRD include: redesigning transporta-tion networks (pedestrians and cyclistsfirst, then transit and movement ofgoods, and lastly cars); encouragingcarpools and high-occupancy vehiclelanes; increasing commuter parkingrates; converting government vehiclesto cleaner fuels; stronger control of carand industry emissions; and makingnew residential developments pay fortransit costs. The new Air Care vehicleemission program is an importantcomponent of the GVRD plan.

The distribution of land for housingmakes the GVRD target more difficultto achieve. If automobiles remain thedominant form of transportation of therapidly growing communities of theFraser Valley, commuting distances,traffic congestion and ozone formationare all likely to increase. The CapitalRegional District of the Victoria area,though currently blessed with muchbetter air quality than Vancouver, facessimilar challenges in the future and hasinitiated an air management program.

Abbotsford aquifergroundwater qualityThe Abbotsford aquifer is an importantsource of water for domestic, munici-pal, agricultural, fish hatchery andindustrial users in the Lower Mainlandand Washington State (Figure 3.29).The aquifer is unconfined (exposed tothe land surface) making it particularlyvulnerable to contamination from landuse practices.70 Nitrate contaminationof the Abbotsford aquifer has beenincreasing (Figure 3.30). Manureapplication is suspected as the majorsource of nitrates but the actualcontribution from other sources such aschemical fertilizers and septic fields isnot known.

Pesticide contamination has also beenobserved in some locations.70 Labora-

# of

day

s/ye

ar e

xcee

ding

82

ppb

Vic

toria

Van

couv

er

Cal

gary

Win

nipe

g

Win

sdor

Sar

nia

Lond

on

Ham

ilton

Toro

nto

Osh

awa

Otta

wa

Cor

nwal

l

Mon

trea

l

Que

bec

Sai

nt J

ohn

Hal

ifax0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Figure 3.26

Ground-level ozone in Canadian cities

Number of days per year when Canada’s 1-hour ozone air quality objective (82 ppb) wasexceeded. This air quality objective corresponds to ‘poor’ air quality line in Figure 3.28. The valuefor each city is the average of that city’s three highest years during 1983-90, and includes severalstations.62,68

Figure 3.27

Ground-level ozone in the Lower Mainland

Contours show the maximum 1-hour concentrations, based on an average of the three highestyears during 1983-89. These conditions never occurred at the same time at all locations.However, the map shows that many areas occasionally exceed the maximum acceptableobjective of 82 ppb. The highest ozone concentrations occur downwind from the major sourcesof ozone-forming gases.62,68

doors.63,66 Long term exposure toozone may hasten the decline in lungfunction with age.67,68 Health effects ofozone on animals, such as livestock inthe Fraser Valley, are also a concern.Other impacts on agriculture may besubstantial. Preliminary estimatessuggest that ozone may be causing upto $9 million annually in crop losses inthe Fraser Valley.69 Ozone has beenshown to reduce forest growth in otherparts of the world, but detailed localstudies have not been completed.

Smog and ozone are not only a concernbecause they obscure the view. Ozonecan affect the health of people,vegetation and animals. It also cor-rodes materials. As ozone levelsapproach or exceed 82 ppb (poorconditions in Figure 3.28), short-termexposure may result in irritation, lunginflammation, or mild aggravation ofsymptoms in sensitive persons.Normally healthy individuals can alsoexperience impaired lung functionaround this ozone level if they havebeen vigorously exercising out-

< 9090 - 129130 - 140>140

max ozone (ppb)

West Vancouver

VancouverBurnaby

RichmondDelta

Surrey

LangleyMatsqui

Maple RidgeBurrard

Inlet

Mission

North Vancouver District

91

Figure 3.28

GVRD ground-level ozone trends

In spite of improvements over the last decade, there are still 100 days per year when one or morestations have only fair air quality for part of the day due to high ozone levels. Fair indicates thatvery sensitive individuals may need to take some precautions. Poor conditions occur on average10 days per year. Poor indicates that sensitive individuals of the general population (i.e. withheart or respiratory ailments) may experience irritation and should avoid unnecessary exposure.Very Poor indicates concern for sensitive people, while the general population may noticesymptoms. These trends are approximate, since the number and location of stations haschanged over time.64

exceeding the 10 ppm guideline.Pesticides can have a variety ofimpacts on human health.72

How can the aquifer’s contaminationbe reduced and water quality im-proved? Recommended actionsinclude improved farming practices,enhanced septic field design andmaintenance, modified land useactivities, additional research, andbetter regulation of manure applica-tions.70 The Waste Management Actwas amended in 1992 to includecontrol regulations and a code ofagricultural practice.73 This codeintroduces new standards for agricul-tural activities to prevent surface andgroundwater pollution, specifyingappropriate methods of storage,management and application ofagricultural wastes. B.C. farmers haveformed an Agricultural EnvironmentalProtection Council to support theimplementation of the control regula-tions and code.

The B.C. Ministry of Health, Environ-ment Canada, Agriculture Canada andthe University of British Columbia arecontinuing to study groundwaterquality in the Abbotsford aquifer andthe general area of the Lower FraserValley. In addition to monitoringchanges in nitrate and pesticide levels,these studies include evaluations ofthe impact of septic tanks on ground-water, the quality of water in munici-pal and communal wells, and thelevels of disease organisms in highrisk aquifers.

Marine water qualitymany sewers discharge intoone ecosystemThere are water quality concerns inseveral areas, including the FraserRiver Estuary, Burrard Inlet, the GulfIslands Victoria Harbour andEsquimalt Harbour (Table 3.1). Ingeneral, while “hot spots” exist insediments and marine organisms nearspecific pollution sources, theseeffects are not observable reasonablyshort distances from the outfalls.Victoria’s untreated sewage outfall isan example of such an area. The

tory analyses were able to detect 12 ofthe 23 pesticides analysed in ground-water samples, though six of these 12were only found infrequently (i.e. in 1-3 samples out of 58). None of thepesticides detected exceeded theexisting Canadian Drinking WaterQuality Guidelines. However, fourpesticides were found at concentrationsexceeding the more stringent Canadian

guidelines for protection of freshwateraquatic life.

Nitrate contamination of drinking wateris of particular concern for infants, as itcan reduce the ability of blood to carryoxygen. Residents relying on wellwater have been advised to have theirwater tested, and to not drink waterwith nitrate-nitrogen concentrations

# st

atio

n da

ys/y

ear

abov

e ob

ject

ive

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

0

100

200

300

400

51 ppb (fair)82 ppb (poor)153 ppb (very poor)

CanadaUSA

F r a s e r R i v e r

Be

r tr

an

d C

re

ek

No

o

k s a c k R i v e r Su

m

a

s

Ri

ve

r

Fi s

h t r a p C

ree

k

Trans Canada H ighway A B B O T S F O R D

Figure 3.29

The Abbotsford aquifer

The aquifer (shaded area) is comprised of extensive sand and gravel deposits in southwesternB.C. and northwestern Washington State, and covers about 200 km2 in area.70

92

wastes to the Strait of Georgia and theStrait of Juan de Fuca. Dischargedwastes all end up in the same ecosys-tem. Although not originating fromsewer discharges, the accumulation ofdioxins and furans in crabs, shrimp,fish, and seabirds indicate how theeffects of individual outfalls can bemagnified when the whole ecosystemis considered (see Water Chapter).

Sediment core samples taken from thesea bottom of the Strait of Georgiahave been contaminated by lead andorganochlorines such as dioxins, furansand PCBs. Careful analysis of thecores’ layers show that this contamina-tion began in the 1940s, 1960s and1970s, and increased markedly inconcentration in following years(Figure 3.31). Some of these pollutantsare gradually being eliminated fromsources such as automobile gasoline,incinerated waste and pulp effluents.However, sediment contaminationdoes not simply disappear. Thecontaminated sediments will slowly beburied over the next several decades bya rain of new sediments from theFraser and other rivers. This burial willeventually isolate the contaminantsfrom living organisms and lessen theirimpacts, unless the sediments are againexposed by dredging or other distur-bances.77,78

The Fraser River Action Plan (seeWater Chapter, Box 2.1b), FraserRiver Estuary Management Programand the Burrard Inlet EnvironmentalAction Program are addressing waterquality, sediment and biologicalproblems in the Lower Mainland.These actions are focusing first onreducing existing contaminant dis-charges to stop further degradation;next, on ensuring that future dischargesare adequately regulated to preventfuture impacts; and last, on cleaning upexisting contaminated sites. TheProvince recently entered into a jointEnvironment Cooperation Agreementwith Washington State to coordinateenvironmental protection efforts,including the Puget Sound-GeorgiaBasin region.

aver

age

[nitr

ate-

N],

ppm

0

5

10

15

20

25

1973

1975

1977

1979

1981

1983

1985

1987

1989

1991

drinking water standard

* * * * *

Concerns

• organic contaminantsfrom local industries,landfills and sewers

• municipal sewage• pulp and paper

contaminants• contaminated sediments

and biota

• wood preservative,metal, PAH and PCBcontaminatied sediments

• combined storm seweroverflows

• cancerous lesions in liversof English sole

• contaminated sediments• PCBs and organic

contaminants

• municipal sewage• contaminated sediments

• bacterial contaminationof shellfish

• pulp and papercontaminants

• bacterial contaminationof shellfish

• contamination from FraserRiver plume

Location

LowerFraserRiver andEstuary

VancouverHarbour

FalseCreek

Victoria

S.E. coastVancouverIsland

GulfIslands

Table 3.1

Marine water quality problems

These are examples of some concerns in theGeorgia Depression.76

effluent itself is acutely lethal to fish,though water quality appears to begenerally unaffected.74 Sedimentconditions are moderately pollutedwithin 400m of the outfall, andaffected up to 2 km away.74 Anotherexample is the Iona sewage treatmentplant, which discharges primary-treated sewage from Greater Vancou-ver to the ocean. Historic fish kills andhighly contaminated sediments led tothe installation of a deep waterdischarge outfall. There is ongoingmonitoring of water quality, sedimentsand biota in the vicinity of the outfall.No major impacts have been identifiedto date. Coliform levels at Vancouverarea beaches have decreased.75,86 Therecovery of the habitat on the IonaIsland foreshore is being assessed bythe Department of Fisheries andOceans.

Site specific studies like these do not,however, account for all potentialenvironmental impacts. First, wastesmay be transported far from their pointof origin due to tidal influences, anddeposited in seldom sampledembayments. Municipal sewagedischarges are the largest single factorcontributing to shellfish closures inB.C. Second, there may be cumulativeeffects from the over 300 outfalls inthis ecoprovince discharging various

Figure 3.30

Nitrate-nitrogen in the Abbotsford aquifer

Average concentrations in sampled wells appear to be increasing. In the South Matsqui part ofthe aquifer, about 60% of the samples exceed Health and Welfare’s drinking water standard of10 ppm. Two cautionary notes: 1) few samples were taken during the 1982-86 period, so thecalculated average is highly uncertain; 2) later sampling has focused on areas with higher nitrateconcentrations. (* indicates years with no data) 70,71

93

Figure 3.31

Contaminants in Strait of Georgia sediments

By dating sediments and measuring contaminants from bottom cores, scientists can assess thehistory of contaminant loads to the Strait of Georgia and Fraser Basin.

a) The appearance of lead coincided with the introduction of lead to automotive gasolinein the 1930s, and today concentrations are about double the natural backgroundlevels.77 The effects of introducing unleaded gasoline in the early 1970s are not yetapparent.

b) The furan TCDF started to enter the sediments in the early 1960s, coincident withchlorine bleaching installations at a number of pulp mills. It steadily increased to 1990.Other data for surface sediments suggest that its concentration is decreasing, inresponse to pulp mill conversions to chlorine dioxide bleaching.78

c) The dioxin OCDD is most likely to have originated from regional and distant wasteincinerators, and reached the Strait of Georgia via the atmosphere. Regulation ofincineration in the 1970s is probably responsible for the observed decline.78

converted as much as 80 km2 of ruralland during these five years. (Thisestimate assumes that between 1981-86 and 1986-91 there was no overallchange in the number of people addedper square kilometre urbanized.)

Urban centred regions in the GeorgiaDepression vary widely in the densityof development placed on newlyurbanized lands. In the 1981-86 period,the Vancouver UCR populationincreased by 3,329 people for eachnewly urbanized square kilometre.Victoria added 823/km2, Nanaimo1,364/km2 and Chilliwack 253/km2.79

In general, larger centres tend tooccupy new land more efficiently, atrend observed throughout Canada.79

There is a slight trend towards higherdensities in the Georgia Depression, inthat a greater percentage of peoplewere living in apartments in 1986(30%) than in 1971 (25%).80 However,most people occupy single familydwellings (58% in 1986).

Urbanization consumes agriculturalland in most areas of the world, and theGeorgia Depression is no different.Mountain slopes, the U.S. border andthe Strait of Georgia restrict the area inwhich development can occur, placingextra pressure on agricultural land. TheLower Fraser Basin is one of the mostproductive agricultural areas inCanada. In 1986, there were 5,600farms on 890 km2 of agricultural landproducing 50% of the total gross farmincome in the province.86 Between1980 and 1987, 750 ha of primeagricultural land in the Lower FraserBasin was permanently lost to urbanuses.81 The southern third of Vancou-ver Island ranks behind only the LowerFraser Basin and the Okanagan interms of agricultural production, andfaces similar pressures. Urbanization ischipping away at the Agricultural LandReserve (ALR) in the eight regionaldistricts which overlap the GeorgiaDepression. Between 1973 and 1990,the ALR area in these districts declinedby 8.5% (from 2,170 km2 to 1,990km2). Additional lands were perma-nently converted from farms to golfcourses, yet still remain inside theALR. By contrast, the ALR declinedby only 0.4% over the province as awhole.82

Land use changeand ecosystem changeRapid population and economicgrowth is changing the landscape ofthe Georgia Depression Ecoprovince.The main activities causing landscapechange are urbanization, forestry,agriculture, recreation, developmentand transportation/utility corridors.These changes are probably affectingthe potential of ecosystems to maintainthe native plant and animal populationsof the region. However, the extent oflandscape change is not fully docu-mented for each land use, and the

overall ecological consequences arenot well understood.

Data are available for rates of urbani-zation. These data are generated forUrban Centred Regions (UCRs). UCRsinclude all of the urbanized areaaround a major city, including adjacenturban municipalities. In the five yearsbetween 1981 and 1986, over 50 km2

of rural land in the Vancouver andVictoria UCRs were converted tourban uses (33.8 and 17.2 km2 respec-tively).79 Though data are not availablefor the 1986-91 period, it’s possiblethat the Vancouver and Victoria UCRs

Pb

intr

oduc

ed in

gas

olin

e (1

927)

Pb-

free

gas

olin

e (1

971)

[Pb]

in m

arin

e se

dim

ents

(µg

/g)

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980ga

solin

e P

b em

issi

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94

Cities are sometimes described asforming an “urban shadow”, becausefarm land around cities is seen as apotential site for urban use rather thanas an agricultural resource.83,84 Asland pressures grow more intense, itbecomes more and more difficult forfarmers to survive the economicpressures induced by rising propertyvalues, rising costs and land specula-tion. People living in new subdivisionsadjacent to farms may complain aboutthe odour from manure, addingpressure to modify or close agricul-tural operations. Even if agriculturalland uses are maintained, farmingpractices often intensify to remainprofitable. Intensive use of heavy farmmachinery on moist soils has led tocompaction of soils in the LowerFraser Basin, with an estimated cost of$6-12 million / year in lost productiv-ity.85

In many areas of the Georgia Depres-sion, agricultural land originallydisplaced waterfowl habitat, yetwaterfowl still use these areas as animportant supplement to their remain-ing natural habitat. Removal ofagricultural land therefore also affectswildlife. Encroachment onto primeagricultural land and wildlife habitat isnot necessarily an inevitable conse-quence of population growth in thisecoprovince. In the Lower Mainland,for example, much developable land isavailable elsewhere.81,99

Urbanization affects more thanagricultural land. As cities expand,they increasingly encroach on streams,rivers and coastal zones. In both theLower Mainland and southeasternVancouver Island, urban developmentand its associated flood protection anddrainage projects have eliminatedwetlands, stream habitat, and otherimportant fish and wildlife areas. Thisundermines the basic principle ofsustainable development - maintainingthe integrity of natural systems to keepoptions open for future generations.87

Building in floodplains has seriousrisks for human populations as well.While natural ecosystems associatedwith floodplains have adapted toperiodic flooding, human populationsappear less adaptable.87 Twice in the

last 100 years major flooding hasoccurred and caused significant damageto people and property in the FraserRiver floodplain (Box 3.3) . Futurepopulation growth will increasepressures to build in floodplain areas,with potentially devastating conse-quences.

Maintaining the integrity of theregion’s ecosystems under the currentand future land use changes will bevery difficult. It will certainly require aform of integrated environmentalmanagement which is proactive, andcuts across traditional political,institutional and community bounda-ries. It will also require the creativecommitment of all residents of theregion. The foundation for building

integrated ecosystem managementexists in the Fraser River EstuaryManagement Program (FREMP, seenext section) and Fraser River Man-agement Board (formed under theFraser River Action Plan, Box 2.1b).These programs must be continued,and perhaps extended to other parts ofthe ecoprovince facing similar stresses(i.e. southeast Vancouver Island, theGulf Islands).

The Fraser River EstuaryAn estuary is the area at the mouth of ariver where freshwater and sea watermix, and tides occur. The Fraser RiverEstuary contains a tremendousdiversity and abundance of life. In anaverage year, about 800 millionjuvenile salmon and steelhead migrateout of the estuary and 10 million adultspass through on their way upstream tospawn. There are at least 87 species offish and shellfish in the Lower Fraser.89

The Estuary is also a vital staging areaon the Pacific Flyway, one of theworld’s major migratory routesextending from the Bering Sea toSouth America. It supports the highestdensity of wintering waterfowl,shorebirds, and birds of prey inCanada. In a typical year, about 1.5million birds (150 species) utilize theestuary, especially during the monthsfrom October to December.90

Fish and birds in the Fraser RiverEstuary need a variety of habitats, butmarshes are particularly important.Marshes are the foundation of an

Box 3.3

Flood risks to the Lower FraserBasin

The greatest Fraser River floods in re-corded history occurred in 1894 and 1948.The 1948 flood damaged 2,000 homes,caused the evacuation of 16,000 residents,and cost $20 million (about $109 million incurrent dollars).87

“At the time of the 1894 flood there werefew farms along the lower reaches of theFraser. Damage, reckoned in dollars,(though not in human misery), was rela-tively small. When, in the spring of 1948,the engineers saw the water rising fast onthe Hope gauge, when they looked at thegigantic load of snow in the mountains, andlearned of sudden hot weather throughoutthe interior, they knew they were in fortrouble. ...Modern Canada had never seena flood like this”.88

Figure 3.32

A Fraser River Estuary food chain

Detritus (e.g. dead marsh plants and microscopic organisms) provide food for invertebrates,which in turn support fish and bird communities.91 The actual food web is much more complex.Removal of marshes and contamination of water and sediments are major concerns.86

95

estuary’s food chain (Figure 3.32), aplace of shelter while fish adjust to saltwater before going to sea, a source ofshade and cover, and a source of foodfor juvenile fish. Though the entireFraser River Estuary is used by birds,the marshes support about a quarter ofthe total population.90

Up to 70% of the original wetlandshave been altered due to humansettlement.86 Most of these lossesoccurred at the turn of the century withdyking and draining of fertilefloodplains for agricultural land, andlater urban development (e.g. Rich-mond and Delta). Since then, habitatlosses have continued due to dredgingand filling in of river marshes andshoreline areas. The total area ofwetlands in the southwestern portion ofthe Fraser lowland declined by 27%between 1967 and 1982.92 A 1989inventory estimated that there were25,200 ha of wetlands in the FraserEstuary.93 Of this total, the 4,000 ha ofeelgrass beds (an aquatic plant) and3,200 ha of marshes are particularlyimportant to the Estuary’s ecosystem.93

In addition to habitat loss, other threatsto the estuary's ecosystem are frommunicipal, industrial, and agriculturalwastewater (Figure 3.33). Waterquality in the Fraser Estuary isgenerally within the Province’s waterquality objectives.94 Ambient waterquality is fair to good where largeflows flush out most contaminants,except right near the dilution zones ofeffluent outfalls. There are moreserious problems in areas of limitedcirculation, such as sloughs, sidechannels and small streams. Here, fishkills have often occurred, due to eitherlow flows or poor water quality.86

Over 90% of Greater Vancouver’ssewage discharges come from the Iona,Annacis and Lulu islands sewagetreatment plants (53%, 33% and 5%,respectively). Together these plantsdischarge enough wastewater eachyear to fill B.C. Place Stadium 160times.86 Though an impressive volume,this represents only 0.2% of theaverage annual flow of the FraserRiver. As mentioned above, the Ionaplant discharges into deeper marinewaters.

The effects of Fraser River sewagedischarges remain a concern. There hasbeen a substantial reduction in theamount of untreated sewage dis-charged (Figure 3.34). However, thewaste only receives primary treatment- removal of large solids and floatingsubstances through settling andscreening. Furthermore, discharges areincreasing rapidly, with flows from theAnnacis plant expected to double by2036 as the eastern part of the LowerMainland region grows.86 In 1985, thedischarged effluents were toxic to fishmore than half the time at the Annacisand Lulu plants.

Figure 3.33

Wastewater sources

The chart shows sources of wastewater flowsto the Fraser River Estuary. The pie chart isbased on 1987 volumes, and includes esti-mates of runoff from agricultural lands. Thedifferent sources vary greatly in the composi-tion of wastewater.53,86,95

urban runoff31.6%

industrial10.3%

annual total: 908 000 000 m3/year

combined sewer overflows 2.5%

25.4%agricultural runoff

other 0.1%

30.3%

sewagetreatment plants

Lulu Island startup

Annacis plant startup

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aver

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)

Figure 3.34

GVRD untreated sewage discharges

Over the last 25 years, discharges of untreated sewage from the GVRD have decreased byover 90%.96

Though the sewage is diluted by theFraser River’s flow, there are criticaltimes when dilution is reduced. Forexample, during winter low flowconditions, the effluent can reside inthe estuary for up to 1.7 days, withtides moving the effluent back andforth. Contaminants such as persistentorganic compounds and heavy metalsmay become bound up in sediments orplants, and eventually into food usedby fish, birds and other biota. Of thefive species of salmon, chinook is themost threatened by contaminatedhabitat and wastewater discharges,since juvenile fish spend up to one yearin the Fraser Estuary before going tosea.10 Urban runoff (the water releasedfrom storm sewers, combined seweroverflows, and direct drainage) addsmore nutrients, metals and organiccompounds. During the first hour of arain storm, more contaminants enterthe Fraser River from urban runoffthan from the three major sewagetreatment plants.11

Concerted efforts are being made bygovernment agencies, associations andcommunity groups to protect habitatsand maintain water quality. The FraserRiver Action Plan (Box 2.1b) isworking to reverse environmentaldegradation and restore degraded areasin the Fraser River Basin. The GVRDis implementing secondary treatment atits Lulu and Annacis islands sewagetreatment plants by 1995 and 1997. It

96

is also exploring other options forimproving the effectiveness of existingtreatment plants, reducing the amountof untreated waste and urban runoff,and finding a useful end use for wasteby-products such as sewage sludge.This includes experiments to fertilizeforests with sewage sludge. The FraserRiver Estuary Management Program(FREMP) is a key agency. It coordi-nates the activities of federal, provin-cial, and municipal governments to

review development proposals, andmonitors the health of various parts ofthe ecosystem (water, sediments,bottom-dwelling organisms, fish).FREMP and the North Fraser HarbourCommission have mapped habitat inthe Estuary in terms of its productivityfor juvenile salmon.97,98 These mapsare used to locate appropriate develop-ment, while protecting remaininghabitat. High productivity habitatscannot be altered. A Habitat Compen-

sation Bank, consisting of mudflatsthat have been converted to marshland,is being used to compensate for theloss of medium to low productivityhabitats. Over the last three decadesconservation efforts have secured largeportions of the marshes, such as theSouth Arm Marshes Wildlife Manage-ment area. Other critical areas are notprotected from development.65

Conclusions on the state of ecoprovinceslution of the lower Columbia River,and production of greenhouse gasesand ozone - depleting chemicals by aKitimat smelter.

Sustainable development requiresfirm actions to preserve wildlifehabitat, representative ecosystemsand agricultural resources. Habitatand land preservation is essential forthe mountain caribou of eastern B.C.,Khutzeymateen Valley grizzlies,Fraser Estuary fish and birds, LowerFraser Valley agriculture, and vari-ous Southern Interior plants and ani-mals. Major positive actions have al-ready been taken - the Mountain Cari-bou in Managed Forests program,preservation of the KhutzeymateenValley, the Fraser River Action Plan,the Fraser River Estuary ManagementProgram, the Agricultural Land Re-serve, and the South Okanagan Con-servation Strategy. Such actions willprobably need to be strengthened ifthe promise of sustainable develop-ment is to be realized in those parts ofB.C. experiencing rapid rates of popu-lation growth (the Georgia Depres-sion and Southern Interior).

Investments to control pollutionmay be expensive, but environmen-tal monitoring shows they clearlypay ecological dividends. Environ-mental monitoring has demonstratedthe ecological benefits of a variety ofpollution control programs - chlorinedioxide substitution in the UpperFraser and Thompson pulp mills, im-provements to air and water qualityfrom changes to the Trail smelter,reduced fluoride emissions from theKitimat aluminum smelter, and re-

There is not sufficient information toprovide a comprehensive set of con-clusions for each ecoprovince, norfor the overall environmental condi-tions across all ecoprovinces. How-ever, as the topics discussed are ex-amined from a distance, there arecertain overall principles that con-sistently appear. This is similar to theeffect when one steps back from alarge tapestry - the individual panelsbegin to form larger patterns thatwere not observable when examinedseparately. Six of these principles aresummarized below.

Ecologically sustainable resourcemanagement is possible. New prac-tices are being implemented that havenot only less environmental impactbut in many cases better economicreturns (e.g. conservation farming inthe Peace River region, cogenerationin Williams Lake, restoration ofHorsefly River sockeye stocks).

Environmental problems in B.C.are linked to the rest of the world,in terms of both causes and effects.Some problems appear to be at leastpartly due to actions taken outsidethe province: long range transport ofincinerator produced dioxins to Straitof Georgia sediments, oil spills andmarine debris on the west coast ofVancouver Island, Eurasianwatermilfoil in the Southern Interior,and possibly toxaphene in Atlin Lake.Other problems are ‘made in B.C.’,but have effects which extend be-yond provincial boundaries: effectsof the Abbotsford aquifer contami-nation on Washington State, effectsof the Bennett Dam on Alberta, pol-

duced metal loading to Buttle Lakefrom mining operations. Some of theseproblems require further abatementactions, and other problems lie wait-ing to be solved. Notable examplesinclude contaminant discharges to theFraser Estuary, Strait of Georgia andKitimat Arm; ozone formation fromNO

x/VOC emissions in the Georgia

Depression, groundwater contamina-tion of the Abbotsford aquifer andOsoyoos area, and local pollution ofthe Fort St. John water supply.

Living harmoniously requiresmodified resource demands andmanagement practices. There aremany examples of competing de-mands: water withdrawal conflictswith the needs of fish in the OkanaganBasin, methods of garbage disposaland agriculture conflict with bears insettlements within the Coast andMountains Ecoprovince, and loggingconflicts with drinking water and rec-reational fisheries near Kelowna.Solving such problems requires dia-logue, creativity and commitment.

Ecosystems can react in unforeseenways. The effects of the Bennett Damon the Peace-Athabasca delta, and ofthe Duncan and Libby dams onKootenay Lake kokanee, were notpredicted. Sometimes efforts to im-prove matters can backfire, as oc-curred with the introduction of Mysisshrimp into Kootenay Lake. Perhapsthe only ways to cope with imperfectenvironmental knowledge are to main-tain a thorough ecosystem perspec-tive in planning and management, andmonitor to identify mistakes at anearly stage.

97

1971 1986 1991 % change1986-91

Armstrong 1,648 2,708 3,200 18.2Ashcroft 1,916 1,914 1,714 -10.4Cache Creek 1,013 1,147 1,000 -12.2Chase 1,212 1,933 2,083 7.8Enderby 1,158 1,842 2,128 15.5Grand Forks 3,173 3,282 3,610 10.0Kamloops 26,168 53,218 57,466 8.0Kelowna 19,412 48,417 57,945 19.7Lillooet 1,514 1,755 1,782 1.4Lumby 940 1,181 1,265 7.1Merrit 5,289 6,180 6,253 1.2Osoyoos 1,285 2,956 3,403 15.1Penticton 18,146 23,824 27,494 15.4Salmon Arm 7,793 5,191 5,746 10.7Sicamous N/A 2,428 2,501 3.0Summerland 5,551 3,643 4,175 14.6Vernon 13,283 23,298 26,653 14.4Westbank N/A 10,553 13,551 28.4

Land under changeThe state of sustainability in British Columbia’sSouthern Interior ecoprovince

sustain all life may have been undergo-ing degradation for a considerabletime. Understanding how ecosystemsfunction through the interplay ofenvironmental, economic and socialcomponents is essential if society is togrow and prosper.

The concept of mutually supportingenvironmental, economic and socialsystems operating as integral compo-nents of ecosystems is relatively easyto understand. The translation fromconcept to planning and decision-making is not. Existing administrativeand single resource focused planningunits cannot provide the holisticcontext for such planning. This casestudy on the state of sustainability ofBritish Columbia's Southern InteriorEcoprovince illustrates the kinds ofinformation necessary within anecological framework for planningtowards sustainability.

Of British Columbia's tenecoprovinces, the Southern Interiorwas chosen for this detailed discussionof sustainability. It is the Province’smost densely populated interior region,making up 11% (over 368,000 people)of British Columbia’s total population.It also has the most rapid influx ofpeople of all the ecoprovinces. Therapid growth rate has produced a 45%increase in population over the past 20years. If this trend continues, bothKelowna and Kamloops will soonovertake Prince George as the mostpopulous cities of interior BritishColumbia (Table 4.1).

have repercussions for the entiresystem. To compound the problem wedo not really understand the systemwell enough to know when seriousimpacts are about to occur. Sometimeswe know when such impacts arehappening but not why. Also, it islikely that adverse long-term effectsare taking place in many ecosystemswithout us knowing about them. Bythe time visual manifestations ofeffects on the ecosystem can be seen inthe birds, trees, worms, water, citiesand farms, the “invisible” ecosysteminteractive functions and processes that

Table 4.1

Major population centres of the Southern Interior ecoprovince

The largest city in the interior of British Columbia is Prince George (Sub-Boreal Interiorecoprovince) with a 1991 population near 63,000, an increase of 3% over 1986.1

IntroductionAn ecological perspective to sustain-able development requires that societymust think, act and plan in terms ofecosystems. This approach to planningstrives to understand ecosystems, howtheir various components interact andhow the systems themselves interact.To emphasize these linkages, oneecoprovince, the Southern Interior hasbeen chosen as a case study.

Simply put, all the components of theecosystem are interdependent. If onecomponent is adversely impacted it can

98

information and linkages, that may beneeded for assessment ofsustainability.

There is full understanding that inmany cases, information to determinesuch linkages is lacking. There aremajor data gaps, and a lack of soundmethodology and assessment proce-dures to integrate these ecologicalcomponents. For example, in this casestudy, data on socio-economic aspectssuch as employment equity and incomeare presented to highlight the kinds ofinformation that may be required to beintegrated with environmental consid-eration to provide the ecologicalcontext for assessment towardssustainability.

The environmental settingIn the Southern Interior Ecoprovince,forestry, agriculture (particularly fruitcrop production and cattle ranching),and mining are the predominantprimary industries influencing landuse, settlement patterns, and income

Figure 4.1

Labour force by sector

The diversity of the Southern Interior's labour force (1986) is very similar to that in the rest ofB.C.

stability. Adding to the diversity of thecommercial base are a wide range oftourist-targeted service enterprises, astrong retail sector, construction, high-tech industry, and considerablemanufacturing (Figure 4.1).

The urban centres are concentratedwithin the three ecosections of theOkanagan and Thompson River basins.Direct land use conflicts occur withagriculture as these ecosections containthe prime orchard and other farm landsof interior British Columbia. In theseareas, total census farmland declinedby close to 200,000 hectares or 26% inthe 1971-86 period. If declines incensus farm land present an accuratepicture of farm land alienation, thisloss is dramatic. The conversion ofagricultural land to largely urban use isan ecosection level impact withprovincial significance, because lessthan 5% of British Columbia's landbase is suitable for agriculturalpurposes (see Box 4.1).

Close to 2% of this ecoprovince isunder some sort of protected status.Fifteen provincial parks occur withinits boundaries. The Land Chapter ofthis report discusses further the

Box 4.1

Urbanization of agriculturalland - why does it matter?

Responding to Canadian population pres-sure and urbanization, from 1966 to 1986about 300,000 hectares (ha) of rural landwas converted in urban regions, over halfof which was prime agricultural land. Forurban regions the size of those in theOkanagan Basin, rural land was convertedto urban uses in the period at the rate ofabout 175 to 200 ha per thousand personschange in population, smaller centres hav-ing higher rates of conversion than largercentres. (It should be noted, however, thatB.C.’s overall rate of conversion was 51 haper thousand persons).

These losses are important for at least tworeasons. About 75% of Canada’s popula-tion lived in urban areas in the late 1980s,as did about half the world’s population.These populations live by trade with agri-cultural areas. Furthermore, Canada isone of a small number of reliable interna-tional food export supply areas. Conse-quently, the future of Canada’s agriculturalland is a matter of global as well as nationalsignificance.3,4

percent labour force

agricultural & rel. services

other primary industries

manufacturing

construction

transportation

communications & oth. utility

wholesale trade

retail trade

finance and insurance

real estate & insurance agent

business service

government service

educational service

health and social service

accommodation, food, beverage

all other service industries

Southern Interior

British Columbia

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

The Southern Interior Ecoprovince,with its rapid population increase, anddistinct and important environmental,cultural and historical features, serveswell as a case study to illustrateecological linkages between humanactivities and environmental conse-quences.

The Southern Interior Ecoprovince iscomprised of three ecoregions which,in turn, encompass ten ecosections.Three ecosections, those encompassingthe Okanagan and Thompson Riverbasins are heavily influenced by urbandevelopment; the remainingecosections are influenced by a varietyof resource uses. Within the SouthernInterior Ecoprovince a complete landuse spectrum is represented, rangingfrom protected ecological reserves tocomplete urbanization.

The Southern Interior Ecoprovincesection of this report provides ageneral overview of the ecoprovinceand some of its major issues. Includedis a survey of some of the kinds ofenvironmental, social and economic

99

provincial government’s goal to secure12% of the provincial landbase underprotected status. The ecologicalframework will aid in the applicationof this objective as the hierarchyprovides a context for assessment ofecosystem representation, an integralcomponent of the strategy for protectedareas.

Virtually all areas of the ecoprovinceare accessible by road. Numerous lakeresorts, ski slopes and heliskiingventures, hiking trails, and wildlifeviewing opportunities add to the allureof the area. Fishing, especially sportfishing is important. Game hunting isa seasonal activity that generatessignificant income to service busi-nesses and their employees. Many ofthe people who take advantage of theserecreational amenities live outside theecoprovince. With improved commu-nication and transportation links, majorpopulation centres in Alberta and theLower Mainland of British Columbiahave increased the recreationalpressure on this area. In particular, theCoquihalla Highway connector, whichopened in late 1990, has allowed abroader population to take advantage

of the amenities of the area and hasprovided better access to Vancouver.Specific statistics are not available onthis seasonal influx. However, withan increasing population base of overfour million to draw from, thesepressures are not insignificant.

Since European settlers first came tothe Okanagan and Similkameenvalleys, four vertebrate wildlife specieshave disappeared from the area: thesage grouse, the sharp-tailed grouse,the burrowing owl, and the white-tailed jackrabbit. The first two speciesprobably disappeared from over-hunting , whereas, habitat fragmenta-tion may have contributed to the lossof the burrowing owl and the white-tailed jackrabbit. Both of these latterspecies have been reintroduced to thearea. The Short-horned lizard mayalso have disappeared; it has not beenpositively identified in British Colum-bia since 1910.5

Presently, about 58% of the threatenedand endangered species and 14% of thevulnerable species in British Columbiaare found in this ecoprovince.7 Thegreatest pressure facing wildlife in thisecoprovince tends to be directed tothose species which require valleyhabitat, the lands which receive thegreatest pressure from urbanization(Box 4.2).

In the south Okanagan, for example,wetlands - which are vital for manyspecies - now constitute less than 15%of their original area.8 Moreover, lessthan 9% of the area remains in arelatively undisturbed state.8,9 Toemphasize the pressure on valleybottom habitats, most of the wildlifespecies of management concern arerestricted to lower elevations repre-senting less than 1% of theecoprovince.10

Water quantity is currently an issue ofconcern that may be exacerbated in thefuture. A decline in the snowpack inrecent years has raised worries aboutwidespread water shortages, althoughthe snowpack volumes may becyclical. If predictions about globalwarming come to pass, water supplyproblems could become more exten-

sive and more acute.

Water quality is already a matter ofmuch debate. Stream and lakepollution is reported in a number oflocations and could have impacts onwildlife, fish and future recreationpotential. Degradation of fish habitatand declines in fish populations havebeen noted in several tributaries toOkanagan Lake including MissionCreek, Kelowna Creek, and VernonCreek. Approximately 50% of theLake’s rainbow trout and kokaneestream spawning population useMission Creek, making it the mostimportant tributary to the lake in termsof these two species.11

Automobile emissions are a majorsource of urban smog and the groundlevel ozone associated with it. Moni-toring in Kelowna during the 1983-92period suggests that ozone is not, atpresent, a significant problem in theimmediate area. The rapid growth ofautomobile use in the region raisesenvironmental concerns for the future.

Although the present air quality isgenerally good, there are severallocalized concerns. In the 1973-89period, total suspended particulate(TSP) levels in both Lumby andVernon were generally high and onsome days exceeded provincialobjectives.12 Most often, relativelyhigh TSP levels can be traced towoodwaste burners operating in avalley setting. Improvements in airquality in the Lumby area followed theclosure of the lumber mill in 1989.

Woodwaste burners are considered tobe a major source of dustfall in theOkanagan.12 During the 1983-89period, measures of dustfall at 25 sitesindicated that over half exceededdesirable levels as outlined by theprovincial government. The use ofmore efficient woodwaste burners togenerate electricity is one of severaloptions being considered to reduceemissions from this source.13

An odour problem - the familiar“rotten-egg” smell - in Kamloops isassociated with hydrogen sulphide,which is emitted by bleached Kraftpulp mills and other industrial proc-

Box 4.2

The sage thrasher:a species at risk

The current plight of the sage thrasherprovides a vivid example of the threatsposed to wildlife and the challenges facingwildlife managers in the south Okanagan.The sage thrasher is a small bird that inCanada breeds regularly only in the south-ern Similkameen and Okanagan Valleys inB.C. During the past 20 years, it has beensighted at only four locations in the prov-ince, and in the past ten years, at only one.Prior to 1920, populations may have beenas high as 30 pairs, but since 1980, num-bers have declined to between 5 and 10pairs. During the breeding season thesage thrasher depends primarily onsagebrush habitat, which has been signifi-cantly reduced in quality and quantity byrangeland management practices such asmowing, burning and herbicide applica-tions, and by residential and agriculturaldevelopment. Just under 50% of the bird’shabitat has been lost in the last 70 years.Development pressures are severe on atleast three of the four remaining sites withsuitable habitat.6

100

esses. 1990 was the worst “smell”year on record, although a substantialimprovement was observed in 1991,explainable in part by emissionreductions at the mill.12

The socialand economic settingThe ecoprovince is one of westernCanada’s prime retirement destina-tions, and because of the growingeconomy, relatively mild climate,clean environment and recreationresources, the base population in theurban areas continues to soar. About60% of the permanent population livesin urban centres, and this proportion isincreasing. It is an ecoprovince whereclose to 90% of the population islocated along the Thompson andOkanagan valleys. Seasonal surges ofvacationers have to be accommodated,as well.

An aboriginal population of approxi-mately 14,000 people is spreadthroughout some 30 bands. Of thispopulation, 40% reside outside ofReserve lands. The First Nations

peoples' ties to the land, water, biotaand associated resources are closelyrelated to their spiritual, philosophicaland cultural views of the world. Suchvalues form an integral component ofthe social and cultural mosaic of theecoprovince.

Compared to British Columbia as awhole, the Southern Interiorecoprovince has a greater proportion ofpeople that are 55 years of age or older(Figure 4.2). Many of these areretirees living on pensions from privateand public sources. While theirearnings are somewhat fixed, incomesare reliable. About 35% of thepopulation is between the ages of 20and 44 years, and most work in retailstores, service businesses, and manu-facturing (Figure 4.1).

While population within theecoprovince has risen significantly, percapita automobile use has risen evenmore dramatically. From 1981 to 1991a population increase of approximately16% has resulted in a 22% increase invehicle registrations. The potentialcertainly exists for increased adverseimpacts from related air pollution andincreases in the transportation infra-structure.

Labour force participation rates for theecoprovince suggest that women havenot had equal access to some importantprofessions: in 1986, only 29.9% ofthe managerial and administrativepositions; 12.8% of the naturalscience, engineering and mathematicsrelated jobs; 28.8% of farming andhorticultural employment; and 1.9%of construction trades were occupiedby women.

This situation is reinforced by thedisparity between men and women inprofessional education. Given thelarge and growing importance ofwomen in the labour force and thesignificance of equal opportunity as anethical issue in defining a sustainablecommunity, the shortfall in theeducation of women is a seriousmatter. In 1986, women in theecoprovince made up: 41.9% of thoseeducated in the social sciences andrelated fields, 39.9% of those trained inthe agricultural and biological sci-

male female

percent of individuals in class, 1986

popu

latio

n di

strib

utio

n by

age

75

20 10 0 10 20

Southern Interior

B.C.

65-74

55-64

45-54

35-44

25-34

20-24

15-19

10-14

5-9

0-4

Figure 4.2

Population age distribution

Compared to British Columbia as a whole, theSouthern Interior ecoprovince has a greaterproportion of people that are 55 years of age orolder.2

ences, 8.6% of those trained inengineering, applied sciences andrelated fields, and 31.1% of thoseschooled in mathematics and thephysical sciences.

An inadequate income can severelyaffect the quality of family life. Thesituation in the ecoprovince is worri-some. Average family income in 1986($32,087) was about 15% lower thanB.C. as a whole ($37,675), although inthe ecoprovince, lower incomes wereoffset to some degree by lowerexpenses for housing and othercommodities. Approximately 12% ofthe families in the ecoprovince wereheaded by single-parents, who usuallyhave to rely on one income rather thanthe two incomes enjoyed by many two-

Figure 4.3

Average income

The average female income in 1986 was justover half the average male income.2

female income

male income

inco

me

in th

ousa

nds

of d

olla

rs

OkanaganBasin

B.C.SouthernInterior

0

5

10

15

20

25

parent families. Moreover, approxi-mately 83% of these single-parentfamilies were headed by women, whotend to have lower incomes than theirmale counterparts (Figure 4.3).

In terms of formal education, levels ofachievement are slightly lower than forBritish Columbians as a whole. Using1986 census data, 38% of the adultsover 20 years of age had not completedhigh school (Figure 4.4). Youngeradults and children however, areattending school longer and areenrolling in post-secondary training ingreater proportions.

The ecoprovince is fortunate to have adiverse economic base. This diversityenhances its ability to adapt to anuncertain economic future. However,

101

Figure 4.4

Post secondary education

Compared to British Columbia as a whole in 1986, the population of this ecoprovince had aslightly lower formal education level.2

the dependence of parts of theecoprovince on pension and unemploy-ment insurance income is noteworthy.For example, a high proportion ofincome sources from several Okanagancommunities are categorized as "basic"income. For communities such asKelowna, Oliver-Osoyoos, Penticton,and Vernon, about half the income isbased on pension and unemploymentincome.14 About 80% of all non-employment income is pensionincome.

Average annual unemployment ratesfor the urban area of this ecoprovincehave exceeded provincial averagesover the past several years. As anexample for the 1986-91 period,average unemployment rates were14.7% in Kelowna and 14.0% inKamloops, well above Victoria (9.6%),Vancouver (9.1%), and BritishColumbia as a whole (10.3%). Withrelatively high unemployment rates,there is a continual pressing need tocreate jobs: a need which is accentu-ated by a steady flow of new residents.

The interactionsThe most salient and contentious issueaffecting the sustainability of theSouthern Interior Ecoprovince is futureland use. It is on this issue where theinterplay of social, economic, andenvironmental forces are most evidentand furthest reaching.

For illustrative purposes and to focusthe discussion on this interplay, theconflict between urbanization and

agriculture in the Okanagan Basin willbe highlighted. This conflict is deeplyrooted. Population, pressing onlimited land supplies, has increasedland values and put cost pressure onagriculture.

The central mechanism governingurbanization pressure on agriculturalland is the demand for urban land.Market pressure is indicated bydetached bungalow housing prices inselected Okanagan Basin centres.Following the collapse of the realestate boom of 1980/81, these figuresshow a steady increase. For example,in Kelowna, prices rose from $71,000in 1982 to $88,500 in 1989. Afteraccounting for inflation, however, thepattern in the Basin is similar to thatfor B.C. as a whole: following aspeculative peak in 1981, real pricescollapsed and slowly recovered.However, in the last two years, realestate prices have accelerated toapproximately 1981 boom levels.15,16,17

An initial analysis of data on demandfor urban land supply does not seem toindicate extreme pressure. In theBasin’s ecosections, the municipalpopulation density rose from 2.83persons per hectare in 1981 to a stillhealthy density of 4.39 in 1991,compared to 28.57 persons per hectarein the City of Victoria, which iscertainly not overcrowded by globalstandards.

However, a significant portion of theland in the Basin’s municipalities is

not available for urban developmentfor two reasons: the regulatoryconstraint imposed by the AgriculturalLand Reserve, and the natural restric-tions imposed by a sensitive environ-ment. For example, in the City ofKelowna in 1985, about 48% of theland was in the ALR, and over 15%consisted of slopes in excess of 30%,considered unsuitable for building oragriculture.18 The relative impact ofthese regulatory and topographicconstraints varies from one municipal-ity to another. As a result, it is difficultto generalize about the availability ofland for urban development withinmunicipal boundaries in theecoprovince. Persistent pressure onagricultural land reserves continues.For example, during the period 1974-89, 4,267 requests (involving 10,597hectares) were made to the B.C.Agricultural Land Commission toexclude land from the ALR in the threeregional districts represented in theOkanagan Basin.19

Land cost in dollar terms is certainlyone input in the determination of landvalue. However, it is only one factorin the assessment of sustainability.Besides being a source of food for thelocal populous, orchards and vineyardsprovide valuable green space and playa significant role in terms of aesthetics.Production of secondary products suchas juice, wine and cider increase thevalue of the role these agricultural usesplay in the ecoprovince's economy.Further, the availability of fruit attractslarge numbers of tourists who providemajor support to the economic base ofthe ecoprovince. Also, fruit and grapecultivation within the ecoprovince is animportant part of Canada’s agriculturalscene (Box 4.3). These assets shouldbe factored into the assessment ofsustainability.

On the negative side, intensiveagricultural practices may haveadverse environmental effects. Thecontamination of water draining fromirrigated farm fields treated withfertilizers and pesticides affects biota,domestic water supplies, and recrea-tional activities. Widespread use ofagricultural chemicals remains animportant concern. Between 1971 and

health professional, science and technical

engineering, technicaltrades, math

social science and commerce

fine arts andhumanities

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

percent

education, recreation,counselling

British Columbia

Southern Interior

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Box 4.3

Tree fruits and grapes

The Okanagan is one of three major fruitgrowing areas in Canada; the other two arethe Niagara Peninsula in Ontario and theAnnapolis Valley in Nova Scotia. Twoagricultural activities of particular impor-tance to the Basin’s ecosections are vine-yard and tree fruit production. They play astrategic role in the Basin’s future for sev-eral reasons. First, the Basin’s land isunusually suited for these activities, withinthe spectrum of total Canadian land capa-bility. Second, they are a crucial factordefining the Okanagan Basin in the mindsof residents and for the outside world.Third, the overlapping and contiguous na-ture of agricultural land use with urban landrequirements is a source of pressure andconflict. Fourth, they are part of the basefor primary, secondary and tourist-relatedeconomic activities such as the wine, ci-der, and agricultural machinery industries.

A major study of fruit land use in the early1980s showed a serious erosion of treefruit lands over the 23 year period 1958 to1981. Fruit land declined from 15,348 ha to11,883 ha. This loss was partially offset bya rise in vineyard and nurseries. Overall,tree fruit, vineyard and nurseries area de-clined 13.8%, in the 23 year period.

Partly in recognition of this problem, thegovernment of B.C. froze all farmland in1972 and adopted an Agricultural LandReserve (ALR) policy in 1974. In 1981,60% of land in the Okanagan region (in-cluding the Similkameen) was in the ALR.The decline in orchard land was reducedfor areas within the ALR, from a loss of 615ha in the six years previous to 1974 to aloss of 94 ha in the following six years —this despite an increase of built-up areawithin the ALR from 382 ha to 1,234 ha. 22

Figure 4.5

Pesticide application

Both the total area and the proportion ofcropland treated with pesticides has increased.The area cultivated is the sum of cropland,summer fallow, and improved pasture.1

be factored in to the assessment ofsustainability.

Urbanization and agricultural practicesimpact water quality and quantity.Historically, sewage treatment plantshave been a principal source ofphosphorus contamination in themajor lakes. Wide fluctuations ofpopulations in several communitiesbecause of tourist influxes, strain thesewage systems of these towns andcities. Recent installation of sophisti-cated treatment systems in somejurisdictions has reduced phosphorusconcentrations substantially. Kelowna,for example, has declined from adischarge 11,000 kg/yr. to 1,000 kg/yr.of total phosphorus from 1980 to1990.21

Nevertheless, phosphorus pollutioncontinues to be a problem in theOkanagan. Some of the gains achievedthrough improved sewage treatmenthave been cancelled by increases inphosphorus output from a growingnumber of septic tank systems.

Water requirements for irrigation andother commercial uses are increasing.Currently, all water in many of thelakes and streams has been formallyallocated for defined irrigation,domestic, waterworks and conserva-tion uses.23 All these kinds of waterconcerns should also be factored intothe assessment of sustainability.

People are attracted to this ecoprovinceby its climate and other regionalenvironmental components. Theenvironment is the backbone of the

tourist and general recreational trade.The landscape has cultural andspiritual value to the aboriginal peoplesand many others. These considerationsshould be factored into the assessment.

Sustainability is not a local concept. Itshould be considered in a regional,national and even global context. Inessence, one must understand thewhole before the parts make sense.However, many ecological issues maybe strongly local. Decisions andactions certainly have local implica-tions. This is where the value of theecological framework lies. The issuesfound in Vernon, Kamloops, and theOkanagan Basin can be set in aframework within which local issuesand planning options can be linked tobroader ones.

How important are the remainingwetlands to the people of Penticton, tothe hydrology of the ecoregion or tothe wildlife of the ecoprovince? Whatis considered as old-growth forest inthe ecoprovince? What are the timberrequirements of the Kamloops mill tomaintain the existing work force? Andwhat will the work force look like inthe future? The social and economicmatrix of the residents of theecoprovince is changing. The propor-tion of the total population which is 55years of age and older approximates30%. Has this fact any bearing onfuture direction? These questionsserve to suggest possible ecologicallinkages.

Sustainability is all about trying tocome to grips with these ecologicallinkages. It is about risk assessment,value judgements, and the need tomake compromises. Also, it is aboutkeeping as many options open aspractical in the decision-makingprocess because there are alwaysecological surprises.

hect

ares

trea

ted

(tho

usan

ds) area treated

% treated

% c

ultiv

ated

are

a tr

eate

d

0

5

10

15

20

2530

0

5

10

15

20

25

1971 1981 1986

1986, the number of hectares treatedwith fertilizer in the ecoprovinceincreased significantly, as did the rateof application (ratio of area treated toarea cultivated). Pesticide applicationrates (area treated/area cultivated) andthe area of cultivated land treated withpesticides also increased during thatperiod (Figure 4.5). Historically, treefruit production- the dominant agricul-tural activity in the Southern Okanagan- has utilized higher amounts ofpesticide than any other croppingactivity. 20 This heavy use of pesti-cides raises significant concerns for thehealth of people, plants and animals.Assessment of such health risks should

103

Regional sustainability: where do we stand?

Although the Southern Interiorecoprovince faces many challengesin the years ahead, when measured byany but the most extravagant stand-ards, its people generally enjoy a highquality of life.

The preservation of the traditions, cul-ture, and natural heritage of the re-gion in the next 20 years does notappear to be seriously threatened byany particular problem. However,the potential cumulative effects of themany environmental concerns that arepresent may pose a threat to thesevalues. Certainly the region has aresponsibility to contribute to the reso-lution of these problems, but it cannotsolve them alone. The region’s re-sponsibility is to seek solutions, re-spond to leadership, and to initiateand participate in programs to dealwith threats to sustainability. Intrin-sically, global sustainability is a localissue: it cannot be achieved withoutcommitment and action at the locallevel where it counts - in the everydaylives of men and women.

The crucial issue for the ecoprovinceis the management of growth. Hu-man and vehicle populations and landrestructuring have increased the level

of stress on the region’s ecosystemsin the past decade. Every difficultyfacing the people of the region will beintensified, and new ones generated,if population growth and associatedurban and residential development arenot effectively managed. Programs,strategies, and management plansmust insure that the necessary publicand private institutions are in place toenable the region to seize opportuni-ties, manage growth, and fostersustainability.

We must greatly improve our capac-ity to live in harmony with the envi-ronment. To do this, significant im-provements are needed to the infor-mation available for environmentalmonitoring, reporting, and decisionmaking. A first positive step wouldbe to integrate existing economic, so-cial, and environmental informationwithin the ecological framework ofecosections, ecoregions andecoprovinces. Administrative and in-stitutional boundaries cannot providethis ecological context for analysisand decision-making.

A second step would be to commis-sion long term studies in theecoprovince that focus on the com-plex processes linking the environ-

mental, economic, and social compo-nents of the ecosystem. A comple-mentary monitoring program is es-sential. A third step would involvethe development of an integrated in-formation system to support the moni-toring and management of the fullrange of sustainability issues at theecoprovince and higher levels.

A number of efforts designed to cre-ate an inventory of databases, identifyinformation needs, establish stand-ards for information collection, anddevelop information retrieval systemshave been undertaken in British Co-lumbia. Many of these efforts areoriented to sustainability issues. Theseinitiatives give hope that planning forsustainability, both in the ecoprovinceand British Columbia as a whole, canbe placed on a scientifically soundfooting. Until then, we lack the nec-essary information to conclude thatthe high quality of life enjoyed by thepeople of the Southern Interiorecoprovince is sustainable over thelong term.

104

British Columbians are increasinglyconcerned about the quality of theenvironment. This State of theEnvironment Report addresses thisconcern and works to provide BritishColumbians with timely and accurateinformation on environmental condi-tions and trends. This report was alsoprepared to help British Columbiansmake informed decisions and responsi-ble choices, ultimately for the benefitof the environment, for us and forfuture generations.

British Columbia offers a rich andspectacular landscape. It still has manyenvironmental options long sinceforegone in other parts of the world.Decisions that we make now will havean impact on our ability to maintainlife support systems, to preservebiological diversity, and to maintain ahigh standard of human health andquality of life into the future.

Are our actions and choices sustainableover the longer term? What do theenvironmental signposts and bench-marks reveal? There are three overallconclusions.

Considerable progressFirst, considerable progress has beenmade over the last several decades inprotecting and restoring the province’secosystems. There are many examplesin British Columbia that demonstratethat ecologically sustainable manage-ment of our natural resources is indeedpossible, and that this results in bothenvironmental and economic benefits.For example, levels of dioxins andfurans have decreased, lead emission

levels have declined, the percentage ofprotected area has increased andcertain species of animals have made adramatic population recovery.

Room for improvementSecond, there is a lot of room forimprovement. Many long standingproblems remain unresolved, and newproblem areas continue to be discov-ered. Increasing stresses are evidentfrom rapidly expanding urban centres,and from intensive use of naturalresources. Sustainable developmentpresents a real challenge: how tomaintain a healthy economy whilepreserving ecological integrity forfuture generations. Preserving bothnature’s 'basic functions' and itsbiodiversity will require creativity,commitment, dialogue and realchanges in how resources are used andhow they are managed. Since ecosys-tems sometimes react in unpredictableways, there is a need to continue tomonitor the effects of our actions.

Linked to the worldThird, human activities and environ-mental problems in B.C. are closelylinked to the rest of the world. Some ofour activities have effects whichextend far beyond provincial bounda-ries, and the condition of our localenvironment is influenced by distanthuman activities and natural events.

Future directions

Reporting -now and in the futureThis report has provided some, butcertainly not all, of the answers anddata on the state of the environmentand, ultimately, on our achievement ofsustainability. It has revealed manygaps in our knowledge base. Much ofthe environmental information that iscollected is dedicated to perceivedproblem areas or for specific needs.There is a shortage of backgroundinformation available to providereliable environmental benchmarks.For many environmental problems, andparticularly for those that are emerg-ing, there is no consistent monitoringthat will allow a thorough assessmentof whether conditions are improving orgetting worse (Figure 5.1). And wheredata are collected, differences inmethodologies, definitions, andstandards prevent comparativeanalyses from one area to the next.

Figure 5.1

Measuring the state of theenvironment

We are still at the early stages of reporting onthe environment - there is often no quick andeasy way to assess status and trends.

State

105

The public has also suggested thatfuture state of the environment reportsshould comment more extensively onthe achievement of targets. Othershave recommended that a variety oftools are necessary to communicateeffectively with a wide audience thathas varying levels of interest andunderstanding about the environment.It has also been recommended thatdifferent interpretations and perspec-tives surrounding data and informationbe included in a state of the environ-ment report. Finally, members of thepublic have requested that reportsaddress the notion of sustainabilitydirectly. In the words of one memberof the public, “what do reported trendsreveal about our ability to supportourselves in a sustainable manner?”

These comments go some distance todescribing a more elaborate reporting

framework for British Columbia.There’s no question that there aremany other aspects that could, andshould, be reported upon over time. Itis important, though, that the processof environmental reporting has begun.

It's up to all of usBritish Columbia faces major environ-mental and economic challenges.Solutions to these challenges willrequire a shared responsibility on thepart of all British Columbians(Figure 5.2). All citizens can benefitfrom increased awareness of the stateof British Columbia's environment.With this knowledge, we can all makecertain that our actions help to securethe environmental, economic andsocial sustainability of the province forboth present and future generations.

Piecemeal data sets have also limitedour knowledge of cumulative andsynergistic effects. More importantly,limited information prevents goodunderstanding of the relationshipbetween trends in human use andchanges in the environment. While itcomes as no surprise that many piecesof the environmental informationpuzzle are missing, the lack of infor-mation does hamper our ability tomake sound and informed decisions.

We are at the early stages of reportingon the environment. This report is afirst effort at providing a comprehen-sive assessment of environmentalconditions and trends in the Province.To be effective over the longer term,there is the need to establish a firmfoundation for state of the environmentreporting. A good reporting programis built upon a number of key elements- comprehensive ecological monitoringsites, a solid and easily accessibledatabase, commonly accepted environ-mental indicators, and the release ofinformation, in a regular and timelymanner.

To be effective, state of the environ-ment reporting must contribute to animproved public understanding andawareness of environmental conditionsand trends so that informed decisionscan be made. In shaping the develop-ment of this report and longer termreporting efforts, representatives of thepublic have indicated that access toobjective, timely and relevant informa-tion is critical to success. Theimplications of environmental condi-tions and trends must be discussedmore extensively if improvements inhuman responses are indeed to bemade.

Ministry of Environment, Lands and ParksState of Environment ReportingCorporate Policy, Planning and Legislation810 Blanshard StreetVictoria, B.C. V8V 1X4

Environment CanadaState of the Environment ReportingConservation and Protection224 West EsplanadeNorth Vancouver, B.C. V7M 3H7

Comments on this report should be directed to:

Figure 5.2

Components of state of the environment reporting

State of the environment reporting requires that appropriate indicators be defined, that these bemeasured through a monitoring program, then analyzed and stored in an accessible data base.Periodic reports would be produced, and information would be available on an 'as needed' basis.In order for these components to function, people (government, scientists and the public) mustparticipate in the process.

ecologicalmonitoring

environmentalindicators

• federal and provincial governments• scientific community• public

Participation

accessibledata base

timely and regular reports

106

15. Data provided by British Columbia Ministry of Environment,Lands and Parks, Victoria. 1993.

Additional readingBritish Columbia Round Table on the Environment and theEconomy. 1992. Towards a Strategy for Sustainability. BritishColumbia Round Table on the Environment and the Economy,Victoria, B.C. 141 pp.

Ministry of Finance and Corporate Relations 1991. The Structureof the British Columbia Economy: A Land Use Perspective.Prepared for the British Columbia Round Table on the Environ-ment and the Economy. Planning and Statistics Division, Ministryof Finance and Corporate Relations, Victoria, B.C. 51 pp.

Government of Canada. 1991. The State of Canada's Environ-ment.

AirReferences cited1. Environment Canada. 1989. Ecoclimatic Regions of Canada.

Ecological Land Classification Series. Ottawa: Supply andServices Canada, Ottawa, Ont. No. 23 118 pp.

2. Gullett, D.W. and W.R. Skinner. 1992. The State of Canada’sClimate: Temperature Change in Canada 1895-1991. EnvironmentCanada, Atmospheric Environment Service, Ottawa, Ont. SOEReport 92-2. En1-11/92-2E. 36 pp.

3. McBean, G.A., O. Slaymaker, T. Northcote, P. LeBlond, and T.S.Parsons. 1992. Review of models for climate change and impactson hydrology, coastal currents, and fisheries in B.C. EnvironmentCanada, Ottawa, Ont., Climate Change Digest CCD 92-02. 15 pp.

4. Oak Ridge National Laboratory. 1991. Trends ’91: A Compendiumof Data on Global Change. Carbon Dioxide Information AnalysisCenter, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.

5. British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks.1992. Greenhouse gas inventory and management options. BritishColumbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Victoria.ENV 200234/2-692. 58 pp.

6. Burrows, W.R., M. Vallée, and L.J. Wilson. 1992. Climatology ofDaily Total Ozone and Ultraviolet-B Radiation Levels. Atmos-pheric Environment Service, Environment Canada. MSRBResearch Report No. 92-005.

7. Archibald, D., J. Towns, and D. Smith. 1992. Ozone depletinggreenhouse gases: Part 1 - British Columbia inventory andemissions. Prepared by Peat Marwick Stevenson & KelloggManagement Consultants for Ministry of Environment, Environ-ment Canada, Greater Vancouver Regional District. 43 pp.

8. British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks.1988. Acid rain in British Columbia. Ministry of Environment,Lands and Parks, Victoria, B.C. 13 pp.

ReferencesPerspectivesReferences cited

1. British Columbia Round Table on the Environment and theEconomy. 1991b. Sustainable Communities. British ColumbiaRound Table on the Environment and the Economy, Victoria, B.C.24 pp.

2. British Columbia Round Table on the Environment and theEconomy. 1991a. Sustainable Land and Water Use. BritishColumbia Round Table on the Environment and the Economy,Victoria, B.C. 60 pp.

3. British Columbia Round Table on the Environment and theEconomy. 1992. Sustainability Strategy for Energy. BritishColumbia Round Table on the Environment and the Economy,Victoria, B.C. 61 pp.

4. British Columbia Round Table on the Environment and theEconomy. 1990. Sustainable Development and Energy. BritishColumbia Round Table on the Environment and the Economy,Victoria, B.C. 24 pp.

5. British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks.1992. Municipal Solid Waste Tracking System: 1990 DataAnalysis Summary Report. British Columbia Ministry ofEnvironment, Lands and Parks, Environmental ProtectionDivision, Municipal Waste Branch, Victoria, B.C.

6. British Columbia Ministry of Finance and Corporate Relations.1990. British Columbia Population Forecast 1990-2016. BritishColumbia Ministry of Finance and Corporate Relations, Planningand Statistics Division, Victoria, B.C. 37 pp.

7. Ministry of Environment. 1991. Program for Participation. HowB.C. is Managing Solid Waste. Ministry of Environment,Municipal Waste Branch, Victoria, B.C. booklet. 18 pp.

8. Wilson, M. 1990. Wings of the eagle. In: J. Plant and C. Plant(eds.). Turtle Talk. New Society Publishers, Philadelphia, pp.76,79.

9. Data provided by Statistics Canada and Environment Canada,1993.

10. Rowe, J.S. 1990. Home place: essays on ecology. CanadianParks and Wilderness Society, Henderson Book Series No. 12.Edmonton: NeWest Publishers Ltd.

11. Data provided by B.C. Hydro, 1992.

12. Data provided by J. Mathers. Federal Environmental AssessmentReview Office, Vancouver. 1993.

13. Environment Canada. Indicators Task Force. 1991. A report onCanada’s progress towards a national set of environmentalindicators. SOE Report No. 90-1, Environment Canada, State ofthe Environment Reporting, Ottawa. Ont.

14. Statistics Canada. 1992. National Income and ExpenditureAccounts, Annual Estimates, 1980-1991. Ministry of Industry,Science and Technology, Ottawa, Ont. Cat. 13-201.

107

9. Whitfield, P.H. and N. Dalley. 1987. Rainfall driven pH depres-sions in a British Columbia coastal stream. In: Proc. Symp. onMonitor., Modelling, and Mediating Water Quality. Amer. WaterResour. Assoc. pp. 285-294.

10. Whitfield, P.H., N. Rousseau, and E. Michnowsky. 1992. Rainfallinduced changes in chemistry of a British Columbia coastal stream.Northwest Sci. 67(1): 1-6.

11. Data provided by Conservation and Protection Service, Environ-ment Canada, Ottawa, Ont., 1992.

12. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks. 1993. AtmosphericReport for British Columbia. British Columbia Ministry ofEnvironment, Lands and Parks, Victoria, B.C.

13. van Barneveld, J.W., P.D. Marsh, J.H. Wiens, and K.J. Wipond.1989. Port Alice SO2 impacts: air quality, soil vegetation, andhealth. Ministry of Environment, Waste Management Branch,Victoria, B.C.

14. Interim Acid Deposition Critical Loadings Task Group. 1990.Interim Acid Deposition Critical Loadings for Western andNorthern Canada. Prepared for Technical Committee Western andNorthern Canada Long Range Transport of AtmosphericPollutants. 31 pp.

Additional readingARA Consulting Group et al. 1992. Evaluation of CO2 manage-ment measures. Prepared for British Columbia Ministry ofEnvironment, Lands and Parks, Victoria, B.C.

Association of B.C. Professional Foresters. 1991. Discussion Paperon Are We Overcutting Our Forests?

B.C. Clean Air Policy Steering Committee. 1992. Smokemanagement for the ’90s. British Columbia Ministry of Environ-ment, Lands and Parks, Victoria, B.C. ENV 112091.292. 61 pp.

B.H. Levelton & Associates Ltd. et al. 1991. An inventory andanalysis of control measures for methane in British Columbia.Prepared for British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Landsand Parks, Victoria, B.C. 139 pp. and 10 Appendices.

Canada. 1991. Chapter 2: Atmosphere. In: The State of Canada’sEnvironment. Government of Canada, Ottawa, Ont. pp. 2-1 to 2-25.

CCME. 1990. Management plan for nitrogen oxides (NOx) andvolatile organic compounds (VOCs). Phase I. Canadian Council ofMinisters of the Environment, Winnipeg, Man. CCME-EPC/TRE-31E. 176 pp. and 4 Appendices.

Concord Environmental Corporation. 1992. British Columbiaemission inventory of nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compoundsand ozone (NOx/VOC/O3) as greenhouse gases. Prepared forBritish Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks,Victoria. 124 pp. and 9 Appendices.

Long-range Transport of Air Pollutants Program. 1990. Report ofthe Federal-Provincial acid rain agreement. AES, EnvironmentCanada, Downsview, Ontario.

Ministry of Environment. 1992. Ensuring clean air: Developing aclean air strategy for British Columbia. Ministry of Environment,Lands and Parks, Victoria, B.C. ENV112100.392. 45 pp.

Task Group on Atmospheric Change. 1992. CRD HealthyAtmosphere 2000: Final Report of Recommendations of the CRDTask Group on Atmospheric Change. Task Group on AtmosphericChange, Capital Regional District, Victoria, B.C.

WaterReferences cited1. British Columbia Round Table on the Environment and the

Economy. 1991. Sustainable Land and Water Use. BritishColumbia Round Table on the Environment and the Economy,Victoria, B.C. 60 pp.

2. Environment Canada. 1990. Water - Here, There and Everywhere.Environment Canada, Conservation and Protection, Ottawa, Ont.Fact Sheet: No. 2: Water, 8 pp.

3. Data provided by Hydrology Branch, British Columbia Ministry ofEnvironment, Lands and Parks, Victoria, B.C. 1992

4. Crippen Consultants. 1990. Municipal Water Supply Issues inBritish Columbia. Prepared for the British Columbia Round Tableon the Environment and the Economy.

5. Leith, R.M. 1991. Patterns in snowcourse and annual mean flowdata in British Columbia and the Yukon. In: Using HydrometricData to Detect and Monitor Climatic Change: Proceedings ofNHRI Symposium No. 8, April, 1991. NHRI, Saskatoon,Saskatchewan, pp. 225-231.

6. Northcote, T.G. and P.A. Larkin 1989. The Fraser River: a majorsalmonine production system. In: D.P. Dodge (ed.). Proceedings ofthe International Large River Symposium. Can. Spec. Publ. Fish.Aquat. Sci. 106: 272-104.

7. Hall, K.J., H. Schreier and S.J. Brown. 1991. Water quality in theFraser River basin. In: A.H.J. Dorcey and J.R. Griggs (eds.). Waterin Sustainable Development: Exploring our Common Future in theFraser River Basin. Westwater Research Centre, Vancouver,British Columbia, Part II: Chap. 3, pp. 41-75.

8. Servizi, J.A. 1989. Protecting Fraser River salmon (Oncorhynchusspp.) from wastewaters: an assessment. In: C.D. Levings, L.B.Holtby, and M.A. Henderson (eds.). Proceedings of the NationalWorkshop on Effects of Habitat Alteration on Salmonid Stocks.Can. Spec. Publ. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 150. pp. 135-153.

9. Environment Canada. 1990. Water Works!. Environment Canada,Conservation and Protection, Ottawa, Ontario, Fact Sheet: No. 4:Water. 12 pp.

10. McNeill, R. and D. Tate. 1991. Guidelines for Municipal WaterPricing. Environment Canada, Conservation and Protection, InlandWaters Directorate, Water Planning and Management Branch,Ottawa, Ontario, Social Science Series No. 25. 66 pp.

11. Tate, D.M. and D.M. Lacelle. 1992. Municipal Water Rates inCanada, 1989: Current Practices and Prices. Environment Canada,Conservation and Protection, Ottawa, Ontario, Social ScienceSeries No. 27. 22 pp.

12. British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks.1991/1992. News Releases (4).

13. CEPA. 1991. Canadian Environmental Protection Act. PrioritySubstances List Assessment, Report No. 2. Effluents from PulpMills Using Bleaching.

14. CEPA. 1990. Canadian Environmental Protection Act. PrioritySubstances List Assessment, Report No. 1. PolychlorinatedDibenzodioxins and Polychlorinated Dibenzofurans.

15. Data provided by Conservation and Protection, EnvironmentCanada, Pacific and Yukon Region, 1992.

16. CEPA. 1992. Pulp and Paper Mill Effluent Chlorinated Dioxinsand Furans Regulations. Extract: Canada Gazette, Part II, May 20,1992. Department of the Environment.

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17. Bothwell, M.L. 1992. Eutrophication of rivers by nutrients intreated kraft pulp mill effluent. Environment Canada, Conservationand Protection, National Hydrology Research Institute, InlandWaters and Lands Directorate, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan,Contribution No. 92026. 30 pp. and figures.

18. Ministry of Environment. 1991. Background Paper: RegulatoryRestrictions on Sanitary and Stormwater discharges in BritishColumbia. Environmental Protection Division, Ministry ofEnvironment. Victoria, B.C. 7 pp.

19. British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks. 1992.Environmental Action Plan for British Columbia. British ColumbiaMinistry of Environment, Lands and Parks. Victoria, B.C.

20. Ministry of Environment. 1992. Urban Runoff Quality ControlGuidelines for The Province of British Columbia. Municipal WasteBranch, Environmental Protection Divisionn Ministry of Environ-ment, Victoria, B.C. Prepared by Waste Management Group,British Columbia Research Corporation, Vancouver, B.C.

21. Data provided by Mine Development Assessment Branch, Ministryof Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, 1992.

22. Filion, F.L., E. DuWors, A. Jacquemot, F. Bouchard, P. Boxall,P.A. Gray and R. Reid. 1989. Importance of wildlife to Canadiansin 1987: Highlights of a national survey. Environment Canada,Canadian Wildlife Service, Ottawa, 45 pp.

23. Errington, J.C. and K.D. Ferguson. 1987. Acid mine drainage inBritish Columbia: today and tomorrow. In: Acid Mine Drainage:Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual British Columbia MineReclamation Symposium. Convened at the Discovery Inn,Campbell River, British Columbia, April 8-10, 1987. Organized bythe Technical and Research Committee on Reclamation. Sponsoredby the Mining Association of B.C., British Columbia Ministry ofEnergy Mines and Petroleum Resources, British Columbia Ministryof Environment, Lands and Parks. pp. 7-29.

24 Errington, J.C. 1992. History and future of mine reclamation inBritish Columbia. In: Mine Reclamation “From Exploration toDecommissioning”: Proceedings of the Sixteenth Annual BritishColumbia Mine Reclamation Symposium. Convened at the HudsonBay Lodge, Smithers, British Columbia, June 15-18, 1992.Organized by the Technical and Research Committee on Reclama-tion. Sponsored by the Mining Association of B.C., BritishColumbia Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources,British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks withsupport from The University of British Columbia, and The CoalAssociation of British Columbia.

25. Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources. 1991. AnnualReport, Resource Management Branch. Ministry of Energy, Minesand Petroleum Resources, Mineral Resources Division, Victoria,B.C. 23 pp.

26. Data provided by Dangerous Goods Incident Database, Ministry ofEnvironment, 1992.

27. Data provided by Environmental Emergency Services Branch,British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1992.

28. Chatwin, S.C., D.E. Howes, J.W. Schwab, and D.N. Swanston.1991. A Guide for Management of Landslide-Prone Terrain in thePacific Northwest. B.C. Ministry of Forests, Victoria, B.C., LandManagement Handbook No. 18. 212 pp.

29. Data provided by Water Quality Branch, British Columbia Ministryof Environment, Lands and Parks, 1992.

30. Ministry of Health and Ministry Responsible for Seniors. 1990.Giardiasis and other water-borne disease. British ColumbiaMinistry of Health and Ministry Responsible for Seniors, Burnaby,B.C., No. 10, Sept. 1990. 1 pp.

31. Canadian Council of Resource and Environmental Ministers.1991. Canadian Water Quality Guidelines. Prepared by the TaskForce on Water Quality Guidelines of the Canadian Council ofResources and Environment Ministers, Environmental QualityGuidelines Division, Water Quality Branch, Inland WatersDirectorate, Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ont.

32. Data provided by Bureau of Communicable Disease Epidemiol-ogy, Heath and Welfare Canada, 1992.

33. Dwernychuk, L.W., G.S. Bruce, G. Gordon, and G.P. Thomas.1992. Fraser and Thompson Rivers: a comprehensiveorganochlorine study 1990/91 (drinking water/mill effluent/sediment/fish). Prepared for Northwood Pulp and TimberLimited, Prince George, B.C.; CANFOR Corporation, PrinceGeorge, B.C.; Cariboo Pulp and Paper Company, Quesnel, B.C.;and Weyerhaeuser Canada Ltd., Kamloops, B.C., 6 pp. and tablesand figures.

34. Data provided by Environmental Health Protection Service,Ministry of Health, 1992.

35. British Columbia Ministry of Agriculture, British ColumbiaMinistry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources, Ministry ofEnvironment, Ministry of Forests, Ministry of Health, BritishColumbia Ministry of Environment, Lands, and Parks Ministry ofHousing, and Ministry of Municipal Affairs. 1980. Guidelines forWatershed Management of Crown lands used as CommunityWater Supplies. Ministry of Environment, Victoria, B.C. 48 ppand appendices.

37. Hess, P.J. 1986. Ground-Water Use in Canada, 1981. NationalHydrology Research Institute, Inland Water Directorate,Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, NHRI Paper No. 28, IWDTech. Bull. No. 140. 43 pp. and 6 maps.

38. Data provided by Groundwater Section, Water ManagementBranch, British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands andParks, 1992.

39. Data provided by the Groundwater Section, British ColumbiaMinistry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1992.

40. British Columbia Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, incooperation with B.C. Federation of Agriculture, and the PoultryIndustry of B.C. 1992. Environmental Guidelines for PoultryProducers in British Columbia. British Columbia Ministry ofAgriculture, Fisheries and Food, Soils and Engineering Branch,Abbotsford, B.C., B.C.F.A. British Columbia Federation ofAgriculture 1992 issue. 70 pp.

41. Data provided by Petrochemical, Mining and Special Waste Unit,Technical Services and Special Wastes Section, Industrial Wasteand Hazardous Contaminants Branch, British Columbia Ministryof Environment, Lands and Parks, 1992.

42. Kohut, A.P., W.S. Hodge, and F. Chwojka. 1986. Groundwaterquality variations in fractured bedrock aquifers of the GulfIslands, British Columbia. In: Proceedings: Third CanadianHydrogeological Conference. International Assoc. ofHydrogeologists, Canadian National Chapter, pp. 185-192.

43. Kay B.H. 1989. Pollutants in British Columbia’s MarineEnvironment - A Status Report. Supply and Services Canada, 59pp.

44. Wells, P.G. and S.J. Rolston (eds). 1991. Health of Our Oceans: AStatus Report on Canadian Marine Environmental Quality.Conservation and Protection, Environment Canada, Ottawa andDartmouth.

45. Colodey, A.G. and P.G. Wells. 1992. Effects of pulp and papermill effluents on estuarine and marine ecosystems in Canada: areview. J. Aquat. Ecosystem Health 1: 15-40.

109

46. Sullivan, D.L. 1987. Compilation and Assessment of ResearchMonitoring and Dumping Information in Active Dump Sites inBritish Columbia and Yukon Coasts from 1979 to 1987. Environ-ment Canada, Conservation and Protection, EnvironmentalProtection, Pacific and Yukon Region, Vancouver, B.C., RegionalManuscript Report 87-02.

47. Data provided by National Analysis of Trends in EmergencySystems (NATES) database (1972-83 data) and EmergenciesDivision, Environment Canada, Pacific & Yukon Region (1984-92data)

48. Cross, S.F. 1990. Benthic impacts of salmon farming in BritishColumbia. Volume 1: Summary report. Manuscript prepared for theBritish Columbia Ministry of Environment, Water ManagementBranch, Victoria, B.C. 78 pp. and appendices.

49. Anderson, E. 1992. Benthic recovery following salmon farmingstudy site selection and initial surveys. Prepared for the BritishColumbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, WaterQuality Branch.

50. Caine, G., J. Truscott, S. Reid, and K. Ricker. 1987. BiophysicalCriteria for Siting Salmon Farms in British Columbia. Ministry ofAgriculture and Fisheries, Victoria, B.C. and The AquacultureAssociation of B.C., Nanaimo, B.C. 50 pp.

51. B.C. Government. 1988. Environmental Monitoring Program forMarine Fish Farms. Waste Management Branch and WaterManagement Branch, Victoria, B.C. 77 pp.

52. GESAMP. 1990. Long-Term Consequences of Low-Level MarineContamination: An Analytical Approach. IMO/FAO/Unesco/WMO/WHO/IAEA/UN/UNEP, Joint Group of Experts on theScientific Aspects of Marine Pollution, Reports and Studies No. 40.

53. Noble, D. 1990. A State of the Environment Report - Contaminantsin Canadian Seabirds. Supply and Services, Ottawa, Ontario, SOEReport No. 90-2. 75 pp.

54. Brothers, D.E. 1990a. Benthic sediment chemistry: West Coastsurvey - Phase I. Regional Data Report 90-04.

55. Brothers, D.E. 1990b. Benthic sediment chemistry: West Coastsurvey - Phase II. Regional Data Report 90-05.

56. Brothers, D.E. 1990c. Benthic sediment chemistry: B.C. oceandump sites, October, 1987. Regional Data Report 90-06.

57. Brothers, D.E. 1990d. Benthic sediment chemistry: B.C. oceandump sites, October, 1988. Regional Data Report 90-07.

58. D.B. Regan and Associates Ltd. 1992. CanadianOxy industrialchemicals limited partnership: 1991 crab survey. A report preparedfor CanadianOxy Industrial Chemicals Limited Partnership,Squamish Chlor-Alkali Plant, Squamish, B.C., File No. 2691.

59. Harding, L. 1990. Dioxin and furan levels in sediments, fish andinvertebrates from fishery closure areas of coastal British Columbia.Environment Canada, Environmental Protection Regional DataReport 90-09.

60. Elliott, J.E., D.G. Noble, R.J. Norstrom, and P.E. Whitehead. 1989.Organochlorine contaminants in Seabird eggs from the PacificCoast of Canada, 1971-1986. Environ. Monit. Assess. 12: 67-82.

61. Whitehead, P.E. 1991. Update: monitoring dioxin and furancontamination of heron and cormorant eggs collected from theStrait of Georgia indicates a downward trend - 1991. CanadianWildlife Service, Pacific and Yukon Region, 4 pp. and figures.

62. Bellward, G.D., R.J. Norstom, P.E. Whitehead, J.E. Elliot, S.M.Bandiera, C. Dworschak, T. Chang, S. Forbes, B. Cadario, L.E.Hart, and K.M. Cheng. 1990. Comparison of PolychlorinatedDibenzodioxin level with Hepatic mixed-function oxidase inductionin Great Blue Herons. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 30: 33-52.

63. Hart, L.E., K.M. Cheng, P.E. Whitehead, R.M. Shah, R.J. Lewis,S.R. Ruschkowski, R.W. Blair, D.C. Bennett, S.M. Bandiera, R.J.Norstrom, and G.D. Bellward. 1991. Dioxin contamination andgrowth and development in Great Blue Heron embryos. J. Toxicol.Environ. Health 32: 331-344.

64. Whitehead, P.E., R.J. Norstrom, and J.E. Elliott. 1992. Dioxinlevels in Eggs of Great Blue Heron (Ardea herodias) DeclineRapidly in Response to Process Changes in a Nearby Kraft PulpMill. 12th International Symposium on Dioxin and RelatedCompounds, August 1992. University of Tampere, Tampere,Finland.

65. Data provided by Department of Fisheries and Oceans, 1992.

66. Burlinson, N.E. 1991. Organochlorine Compounds in MarineMammals from the Strait of Georgia. British Columbia Environ-ment, Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Victoria, B.C. 9pp.

67. Dwernychuk, L.W., G. Bruce, and B. Gordon. 1991.Organochlorine Contamination in Various EnvironmentalCompartments Related to Chemical/Combustion Sources: LowerMainland/Vancouver Island Skeena/Interior Regions. B.C.Environment, British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Landsand Parks, Victoria, B.C. 68 pp. and appendices.

68. Teschke, K., S. Kelly, M. Wiens, C. Hertzman, H.D. Ward, J.E.H.Ward, and J.C. Van Oostdam. 1992. Chlorinated Dibenzo-p-dioxins and Dibenzofurans in the Adipose Tissue of BritishColumbia Residents. British Columbia Ministry of Environment,Lands and Parks, Victoria, B.C. 28 pp. and appendices.

69. Garrett, C.L. 1985. Chemicals in the Environment, Pacific andYukon Region: II. Cadmium. Environment Canada, EnvironmentalProtection Service, Pacific & Yukon Region, Summary Report. 47pp.

70. Indicators Task Force. 1991. A report on Canada’s progresstowards a national set of environmental indicators. EnvironmentCanada, State of the Environment Reporting, Ottawa, Ont., SOEReport No. 91-1.

71. Whitehead, P.E. 1989. Toxic chemicals in Great Blue Heron(Ardea herodias) eggs in the Strait of Georgia. In: K. Vermeer andR.W. Butler (eds.). The Ecology and Status of Marine andShoreline Birds in the Strait of Georgia, British Columbia. SpecialPublication. Canadian Wildlife Service, Environment Canada,Ottawa, Ont. pp. 177-183.

72. Noble, D.G. and J.E. Elliott. 1986. Environmental contaminants inCanadian Seabirds, 1968-1984: trends and effects. CanadianWildlife Service, Ottawa, Ont. Technical Report Series No. 13.

73. Muir, D.C.G. and R.J. Nortstrom. 1990. Marine mammals asindicators of environmental contamination by PCBs and dioxins/furans. In: L.E. Harding (ed.). Monitoring Status and Trends inMarine Environmental Quality: Proceedings of a symposium inconjunction with the 17th Annual Aquatic Toxicity Workshop,Vancouver, British Columbia, November 5-8 1990. Prepared forEnvironment Canada by Richard Banner, Polestar Communica-tions, pp. 134-139.

74. Muir, D.C.G., C.A. Ford, B. Rosenberg, M. Simon, R.J. Norstrom,and K. Langelier, 1991. PCBs and Other OrganochlorineContaminants in Marine Mammals from the Strait of Georgia.Fisheries and Oceans, Winnipeg, Manitoba; Canadian WildlifeService, Hull, Quebec; and Island Veterinary Hospital, Nanaimo,B.C. Abstract No. 135 as found in Society of EnvironmentalToxicology and Chemistry. 12th Annual Meeting, November 3-7,1991, Seattle Convention Center, Seattle, Washington.

110

75. Energy, Mines and Resources. 1974. The National Atlas ofCanada. Macmillan Publishers Ltd. in association with Energy,Mines and Resources of Canada. Ottawa, Ont. 4th ed. revised. 254pp.

76. Martel, P.H., T.G. Kovacs, B.I. O’Connor, and R.H. Voss. 1993. Asurvey of pulp and paper mill effluents for their potential to inducemixed function oxidase enzyme activity in fish. Proceedings of79th Annual Meeting of the CPPA in Montreal.

77. Carey, J.H., P.V. Hodson, K.R. Munkittrick, and M.R. Servos.1991. Recent Canadian studies on the physiological effects of pulpmill effluent on fish. Proceedings of a SEPA Conference held inStockholm, Sweden, 19-21 November 1991.

78. Data provided by Canadian Wildlife Service, EnvironmentCanada, Vancouver. 1993.

Additional readingBritish Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks.1992. Municipal Solid Waste Tracking System: 1990 DataAnalysis Summary Report. British Columbia Ministry ofEnvironment, Lands and Parks, Environmental ProtectionDivision, Municipal Waste Branch, Victoria, B.C.

Day, J.C. and J.A. Affum. 1990. Toward Sustainable WaterPlanning and Management in British Columbia. Prepared for theBritish Columbia Round Table on the Environment and theEconomy. 46 pp.

Dorcey, A.H.J. and J.R. Griggs (eds). 1991. Water in SustainableDevelopment: Exploring our Common Future in the Fraser RiverBasin. Westwater Research Centre, Vancouver, B.C. 288pp.

Environment Canada. 1985. Cadmium in the Aquatic Environ-ment. Environment Canada, Environmental Protection Service,Pacific & Yukon Region, Chemicals in the Environment: FactSheet. 2 pp.

Environment Canada. 1985. Lead in the Aquatic Environment.Environment Canada, Environmental Protection Service, Pacific &Yukon Region, Chemicals in the Environment: Fact Sheet. 2 pp.

Environment Canada. 1985. Mercury in the Aquatic Environment.Environment Canada, Environmental Protection Service, Pacific &Yukon Region, Chemicals in the Environment: Fact Sheet. 2 pp.

Environment Canada. 1985. Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) inthe Aquatic Environment. Environment Canada, EnvironmentalProtection Service, Pacific & Yukon Region, Chemicals in theEnvironment: Fact Sheet. 2 pp.

Environment Canada. 1989. Municipal Water Rates in Canada:Current Practices and Prices. Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ont. 4pp.

Environment Canada. 1990. Arsenic in the Aquatic Environment.Environment Canada, Environmental Protection Service, Pacific &Yukon Region, Chemicals in the Environment: Fact Sheet. 2 pp.

Environment Canada. 1990. Chlorophenols in the AquaticEnvironment. Environment Canada, Environmental ProtectionService, Pacific & Yukon Region, Chemicals in the Environment:Fact Sheet. 2 pp.

Environment Canada. 1990. Clean Water — Life Depends on It!.Environment Canada, Conservation and Protection, Ottawa, Ont.Fact Sheet: No. 3: Water. 12 pp.

Environment Canada. 1990. Groundwater - Nature’s HiddenTreasure. Environment Canada, Conservation and Protection,Ottawa, Ont. Fact Sheet: No. 5: Water. 12 pp.

Environment Canada. 1991. Review and Recommendations forCanadian Interim Environmental Quality Criteria for Contami-nated Sites. Environment Canada, Conservation and Protection,Inland Waters Directorate, Water Quality Branch, Ottawa, Ont.Scientific Series No. 197.

Deparment of Fisheries and Oceans. 1992. Backgrounder: dioxinsand furans. Fisheries and Oceans, News Release dated May 1,1992. 2 pp.

Hartman, G.F. and J.C. Scrivener. 1990. Impacts of ForestryPractices on a Coastal Stream Ecosystem, Carnation Creek,British Columbia. Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Ottawa,Ont., Can. Bull. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 223. Contribution No. 150 to theCarnation Creek Watershed Project. 148 pp.

Kay, B.H. 1986. West Coast Marine Environmental Quality:Technical Reviews. Environment Canada, Conservation andProtection, Environmental Protection, Regional Program Report86-01. 154 pp.

Kohut, A.P. 1987. Groundwater Supply Capability: AbbotsfordUpland. British Columbia Ministry of Environment and Parks,Water Management Branch, Victoria, B.C. 38 pp.

Kruus, P., M. Demmer, and K. McCaw. 1991. Chemicals in theEnvironment. Polyscience Publictions, Morin Heights, Quebec,165 pp.

Liebscher, H., B. Hii, and D. McNaughton. 1992. Nitrates andpesticides in the Abbotsford Aquifer, Southwestern BritishColumbia. Environment Canada. 83 pp.

Mah, F.T.S., D.D. MacDonald, S.W. Sheehan, T.M. Tuominen,and D. Valiela. 1989. Dioxins and Furans in Sediment and Fishfrom the Vicinity of Ten Inland Pulp Mills in British Columbia.Environment Canada, Conservation and Protection, InlandWaters, Pacific and Yukon Region, Vancouver, B.C. 77 pp. anderrata sheets.

Ministry of Environment. 1991. Sustaining the Water Resource.British Columbia’s Environment: Planning for the Future. B.C.Environment, Water Management Division, Victoria, B.C.,ENV111983.791. 18 pp.

Ministry of Environment. 1991. The Attainment of AmbientWater Quality Objectives in 1990. Ministry of Environment,Water Management Branch, Victoria, B.C. 204 pp.

Ministry of Health. 1990. Nitrate contamination in well water.Ministry of Health, Burnaby, B.C., From the Health Files No. 5,June 1990. 1 pp.

Rieberger, K. 1992. Metal Concentrations in Bottom Sedimentsfrom Uncontaminated B.C. Lakes. British Columbia Ministry ofEnvironment, Lands and Parks, Water Quality Branch, WaterManagement Division, Victoria, B.C. 332 pp.

States/British Columbia Oil Spill Task Force. 1990. Final reportof the States/British Columbia Oil Spill Task Force. Province ofBritish Columbia, State of Washington, State of Oregon, State ofAlaska, and State of California, 127 pp.

111

Plants and AnimalsReferences cited1. Harper, B., T. Lea, and B. Maxwell. 1991. Habitat Inventory in the

South Okanagan. Bioline 10(2): 12-16.

2. Ministry of Environment. 1991. Managing Wildlife to 2001, ADiscussion Paper. Wildlife Branch, Victoria, B.C. 150 pp.

3. British Columbia Ministry of Environment and Parks. 1987.Wildlife in British Columbia. Wildlife Branch, Victoria, B.C. 15 pp.

4. McKelvey, R. 1981. Winter distribution, mortality factors, andhabitat conditions of the Trumpeter Swan in British Columbia.Proceedings and Papers f the 6th Trumpeter Swan SocietyConference. Anchorage, Alaska. 101 pp.

5. Ehrlich, P.A and A.H. Ehrlich. 1992. The Value of Biodiversity.Ambio 21(3): 219-226.

6. Data provided by Conservation Data Centre, British ColumbiaMinistry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Victoria, B.C., 1992.

7. Data provided by Fisheries Branch, British Columbia Ministry ofEnvironment, Lands and Parks, Victoria, B.C., 1992.

8. Cannings, R.A. and A.P. Harcombe. 1990. The vertebrates ofBritish Columbia: scientific and English names. Heritage RecordNo. 20, Royal British Columbia Museum and Wildlife report N. R-24, Wildlife Branch, Victoria, B.C.

9. Harding, L., P. Newroth, R. Smith, B. Smiley, M. Waldichuk, R.Cranston and A. Sturko. 1993. New Introductions: Alien Species inBritish Columbia. In: L.E. Harding and E.A. McCullum (eds.).Biodiversity in British Columbia: Our Changing Environment.Chapter 16. (in press)

10. McAllister, D. 1990. List of the Fishes of Canada. Syllabus #64.National Museum of Canada.

11. Data provided by Wildlife Branch, British Columbia Ministry ofEnvironment, Lands and Parks, Victoria, B.C., 1992.

12. Campbell, R.W., N.K. Dawe, I. McTaggart-Cowan, J.M. Cooper,G.W. Kaiser, and M.C.E. McNail. 1990. The Birds of BritishColumbia. Volume 2. Mitchell Press, Vancouver, B.C. 636 pp.

13. McMinn, R.G., S. Eis, H.E. Hirvonen, E.T. Oswals, and J.P. Senyk.1976. Native vegetation in British Columbia’s Capital Region.Environment Canada, Forestry Service Rep. B.C.-X-140, Victoria,B.C.

14. Thilenius, J.F. 1968. The Quercus garryana forest of the WillametteValley, Oregon. Ecology 49(6): 1124-1133.

15. Douglas, D. 1914. Journal kept by David Douglas during his travelsin North America 1823-1827. Wesley and Son, London, 364 pp.

16. Riegel, G.M., B.G. Smith, and J.F. Franklin. 1992. Foothill OakWoodlands of the Interior Valleys of Southwestern Oregon.Northwest Sci. 66(2): 66-76.

17. Goward, T. 1991. Lichens and the vanished grasslands. B.C.Naturalist 29(4): 8-9.

18. Harper, W.L., E.C. Lea, and R.E. Maxwell. 1992. Biodiversityinventory in the South Okanagan. In: M.A. Fenger, E.H. Miller,J.A. Johnson and E.J.R. Williams (eds.). Our Living Legacy.Proceedings of a Symposium on Biological Diversity. BritishColumbia Ministry of Environment, Land and Parks, Ministry ofForests and Royal B.C. Museum, Victoria, B.C. (in press).

19. Dorey, R.J. 1975. A fire history investigation and the effects of fireexclusion on a ponderosa pine forest in southeastern BritishColumbia. Thesis, Faculty of Forestry, University of BritishColumbia, Vancouver, B.C.

20. Roberts, A. 1992. A report on ecology of the Junction WildlifeManagement Area. Prepared for Wildlife Section, Ministry ofEnvironment, Williams Lake. Unpublished report.

21. Data provided by Ecodistricts Database, Environment Canada,1992

22. Pilon, P. and M.A. Kerr. 1984. Land Use Change on Wetlands inthe Southwestern Fraser Lowland, B.C. Environment Canada.

23. Kellogg, E. (ed.). 1992. Coastal Temperate Rain Forests:Ecological Characteristics, Status and Distribution Worldwide.Ecotrust and Conservation International Occasional Paper SeriesNo. 1, 64 pp.

24. Moore, M.K. 1991. Coastal Watersheds: An Inventory ofWatersheds in the Coastal Temperate Forests of British Columbia.Earthlife Canada Foundation and Ecotrust/Conservation Interna-tional, 54 pp.

25. United Nations Environment Program. 1992. Convention onBiological Diversity, 5 June 1992.

26. Data provided by Pacific Biological Station, Department ofFisheries and Oceans, Nanaimo, B.C., 1993.

27. Haist, V. and J.F. Schweigert. 1992. Stock assessment for BritishColumbia herring in 1991 and forecasts of the potential catch in1992. Can. Manu. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. No. 2146, 82 pp.

28. Data provided by 1992 Fact Sheets, Institute of Ocean Sciences,Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Sidney, B.C., 1992.

29. Tripp, A., Nixon, and R. Dunlop. 1992. The application andeffectiveness of the Coastal Fisheries and Forestry Guidelines inSelected Cut Blocks on Vancouver Island. Prepared for the BritishColumbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Fish andWildlife Division, 24 pp.

30. Tunnicliffe, V. 1991. Biodiversity: the marine biota of BritishColumbia. In: Our Living Legacy. A Conference on theBiodiversity of British Columbia. Proceedings of a BiodiversityConference in Victoria, October 1991. (in press).

31. Pacific Stock Assessment Review Committee (PSARC). 1991.Annual Report.

32. Data provided by Annual Summaries of Catch Statistics, Instituteof Ocean Sciences, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Sidney,B.C., 1992.

33. Data provided by International Pacific Halibut Commission,Seattle, Washington, U.S.A., 1992.

34. Data provided by Fisheries Branch, British Columbia Ministry ofEnvironment, Lands and Parks, Nanaimo, B.C., 1992.

35. Rieberger, K. 1992. Metal Concentration in Fish Tissue fromUncontaminated B.C. Lakes. British Columbia Ministry ofEnvironment, Lands and Parks, Water Quality Branch.

36. Forestry Canada. 1990. Forestry Facts.

37. Hosie, R.C. 1975. Native Trees of Canada. Canadian ForestryService, Department of the Environment, Ottawa, Ont., SeventhEdition. 380 pp.

38. British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks.1992. British Columbia Freshwater Results of the 1990 NationalSurvey of Sport Fishing.

112

39. Ministry of Environment. 1991. Conserving Our Resource:Fisheries Program Strategic Plan 1991-1995. Ministry of Environ-ment, Fisheries Program, Victoria, B.C. 22 pp.

40. Data provided by Inventory Branch, Ministry of Forests, Victoria,B.C., 1992.

41. Data provided by Protection Branch, Ministry of Forests, Victoria,B.C., 1992.

42. Van Sickle, A.G. 1992. Forest Insect and Disease Conditions,British Columbia and Yukon, 1973-1991. Forest Insect and DiseaseSurvey, Forestry Canada, Pacific Forestry Centre, Victoria, B.C.

43. Ministry of Forests. 1992. Annual Report 1991-92 (in press).

44. Ministry of Forests. 1991. Annual Report 1990-91.

45. Ministry of Forests. 1990. Summary of Backlog Not SatisfactorilyRestocked Forest Land. 35 pp.

46. British Columbia Ministry of Crown Lands. 1989. British ColumbiaLand Statistics. Victoria, B.C. pp. 23-29.

47. Canadian Council of Forest Ministers. 1992. Compendium ofCanadian Forestry Statistics - 1991: National Forestry Database.Forestry Canada, Ottawa, 86 pp.

48. Data provided by Ministry of Forests, Annual Reports.

49. Data provided by Timber Harvesting Branch, Ministry of Forests,Victoria, B.C., 1992.

50. Data provided by Timber Harvesting Branch, Ministry of Forests,Victoria, B.C., 1992.

51. Data provided from Statistics Canada, 1992.

52. Ministry of Finance and Corporate Relations. 1992. BritishColumbia Origin Exports, July 1992. Statistics Branch, Victoria,B.C. Issue 92-07.

53. Ernst and Young. 1992. The tertiary component of the forest sectorin British Columbia. In: Rising to the Challenge. Discussion Paper,Forest Summit Conference, September 22-24, 1992, Vancouver,B.C.

54. Data provided by Ministry of Forests, Victoria, B.C., 1993.

55. Hall, T. 1992. Recreation Program Annual Report, 1990/91.Ministry of Forests, Recreation Branch, 23 pp.

56. Government of Canada. 1991. The State of Canada’s Environment.Supply and Services Canada, Ottawa.

57. Ministry of Forests. 1992. Towards an Old Growth Strategy. PublicReview Draft. Old Growth Strategy Project, 72 pp.

58. Ministry of Forests. 1992. Old Growth Values Team Report. 38 pp.plus appendix.

59. Olesiuk, P.F., M.A. Bigg, and G.M. Ellis. 1990. Recent trends inthe abundance of harbour seals, Phoca vitulina, in BritishColumbia. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 47(5): 992-1003.

60. Data provided by Canadian Wildlife Service, Environment Canada,1993.

61. Margalef. R. 1969. Perspectives in Ecological Theory. University ofChicago Press, 111 pp.

62. Data provided by Wildlife Branch, British Columbia Ministry ofEnvironment, Lands and Parks, Victoria, B.C., 1993.

Additional readingAnderson, K. and L. Harmon. 1985. The Prentice-Hall dictionary ofnutrition and health. Prentice Hall, New Jersey.

Archer, S.G. and C.E. Bunch. 1953. The American grass book. Amanual of pasture and range practices. University of OklahomaPress, Norman.

Association of B.C. Professional Foresters. 1991. DiscussionPaper on Are We Overcutting Our Forests?

Burlinson, N.E. 1991. Organochlorine Compounds in MarineMammals from the Strait of Georgia. Ministry of Environment,British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks. 9pp.

Filion, F.L., E. DuWors, A. Jacquemot, F. Bouchard, P. Boxall,P.A. Gray and R. Reid. 1989. Importance of wildlife to Canadiansin 1987: Highlights of a national survey. Environment Canada,Canadian Wildlife Service, Ottawa, 45 pp.

Forestry Canada. 1992. The State of Canada’s Forests 1991.Forestry Canada, Ottawa, 85 pp.

Health and Welfare Canada. 1992. A Vital Link. Supply andServices Canada, Ottawa, 160 pp.

Hertzman, C., N. Ames, H. Ward, S. Kelly, and C. Yates. 1991.Childhood Lead Exposures in Trail Revisited. Can. J. PublicHealth 82: 385-391.

Lynch-Stewart, P. 1983. Land Use Change on Wetlands inSouthern Canada: Review and Bibliography. EnvironmentCanada, Lands Directorate, Canada Land Use MonitoringProgram. Working Paper No. 26. 115 pp.

Manitoba Centre for Remote Sensing. 1991. Unpublished landcover data derived from AVHRR satellite measurements, at 1km2

resolution.

Maser, C. 1988. The Redesigned Forest. R.E. Miles, San Pedro,California, 234 pp.

Ministry of Environment. 1991. Environment 2001: StrategicDirections for British Columbia’s Environment: Planning for theFuture. B.C. Environment, Water Management Division, 25 pp.

Ministry of Forests. 1992. British Columbia’s Forests:Monocultures or Mixed Forests. Ministry of Forests, SilvicultureBranch, Victoria, B.C.

Muir, D.C.G. and R.J. Nortstrom. 1990. Marine mammals asindicators of environmental contamination by PCBs and dioxins/furans. In: L.E. Harding (ed.). Monitoring Status and Trends inMarine Environmental Quality: Proceedings of a symposium inconjunction with the 17th Annual Aquatic Toxicity Workshop,Vancouver, British Columbia, November 5-8 1990. Prepared forEnvironment Canada by Richard Banner, PolestarCommunications,pp. 134-139.

Muir, D.C.G., C.A. Ford, B. Rosenberg, M. Simon, R.J.Norstrom, and K. Langelier, 1991. PCBs and OtherOrganochlorine Contaminants in Marine Mammals from the Straitof Georgia. Fisheries and Oceans, Winnipeg, Manitoba; CanadianWildlife Service, Hull, Quebec; and Island Veterinary Hospital,Nanaimo, B.C. Abstract No. 135 as found in Society ofEnvironmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 12th Annual Meeting,November 3-7, 1991, Seattle Convention Center, Seattle,Washington.

Noble, D. 1990. Contaminants in Canadian Seabirds; A State ofThe Environment Report. Environment Canada SOE Report Vol.90-2, 75 pp.

Northcote, T.G. and M.D. Burwash. 1991. Fish and fish habitatsof the Fraser River Basin. In: A.H.J. Dorcey (ed.). Perspectives onSustainable Development in Water Management: TowardsAgreement in the Fraser River Basin. Westwater Research Centre,pp. 117-141.

113

Olesiuk, P.F. and M.A. Bigg. 1990. Life history and populationdynamics of resident killer whales (Orcinus orca) in the coastalwaters of British Columbia and Washington State. In: P.S.Hammond, S.A. Mizroch and J.P Donovan (eds.). IndividualRecognition of Cetations: Use of Photo-Identification and OtherTechniques to Estimate Population Parameters. Report to theInternational Whaling Commission, Special Issue 12, pp. 209-243.

Sims, P.L. 1988. Grasslands. In: N.G. Barbour and W.D. Billings(eds.). North American Terrestrial Vegetation. CambridgeUniversity Press, New York, N.Y. pp. 265-286.

Smiley, B. and A. Eade. 1992. Department of Fisheries and OceansTopic Sheets About Some Indicators for State of EnvironmentReporting. Draft. Department of Fisheries and Oceans andDepartment of Environment.

Teschke, K., S. Kelly, M. Wiens, C. Hertzman, H.D. Ward, J.E.H.Ward, and J.C. Van Oostdam. 1992. Chlorinated Dibenzo-p-dioxins and Dibenzofurans in the Adipose Tissue of BritishColumbia Residents. British Columbia Ministry of Environment,Lands and Parks, Victoria, 28 pp. and appendices.

Wells, P.G. and S.J. Rolston (eds). 1991. Health of Our Oceans: AStatus Report on Canadian Marine Environmental Quality.Conservation and Protection, Environment Canada, Ottawa andDartmouth, N.S.

Whitehead, P.E. 1991. Update: monitoring dioxin and furancontamination of heron and cormorant eggs collected from theStrait of Georgia indicates a downward trend - 1991. CanadianWildlife Service, Pacific and Yukon Region, 4 pp. and figures.

LandReferences cited1. Munn, B. 1992. Personal communication.

2. British Columbia Round Table on the Environment and theEconomy. 1991a. Sustainable Land and Water Use. BritishColumbia Round Table on the Environment and the Economy,Victoria, B.C. 60 pp.

3. British Columbia Claims Task Force. 1991. The Report of theBritish Columbia Claims Task Force, June, 1992. First Nations ofBritish Columbia, Government of British Columbia and Govern-ment of Canada.

4. The World Conservation Union (IUCN). 1990. A Framework forthe Classification of Terrestrial and Marine Protected Areas. 1990.The World Conservation Union, 29 pp.

5. B.C. Commission on Resources and Environment. 1992. Report ona Land Use Strategy for British Columbia. Commission onResources and Environment. 47 pp.

6. K. Lewis and A. MacKinnon (eds.). 1992. Gap Analysis of B.C.’sProtected Areas by Biogeoclimatic and Ecoregion Units: Draft.British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks andBritish Columbia Ministry of Forests, Victoria, B.C. 89 pp. andappendices.

7. Noble, M.A., P.D. Riben, and G.J. Cook. 1992. Microbiologicaland Epidemiological Surveillance Programme to Monitor theHealth Effects of Foray 48B BTK Spray. Submitted to TheMinistry of Forests, Province of British Columbia, Sept. 30/92.

8. British Columbia Ministry of Crown Lands. 1989. BritishColumbia Land Statistics. British Columbia Ministry of CrownLands, Land Policy Branch. 58 pp.

9. Data provided by Inventory Branch, Ministry of Forests, Victoria,B.C., 1992.

10. Agriculture Canada. 1988. Agriculture and Food in BritishColumbia: A Look at the Industry and its Prospects for Develop-ment. Agriculture Canada, New Westminster, B.C. 82 pp.

11. Errington, J.C. 1992. Mine reclamation in British Columbia. Int.Mine Waste Manage. News 2(1): 5-12.

12. Data provided by B.C. Lands, British Columbia Ministry ofEnvironment, Lands and Parks, 1992.

13. Statistics Canada. 1992. Households and the Environment 1991.Statistics Canada, Household Surveys Division, Ministry ofIndustry, Science and Technology, Ottawa, Cat. 11-526 Occa-sional. 39 pp.

14. Data provided by Statistics Canada and Environment Canada,1993.

15. Warren, C.L., A. Kerr, and A.M. Turner. 1989. Urbanization ofRural Land in Canada, 1981-1986: A State of the EnvironmentFact Sheet. Environment Canada, Conservation and Protection,Ottawa, Ontario, SOE Fact Sheet No. 89-1. 12 pp. and supplemen-tary tables.

16. Ministry of Environment. 1991. Program for Participation. HowB.C. is Managing Solid Waste. Ministry of Environment,Municipal Waste Branch, Victoria, B.C. booklet. 18 pp.

17. Moore, K.E. 1990. Urbanization in the Lower Fraser Valley, 1980-1987. Canadian Wildlife Service, Pacific and Yukon Region. Tech.Rept. Ser. No. 120. 12 pp.

18. Rees, B. 1992. Ecological footprint and appropriated carryingcapacity: what urban economics leaves out. Environment andUrbanization. Vol. 4 No.2, Oct. 1992, pp.121-130

19. Anderson, M. and L. Knapik. 1984. Agricultural land degradationin western Canada: a physical and economic overview. Preparedfor Regional Development Branch, Agriculture Canada, 138 pp.

20. Government of British Columbia. 1992. Towards a ProtectedAreas Strategy.

21. Chatwin, S.C., D.E. Howes, J.W. Schwab, and D.N. Swanston.1991. A Guide for Management of Landslide-Prone Terrain in thePacific Northwest. Ministry of Forests, Victoria, B.C., LandManagement Handbook No. 18. 212 pp.

22. Templeman-Kluit, D.J. 1992. Letter from Templeman-Kluit re:soil and contaminants. 2 pp.

23. Data provided by Industrial Waste and Hazardous ContaminantsBranch, British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands andParks, 1993.

24. Jungen, J. 1992. Contaminated sites - state of the environmentinformation - additional notes. 4 pp.

25. Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME). 1991.Interim Canadian environmental quality criteria for contaminatedsites. Subcommittee on Environmental Quality Criteria forContaminated Sites. 20 pp.

26. Environment Canada. 1991. Review and Recommendations forCanadian Interim Environmental Quality Criteria for ContaminatedSites. Environment Canada, Conservation and Protection, InlandWaters Directorate, Water Quality Branch, Ottawa, Ontario,Scientific Series No. 197.

27. British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks.1991/1992. News Releases (4).

28. Bindra, K.S. 1992. Data for the State of the Environment Report -Environmental Indicators. 2 pp.

29. Ministry of Environment. 1989. Environmental Priorities 1989.

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30. Data provided by Municipal Waste Branch, British ColumbiaMinistry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1992.

31. Data provided by Pesticide Management Branch, British ColumbiaMinistry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1987.

32. Gartner Lee Limited. 1992. Fraser Valley ground water/drinkingwater study: final report. Prepared for Ministry of Health, PublicHealth Protection Branch, GLL 91-744. 37 pp. and appendices.

33. Health & Welfare Canada, Agriculture Canada, Ministry ofAgriculture, Fisheries and Food, and British Columbia Ministry ofEnvironment, Lands and Parks. 1992. Monitoring of PesticideResidues in Foods in British Columbia. Health Protection Branch,Health and Welfare Canada, Burnaby, B.C., pamphletENV126960.1192.

34. Dyck, V.A. and M.G.T. Gardiner. 1992. Sterile-insect releaseprogram to control codling moth Cydia pomonella (L.)(Lepidopteria: Olethreutidae) in British Columbia, Canada. ActaPhytopathol. Hung. 27(1-4): 219-222.

35. Westwater Research Centre. 1992. Marine Protected Areas (MPA)in British Columbia. Final report to the Law Foundation of BritishColumbia.

36. Gilkeson, L.A. 1992. Agricultural crops grown under integratedpest management programs in British Columbia: 1991. Results of asurvey of pest management consultants conducted by the PesticideManagement Program, British Columbia Ministry of Environment,Lands and Parks.

37. Turner, A.M., C.D.A. Rubec, and E.B. Wiken. 1992. Canadianecosystems: a systems approach to their conservation. In: J.H.M.Williston et al. (eds.). Science and the Management of ProtectedAreas. Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam, Netherlands, pp.117-127.

38. British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, andB.C. Ministry of Forest. 1992. Government unveils protected areasstrategy: parks and wilderness action plan detailed. BritishColumbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Victoria,B.C., News Release dated May 6, 1992.

39. B.C. Hydro. 1992. B.C. Hydro Annual Report. B.C. Hydro.

40. Morrison, K. and T. Turner. 1992. Protected areas in BritishColumbia. A submission to the State of the Environment Reportfor British Columbia Project, Final Draft, Nov. 16/92. 24 pp.

41. Data provided by British Columbia Ministry of Environment,Lands and Parks, 1993.

42. The Report of The British Columbia Claims Task Force, June1991. The British Columbia Claims Task Force 1991.

Additional readingAgriculture Canada. 1990. Exploring Sustainability in theAgriculture and Food Industries. Agriculture Canada, NewWestminster, B.C. 106 pp.

British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks.1991. Striking the Balance: B.C. Parks Policy. British ColumbiaMinistry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Victoria, B.C. 28 pp.

British Columbia Ministry of Energy, Mines and PetroleumResources. 1991. Mine Reclamation in British Columbia: PolicyOverview. British Columbia Ministry of Energy, Mines andPetroleum Resources, Resource Management Branch, Reclamationand Permitting, Victoria, B.C. September 1991. 9 pp.

Boydell, A.N. 1990. Waste Management Issues in BritishColumbia. Prepared for the British Columbia Round Table on theEnvironment and the Economy, Victoria, B.C. 20 pp. andappendix.

Cain, L. 1991. Environmental sustainability in B.C. agriculture: anoverview of the provincial issues and (preliminary) priorities forthe federal Green Plan program. Agriculture Canada. 29 pp.

Eng, M. 1992. Vancouver Island gap analysis. Ministry of Forests,Research Branch, Victoria, B.C., Unpubl. document.

Environment Canada. 1991. State of the Parks: 1990 Report.Environment Canada.

Ministry of Environment. 1991. Environment 2001: StrategicDirections for British Columbia. Ministry of Environment,Victoria, B.C. 71 pp.

Ministry of Environment. 1991. New Directions in PesticideManagement. British Columbia’s Environment: Planning for theFuture. Ministry of Environment, Pesticide Management Program -Five-Year Strategic Plan, Victoria, B.C. ENV007320.791. 12 pp.

Ministry of Parks. 1990. Parks Plan 90: Preserving Our LivingLegacy: Landscapes for BC Parks. Ministry of Parks, Victoria,B.C. 48 pp. and map.

Ministry of Parks. 1990. Parks Plan 90: Preserving Our LivingLegacy: Recreation Goals for BC Parks. Ministry of Parks,Victoria, B.C. 68 pp.

Trant, D.F. 1989. Estimating agricultural soil erosion losses fromcensus of agriculture crop coverage data. Paper prepared forEnvironment and Natural Resources Group, Analytical StudiesBranch, Statistics Canada. No. 27.

EcoprovincesReferences cited1. Wareham, B., G. Whyte, and S. Kennedy. n.d. British Columbia

Wildlife Viewing Guide. British Columbia Wildlife Watch,Habitat Conservation Fund, and Lone Pine.

2. Demarchi, D.A. and K.T. Lewis. 1992. Appendix 3: Synopsis ofthe ecoregion classification system of British Columbia. In: K.Lewis and A. MacKinnon (eds.). Gap Analysis of B.C.’s ProtectedAreas by Biogeoclimatic and Ecoregion Units: Draft. BritishColumbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks and BritishColumbia Ministry of Forests, Victoria, B.C. 89 pp. and appendi-ces.

3. Vold, T. 1992. The Status of Wilderness in British Columbia: AGap Analysis. Appendix A. Ecosystem Representation (Ecoregionand Biogeoclimatic Classification). Wilderness Management,Recreation Branch, British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Victoria,B.C.

4. Manitoba Centre for Remote Sensing. 1991. Unpublished landcover data derived from AVHRR satellite measurements, at 1km2

resolution.

5. Data provided by Statistics Canada and Environment Canada,1992.

6. Nordin, R.N. and L.W. Pommen. 1985. Peace River area CharlieLake sub-basin water quality assessment and objectives: Technicalappendix. British Columbia Ministry of Environment, Lands andParks, Water Management Branch, Victoria, B.C. 34 pp.

7. Anderson, M. and L. Knapik. 1984. Agricultural land degradationin western Canada: a physical and economic overview. Preparedfor Regional Development Branch, Agriculture Canada. 138 pp.

8. Data provided by Ministry of Environment, 1992.

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9. Ministry of Environment, Canada-British Columbia PartnershipAgreement on Forest Resource Development (FRDA II), BritishColumbia Ministry of Environment Lands and Parks, and Ministryof Forests. n.d. Mountain Caribou in Managed Forests. Publishedby Ministry of Environment, Prince George, B.C. MCMFbrochure.

10. Servizi, J.A. 1989. Protecting Fraser River salmon (Oncorhynchusspp.) from wastewaters: an assessment. In: C.D. Levings, L.B.Holtby, and M.A. Henderson (eds.). Proceedings of the NationalWorkshop on Effects of Habitat Alteration on Salmonid Stocks.Can. Spec. Publ. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 105.

11. Schreier, H., S.J. Brown, and K.J. Hall. 1991. The land-waterinterface in the Fraser River basin. In: A.H.J. Dorcey, and J.R.Griggs (eds.). Water in Sustainable Development: Exploring ourCommon Future in the Fraser River Basin. Research Program onWater in Sustainable Development: Volume II. WestwaterResearch Centre, Faculty of Graduate Studies, The University ofBritish Columbia, Vancouver, B.C. pp. 77-116.

12. Marmorek, D.R., J. Korman, and D.P. Bernard. 1992. Fate andEffects of Pulp Mill Effluents in the Fraser River Ecosystem.Inland Waters, Environment Canada.

13. Fisheries Act. 1992. Pulp and Paper Effluent Regulations. Extract:Canada Gazette, Part II, Vol. 126, No. 11, May 7, 1992.

14. Townsend, G.H. 1975. Impact of the Bennett Dam on the Peace-Athabasca Delta. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 32: 171-176.

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16. White, E.R., C.A. Johnson, and R.J. Crozier. Trail air quality:compilation and synopsis of ambient air quality and industrialemissions data 1975-1985. Ministry of Environment, Nelson, B.C.

17. Data provided by Environmental Protection, British ColumbiaMinistry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Cranbrook, B.C., 1992.

18. Hertzman, C., N. Ames, H. Ward, S. Kelly, and C. Yates. 1990.Trail Lead Study Report. Prepared for the Ministries of Health andEnvironment. Department of Health Care and Epidemiology,University of British Columbia, Vancouver, 26 pp. plus tables,figures and appendices.

19. Hertzman, C., N. Ames, H. Ward, S. Kelly, and C. Yates. 1991.Childhood Lead Exposures in Trail Revisited. Can. J. PublicHealth 82: 385-391.

20. Data provided by Trail Community Lead Task Force, 1992.

21. Data provided by Environmental Protection, British ColumbiaMinistry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Nelson, B.C., 1992.

22. Crozier, R.J. and W.F.A. Duncan, 1984. Kootenay Lake:Compilation and synopsis of physical, chemical, and biologicaldata from 1968 to 1984. Ministry of Environment, Nelson, B.C.

23. Anonymous. 1974. Limnology of the Major Okanagan BasinLakes. Canada/B.C. Okanagan Basin Agreement. TechnicalSupplement 5. B.C. Water Reserces Service. 261 pp.

24. Anonymous. 1982. Report on the Okanagan Basin ImplementationAgreement. Okanagan Basin Implementation Board. ISBN 0-7719-9054-5. 126 pp.

25. Anonymous. 1985. Phosphorous in the Okanagan Valley Lakes:Sources Water Quality Objectives and Control Possibilities.Ministry of Environment. 163 pp.

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27. Bryan, J.E. 1987. Effects of Wastewater Releases by City ofVernon on Vernon Creek and Vernon Arm of Okanagan Lake in1984 and 1985. Ministry of Environment. BC EnvironmentTechnical Report ISBN 0-7726-07206. 35 pp.

28. Bryan, J.E. 1991. Some Effects of Wastewater from Brenda Minesand Water Quality Aquatic Organisms of Forage Crops. Ministryof Environment. BC Environment Technical Report ISBN 0-7726-1379-6, 40 pp. and BC Environment Technical Report ISBN 0-7726-1182-3, 69pp.

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34. Hodge, W.S. 1985. Groundwater Quality Monitoring andAssessment Program - Assessment of Water Quality andIdentification of Water Quality Concerns and Problem areas,Osoyoos. Ministry of Environment, Water Management Branch,Victoria, B.C. 28 pp. and appendices.

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36. Hodge, W.S. 1989. Groundwater Quality Monitoring andAssessment Program - Assessment of Water Quality andIdentification of Water Quality Concerns and Problem Areas,Osoyoos, 1987. Ministry of Environment, Water ManagementBranch, Victoria, B.C. 12 pp. and figures and tables.

37. Ference Weicker & Company. 1991. Evaluation of the Socio-economic Benefits of the Okanagan Valley Eurasian Water MilfoilControl Program. British Columbia Ministry of Environment,Lands and Parks, Victoria, B.C. 88 pp.

38. Einarson, E.D. 1991. The 1991 Eurasian Watermilfoil Surveillanceand Control Program in Shuswap and Mara Lakes. Ministry ofEnvironment, Water Management Division, Victoria, B.C. 40 pp.

39. Dale, A.R. and D.H. Haberstock. 1992. The 1991 Christina LakeEurasian Watermilfoil Control Program. Ministry of Environment,Water Management Division, Victoria, B.C. 36 pp.

40. Hodge, W.S. 1991. Water Quality (Nitrate) Reconnaissance Study- Armstrong, B.C. British Columbia Ministry of Environment,Lands and Parks, Water Management Division. 12 pp. andappendices.

41. Singleton, H.J. 1990a. Okanagan Area Hydraulic Creek and itsTributaries Water Quality Assessment and Objectives. Ministry ofEnvironment. 10 pp.

42. Singleton, H.J. 1990b. Okanagan Area Hydraulic Creek and itsTributaries Water Quality Assessment and Objectives. TechnicalAppendix. British Columbia Ministry of Environment, 44 pp.

43. Harper, B., T. Lea, and B. Maxwell. 1991. Habitat Inventory in theSouth Okanagan. Bioline 10(2): 12-16.

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44. Page, R., D. Meidinger, and E. Hamilton. 1991. BiodiversityResearch Strategy, Summary of Conclusions and ResearchRecommendations. First Draft. Ministry of Forests, Forest ScienceResearch Branch, Victoria, B.C. 28 pp.

45. Hlady, D.A. 1990. South Okanagan Conservation Strategy 1990-1995. Ministry of Environment, Victoria, B.C. 31 pp. andappendices.

46. Christie, B., R. Collins, D. Clarke, C. Thompson, J. French and C.Siddle. 1991. Kelowna Natural Features Inventory SummaryReport. Reid, Collins and Associates, Vancouver, B.C. 69 pp. plusappendices.

47. Bunce, H.W.F. 1992. Fluoride emissions and forest growthmeasurements of second growth - 1982-1988. Prepared by Reid,Collins and Associates, A Division of H.A. Simons Ltd., Vancou-ver, B.C. for Alcan Smelters and Chemicals Ltd.

48. Austin, A. and N. Munteanu. 1984. Evaluation of changes in a largeoligotrophic wilderness park lake exposed to mine tailing effluentfor 14 years: the phytoplankton. Environ. Pollut. (Series A) 33: 39-62.

49. Deniseger, J. and L. Erickson. 1991. Trends in Water Quality ofButtle Lake and the Campbell River - Continuing Decreases inMetal Concentrations from 1987 through 1990. British ColumbiaMinistry of Environment, Lands and Parks, EnvironmentalProtection Branch, Victoria, B.C. 39 pp.

50. Harding, L.E. and J.R. Englar. 1989. The Nestucca oil spill: fateand effects to May 31, 1989. Environment Canada, EnvironmentalProtection, West Vancouver, B.C., Regional Program Report 89-01.

51. Government of Canada and British Columbia Ministry ofEnvironment, Lands and Parks. 1992. Settlement reached onenvironmental damage from Westucca oil spill. News Release. 2pp.

52. Eade, A. 1992. Persistent marine debris in B.C. Department ofFisheries and Oceans. unpubl. data.

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56. Nasu, Keiji and Kazuhiko Hiramatsu. 1990. Distribution anddensity of marine debris in the North Pacific based on sightingsurveys in 1989. (Document submitted to the Annual Meeting of theInternational North Pacific Fisheries Commission, 1990 October).

57. Shaw, W. 1990. 1990 Summary of marine debris sightings duringCanadian high seas research surveys, 1989 -1990. (Documentsubmitted to the Annual Meeting of the International North PacificFisheries Commission, November, 1990).

58. Ministry of Forests and British Columbia Ministry of Environment,Lands and Parks.1992. Khutzeymateen Study Report, May 1992.

59. Data and background information provided by Ministry ofEnvironment, Skeena Region, 1992.

60. B.C. Ministry of Finance and Corporate Relations. 1990. BritishColumbia Population Forecst 1990-2016. B.C. Ministry of Financeand Corporate Relations, Planning and Statistics Division, Victoria,B.C. 37 pp.

61. GVRD. 1988. Vancouver Metropolitan Population Forecast 1986-2001. Regional Population, Burnaby, Greater VancouverRegional District.

62. CCME. 1990. Management plan for nitrogen oxides (NOx) andvolatile organic compounds (VOCs). Phase I. Canadian Councilof Ministers of the Environment, Winnipeg. CCME-EPC/TRE-31E. 176 pp. and 4 Appendices.

63. Lippmann, M., P.J. Lioy, G. Leikanf, K.B. Green, D. Baxter, M.Morandi, B.S. Pasternak, D. Fife, and F.E. Speizer. 1983. Effectsof ozone on the pulmonary function of children. Advan. ModernEnviron. Toxicol. 5: 423-446.

64. GVRD. 1992. Air Quality Management Plan Discussion Paper.

65. Butler, R.W. and R.W. Campbell. 1987. The birds of the FraserRiver delta: populations, ecology and international significance.Can. Wildl. Serv. Occas. Paper No. 65, Ottawa.

66. Horstman, D.H., L.J. Folinsbee, P.J. Ives, S. Abdul-Salaam, andW.F. McDonnell. 1990. Ozone concentration and pulmonaryresponse relationships for 6.6-hour exposures with five hours ofmoderate exercise to 0.08, 0.10 and 0.12 ppm. Amer. Rev. Respir.Dis. 142: 1158-1163.

67. Lippmann, M. 1989. Health effects of ozone: a critical review. J.Amer. Pollut. Contr. Assoc. 39(5): 672-695.

68. Thomson, J. 1992. A State of the Environment Fact Sheet:Ground-level ozone in Canada. Environment Canada, Ottawa,Ont., SOE Fact Sheet No. 92-1. 12 pp.

69. Rafiq, M. 1986. Ozone impact on Fraser Valley crops: apreliminary assessment. 26 pp. Published by B.C. Ministry ofEnvironment, Lands and Parks.

70. Liebscher, H., B. Hii, and D. McNaughton. 1992. Nitrates andpesticides in the Abbotsford Aquifer, Southwestern BritishColumbia. 83 pp.

71. Gartner Lee Limited. 1992. Fraser Valley ground water/drinkingwater study: final report. Prepared for Ministry of Health, PublicHealth Protection Branch, Victoria, B.C. GLL 91-744. 37 pp. andappendices.

72. EPA. 1991. Drinking water regulations and health advisories.U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

73. Agricultural Waste Management Control Regulation, and Code ofAgricultural Practice for Waste Management Act. Adopted April1992. Province of British Columbia.

74. Colodey, A.G., R.A. Salmon, P.G. Lim. 1992. Environmentalmonitoring near the Macaulay Point and Clover Point MarineSewage Outfalls at Victoria, British Columbia in 1989 and 1990.Environment and Protection Regional Data Report: DR 92-14.Environment Canada.

75. GVRD. 1992. Iona Deep Sea Outfall 1991. EnvironmentalMonitoring Program. Summary Report. Quality control Division,Greater Vancouver Regional District. June 1992. 35 pp.

76. Wells, P.G. and S.J. Rolston (eds). 1991. Health of Our Oceans: AStatus Report on Canadian Marine Environmental Quality.Conservation and Protection, Environment Canada.

77. Macdonald, R.W., D.M. Macdonald, M.C. O’Brien, and C.Gobell. 1991. The accumulation of heavy metals (Pb, Zn, Cu,Cd), carbon and nitrogen in sediments from Strait of Georgia,B.C. Mar. Chem. 34: 109-135.

78. Macdonald, R.W., W.J. Cretney, N. Crewe, and D. Paton. 1992. Ahistory of OCDD,2,3,7,8, TCDF and PCB 77 contamination inHowe Sound, British Columbia, 1992. Environ. Sci. Technol. 26:1544-1550.

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82. Provincial Agricultural Land Commission. 1990. AgriculturalLand Reserve Statistics, January 1, 1990. Provincial AgriculturalLand Commission. 85 pp.

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85. Dumanski, J., D.R. Coote, G. Luciuk, and C. Lok. 1986. Soilconservation in Canada. J. Soil Water Conserv. 41: 204-210.

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87. Smith, S. 1991. Floodplain management in the Fraser Basin. In:A.H.J. Dorcey (ed). Perspectives on Sustainable Development inWater Management: Toward Agreement in the Fraser River Basin.Westwater Research Centre, pp. 115-132.

88. Hutchison, B. 1950. The Fraser. Toronto: Clarke Irwin.

89. Birtwell, I.K., C.D. Levings, J.S. Macdonald and I.H. Rogers.1988. A review of fish habitat issues in the Fraser River system.Water Pollut. Res. J. Can. 23(1): 1-30.

90. Butler R.W. and R.J. Cannings. 1989. Distribution of birds in theintertidal portion of the Fraser River Delta, B.C. Technical ReportSeries. No. 93. Canadian Wildlife Service, Pacific and YukonRegion, British Columbia.

91. Kistritz, R.U. 1992. Discover your estuary: Understanding andexploring the aquatic environment of the Fraser River Estuary. 120pp.

92. Pilon, P. and M.A. Kerr. 1984. Land Use Change on Wetlands inthe Southwestern Fraser Lowland, B.C. Environment Canada.

93. Ward, P. 1992. Wetlands of the Fraser Lowland, 1989: SummaryReport. Canadian Wildlife Service, Pacific and Yukon Region,Tech. Rept. Ser. 156. 36 pp.

94. Fraser River Estuary Management Program (FREMP). 1990.Status Report on Water Quality in the Fraser River Estuary - 1990.Standing Committee on the Fraser River Estuary Water QualityPlan.

95. Fraser River Estuary Management Program (FREMP). 1990. ARecommended Waste Management Activity Plan. New Westmin-ster: Waste Management Activity Program Working Group.

96. McConnell, H.D. 1991. Planning for metropolitan liquid wastemanagement in the GVRD: An innovative approach towardssustainable development. In: A.H.J. Dorcey (ed). Perspectives onSustainable Development in Water Management: TowardAgreement in the Fraser River Basin. Westwater Research Centre,pp. 271-287

97. Fraser River Estuary Management Program (FREMP). 1990.Habitat Inventory and Classification of Fraser River Main Arm,Pitt River, Sturgeon Bank, Roberts Bank and Boundary Bay. Mapsat 1:2,500 and 1:10,000 and User’s Guide for the Map Sheets.Prepared by R.U. Kistritz Consultants Ltd., Richmond, B.C.

98. Fraser River Estuary Management Program (FREMP). 1990.Habitat Inventory and Classification of Fraser River North andMiddle Arms (North Fraser Harbour). Maps at 1:2,500 and User’sGuide for the Map Sheets. Prepared by G.L. Williams andAssociates Ltd., Coquitlam, B.C.

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Additional readingAlcan Smelters and Chemicals Ltd. 1990. Alcan Vegetation StudyReport.

Anonymous. n.d. Williston/Peace Fisheries CompensationProgram. Peace/Williston Fish and Wildlife CompensationProgram, Prince George, B.C. 17 pp.

Anonymous. n.d. Williston Reservoir Compensation: WildlifeManagement Activities: Appendix 1. Peace/Williston Fish andWildlife Compensation Program, Prince George, B.C.

B.C. Hydro and Ministry of Environment. 1992. The Peace/Williston Nature Line. Peace/Williston Fish and WildlifeCompensation Program, Prince George, B.C., February 1992, No.2.

British Columbia Ministry of Crown Lands. 1989. BritishColumbia Land Statistics. B.C. Ministry of Crown Lands, LandPolicy Branch. 58 pp.

Child, K.N., S.K. Stevenson, and G.S. Watts. 1992. Mountaincaribou in managed forests: cooperative ventures for newsolutions. A progress report for the year ending March 31, 1992.

Derksen, G. 1981. Environmental review of the Northwood,International, and Prince George pulp mills at Prince George, B.C.Regional Progress Report No. 82-4. Environmental ProtectionService, West Vancouver, B.C.

Dwernychuk, L.W., G.S. Bruce, G. Gordon, and G.P. Thomas.1992. Fraser and Thompson Rivers: a comprehensiveorganochlorine study 1990/91 (drinking water/mill effluent/sediment/fish). Prepared for Northwood Pulp and Timber Limited,Prince George, B.C.; CANFOR Corporation, Prince George, B.C.;Cariboo Pulp and Paper Company, Quesnel, B.C.; andWeyerhaeuser Canada Ltd., Kamloops, B.C.

Esposito, N.P., T.O. Teirnan, and F.E. Drydan. 1980. Dioxins.Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory, Office of Researchand Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

Hall, K.J., H. Schreier and S.J. Brown. 1991. Water quality in theFraser River basin. In: A.H.J. Dorcey and J.R. Griggs (eds.). Waterin Sustainable Development: Exploring our Common Future in theFraser River Basin. Westwater Research Centre, Vancouver,British Columbia, Part II: Chap. 3, pp. 41-75.

Kohut, A.P., W.S. Hodge, and F. Chwojka. 1986. Groundwaterquality variations in fractured bedrock aquifers of the Gulf Islands,British Columbia. In: Proceedings: Third CanadianHydrogeological Conference. International Assoc. ofHydrogeologists, Canadian National Chapter, pp. 185-192.

McLeay, D. and Associates. 1987. Aquatic toxicity of pulp andpaper mill effluent: a review. EPS Report 4/PF/1.

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McNeill, R. and D. Tate. 1991. Guidelines for Municipal WaterPricing. Environment Canada, Conservation and Protection, InlandWaters Directorate, Water Planning and Management Branch,Ottawa, Ontario, Social Science Series No. 25. 66 pp.

Ministry of Environment. 1992. 1991 Air Quality Data Summaryfor Prince George. B.C. Environment, Environmental Protection,Northern Interior Region, Prince George, B.C. Prepared for thePrince George Ambient Air Technical Committee.

Ministry of Environment, Environment Canada, Northwood Pulpand Timber Ltd. (Canfor Prince George Pulp and Paper Mills,Cariboo Pulp and Paper Company, Quesnel River Pulp, andHatfield Consultants Ltd.). 1990. Summary of the Upper FraserRiver environmental effects monitoring program: 1989. 23 pp.

Ngan, P. 1990. British Columbia Population Forecasts and Issues.Prepared for the British Columbia Round Table on the Environmentand the Economy, 18 pp.

Rogers, I.H., J.A. Servizi, and C.D. Levings. 1988.Bioconcentration of chlorophenols by juvenile chinook salmon(Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) overwintering in the Upper FraserRiver: field and laboratory tests. Water Poll. Res. J. Can. 23: 100-113.

Seip, D.R. 1992. Habitat Use and Population Status of WoodlandCaribou in the Quesnel Highlands, British Columbia. Faculty ofForestry, University of British Columbia Report for BritishColumbia Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks. WildlifeProgram, Williams Lake, B.C. Wildlife Bulletin No. B-71, April1992.

Wood, M. 1992. Williston Wildlife Compensation Program. Projecthighlights: 1992 Public Workshops. Hudson’s Hope - March 28,1992; Mackenzie - April 25, 1992. Peace/Williston Fish andWildlife Compensation Program, 10 pp. and maps.

Land Under ChangeReferences cited1. Data provided by Statistics Canada, 1992.

2. Data provided by PCENSUS, Statistics Canada Census, 1986.

3. Warren, C.L., A. Kerr, and A.M. Turner. 1989. Urbanization ofRural Land in Canada, 1981-1986: A State of the Environment FactSheet. Environment Canada, Conservation and Protection, Ottawa,Ontario, SOE Fact Sheet No. 89-1. 12 pp. and Supplement.

4. World Bank. 1989. Social Indicators of Development 1989.Published by The World Bank, the Johns Hopkins University Press,Baltimore and London.

5. Harper, B., T. Lea, and B. Maxwell. 1991. Habitat Inventory in theSouth Okanagan. Bioline 10(2): 12-16.

6. Cannings, R.J. 1991. Status Report on the Sage ThrasherOreoscoptes mantanus in British Columbia. University of BritishColumbia, Vancouver, B.C.

7. Hlady, D.A. 1990. South Okanagan Conservation Strategy 1990-1995. Ministry of Environment, Victoria, B.C. 31 pp. andappendices.

8. Harper, W.L., E.C. Lea, and R.E. Maxwell. 1992. Biodiversityinventory in the South Okanagan. In: M.A. Fenger, E.H. Miller,J.A. Johnson and E.J.R. Williams (eds.). Our Living Legacy.Proceedings of a Symposium on Biological Diversity. B.C. Ministryof Environment, Land and Parks, Ministry of Forests and RoyalB.C. Museum, Victoria (in press).

9. Redpath, K. 1990. Identification of relatively undisturbed areas inthe South Okanagan and Similkameen valleys, British Columbia.Canadian Wildlife Service, Pacific and Yukon Region, B.C.,Tech. Rept. Ser. No. 108. 9 pp.

10. Data provided by the Wildlife Section Head. Ministry ofEnvironment, Penticton, B.C., 1992.

11. Shephard. 1990. Okanagan Lake Management Plan. RecreationalFisheries, Ministry of Environment.

12. Richardson, H., E.V. Jensen, and J.E. Bryan. 1991. Air Quality inSeveral Okanagan Communities, Princeton, and Grand Forks1973 - 1989. Ministry of Environment.

13. Data provided by the Senior Science Advisor, Air ResourcesBranch, Ministry of Environment, Victoria, B.C., 1992.

14. Horne, G. and C. Penner. 1992. British Columbia CommunityEmployment Dependencies. Ministry of Finance & CorporateRelations, Planning and Statistics Division.

15. Royal LePage Real Estate Services Ltd. 1986. Survey ofCanadian House Prices.

16. Royal LePage Real Estate Services Ltd. 1988. Survey ofCanadian House Prices.

17. Royal LePage Real Estate Services Ltd. 1992. Survey ofCanadian House Prices.

18. City of Kelowna Planning Department. 1986. Kelowna Commu-nity Plan 1985 - 2004. City of Kelowna, Planning Department.

19. British Columbia Agriculture Land Commission (B.C. ALC).1990. Agricultural Land Reserve Statistics January 1, 1990.Provincial Agricultural Land Commission.

20. Clutton, E.H. (ed). 1989. Pest Contral in Canada: a referencemanual. PACS.

21. Richardson, H., S.R. Adams, and J.E. Bryan. 1991. Lumby-Lavington Air Quality 1975 - 1990. Ministry of Environment.

22. Kerr, M.A., E.W. Manning, J. Séguin, and L.J. Pelton. 1985.Okanagan Fruitlands: Land-use Change Dynamics and the Impactof Federal Programs. Lands Directorate, Environment Canada,Ottawa, Ont.

23. Data provided by Regional Manager, Water Management,Southern Interior Regional Headquarters. British ColumbiaMinistry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1993.

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acid mine drainage (AMD): The seepage ofsulphuric acid solutions from mines and theirremoved wastes (rock and tailings) dumped atthe surface. Sulphuric acid is produced throughnatural reactions between exposed sulphideminerals, air and water (groundwater and/orpercolating precipitation). This is a special caseof the more wide-spread phenomenon of acidrock drainage (ARD) which occurs whereversulphide-bearing rocks are exposed to water andair (e.g. highway and railroad rock cuts ornaturally exposed rock surfaces).

acid deposition (acid rain, acid precipitationand dry deposition): Rain, snow or fog with apH of less than 5.6 Acid deposition is oftencaused by air-borne sulphur (SO2) and nitrogenoxides (NOx) reacting with moisture, toeventually form sulphuric and nitric acids. Theseacid causing compounds may fall as rain, snow,or fog or they may be deposited in the dry form.Acid deposition can harm aquatic ecosystemsand kill freshwater fish. As well, it can damagetrees and plants, and gradually erode stone, metaland other surfaces.

acidification: An increase in the degree ofacidity (hydrogen ions) of an ecosystem (such asa lake, stream or soil) which can be caused bynatural processes, acid deposition and acidfertilizers.

adsorbable organically-bound halogens (AOX): Represents the total quantity of organically-bound chlorine (i.e. halogens) in pulp milleffluent. It is a measure of organochlorinecontent (e.g. dioxins and furans) used to regulatedischarges of these compounds in pulp milleffluents.

ambient air or water quality: Refers to theoverall or general condition of air or water in aregion outside the zone of influence ofdischarges in contrast to local condition whichmay be related to a specific source of contamina-tion.

anadromous: Ascending rivers from the sea tospawn (e.g. salmon).

antisapstain: A fungicide used to treat lumberto prevent staining from fungi during storage andshipment.

aquaculture: The husbandry/cultivation ofaquatic animals and plants in a restrictedenvironment, generally for profit. Aquaculturehas become a significant, growing sector of theB.C. economy in the last ten years. Oysters, troutand salmon are the mainstay of the industry.However, scallops, clams, mussels, abalone,arctic char, sturgeon and marine plants presentgood opportunities for future diversification.

aquifer: An underground zone or stratum ofpermeable rock or loose material where wateraccumulates and which can produce usefulquantities of water when tapped by a well. Itcan be contaminated by improper disposal ofwaste.

assimilate: The ability of water to acceptwastes without impairing uses of the water.

benthos: The plant and animal life whosehabitat is the bottom of the sea. (Benthic is theadjective).

bioaccumulation: The increase in levels oftoxic substances in an organism over time dueto continued exposure. This can only happen ifthe substances do not break down quickly andare essentially stored in some part of theorganism. Sometimes referred to asbioconcentration.

biochemical oxygen demand (BOD): Theamount of dissolved oxygen required for thebacterial decomposition of organic waste inwater. Large amounts of organic waste use uplarge amounts of dissolved oxygen, thus thegreater the degree of pollution, the greater theBOD.

bioconcentration: See bioaccumulation,biomagnification.

biodegradable: Capable of decomposingquickly through natural biological processes.

biodiversity (biological diversity): A broadterm referring to the variety of life in an area -from small areas such as a pond to the wholebiosphere. Biodiversity encompasses four mainconsiderations: landscape diversity, ecosystemdiversity, species diversity and geneticdiversity. It also involves the countless,complex ways in which living things functionand interact.

biogeoclimatic: The complex interaction ofclimate, terrain, soil, plants and animals. Theterm is used in resource classification, mappingand land use management.

biomagnification: The increase in theconcentration of contaminants as they move upthe food chain. A predator unknowingly“collects” whatever toxic substances happen tobe in the food that it consumes. Sometimesknown as bioconcentration.

biomass: The amount of living matter in anarea - most of it is plant material and a smallquantity is animal matter. In general, biomass(wood, vegetation and crop residue) is burnedeither for disposal or to produce energy or it isleft on the site to decompose.

biosphere (ecosphere): The total area of PlanetEarth where life can survive - such as the soil,water and lower atmosphere.

biota: Collectively, the plants, micro-organisms, and animals of a certain area orregion.

carbon dioxide (CO2): An odourless andnontoxic gas normally present in the ambient airand also produced when any substancecontaining carbon (such as fossil fuels andwood) is burned in the presence of adequateoxygen. Carbon dioxide is the most importantgreenhouse gas. Human-caused emissions ofCO2 are largely responsible for the enhancedgreenhouse effect.

carbon monoxide (CO): An odourless,colourless but toxic gas produced as a result ofthe incomplete combustion of fuels containingcarbon. Carbon monoxide is a common airpollutant, mainly released by motor vehicles. Atlow concentrations, CO can impair vision, causedizziness and trigger angina. It is lethal at highconcentrations.

carcinogen: Any substance capable of causingcancer in animal or human tissues.

CCME: Canadian Council of Ministers of theEnvironment. The council provides an importantopportunity for all Canada’s environmentministers to discuss crucial environmentalproblems of national scope and impact, and totake cooperative action to resolve them. TheCCME also promotes the sharing of informationand skills by the federal, provincial andterritorial environment ministries.

CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons): A family ofmanufactured gases composed of chlorine,fluorine, and carbon which, along with halons,are the main cause of stratospheric ozonedepletion. CFCs (and halons) are inert, nontoxicand environmentally safe in the lower atmos-phere. However, once they have made their slowjourney to the ozone layer, they destroy ozone atan alarming rate. Their long lifetime in theatmosphere (up to several centuries) makesCFCs especially powerful players in ozone layerdepletion. CFCs are also contributing to theenhanced greenhouse effect.

CFCs are used in refrigerators, freezers and airconditioners; industrial solvents, dry cleaningagents and hospital sterilants; and foam productssuch as cushions, mattresses and insulation. Thecompounds are part of the product in someaerosols. CFCs are no longer used as thepropellant in aerosols, though, because of aCanadian ban in 1980, and similar bans in theU.S. and parts of Europe (see also halons).

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chlorophenols: (chlorinated phenols) A groupof toxic chemicals used as preservatives inpaints, drilling muds, photographic solutions,hides and leathers, and insecticides and, mostcommonly, for wood preservative.

clearcutting: The complete removal of allcommercially desirable trees in one area, at onetime.

cogeneration: The generation of electricity inconjunction with the production of useful heat,usually steam.

CORE: Commission on Resources andEnvironment. This is an independent commis-sion established by the provincial government inJanuary 1992 to help resolve “valley-by-valley”conflicts over land use. CORE’s mandate is todevelop and implement a process that will createa comprehensive land use plan for BritishColumbia. The commission is also charged withinitiating a regional process to resolve resourceuse disputes.

CORE’s key goals are to sustain our environ-ment, economy and communities; to inform andinvolve the public; and to replace confrontationwith consensus in making resource managementdecisions. The commission will draw on thework of other important agencies dealing withresource use, such as the Round Table on theEnvironment and the Economy.

criteria: Exposures of selected contaminantsthat mark the onset of specific effects on healthor the environment. These criteria form the basisfor setting environmental objectives for aspecific area. Criteria are often used in themanagement of water and air.

cross-contamination: Unlined or improperlylined wells may contaminate higher qualitywater in shallower aquifers with lower qualitywater (e.g. high salinity) from deeper aquifers.

dioxins and furans: Popular names for twoclasses of chlorinated organic compounds,known as polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins(PCDDs) and polychlorinateddibenzofurans(PCDFs). Only a few of the 75PCDDs and 135 PCDFs are highly toxic. Themost toxic dioxin is 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD), although tolerance tothis compound varies considerably amongspecies. Dioxins and furans are formed either asby-products during some types of chemicalproduction that involve chlorine and hightemperatures or during combustion where asource of chlorine is present. Elevated levels of2,3,7,8-TCDD in the environment are linked toeffluents from previous 2,4,5-trichlorophenolmanufacturing, such as in the Love Canal area.Dioxins, including 2,3,7,8-TCDD, can also occurin airborne particulate material from incineratorsthat burn trash containing chlorinated com-pounds and in exhaust from diesel engines.Chlorine bleaching of kraft wood pulp is anothersource of 2,3,7,8-TCDD.

driftnet fishing: A fishing method that uses aseries of connected nets hanging vertically in theocean. The series of nets can range from 16 to 50

kilometres in length. Driftnets are used to catch(in their mesh) such species as salmon, squid,marlin and albacore tuna. The problem is that thedriftnets also trap, and kill, many other species.These include large numbers of nontargeted fish,dolphins, porpoises, fur seals, turtles andseabirds.

ecological classification: A process ofclassifying ecologically distinctive areas of theearth's surface. Each area can be viewed as adiscrete system which has resulted from theinter-play of the geologic, land form, soilvegetation, climate, wildlife, water and humanfactors which may be present. The relativeimportance of each factor varies from one area toanother. This wholistic approach to classifica-tion can be applied incrementally from veryspecific ecosystems to very broad ecosystems.Ecoprovinces represent the large and verygeneralized ecologically unit for BritishColumbia. Progressively more detailed units(i.e. ecoregions and ecosections) are nestedwithin the respective ecoprovinces.

ecology: The science concerned with theinterrelationships of organisms and theirenvironments. The word comes from the Greekterm meaning “the study of the home”.

ecoprovince: An area of the earth's surfacecharacterized by very broad ecologicalinteractions between the four major environmen-tal components of the ecosystem: air, water,land and biota.

ecoregion: A part of an ecoprovince character-ized by regional ecological interactions betweenthe four major environmental components of theecosystem: air, water, land and biota.

ecosection: A part of an ecoregion characterizedby sub-regional ecological interations betweenthe four major environmental components of theecosystem: air, water, land and biota.

ecosystem: Organisms of a natural communitytogether with their physical, chemical andbiological environment (“ecological” +“system”).

effluent: Liquids that contain contaminatingwaste material, released into the environment.

estuary: An area where fresh water meets saltwater (bays, mouths of rivers, salt marshes,lagoons).

Eurasian watermilfoil: An aquatic plant nativeto Europe and Asia which was introduced toB.C. waters about 1970. Due to its aggressivegrowth habit it out competes native speciesinterfering with shoreline recreation and canimpede waterflow and deplete fish habitat.

eutrophication: The process by which bodiesof water become better nourished by fertiliza-tion. This natural process is often accelerated bynutrient-rich discharges from agriculture orsewage, leading to a rapid and excessive growthof algae and water plants and undesirablechanges in water quality.

fecal coliform: Bacteria usually present in thelarge intestinal tract of humans and other warm-blooded animals and therefore useful as anindicator of sanitary quality in water. Exposureto fecal coliforms in drinking water may causediseases such as cholera and hepatitis.

food chain: A series of steps in which onegroup of plants or animals serves as food foranother and these, in turn, for another.

food web: The complex interactions of severalfood chains. The term “food web” is moreaccurate than “food chain,” which sounds like asimple one-to-one connection. Caterpillars, forinstance, eat many different plants. They are thefood for many different birds - and these birds,in turn, can be the prey of several differentpredators.

fossil fuels: Combustible fuels, such as coal, oiland natural gas, which are derived from theremains of ancient plants and animals.

global climate change: Major alterations in theclimate of the earth, which most scientistspredict will be the result of global warming. Anincrease in global temperature (due to theenhanced greenhouse effect) could lead tosubstantial changes in climate all over the world,including altered precipitation patterns and a risein global sea level. Climate change is expected tobe most pronounced in the polar regions,followed by the mid-latitudes (includingCanada), with significant regional variations.

global warming: The warming of the earth andits atmosphere by the enhanced greenhouseeffect. Global warming is expected to lead toglobal climate change. The IntergovernmentalPanel on Climate Change predicts that by 2025the planet will be about 1°C warmer than it isnow, and 3°C higher by the end of the 21stcentury. To put these figures into perspective,the earth’s average temperature during the lastice age was only 5°C colder than at present.

greenhouse effect: The heating effect of theatmosphere upon the earth. Light waves from thesun pass through the atmosphere and areabsorbed by the earth. The earth then reradiatesthis energy as heat waves which are absorbed bygreenhouse gases in the lower atmosphere (seebelow). Thus the atmosphere behaves like theglass in a greenhouse, allowing the passage oflight, but not of heat. The greenhouse effect hasbeen a property of earth’s atmosphere formillions of years. Today, because humans areaffecting the proportions of greenhouse gases inthe atmosphere, an enhanced greenhouse effect(see global warming) is believed to be causing arise in average global temperatures.

greenhouse gases: The gases that play a part inthe greenhouse effect: carbon dioxide (the mostimportant greenhouse gas), methane, nitrousoxide, ozone, water vapour, CFCs and othertrace gases.

ground-level ozone: Ozone (O3) found near theearth’s surface, as opposed to the ozone found in

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the stratosphere (the ozone layer). Some ground-level ozone occurs naturally. However,concentrations are increased by human activities.Ground-level ozone is formed by the reaction ofvolatile organic compounds (VOCs) andnitrogen oxides (NOx) in the presence of sunlightand warm temperatures. A stagnant air masskeeps the pollution from being dispersed. Motorvehicles are the major manmade source of VOCand NOx emissions.

High concentrations of ground-level ozone canproduce a decrease in lung function. In addition,ground-level ozone can reduce the productivityand damage the growth of vegetation, andaccelerate the deterioration of such materials asrubber, fibres and plastics.

groundwater: Water in the saturated zone of anaquifer. Groundwater is often a source of surfacewater (i.e. a spring or stream) and well water.

groundwater mining: Refers to a situationwhere extraction exceeds aquifer recharge fromsurface water sources, causing a regionallowering of the water table. This phenomenonhas been observed in the southern United States.

habitat: The place in which an animal or plantlives. The sum of environmental circumstancesin the place inhabited by an organism, popula-tion or community.

halons (brominated fluorocarbons): Manufac-tured chemicals that play a major role in ozonelayer depletion, along with CFCs. Halons candestroy up to 16 times as much ozone as CFCscan. For this reason, halons are the most seriousozone-depleting group of chemicals emitted inBritish Columbia. Halons are used in specializedfire extinguishers - for equipment and articlesthat would be destroyed by water or other fireextinguisher chemicals.

hazardous (special) waste: Substances coveredby the Special Waste regulation and whichrequire special disposal techniques. Examplesinclude discarded PCBs, pesticides, used oils,spent solvents and paints.

heavy metals: Metals with a high molecularweight, such as mercury, lead, cadmium andchromium. Heavy metals are generally toxic toplants and animals even in low concentrations.Some are also essential to life i.e. copper, zinc.They are widely used and discharged byindustry.

herbicides: A pesticide chemical that killsunwanted vegetation.

hydrogen sulphide (H2S): A colourless,flammable gas with an odour of rotten eggs,which is a constituent of industrial emissions. Atrelatively low levels, H2S can cause headaches,nausea and irritation of the eyes.

Under high temperatures (burning), H2S reactswith oxygen to form sulphur dioxide (SO2)which reacts with water to form SO4

=, a majorcontributor to acid rain. H2S also reacts withOxygen and water to form SO4

=. In B.C., themajor sources of H2S are pulp mills and naturalgas processing plants.

in-stream use: Uses of water which do notrequire its removal from streams or lakes (e.g.hydroelectric power generation, navigation,recreation, fish, and wildlife). In-stream usesrequire minimum flow rates, water levels, and acertain level of water quantity.

indigenous species: Plants or animals that occurnaturally in British Columbia. The term excludesthose species that have been introduced into B.C.directly, as well as species that have beenintroduced into adjacent jurisdictions and thenhave migrated into the province.

integrated resource management: Landmanagement that considers all resource valuesand allows for the operation of more than oneresource use in the same land area. Integratedresource management considers both competingand complementary resource values in acomprehensive manner. The goal is to maximizesocial, environmental and economic benefitswith no undue harm to any one resource sector.

inversion: Temperature normally declines withaltitude. An inversion is an atmosphericcondition caused by a layer of warm air abovecool air. The inversion holds down pollutantsthat might otherwise be dispersed, and istherefore a contributing factor in the creation ofphotochemical smog.

kraft pulp mill: Produces coarse brown paperof great strength from wood pulp using thesulphite pulping process. Bleached kraft pulpmills typically use chlorine to produce whiterpaper.

nitrate: An essential plant nutrient. It is foundin fertilizers and may be produced in thebreakdown of organic wastes. Excessivefertilizer application, improper agricultural wastemanagement or underground septic tanks mayincrease nitrate levels in groundwater. Nitratesreduce the ability of blood to carry oxygen.Infants under six months are particularly at riskfrom drinking well-water containing excessivenitrates.

nitrogen oxides (NOx): Gases formed whennitrogen combines with oxygen. NOx consist ofnitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (N2O) andnitrogen dioxide (NO2). At low concentrations,NOx can trigger bronchial congestion inasthmatics and children. At higher concentra-tions, they can cause fluid buildup in the lungsand fibrotic changes. NOx contribute to ground-level ozone, acid rain, the enhanced greenhouseeffect and stratospheric ozone depletion.

Not Satisfactorily Restocked (NSR): This is aforestry term describing land that is not growingtrees to its full potential. The stocking status ofan area (i.e., is it satisfactorily restocked?) isevaluated on the basis of acceptable tree species(is the species economic to harvest and use?) andstocking levels for each ecosystem. Areas thatare classified as NSR are considered as notcontributing to the forest's growing stock from aforestry point of view, although they may stillcontribute to other forest values.

objectives: Specific minimal exposure levelsof selected substances (for example, in wateror air), which are set to protect the mostsensitive uses. These objectives establish astandard against which the environmentalquality at a particular site can be measured,and used to guide environmental managementto protect the users and the environment.

old-growth forest: After a natural distur-bance, such as a fire, or after being harvested,forests develop through a series of stages in aprocess called “succession”. The last stage inforest succession is called old-growth.Depending on the type of forest, it may takeanywhere from 100 to 250 years for a forest toenter the old-growth stage of development. Incoastal British Columbia, old-growth forestsrange in age from 200 years to well over 1000years. Once a forest has become old-growth itis usually still changing in species compositionand structure. Small-scale natural disturbanceswhich result in the death and replacement ofindividual trees are key processes influencingthe structure of old-growth forests. Old-growthforests are characterized by a large variety oftree sizes and ages, a great diversity in speciesof plants and animals, the presence of standingand fallen dead trees (which provide habitat forplants and animals), and an uneven canopywhich allows light to penetrate to the forestfloor in small openings.

ozone layer: A fragile band of gases rangingfrom about 15 to 40 kilometres above theearth, in the stratosphere. The ozone layer actsas the planet’s natural sunscreen: it shields lifeon earth from much of the sun’s potentiallydamaging ultraviolet radiation.

PAHs (polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons):A family of chemical compounds found in avariety of natural and manmade sources. Someof the compounds are strongly mutagenic andcarcinogenic. Sources include thermal powerplants, coke ovens, sewage, wood smoke, andused lubricating oils.

particulate matter (PM): Fine liquid or solidparticles - such as dust, smoke, mist fumes orsmog - found in the air or emissions. Alsoknown as particulates.

PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls): A groupof 209 chemical compounds, a small numberof which are toxic, that are widely used as fireretardants in insulating and heat exchangefluids in electrical transformers and capacitors,as plasticizers, as waterproofing agents, and ininking processes to produce carbonless copypaper. PCBs resist biodegradation, accumulatein the food chain and are suspected carcino-gens.

pesticide: Any chemical used to kill pests,such as insects and rodents. It also includes“herbicides,” which are chemicals that killplants.

pH: A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of amaterial, liquid or solid. pH is represented on a

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scale of 0 to 14, with 7 being a neutral state, 0the most acid and 14 the most alkaline.

photochemical smog: An atmospheric hazesometimes found above large industrial andurban areas. Photochemical smog occurs in thelower portion of our atmosphere, known as thetroposphere. Its main unhealthy component is“ground-level ozone”. Carbon monoxide andparticulates are other harmful ingredients ofsmog.

plankton: Tiny organisms living in the surfacelayer of an ocean or lake. They consist of plantorganisms (phytoplankton) and animalorganisms (zooplankton) which feed mainly onphytoplankton. Plankton are the vital first step inmany aquatic food chains.

prescribed burning: A controlled burn in adesignated area. The fire is ignited intentionallyand allowed to proceed within well-definedboundaries. Prescribed burning is mainly used toremove vegetation which competes with treecrops, to make it easier to plant tree seedlings, toexpose mineral soil for tree seedlings (in forestryand land development), and to reduce fire dangeror to enhance wildlife habitat and cattle range.

Round Table on the Environment and theEconomy (British Columbia): A 32-memberadvisory group representing a wide range ofresource use interests in this province. It was setup in January 1990 to assist the government inachieving sustainable development and to worktowards consensus among the competing landuse interests. The Round Table is working toresolve land use debates, as well as otherenvironmental and economic conflicts. (Seesustainable development)

runoff: A term referring to that part ofprecipitation (rainfall or snowmelt) which runsoff the land surface into streams and/or lakes.This is in contrast to those parts which eitherevaporate or soak into the ground.

saltwater intrusion: Can occur in coastallocalities where drawdown of the water tableallows saltwater to enter wells.

second growth forest: When an old-growthforest is destroyed by a natural disturbance or byforest harvesting, the forest that develops toreplace it is called a second growth forest.Second growth forests are the earlier stages offorest succession which precede the developmentof old-growth (see entry under “old-growth”).Second growth forests, especially those managedfor timber production, are usually more uniformin structure, species composition and age thanold-growth forests - they are simplified instructure relative to old-growth. Some species dowell in second growth forests but others requireparticular structural attributes found in old-growth (e.g. large snags and logs). Given enoughtime, second growth forests develop into old-growth forests - all old-growth forests weresecond growth earlier on their development - butit may take hundreds of years to do so. An oldersecond growth forest often looks very similar toa young old-growth forest, but is very different

from that same old-growth forest after severalhundred more years of development. The secondgrowth forests that we are creating through forestmanagement today, with timber as their mainmanagement objective, are very differentstructurally from the second growth forestscreated by natural disturbances in the past.

sediment: Soil particles and rock fragmentstransported and deposited by the action of river,glaciers, sea and wind.

selection cutting: An “uneven-aged”silvicultural system in which trees are harvestedindividually or in small groups at relatively shortintervals. Selection systems of forestry require athorough understanding of the ecology of theforest being managed, tree species which canregenerate in smaller openings than clearcuts,and careful long-term planning and monitoring.Without these, it can degenerate into “high-grading” where only the “best” trees are taken,leaving a forest with little remaining commercialvalue.

sensitive species: Those species for whichpopulation viability is a concern, as indicated bysignificant downward trends in numbers in thepopulation or density, and/or habitat changes.

silviculture: The management, care and cultureof forest trees; forestry.

solid waste: Discarded material that does nothave enough liquid to be free flowing.

stratosphere: The layer of the atmosphere thatlies between the troposphere and the upperatmosphere (mesosphere and thermosphere). Itincludes the ozone layer. The stratosphere beginsat 9-16 km above the earth, depending on thelatitude.

stratospheric ozone depletion: The thinning ofthe planet’s protective ozone layer, which lies inthe stratosphere. The major causes ofstratospheric ozone depletion are manufacturedchemicals called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)and halons (brominated fluorocarbons). Thelatest scientific evidence indicates that the ozonelayer over the Antarctic is about 50-60% thinnerthan normal, during the polar spring, and as largein area as North America. Over the Arctic, thespringtime ozone depletion is about 40%. At thenorthern and southern mid-latitudes thespringtime depletion is between 2-6%.

sulphur dioxide (SO2): A colourless gasformed primarily by the combustion of fossilfuels that is one of the major contributors to acidrain. Sulphur dioxide and its atmospheric by-products can also cause respiratory ailments andcardiac problems. Sources of SO2 in B.C. includepulp mills, smelters, natural gas processingplants and the combustion of high-sulphur fuels,such as coal and petroleum.

sustainable development: Economic and socialdevelopment within the limits required to sustainlong-term environmental well-being. Suchdevelopment ensures that our use of theenvironment and natural resources today doesnot harm the prospects for their use in the future.

This concept gained worldwide attention andsupport following the 1987 release of the reportby the World Commission on Environment andDevelopment (Our Common Future).

threatened species: Any indigenous species offauna or flora that is likely to become endan-gered in British Columbia if the factors affectingits vulnerability are not reversed.

toxicity: The potential or capacity of a materialof being harmful to the health of a livingorganism.

troposphere: The lowest portion of the earth’satmosphere, it extends about 6 to 17 km upwardsfrom the earth depending on latitude and season.Almost all of the earth’s weather phenomena, aswell as most pollution, occur in the troposphere.

ungulates: Mammals with hooves, includingsheep, goats, horses, deer, caribou, elk andmoose.

volatile organic compounds (VOCs):Chemicals which contain hydrogen and carbon,and which evaporate easily. Hundreds of thesecompounds are present in the atmosphere andmany come from natural sources (e.g. volcanoes,trees, vegetation, bacteria and fossil fueldeposits). The main human sources of VOCs arethe fossil fuels burned in motor vehicles, as wellas solvents and oil-based paints.

vulnerable species: Any indigenous species offlora or fauna which is not classified as athreatened species, but is particularly at risk -because of low or declining numbers; occurrenceat the fringe of its range or in restricted areas; orsome other reason.

water cycle: (hydrologic cycle) The endlesscirculation of water from the atmosphere to theearth and its return to the atmosphere throughcondensation, precipitation, evaporation andtranspiration.

watershed: (water basin) The entire areadrained by a waterway, or which drains into alake or reservoir.

well interference: The process whereby a largewell locally draws down the water table causingwater levels in surrounding smaller wells to fall.This is a localized phenomenon and does notnecessarily indicate regional drawdown of thegroundwater resource (i.e. groundwater mining).

wildlife: In 1990, all native species of animalsin the province were designated as wildlife,giving them full protection under provisions ofthe Wildlife Act. Invertebrates and fish areexcluded from this designation.

withdrawal use: Uses of water which requireits removal from lakes or streams (e.g. manyresidential, agricultural, and industrial uses). Notall withdrawn water is actually “consumed” (i.e.incorporated into final products or redistributedto other components of the water cycle). Aportion (non-consumptive use) is typicallyreturned to streams or lakes as wastewater,frequently of lower quality than when it wasremoved.

123

IndexAAbbotsford

groundwater quality 90groundwater supplies 30nitrate and pesticide contamination 31

Abbotsford aquifer 90–91Access corridors 61Acidic deposition 13

impacts 13sensitive regions 13sources 13

Agricultural Benchmark Sites 63Agricultural Land Reserve 62Agriculture

effects on groundwater quality 90, 91effects on soils 94fertilizer use 101grape cultivation 102impacts of air pollution on 90impacts to water 102land Reserve 93land reserve 101pesticides use 101, 102Southern Interior ecoprovince 98tree fruit 102Waste control regulation 31

Air quality 8, 9, 14, 75Ambient Air Monitoring Program 75dustfall 99Georgia Depression 89–90monitoring 9, 15objectives 14, 15ozone 99total suspended particulates 99toxics 17Trail 79Williams Lake 77

Alaska 46, 47, 53, 55Alert Bay

marine municipal wastewater discharges 33Amphibians 41AOX (Adsorbable Organically-bound Halogen)

23Aquaculture

effects on water quality 35Aquifers 29Armstrong 83

nitrate and pesticide contamination 31population 97

Ashcroftpopulation 97

Atlin Lake 74contaminants 74

Atmospheric lead 15

BB.C. Hydro 76Belcarra Park

saltwater intrusion and cross-contamination32

Bella Bella 56marine mammals 56

Bioaccumulation 36

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)22, 24, 25, 33

Biodiversity 41, 50, 52, 57, 83, 84Canadian Biodiversity Strategy 44Convention on Biological Diversity 44ecosystem diversity 41, 42genetic diversity 41, 42, 43species diversity 41

Biological control 67Blue List 76Boreal Plains ecoprovince 73Boundary Bay

marine environmental quality 33water quality objectives 27

Burbot fish 74Burrard Inlet

acidic deposition 14marine environmental quality 33marine water quality 91, 92water quality objectives 27

Burrowing Owl 99Buttle Lake 85

metal contamination 85

CCache Creek

groundwater supplies 30population 97

Campbell RiverButtle Lake 86dioxins and furans 37population 89

Canada-British Columbia Soil ConservationProgram 74

Canadian Environmental Protection Act23, 32, 34, 36, 38

Capital Regional District (CRD)surface water supplies 19

Carbon monoxide 16, 17Castlegar

gaseous contaminants 16Central coast

surface water supplies 19Central Interior ecoprovince

description 77Charlie Lake 74Chase

population 97Cheakamus River

municipal wastewater discharges 25Cherry Creek

groundwater supplies 30Chilliwack 93

landscape change 93population 89

Chimney Creekgroundwater supplies 30

Chloroflurocarbons (CFCs) 11, 12Classification

ecological 2-3Climate change 10, 11Coastal temperate rain forest 42, 43, 57Codling moth 67Columbia River 48

factors affecting freshwater fish 48fisheries 80fisheries and water quality 80inland pulp mills 23Integrated Environmental Monitoring 80mercury 80organochlorines 80water quality 80water quality objectives 27

Commission on Resources and Environment(CORE) 52, 70

Commission on Resources and the Environment(CORE) 59

Committee on Status of Endangered Wildlife 53Community Watersheds 29

integrated watershed management planning29

Conservation 42, 44, 48, 57Conservation Data Centre (CDC) 44Consumer choices 6Contaminants 64Contaminated sites 64Corporate Resource Inventory Initiative 44COSEWIC 42Courtenay

population 89Cowichan Bay

dioxins and furans 37Cranbrook

population 79Crofton

dioxins and furans 37Crown

range 60Crown land 58

DDawson Creek

population 73Delta

Fraser River Estuary 95Dioxin fish consumption advisories 23Dioxins and Furans 21, 22, 23, 37

Columbia River 80in fish 37, 48, 80in mammals 38in seabird eggs 37, 38in sediments 37in water 37

Driftnets 54, 55Duncan Dam

Kootenay Lake kokanee 81

EEcological

classification system 2-3limits 5

Economy 5consumer choices 6

Ecosystem interactions 97Ecosystem restoration

Horsefly River 78Kootenay Lake 81

124

Ecosystemsinteractions 100

Education 100, 101El Nino 46Endangered Spaces Project 44Enderby

population 97Energy 5

supplies 6use 5

Environmenteconomy 5indicators 3people 4, 7

Environmental Effects Monitoring (EEM) 76Environmental Guidelines for Poultry Producers

31Environmental indicators 3Erosion 64Esquimalt Harbour

marine water quality 91

FFarming

conservation farming 74Fertilizers 63Fish 42, 44, 55, 57, 82

hake 46halibut 46

Canada-U.S. Convention 46International Pacific Halibut Commission46

herring 45salmon 44, 45, 55, 57

enhancement 44, 45fisheries (commercial, aboriginal,recreational) 44, 45habitat 45sockeye stocks 78

sport fishing 52Fish consumption advisories 80Fish-Forestry Guidelines 26Fisheries

Columbia River 80Kootenay Lake 80

Fisheries Program Strategic Plan 48Flathead River

water quality trends 27Fluoride

in Kitimat Arm 85Forest Practices Code 52Forestry 50, 56, 57, 84, 98

clearcutting 50, 54effect on water quality 26impacts on fish habitat 45, 47Not Satisfactorily Restocked land 50productive forest 50re-forestation 50selective cutting 50Timber Supply Areas 50

Forests 42, 48, 49, 81fire 42, 48, 49, 50insects 49, 50old-growth 51, 52, 53, 57values 50, 51, 52, 57

Fort St. JohnCharlie Lake 74population 73The Williston Reservoir 76

Fraser Basinlandscape change 93, 94

Fraser River 19, 20, 23, 44drinking water quality 28inland pulp mills 23landscape change 94marine water quality problems 92ocean dumping 34pulp mill effluents 76surface water supplies 19, 20water quality objectives 27

Fraser River Action Plan (FRAP) 23, 92, 95Fraser River Basin 20, 22, 27, 76

surface water supplies 19Fraser River Estuary 94–96

birds 94fish 94landscape change 94marine water quality 91marshes 94, 95, 96salmon 94, 95surface water supplies 20urban runoff effects on 95wastewater additions to 95wetlands 95, 96wildlife habitat 94, 95

Fraser River Estuary Management Program(FREMP) 92, 94, 96

Fraser River Valleygaseous contaminants 16

Fraser Valleyground-level ozone 90groundwater quality 91human settlements 62pesticides 66productivity and productive capacity 63

Fraser Valleyacidic deposition 13

Freshwater fish 41, 42, 47, 48, 57dioxin and furans 80habitat 42, 47habitat disruptions 80mercury 80sport fishing 47, 48steelhead 47, 57

Fungi 41, 51Fungicides 66

GGarry oak 42, 44Gases

air pollutants 15, 17transboundary 13

Geology 58Georgia Depression 88–96

air quality 89–90Burrard Inlet Action Plan 92ecoprovince description 88flooding 94Fraser River Estuary 94–96groundwater quality 90–91marine water quality 91–92

Giardiasis 28Global climate change 10Gold River

dioxins and furans 37Grand Forks

nitrate and pesticide contamination 31population 97

Grasslands 42, 43, 44, 81Greater Vancouver

gaseous contaminants 16groundwater 29marine water quality 91

Greater Vancouver Regional District (GVRD)ground-level ozone 90ground-level ozone trends 91particulate contaminants 14surface water supplies 19

Greater Victoriagroundwater 30

Green Plan for Agriculture 64Greenhouse gases 10

emissions 11sources 11

Greenwoodmining 25

Grizzly Bears 87, 88Groundwater contamination

nitrates 82pesticides 82

Gulf Islands 42, 88acidic deposition 13ecosystem diversity 42groundwater supplies 30marine water quality 91marine water quality problems 92population 88saltwater intrusion and cross-contamination

32

HHabitat Conservation Fund 44, 55Halons 12Heavy metals 85

in fish and shellfish 37, 85in sediment 37in water 21, 37, 85, 86mercury in Howe Sound 37

Herbicides 66, 67Horsefly River 78Howe Sound

marine environmental quality 33mining 25

Hugh Keenleyside Dam 80Human

settlements 62Humans 4Hydrogen sulphide 16, 17Hydrologic cycle 18, 26

IIndicators 3Insects 41Introduced Species 41, 42, 43, 54, 57, 83

eurasian watermilfoil 83

JJohnston Strait 56Juan de Fuca Strait

marine water quality 92

KKalamalka Lake

groundwater supplies 30

125

Kamloops 81, 97atmospheric lead 15biodiversity 83groundwater supplies 30human settlements 62population 82, 97surface water supplies 20unemployment 101

Kanaka Creekacidic deposition 14

Kelowna 81, 84, 97atmospheric lead 15ground-level ozone 99housing prices 101income 101land and urban development 101population 82, 97unemployment 101water quality 83

Khutzeymateen Valley 87grizzly bears 87

KimberleyKootenay Lake kokanee 81

Kitamaat Villagecontamination of ecosystems 85

Kitimat 85bears and people 88contamination of ecosystems 85dioxins and furans 37

Kitimat Arm 85marine environmental quality 33water quality objectives 27

Kitlope River 43ecosystem diversity 43

Kootenaysurface water supplies 19

Kootenay Lake 80Kootenay Lake kokanee 80water quality 80

Kootenay Riverinland pulp mills 23

Kootenay Trench 43Kootenays

acidic deposition 13

LLabour 98, 100

employment disparity 100unemployment 101

Ladysmithmarine municipal wastewater discharges 33

Landallocation 59base 59conflicts 59crown 58degradation 63developments 61productive capacity 63productivity 63use 59

Land suitability 59Landfill 64Lead

in fish 48Trail 79

Libby DamKootenay Lake kokanee 81

Lichens 41

Life style 6Lillooet

biodiversity 83freshwater municipal wastewater discharges

24population 97

Little Shuswap Lake 83Lower Fraser Valley 90, 91, 93, 94Lower Mainland

Fraser River Estuary 95freshwater municipal wastewater discharges

24ground-level ozone 89groundwater 29groundwater supplies 30Gypsy moth spray program 66human settlements 62landscape change 94marine municipal wastewater discharges 33population 88

Lumbypopulation 97Total Suspended Particulate (TSP) levels 99

Lyttonbiodiversity 83freshwater municipal wastewater discharges

24

MMalaspina Strait

marine environmental quality 33Mammals

Northern Caribou 76Mara Lake 83Marine environmental quality 32

contaminants in seabird eggs 38, 39dioxins and furans 37Georgia Depression 91–92heavy metals 37municipal sewage effects on 33, 34, 91, 92ocean dumping 34oil and chemical spills 35PCBs 39pulp mill effects on 33sediment contamination 92shellfish closures 33, 34

Marine invertebrates 46Masset

marine municipal wastewater discharges 33Matsqui

population 89Mercury

Columbia River 80fish 48

Merritpopulation 97

Miningacid mine drainage, effects on water quality

25Mine Development Review Process 25

Mountain Caribou 76Mountain Caribou in Managed Forests (MCMF)

76Municipal sewage

effects on water quality 24, 33treatment 24, 33

Municipal Solid Waste Tracking System 19 65

NNanaimo 93

dioxins and furans 37landscape change 93marine municipal wastewater discharges 33population 89

National Parks system 70National Soil Conservation Program 64Nelson

municipal wastewater discharges 24population 79

Nestucca oil spill 35, 86Nicola Lake 83Nitrogen dioxide 13, 16Nootka Island

marine mammals 56North Cowichan

marine municipal wastewater discharges 33North Fraser Harbour Commission 96North Thompson River

Drinking water quality 28inland pulp mills 23

North Vancouvermarine municipal wastewater discharges 33

OOcean dumping 34Oil and chemical spills

to freshwater 26to marine waters 35, 86

Oil spillsto marine waters 86

Okanagangaseous contaminants 16landscape change 93

Okanagan Basinfruit and grape cultivation 102income 100land conversion 98

Okanagan Lake 82water quality 99

Okanagan Lake Tributaries Plan 82Okanagan Lakes

municipal wastewater discharges 25Okanagan Valley 43, 44, 83

conserving biodiversity 44ecosystem diversity 43pesticides 66water quality 82water quality objectives 27water quantity 82

Old-Growth Strategy 52, 70Oliver

income 101nitrate and pesticide contamination 31

Organochlorines (dioxins and furans)Columbia River 80

Osoyoos 82income 101nitrate and pesticide contamination 31nitrates in groundwater 82pesticides in groundwater 82population 97

Osoyoos Lake 82pesticides in groundwater 82

Ozone (ground level) 15, 89–90impact on agriculture 90impact on health 90

126

impacts 15ozone depleting gases 12

chlorflurocarbons (CFCs) 12halons 12

role of motor vehicle emissions 89, 90

PPacific Rim National Park

persistant marine debris 86Parks 67Parks and protected areas 43, 81Parks and Wilderness Plan for the 90's 59Particulate contaminants 14PCBs 21, 39, 74

in mammals 39in seabird eggs 39in sediment 39in water 26, 39

Peace River 74water quality objectives 27Williston Reservoir 76

Peace River regionfarming 74

Peace-Liardsurface water supplies 19

Pender Harbourmarine environmental quality 33

Pentictonincome 101population 82, 97

People 4, 7aboriginal 58

Pesticideresidues 66

Pesticides 63, 66health impacts 66in groundwater 90, 91pest management 66toxaphene 74

Pinchi Lake 48factors affecting freshwater fish 48

Pipelines 61Plants 42, 83

mosses and liverworts 41Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH's) 85Population 7, 62Port Alberni

population 89Port Alice

gaseous contaminants 16marine municipal wastewater discharges 33

Port Coquitlamground-level ozone 89

Port Edwardmarine municipal wastewater discharges 33

Port McNeillmarine municipal wastewater discharges 33

Port Mellondioxins and furans 37

Port Moodyground-level ozone 89

Powell Riverdioxins and furans 37

Prince George 97air quality 75atmospheric lead 15gaseous contaminants 16population 75surface water supplies 20

Prince Rupertdioxins and furans 37marine municipal wastewater discharges 33population 84

Productivity 63Protected areas 67, 70Protected Areas Strategy 70Protected Areas Strategy (PAS) 44, 52Puget Sound 55Pulp Mill effluents 76Pulp Mills

coastal 33inland 22

QQueen Charlotte City

marine municipal wastewater discharges 33Queen Charlotte Islands 55

forestry 26Quesnel

surface water supplies 20Quesnel Highlands

mountain caribou 76Quesnel River

inland pulp mills 23

RRare, threatened or endangered species

42, 43, 44, 47, 53, 57, 83, 84Red List 42, 53Regional Ocean Dumping Advisory Committee

(RODAC) 34Reservoirs 61

Hugh Keenleyside Dam 80Richmond

Fraser River Estuary 95Roads 61Robson Bight

marine mammals 56Round Table on the Environment 1, 59

SSaanich Peninsula 42

ecosystem diversity 42saltwater intrusion and cross-contamination

32Sage Grouse 99Sage Thrasher 99Salmon 76Salmon Arm

population 97Saturna Island

stratospheric ozone 11Sea level rise 10Sechelt Inlet

marine environmental quality 33Settlements

human 62Sharp-tailed grouse 99Shellfish 45, 46Shellfish closures

dioxin 21, 33, 85sanitary 21, 34

Short-horned lizard 99Shuswap Lake 83Sicamous

population 97Similkameen River

water quality trends 27Site contamination 64Skeena River

factors affecting freshwater fish 47Smithers

acidic deposition 13population 77

Smog 15, 16, 89–90Smoke 14, 77Soil 58, 63Soil erosion 74South Matsqui

nitrate nitrogen concentrations 92South Okanagan

biodiversity 83conserving biodiversity 44wetlands 99

South Okanagan Conservation Strategy 84South Okanagan Critical Areas Program 44South Thompson River 83

inland pulp mills 23Southern Interior Ecoprovince

sustainable development 103Southern Interior Mountains Ecoprovince

description 78Southern Okanagan

pesticides 101Stewart

bears and people 88Strait of Georgia 44, 45, 57, 92

dioxins and furans 38marine water quality 92PCBs 39salmon enhancement 45

Stratospheric ozone 11Sulphur dioxide 13, 16

Port Alice 16Trail 79

Summerlandpopulation 97

Sunshine Coastacidic deposition 14surface water supplies 19

Surreygroundwater supplies 30

Sustainable Development 97, 98, 103

TTaiga Plains Ecoprovince 73Terrace

bears and people 88population 84

Thompson Riverdrinking water quality 28inland pulp mills 23, 24pulp mill effluents 76surface water supplies 20water quality objectives 27

Thompson River Basinland conversion 98

Thompson-Okanagansurface water supplies 19

Tofinomarine municipal wastewater discharges 33

Total Reduced Sulphur (TRS) 75Total Suspended Particulates (TSP) 14Trail

air quality 79atmospheric lead 15, 79

127

factors affecting freshwater fish 48fisheries and water quality 80freshwater municipal wastewater discharges

24gaseous contaminants 16population 79sulphur dioxide 79

Trail Community Lead Task Force 80Transmission lines 61, 67Tumbler Ridge

population 75

UUltraviolet radiation 11

impacts 12index values 12

Upper Fraserpulp mill effluents 76

Urbanshadow 62sprawl 62

Urban centers 62Urban Runoff, stormwater 25Urbanization

Georgia Depressionimpact on floodplains 94impact on waterfowl 94

VVancouver 89, 90, 91, 93, 95, 101

air quality 79atmospheric lead 15Fraser River Estuary 95gaseous contaminants 16ground-level ozone 89human settlements 62landscape change 93population 89unemployment 101

Vancouver Island42, 45, 46, 47, 52, 55, 88, 93

acidic deposition 13Bunsby Islands 55ecosystem diversity 42factors affecting freshwater fish 47gaseous contaminants 16Gold River 47groundwater supplies 30Heber River 47landscape change 93, 94marine mammals 55, 56marine water quality problems 92mining 25Nestucca oil spill 86Nootka Island 55oil and chemical spills 35pacific herring 46population 88, 89salmon 45

Vernonincome 101population 97Total Suspended Particulate (TSP) levels 99

Victoria 91, 93acidic deposition 13atmospheric lead 15gaseous contaminants 16human settlements 62landscape change 93

marine municipal wastewater discharges 33marine water quality problems 92population 89unemployment 101

Victoria Harbourmarine water quality 91

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) 17

WWaste 64

discharge permits 64hazardous 65initiatives 65landfill 64management 8production 6recycling 65special 65

Waste Management Act 22, 24, 33, 91Waste Management Permits 22, 24Water 52

conservation 21consumptive use 42, 82groundwater 29

aquifers 29consumption 29supply 30use 29, 30well-interference 29, 30

in-stream use 82shortages 82

Water pricing 21Water quality 74

Atlin Lake 74Boil-water advisories 28Canadian Drinking Water Quality Guidelines

28, 66, 91Charlie Lake 74chloramination 28Columbia River 80criteria 26, 27, 85cross-contamination of wells 32Giardia 28incidence of waterborne disease in B.C. 28Kootenay Lake 80landfills effects on 31, 32leaking storage tanks effects on 31microbiological contamination 31nitrates in 31, 90–91objectives 26, 27pesticides in 31, 90–91saltwater intrusion 32septic tank effects on 91spills effects on 31, 32

Water Quality Objectives 85Water, surface 18, 21

conservation 21demand 18, 20, 21licences 21pricing 21quality 21

criteria 26forestry effects on 26mining, acid mine drainage effect on 25municipal sewage effects on 24, 95non-point sources of pollutants22, 25, 26, 90–91objectives 26, 27point sources of pollutants

22, 24, 25, 26, 95pulp mill effects on 22spills effects on 26types of pollutants 21urban runoff, stormwater effects on25, 95

shortages 19supply 18

long-term changes in 19uses 21

consumptive 20in-stream 20, 21non-consumptive 21withdrawal 20, 21

Westbankpopulation 82, 97

Wetlands 43, 55, 81White Rock

population 89White-tailed jackrabbit 99Wildlife 42, 53, 57, 83, 84

amphibians 54, 83appreciation 53birds 41, 42, 44, 45, 54, 55, 83

burrowing owl 42, 44marbled murrelet 53migratory birds 43, 55seabirds 42, 54

Blue List 42, 53farming 53grizzly bears 51guiding 44, 53habitat 43, 44, 51, 53, 54, 57, 83, 84hunting 44, 52, 53invertebrates 83mammals 41, 42, 45, 83

fur-bearers 41, 44, 54ungulates 41, 54

marine mammals 54, 55, 57orca (killer whale) 44, 55, 56Robson Bight rubbing beaches 55, 56sea lion 44, 55sea otter 55, 56seal 44, 55

reptiles 41, 42, 83trapping 44, 52, 53vertebrates 41, 43, 57

Wildlife Management Areas 54Williams Lake

air quality 77generating electricity from wood waste 77groundwater supplies 30population 77wood waste 77

Williston Lake Reservoir 76Wood burning 14Wood waste 77Woodfibre

dioxins and furans 37World Conservation Union 69World Heritage Sites 70

YYellow List 53, 54

ZZeballos

marine municipal wastewater discharges 33

128

Published by Authority of the Minister ofEnvironment, Lands and Parks, BritishColumbia; and the Minister of State(Environment), Ottawa.

©Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks,1993. Environment Canada, 1993.Revised edition, Jan. 1994

Comments to:

Ministry of Environment, Lands and ParksPublic Affairs Branch810 Blanshard StreetVictoria, British ColumbiaV8V 1X4Phone: (604) 387-9422FAX: (604) 387-5703

Environment CanadaCommunicationsPacific and Yukon Region224 West EsplanadeNorth Vancouver, British ColumbiaV7M 3H7Phone: (604) 666-5900FAX: (604) 666-4810

Cover Design: Imagecraft Studio Ltd.The cover portrays Steller's Jays - the bird ofBritish Columbia.

This report is printed on Eco-logo approvedpaper. The cover paper is acid free, aluminumfree and rosin free, containing 50% pre-consumer waste and 10% non de-inked post-consumer waste. The text is printed on papercontaining 50% recycled waste and 10% post-consumer waste, manufactured in BritishColumbia. Vegetable based inks were used in theprinting.

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Canadian Cataloging in Publication Data

Main entry under title:State of the environment report for BritishColumbiaCo-published by: Environment Canada.Issued also in French under title: L'état del'environnement en Colombie-Britannique.Includes Bibliographical references.

ISBN -0-7726-1773-2

1. Environmental policy - British Columbia.2. Environmental impact statements - BritishColumbia.I. British Columbia. Ministry of Environment,Lands and Parks.II. Canada. Environment Canada.

HC117 .B7S73 1993363.7'009711C93-092147-X