MINI-PHYSICAL-EDUCATION-1-74.pdf

7/25/2019 MINI-PHYSICAL-EDUCATION-1-74.pdf

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Jos Manuel Prez Feito

Daniel Delgado Lpez

Ana Isabel Nez Vivas

This book deals with the theoretical foundations of physical education and its intimate

relationship with values and sports. It is written in a pedagogical manner, clear and easy

to understand.

It is an excellent book for anyone interested in sports, a magnificent work for those who

want to know and understand the reasons for physical activity.

It is a reference book on physical activity and motor functions.

PHYSICALEducation

PHYSICAL EducationPHYSICALEducation


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PHYSICAL

EDUCATION


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Our gratitud to the IES Alpedrete

Editor in chief:

Marco Pila

Design and layout

Claudia Romero, Juan Magaz

Translation of :

Physical Education

Translated into English by:

Wilhelmina Tweneboa-Kodua

[email protected]

Pila Telea; 2013

C/ Pozo Nuevo, 12

28430 Alpedrete (Madrid)Cel.: 609 25 20 82

e-mail [email protected]

Printed in Spain by

ISBN: 978-84-95353-03-0

Legal deposit: M-20975-2013

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or introduced into any retrieval system or trans-

mitted in any form by any means, mechanical, electronic, photocopying and distribution of copies

through loan or rental, without prior written permission of the copyright owners.

They call me Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra and in 1605 I sent a certain little

book to the printers that earned me a lot of fame but little fortune. The first

year saw the fruits of my ingenuity released in five more editions by thieving

criminals, who caused great misfortune to my honour and no less suffering to

my decimated property.

In those days intellectual property rights were not as common as they are today.


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Jos Manuel Prez Feito

Daniel Delgado Lpez

Ana Isabel Nez Vivas

PHYSICAL

EDUCATION


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TABLE O F CO N TEN TS

First block.Physical fitness........................................................ 6

1. Physical Activity .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... ....... 8

2.Warm-Up............................................................................. 22

3. Stretching Exercises .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .. 32

4. Physical Fitness and Basic Physical Skills ........ ........ ............ .... 48

5. Strength ............................................................................. 60

6. Stamina ............................................................................... 72

7. Speed ................................................................................. 88

8.Flexibility ............................................................................. 100

Second block. Coordinated Movement ........................................ 112

9. M otor Skills ......................................................................... 114

10 . Balance ............................................................................... 12411. Coordination ....................................................................... 134

Third block.Physical Education and health ......... .......... .......... ..... 146

12 .The Human Body: Anatomical and Physiological Bases .... ...... 150

13 . Body Posture .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... .......... . 172

14 .N utrition and Training .......................................................... 190

15 . Relaxation ........................................................................... 206

16 . First Aid ............................................................................... 220

17 . Designing a Training Programme ......... .......... .......... .......... ... 250

Fourth block. History of Physical Education .......... .......... .......... .... 268

18 . History of Physical Education .......... .......... .......... .......... ........ 270

19 . Physical Education and Sports .......... .......... .......... .......... ...... 284

20 . The Olympic Movement ........................................................ 296

Glossary .............................................................................. 330


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1 First block. Physical fitness

6

In 1989, UNESCO (The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization),

stated that sport is a specific competitive activity, in which the practice of physical exercises

is highly valued, with the view of improving the morpho-functional and psychic abilities of

individuals, connected with a record of improving themselves or on their opponents.

The current concept of sport is very different from the meaning it had in ancient times. The

difference is in the ethical and religious meaning it had in the past and does not have today.

Modern sports were born in the 19th Century in England, as a status symbol and a distinction

of the most privileged, with amateurism in the background. In contrast, the 20th Century

witnessed the birth of professional sports through the mass media.

In the 50s, the first live broadcasts of sporting events started and won the fans that were

not reached before. Through the giving of so-called licenses, the money boxes of the clubs

whose sporting activities were possibly going to get live coverage began to fill up.

Today, sport is the worlds most important hobby, as is clear in the increased number of

participants and the time and space devoted to it by the media, as well as the growth in the

sports industry.

Athletes are no longer volunteers as they were in the past since they consider sport as a

job. The entertainment nature of sport has experienced dramatic changes with the focus on

professionalism today.

Physical Education in your life

Professional Sports


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1First block. Physical fitness

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Also, objectives that have been designed for job prospects and efforts are made to stretch the

human potential to its limit. The important thing in sport now is to win. The status of athletes,

coaches and managers within the sports structure depends on records.

Some of the people taking close interest in professional sports act like their speculators and

do not care at all about the athletes. They focus mainly on names, records, victories and titles

that protect and stimulate a way of thinking and acting at any cost, at the expense of other

peoples reasoning.

In professional sports, the benefits of the achievements and successes prevail over humanity

as there is no time to consider the human being as such, but only as a product that can be

manipulated based on the superficial building of victory.

Given the short duration of professional sports careers, the risk of suffering from the after-

effects resulting from repeated injury does not make the path of a professional career as

idyllic as it seemed at first. We can say that if any professional career lasts between 40 and

50 years, sports professionals will spend between 10 and 20 years to earn the money needed

to survive for the rest of their lives.

The popularity of the sports media, the increase in the number of international

competitions and the emerging development of the economic dimension of the latter,

have led to increasingly negative consequences about the meaning sport in society

and in education in general.


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Physical Activity1


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Any type of physical activity usually responds to the intrinsic motivations of those who practice it,

in addition to promoting interpersonal relationships, amongst others.

Studies conducted through surveys in recent years on the Spanish population indicate that the

number of people who practice any kind of sport has risen from about 22% to 37% today. 66% of

them identify health as the main reason for doing physical activities. These studies also highlight

that, today, people prefer to exercise on their own (66%), rather than in schools (7%) or clubs (25%).

To address the issues raised in these surveys, we can say that, today, our society has succumbed

to a way of living in which a sedentary lifestyle prevails. The new technologies, among other

developments, provide unquestionable advantages, but their misuse can lead to such problems.

This sedentary lifestyle brings with it the risk of illnesses, such as obesity, hypertension, high

cholesterol and unhealthy habits, such as alcohol and tobacco consumption, which can all lead to

heart attacks and strokes. We must remember that two million deaths are attributable to physical

inactivity. A study published by the World Health Organization (WHO) states that sedentary

lifestyles are among the ten major causes of death and disability in the world.

We can say that a healthy lifestyle is everyones desire and thats the way we want to live andphysical activity can certainly help us to achieve this. Regular physical activity promotes good

feelings, increases body temperature which reduces muscle tension, and promotes relaxation,

regulates biorhythms, and improves sleep, has antidepressant and tranquilising effects, brings

feelings of wellbeing, eliminates stress, and helps to gain increased autonomy and self-confidence.

Faced with stereotyped physical activity, with specific facilities that are subject to rules, activities

are naturally enhanced where all the inherent advantages of urban physical activity are improved

to develop the various natural settings.

As a result of the mass exodus to the cities during the 60s, man was

alienated from nature and a large majority of the population has felt

the need to be reconciled with it. This is why, compared with more

standardised and common activities, there is a spectacular increasein sports and activities in the natural environment. Another aspect

to highlight in the development of physical training in nature is its

adventurous and recreational spirit. Unlike track sporting or competitive

events, the main motivation for outdoor activities is based on adventure,

the new, the exciting...these are the kinds of activities the population do.

This group of outdoor tasks may be considered as sports for all, unlike

competitive sports, where some win and others lose, since they are

marked by cooperation, where everyone wins. On the other hand, its

recreational nature does not make it less demanding from the physical

and technical point of view.

There are many activities that we can practice in the naturalenvironment, from a simple stroll in the fields or camping with friends,

to diverse activities such as rock climbing, rappelling, kayaking or

paragliding, amongst many others. The level of complexity, as well as

the extent and richness of physical activities in the natural environment,

requires comprehensive organisation to avoid any sudden malfunction

in their performance. For the development of more complex activities,

we should always count on the presence of a professional for solutions

to the various adversities that could happen.

Picture


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1 Physical Activity

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Physical activity refers to any type of voluntary bodily movement (however

small it may be) performed by a person in a given period of time: walking,writing, speaking, stair climbing, running, etc. This activity may take place

during working or leisure time...

We must distinguish the concept of physical activity from two others that are

usually considered as synonymous, even though they are not:

Physical exertion: it refers to any physical activity of varying levels of

intensity (low, moderate or high) involving an increase in respiratory rate,

heart rate, body temperature, energy consumption, basal metabolism...,

which leads to sweating, muscle fatigue, etc.

Physical exercise: it refers to any type of physical activity that meets thefollowing requirements:

It must involve the performance of physical exertion.

It must be carried out systematically, that is, continuously.

It must be planned beforehand to achieve objectives.

It must be designed to improve health.

The intensity of the physical exertion has an individualistic tendency. What

may be too intense for one person may be too low for others. Moreover, the

body is able to adapt gradually to exertion and what may seem too intense

in the beginning may end up becoming low. This adaptation to exertion is

achieved through exercise.

1 INTRODUCTION


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Physical exercise promotes health, and must therefore be integrated into the

scheme of life, more as a habit, without becoming a sacrifice or obligation, butrather lead to an entertaining and more rewarding experience.

Gymnastics:it is a form of physical exercise characterised by activities

and systematic exercises which pursue specific therapeutic, educational

and competitive purposes.

Sports: it is any physical activity that has a competitive purpose and is

subject to fixed rules. Different outdoor recreational activities such as

mountain climbing and diving are also included in this category.

Physical Education:it is the discipline that deals with the teaching and

learning of the different fields of physical activity. Its purpose is to promotethe development of the body and spread the benefits derived from its

practice.

The modernisation of our environment has improved our quality of life

but it is also a determining factor in the decline in our physical activity.

Performing moderate exercises regularly is beneficial to health and helps

to fight a sedentary lifestyle. Numerous studies emphasise that a sedentary

lifestyle facilitates the emergence of diseases as well as physical and mental

disorders.

The solution to this problem is quite simple: sedentary people have to change

their habits and become more active, by increasing the frequency of their

physical activities (see Table 1). In fact, the practice of any kind of physical

activity is gradually becoming increasingly

common in our society. There is a paradox

because the increase in physical activity is

the result of that sedentary lifestyle which has

caused many people to exercise as a way of

improving the quality of their life.

But, although more people are practising sportsactivities or going to the gym regularly to keep

fit, it does not mean that the great majority

of the population maintains some minimum

level of physical activity. According to a report

published by the National Center for Chronic

Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, in

USA, almost a third of the youth and up to 60%

of adults are found to be in this situation.

2 FACETS OF PHYSICAL EXERCISE

Physical exercise

promotes health, and

must therefore be

integrated into the

scheme of life, more

as a habit, without

becoming a sacrifice

or obligation, but

rather lead to an

entertaining and more

rewarding experience.


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The direct objective for performing physical exercise is to improve fitness

and adapt to stress. However, many people who perform regular physical

activity set other indirect objectives, which can basically be grouped into

four reasons: improve physical fitness, have better health, improve aesthetic

appearance, take care of the body and be seen to have better physical health

and better use of leisure time.

3

BENEFITS OF

PHYSICAL EXERCISE

Table 1 : Most common excuses for not exercising

I have no time

If health is important, we can always take out 20-30 minutes to do

something, even if it is just walking. We probably devote more time to

watching TV.

Exercising is boring

It is clear that if you do the same thing over and over again, it becomes

boring. Activities carried out must be varied: walking, cycling, swimming...

In addition, if you set short term goals, the motivation will even be greater.

I am slim, I dont need

to exercise

Slim people also need to do physical activity to tone their muscles and

take proper care of their bodies. The fact that you are slim does not mean

you are healthy, and being too slim is considered an illness: anorexia.

I work outoccasionally

Playing football with friends sometimes or taking a bike ride is not doingregular physical activity, which is the best way to keep fit and avoid injury.

I need to go with

someone

You dont need a partner to exercise. Although that may be more

entertaining, it is essential only in some cases: tennis, climbing, diving

Moreover, if you get used to exercising, it will be easy to share your

enthusiasm with a friend in the end.

Im young and Im fineEven if you are less than 30 and you are physically well, working out now

will benefit you and lead to good health in future.

Gym is expensive

There is a little bit of everything and most packages are offered every

now and then. .And if its not possible, you can always exercise outdoors:

parks, walks, beaches...


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Exercise and fitness

The main reason why many people exercise is to keep fit,

as this is the way to maintain the physical abilities of the

body in an optimum state throughout life. In fact, keepingfit has become the main slogan of companies related to

physical exercise.

When we talk about staying or keeping fit, we mean

performing any light activity as a conscientious training

for one or two hours between three and five times a

week. For these people, physical activity is more than an

obligation. It is a pleasure, a time that helps them to feel good, younger

and more confident.

Although we cannot say categorically that being in good shape ensuresperfect health, it is certain that, in general, physical fitness and health are

often discussed along parallel lines.

Physical exercise and health

The human body is designed to move and a sedentary life usually leads to

diseases and even premature death.

There are many health benefits in performing regular physical activity and its

impact can be seen at many levels:

Cardiac: reduces the risk of coronary heart disease, because it increases the

size of the heart and reduces heart rate so that the organ gets less tired.

Vascular: the number of red blood cells, leukocytes and lymphocytes,

increases and improves blood circulation and elasticity of the arteries.

Respiratory: increases lung capacity and decreases the number of breaths

per minute.

Muscular: muscles gain strength and endurance, increase in size and

elasticity and improve motor coordination.

When we perform physical exercises, our bodies release endorphins,

substances responsible for the sensation of pleasure and well-being

achieved after the activity.

Bone: increases bone density, vascularisation and bone mineral retention.

Articular: strengthens the elements constituting the joints, that is, cartilage,

ligaments...

When we perform physical

exercises, our bodies

release endorphins,substances responsible for

the sensation of pleasure

and well-being achieved

after the activity.


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Metabolic: increases the level of good cholesterol (HDL) and lowers

that of bad cholesterol (LDL), maintains glucose at adequate levels and

facilitates the removal of toxins.

Mental: brings a sense of general well-being, improves mood andemotions and increases self-image, reduces anxiety and stress, helps

to fight depression and reduces the risk of its appearance.

Other benefits : in addition to the above, physical exercise reduces the

risk of some cancers and diabetes, helps to control obesity and excess

weight, increases stamina to perform physical tasks...

Regular physical activity is a long term investment in health and quality of life.

Physical Exercise and Aesthetics

The body allows us to move, express ourselves and relate to our surroundingenvironment... It is necessary to devote some time to our body and give it due

attention. This involves feeding ourselves properly, maintaining appropriate

behaviour patterns (getting enough sleep, not consuming any harmful

substances...) and doing proper physical activity, which are some of the ways

to take care of our body and mind.

In todays society, the body is linked to a persons image, making

it an essential part of the identity of each person. In many cases,

body care is considered as an objective in which much effort is

invested: diet, exercise, plastic surgery and make up...

Media pressure, both in aesthetics and fashion, drives many

people to perform physical activities with the sole purpose

of obtaining a body acceptable to society. Many people

are actively taking measures to change their bodies, mould

them, feel comfortable with them and please others and feel

personally fulfilled to have obtained bodies that meet the

standards of health and beauty in the modern society.

Physical exercise and leisure

Physical exercise is linked to leisure when it is performed just to have fun andentertainment. In this case, its purpose is merely pleasure and the intention is

to pleasantly pass the leisure time with any non-competitive and unregulated

physical activity, which does not involve major technical demands for spaces

or unconventional equipment, etc.

Physical activity which is considered as leisure does not only imply fun but

it also requires effort and motivation to look for new challenges and achieve

them: climbing a mountain, taking a hiking route....


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An activity is usually considered as a sport

when it is integrated into a sports federation.

Some federations include various sports dis-

ciplines: for example the Tennis Federation

includes paddle tennis, and the Winter Sports

Federation also includes skiing, snowboard,

etc. The prerequisites for forming a sports

federation is to get a specified number of

licensed practitioners.

The influence of sport on society and todays

culture is undeniable as is evident in areas

such as clothing and accessories (sun glass-

es, shoes, sportswear...), in the use of lei-

sure time (watching sporting activities...), in

advertising (at sporting events, ads by key

athletes...), at work (sports coaches, mas-

seurs, physiotherapists, sports journalists...),

in the economy (sale of sportswear, energy

drinks...), and in sports fanaticism (ultra-

groups...), etc.

Sports can be classified according to various criteria:

4 SPORT AND ITS CLASSIFICATION

Professional spor ts vs . amateur sports:

In professional sports, we are charged for the sport. It is

a job and as such brings obligations such as training at

specific times, not choosing team mates, etc. amateur

sports is performed merely for enjoyment and it never

demands any obligation.

Opposition sports vs. sports without opposition:

In opposition sports, there is a direct influence of the

rival or rivals on the results of the sports player or team,

while sports without opposition, on the contrary, have

no influence on the performance of the athlete nor the

team.


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Although regular physical exercise is a source of health, it can cause

problems if not done with minimum advice and control (see Table 2).

Many people, in spite of their ignorance about the basic aspects of physical

exercises, start without seeking the necessary information to find out if they

run any risk in doing it.

For any physical activity to translate into better quality of life and health, it is

necessary to consider how it can be carried out, meaning, the type, intensity

and duration of the activity.

Individual sports vs. team sports :

An individual sport refers to sports in which the athlete performs alone,

without team mates, for example, cyclo-cross, judo, weightlifting orskiing. In team sports, the athlete cannot participate as an individual but

must have team mates and be part of a team, for example, basketball,

handball, football...

There are some sporting events that belong to both classifications:

individual and team, as in tennis doubles or relays in athletics and

swimming. There are also some sports disciplines classified both as

individual and teams as in karate, gymnastics- cycling or archery.

Sports with direct contact vs. sports without direct contact:In sports with direct contact, players share a pitch and play simultaneously,

for example, hockey, skating or water polo, while in the sport without

direct contact, the playing field is not shared but rather divided and

used alternatively, as in badminton or volley ball.

Water, terrestrial and aerial sports:

Water sports such as swimming or surfing are performed in water.

Terrestrial sports such as football and basketball take place on land

and can be distinguished as limited spaces. There is also the unlimitedspace such as golf or cross-country skiing. Aerial sports such as hang

gliding and balloon flight competitions are performed in the air.

Move, for sure,

Before starting any

physical activity, it is

always necessary to

have a prior medical

check-up. This is

to determine the

physical condition

of the person and

discard the existence

of any pathology that

may get worse with

exercise.

5 HOW MUCH PHYSICAL EXERCISE DO WE NEED?


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People who do not perform regular physical exercises

They must start gradually by taking a few minutes each day to do some kind

of aerobic exercise. This should be up to about half an hour daily, which is

the minimum time recommended.

To be more active, it is enough to change some habits of everyday life, for

example:

Climb stairs at (home, work, etc.) and avoid the elevator.

Walk the dog.

Ride a bicycle.

Wash the car by hand.

Walk to work.

To avoid injuries

1

Practice physical activities on a regular basis.

2

Perform a good warm-up, begin gently and increase the

intensity gradually without forcing.

3Wear comfortable clothes and shoes made with the

appropriate material.

4 Do stretches at the end of the physical activity.

5Drink water or isotonic drinks whenever you are thirsty.

6Avoid physical activities after eating or on a full stomach.

7

Know the limits of your body to know when you are

pushing too much.

Table 2


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Get off a couple of stops ahead of the bus, metro, etc.

Play games that require physical effort with children

Replace TV with activities that require movement.

People who perform minimum physical exercise

The next step is to perform new activities that are stimulating and facilitate the

maintenance of regular physical activity throughout life; for example:

Walk between 30 and 60 minutes five times a week, at a fast rate.

Go to the pool to swim.

Go to the beach to walk or run barefoot

Attend dance classes

Go for field trips

Go hiking

Go to the gym

In general, these activities should mobilise large muscle groups, include

periods of intensity and be performed between 3 and 5 times a week.

It is not always easy to know the type of physical exercise that is best for

each person.

Here are some criteria for taking that decision:

Fix clear and realistic objectives.

Know your personal physical and psychological limitations.

Gather all possible information on the activities that interest you.

Once you decide the kind of physical exercise you want to perform, it is

necessary to consider a series of recommendations that will help you to

create a habit and also help you to continue to practice. Do not make it very

common in order not to cause early abandonment of activity:

6 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR STARTING


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Begin exercising slowly, without haste, then increase the intensity and

duration of the activity gradually.

Organise your time: if most people dedicate time every day to watching

TV, how can they not have time to exercise, which is healthier?

Motivate yourself to exercise. When people have a good time, they tend

to repeat the activity.

If an activity becomes boring, it should be changed to another more interesting

one. There are many possibilities and the most important thing is to enjoy it.

Set personal precise and clear goals and achieve them gradually and

establish new ones when you achieve the first ones.

It is important to be aware of the progress and improvement you have

made with the passing of each day..Finally, it is worth noting that there are a number of myths and beliefs

related to physical exercise that are not true. Some of them are illustrated

in the table below:

Misconceptions

F ALS

E

Taking water with sugar removes stiffness: when performing

strenuous physical exercises, micro-cracks are produced in the

muscle fibres causing some discomfort known as stiffness. The

sugar water does not repair these tears, nor relieve pain.

F ALS

E

Taking sugar before exercise improves performance: the

result is rather the contrary as this initially raises blood sugar

levels and then produces a rebound effect which generates

hypoglycaemia, which increases fatigue.

F ALS

E

Sweating excessively makes one lose weight: many people believe

that when they sweat they lose a lot of fat, but the truth is that what

is lost is water. Moreover, in order to prevent dehydration, the bodysounds an alarm in the form of thirst and the water that was lost is

recovered when you drink.

F ALS

EAbdominal exercises help to lose belly fat: it is impossible

to lose fat in any particular area. Fat loss is always general

when we exercise but the areas with a lot of fat lose more fat.


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1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

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1 0

Comment briefly on the characteristics of sports.

Distinguish between physical exertion and physical exercise.

Point out the differences between opposition sports and sports without opposition.Give two examples of each.

List four health benefits of physical exercise.

Define the term gymnastics.

Make a table showing the problems associated with a sedentary life and the benefitsof physical exercise.

Explain the following statement: Physical fitness and health are always discussedalong parallel lines.

Indicate the purpose of physical exercise linked to leisure.

Explain the main characteristics of regular physical exercise.

List some recommendations for beginning physical exercises.

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION

In Shape Authors: Martnez de Haro, Vicente and Sanz de Lara, Rosa. Publisher:

Alianza. Madrid 2003.

Physical Activity , Sports and Health Author: Devs Devs, Jos (coordinator).

Publisher: INDE. Barcelona 2000.

Is Sports Good for Health? Questions and Answers on Physical Exercise.Author:

Cascua, Stphane. Publisher: Paids. Barcelona 2003.

Physical Activity

EXERCISES


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Physical Activity

IF I DO NOT READ IT, I DO NOT BELIEVE IT

On the World Challenge Day, everybody must move for 30 minutes with the aim of motivating

people to engage in physical activity and thus improve their health and quality of life. On 31 May

2006, the World Challenge Day was celebrated for the fourth time in Cuba. It was a day when

all those who wanted to participate in long walks, races, outdoor exercises and games for 30

minutes were given the chance to do so. The World Challenge Day began in England in 1993.

It is said that age is a handicap for the performance of physical activity but George Blair,

better known as BananaGeorge, won a Guinness record award for being the oldest person

to have done a tour on water skis. When Banana George won the Guinness record award on

20 February 2005, he was 90 years 29 days.The Ocellated Megapode or Mallee fowl (Leipoa

ocellata), of Australia, builds a nest of 4.5 meters high and 10 meters long from a mound of earth.

It is estimated that the bird has to move 250 cubic meters of vegetation and 300 tons of earth in

order to build it.

The larvae of the eel, (Anguilla anguilla) born in the Sargasso Sea, complete a 7,500 Kilometer

journey to reach the European shores during the years after their birth.

On 24 June 2005, Sergio Laus entered the Guinness Book of Records after travelling 10.1

Kilometers on his surf board in 33 minutes 15 seconds, in the Araguari River (Brazil).

Do you have arthritis problems with your knees? Then you must know that you should not stand

still. Physical exercise, among other therapies, improves the quality of life and independence

of people with arthritis of the knees. According to a study carried out by San Diego University,

programmes combining walking, stationery bike and strength training with relaxation, along with

a good diet, are the most effective remedies against arthritis.

Did you know that your eyes do not stop blinking? They doabout 415.000 million times throughout life

Physical activitymust have a significant place in our everydaylife. Through movement, we discover wellness.


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2 Warm-Up


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Warm-up is a set of exercises or games performed at the beginning of any training session,

Physical Education class or even a competition. It is done in such a way that the body moves

from a state of relative rest to a particular state of activity. It prepares the body for subsequent

demanding efforts, promotes performance, prevents possible injury and provides maximumenergy for use by the body and ensures total enjoyment of the activity.

The primary objective of warm-up is to gradually involve the athlete or student in the activity

to be performed at a desired level, to allow the heart and respiratory tract to adjust, exercise

the tendons and muscles and also ensures proper blood circulation. Warm-up raises the

temperature of the muscles and tendons, improves the neuromuscular unit, increases local

blood flow, metabolic exchange, improves the enzyme activity and decreases muscle viscosity.

If at some point we raised the issue of why we should warm up, the answers would be many: first

of all, to avoid injuries of the locomotor system, such as sprains, contractures, fibril breaks, etc.,

and secondly, to avoid injuries of the respiratory system, because by slightly increasing the heart

rate and blood circulation, the body prepares for greater effort. It also improves performance by

improving physical abilities and qualities and finally, it improves concentration and motivation ofthe athlete or the student by encouraging knowledge of the body and surrounding environment,

etc. A proper warm-up should respect a generic phase of between 10 and 15 minutes, in which

the most important muscle groups of our body are moved, and a specific phase where exercises

directly related to the sport or activity to be carried out are performed.

There is no specific time duration for warm-up but we can generally say that it lasts between 10

and 40 minutes. Obviously, the greater the effort to be made, the longer the time that must be

devoted to warm-up. Also, we need to spend more time warming up the injured and those who

have not been performing physical activities for a long time.

Warm-up must be personal, since it is directly influenced by factors such as age, physical

condition of each person, ambient temperature or even

the time of the day that it is done.The exercises during warm-up must be progressive

and start from approximately 50% up to a total of 90%

of efforts, but under no circumstances must we reach

oxygen debt or lack oxygen.

In addition to physical warm-up, we can speak of the

psychological warm-up which comprises motivation,

concentration and the knowledge of the outcome of

the event to be carried out as well as the goals to

be achieved by the athlete. This is mainly used in

competitive sports but it is also used as motivation to

excel at any level.We conclude this section by emphasizing that many

injuries are unpredictable, but several others could be

avoided by adequate warm-up exercises related to the

activity to be developed. This principle is fundamental

to the practice of any physical activity because as

mentioned earlier, it prepares the body before it

performs greater dynamic exercises. Therefore, warm-

up should never be omitted.

Picture


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There are three basic objectives to be

achieved by warming up: prepare:

To reduce the risk of injuries; when

the muscle is cold, it is much easier

to break.

To improve performance in physicalactivity to be carried out subsequent-

ly as it prepares all the respiratory,

muscular, cardiovascular and ner-

vous systems...

To prepare the student or athlete

psychologically for training, competi-

tion or the main part of the class.

Before starting any sporting activity it is always necessary to do a warm-

up. However, though it is an essential part prior to any Physical Education,

training or competition session, on several occasions, students and athletes

do not give it the attention it deserves.

Its name is due to the most obvious effect produced by doing it because

it increases body temperature. But that is not the only thing. Warm-up

produces many changes in the body that are used as preparation for

subsequent efforts.

1 INTRODUCTION

A complete definition of warm-up must include five important distinctions.

Warm-up is:

A ser ies of simple phys ical exercises

carried out in a smooth and progressive way

before starting any sport ing activity to tone

the muscles and prepare them f

or further intensive effort.

2 THE CONCEPT OF WARM-UP

3 WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF WARM-UP?


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Warm-up has numerous effects on the various body systems. The most

important are summarised below:

Respiratory system

The respiratory rate increases while at rest. It takes

between 6 and 8 litres of air per minute and in some

areas, air hardly enters the lungs. During exercises, the

body increases the respiratory rate because it needs

greater amounts of oxygen and it reaches values up to

100 litres of air per minute.

The set of respiratory changes that occur during physical

activity is known asrespiratory adaptation to exercise.

Cardiovascular system

It activates the hearts workload. While resting the heart

pumps about 50 cubic centimetres of blood with each

contraction, warm-up causes the heart to enlarge to

allow more blood to enter the cavities, thus making it

pump up to about 180 cubic centimetres of blood per

contraction.

In addition, the heart beats faster to supply more foodand oxygen to the muscles so that the latter can step

up their efforts. It also increases arterial blood pressure

which facilitates blood circulation.

All these sets of changes are referred to as cardiovascular

adaptation to exercise.

Muscular system

When the muscles are at rest, the temperature varies between 36.5 and

37 degrees, and with warm-up, the temperature increases to about 38.5degrees, thus, allowing the muscles to increase their strength, speed and

resistance.

It also improves elasticity of the muscles, favouring the speed of muscle

contraction and relaxation as well as muscle coordination, allowing for better

movements that require precision.

All these changes are referred to as muscular adaptation to exercise.

4 EFFECTS OF WARM-UP


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Nervous System

By increasing the body temperature, all the nervous processes are

accelerated. This causes an increase in the speed of perception of stimuli

and that of transmission of information which in turn reduce the reaction

time. These changes make the performance of exercises faster and moreaccurate.

All these processes are known as nervous adaptation to exercise.

Dermal-Perspirant System

Increased body temperature can be dangerous if it is excessive. For this

reason, it is necessary to reduce body heat which is achieved through

sweating. Sweat plays a key role in the human organism by avoiding excess

heat in the body.

Sweat removes water and toxins, mainly lactic acid, generated by muscle

fatigue. As the loss of water can lead to progressive dehydration, it is

important to replenish with liquids lost regularly during physical activities

Psychological Level

Warm-up facilitates the passage from a state of rest to another state

of physical activity, while enhancing attention span, causing attention

to be focused on the activity to be performed later.

It also increases the motivation of the athlete to perform thesubsequent activity, whether it is a class, training, competition,

etc. In addition, when warm-up is done prior to a competition, it

helps to reduce the state of anxiety (nervousness, fear...) involved

in many cases

5 TYPES OF WARM-UP

There are two basic types of warm-up: general and specific.

General Warm-Up

It is the type in which the exercises performed affect all the major muscle

groups of the body. It must always be performed since it is independent of

the subsequent activity which must be carried out. It is suitable for all types

of physical activities.


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Warm-up does not have a specific time. Its duration depends on whether

it is performed before a Physical Education class, training session, or

game...

To warm-up properly, a set to of rules must be followed:

It must be progressive, from a slow start to high intensity, without

causing fatigue.

Start with light and gentle jogging.

Exercises should be simple and familiar and performed in the right way.

It is necessary to workout all the muscle groups of the body.

It should be done from bottom to top, in succession of muscle groups.

Dynamic exercises must be performed rather than static ones.

More intense exrcises must be performed at the end.

After warm-up, pulse should range between 100 and 130 per minute

After warm-up, it is advisable to start the physical activity to be

performed not later than 5 minutes.

General warm-up normally includes various movement exercises: movement

of legs, trunk and arms, strength and stretching...

Specific Warm-Up

This should be done when going to play a sport. It affects the body parts

that are going to participate in the sport that is going to be performed. It is

necessary to always do general warm-up first.

Specific warm-up should be similar to the activities to be carried out

during the particular sport; for example, backhand swings (tennis), short

sprints (athletics), passes (handball), serves (volley ball), basketball layouts

(basketball).

6 PERFORMING WARM-UP

7 DURATION OF WARM-UP


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Following the basic rules mentioned before a warm-up, many different ones

can be performed. The following is just one possibility.

Warm-up for a Physical Education class should not be too short or long. Any

duration between 5 and 10 minutes is considered as normal.

Warm-up before a training session or a game should last longer. It should

normally be between 20 and 40 minutes. Then, after the general warm-

up its necessary to perform a specific warm-up related to that particular

sporting activity.

We can distinguish between two types of factors that influence warm up:

External and internal.

8 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE WARM-UP

9 EXAMPLE OF GENERAL WARM-UP

External factors

These refer to environmental factors as well as

those related to the activity to be carried out.

Internal factors

These are those of the person

performing warm-up

Ambient temperature: in cold weather, warm-

up must last longer and vice versa.Level of training: a person who does little

training gets tired easily and must not warm-up

for too long nor should it be intense.

Time of the day: warm-up in the morning

must be longer and more progressive than the

afternoon because the body needs more time to

adapt to the effort.

Age: children and young people require less

warm-up than adults, because with age, the

muscles and joints need more time to adjust to

the effort.

Activi ty to be per formed later: the more

intense it is, the longer the warm-up time.Food:never do intense physical exercise after

eating, because at that time, there is a large

supply of blood to the digestive system and

warm-up may cut it.


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Alternate jumping drill s

Light jogging Heel lifting Knee lifting Lateral movement

Walking exercises

Front butt Trunk flexion extension Arms lifting Arm circumduction

Static exercises

Leg curl Lateral trunk extension Trunk rotation Lumbar

Strength exercises

Side butt Lower abdomen Upper abdomen Plates


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30

Explain the basic objectives to be achieved by warming up.

State the difference between the cardiovascular system at rest and after warming up.

Define the term warm-up.

Explain what is meant by respiratory adaptation to exercise.

List four rules to follow for proper warm-up.

Indicate some situations where it is necessary to perform specific warm-up.

Describe the external factors that influence warm-up.

Give examples of five exercises that can be performed during warm-up

Explain the sentence, more intense exercises are performed at the end.

Indicate how warm-up influences the athlete psychologically.

Warm-Up

EXCERCISES

Warm-Up. A Path to Self-Mangement of Physical Activity.Author: Blzquez Snchez,

Domingo. Publisher: INDE. Barcelona, 2004.

Warm-Up. Motivating Games and Exercises to Start Classes and Training Sessions.

Authors: Surez Rivera, Rafael and Surez Rivera, Francisco. Publisher: Gymnos.Madrid,1999.


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5

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Warm-Up


What heat !!. The body temperature of animals variesfrom one to the other. So, monotremes have a body tem-perature of 30 C, armadillos 32 C, marsupials 35 C,man 37 C and cats 39 C.

We must bear in mind that the primary objective for warmingup is to raise temperature.

Bats lose so much heat through their wings that when they are asleep, they stay completely cold,

so when they wake up, they have to perform some warm-up exercises before they fly.

Dragonflies need to warm up before they fly either by staying in the sun or performing some

exercises. The biggest species cannot take off flight till they reach 20 C.

Red alert: the earths temperature continues to rise. The current climate is the result of the

link between several factors: atmosphere, oceans, sheets of ice (cryosphere), living organisms

(biosphere) and soils, sediments and rocks (geosphere). For several years scientists have

been warning governments that this balance is crumbling. What are the causes of climate

change? Greenhouse gas concentrations (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxides and

chlorofluorocarbons), which are causing an increase in the earths temperature and changes in

global rainfall patterns.

The lowest temperature on the earth is 89.2 C. It was recorded at Vostok Station (Antarctica)

on 21 July 1983.

The coldest place on the universe is Boomerang Nebula.It is an authentic cosmic freezer, with

a temperature of - 272 C. This immense cloud of gas and dust is considered as the coldest

place in the universe.

The high levels of sunlight can increase the risk of developing cataracts in the lens cortex by 2.5

and even quadruples the possibilities of developing mixed cataracts. If you want to continue to

preserve your sight, do not train during the hottest hours of the day and protect your eyes with

proper goggles.


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3 Stretching Exercises


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You have certainly heard about the great importance of stretching after performing any type ofphysical activity. The importance of stretching is not only based on the improvement of physicalperformance but also on the health of the locomotor system.

We can define this as tensions kept in the muscles in the opposite direction to their contraction. Itspurpose is to reduce muscle tension generated through sports and daily life. Throughout the day,we adopt postures which can cause muscle pain or problems in the long term. The most appropriateaction to prevent this from happening is to adopt a good posture during the performance of anyactivity. Notwithstanding the above, and due to the time most people spend sitting, stressing andthe little movement they usually make during the day, they tend to have problems with their backs,heaviness in shoulders and legs etc. By doing stretching exercises on a regular basis, we canavoid common injuries such as sprains, tendinitis or joint discomfort, reduce muscle tension andrelax the body, improve the coordination of movements, know our own body better and facilitatesmoother mobility. This is because stretching contributes to vasodilation to a certain extent.

Stretching exercises act as the bridge between a sedentary lifestyle and an active life. They make

the muscles flexible and prepare them to move, helping them to make daily changes from inactivityto activity. Learning how to stretch is easy, but if we do not stretch in the proper way, we can harmour muscles and tendons instead of protecting them.

How should we stretch? We have to do this through a gentle tension, making sure the musclesstretch by adapting the exercises to the muscle structure, flexibility and degree of tension in eachone. When we stretch, we should avoid rebound pain and never pull the muscles excessively to adegree of pain because that can cause muscle contraction.

Breathing during stretching should be slow, rhythmic and controlled. If a stretching position inhibitsyour natural way of breathing, it is obvious that you are not relaxed.

Whenever we perform physical exercises, we must follow with stretching exercises. The besttime is to do it immediately after the workout since the muscle is already warmed up and higheramplitudes can be obtained without discomfort and with minimal risk of injury.

We must be cautious regarding pre-exercise stretching because there is great controversy amongauthors concerning this, as many of them recommend stretching only after completing an activity.On the other hand, they advise that we start the workoutsession with light jogging, lateral movements, skippingand increased mobility, and then stretching the musclesince they are no longer cold. If we can ask, who shouldperform stretching exercises? We can say that everyone,regardless of age, gender or flexibility. We do not need tohave an excellent physical form or specific qualities butdaily stretching can improve our quality of life.

We can stretch in the morning before starting the day,at work as a means of relaxation, after sitting down orstanding on our feet for a long period of time, when wefeel our body is tensed, etc.

We must remember that we may end up injuringourselves during stretching, if we do it too quickly, forcethe muscle too much or without paying attention tostretch sensations.

Picture


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Stretching is a natural impulse we all perform unconsciously on numerousoccasions, for example, when we stretch after getting up from bed.

Although we tend to regard the American Bob Anderson as the onewho introduced stretching in sports, the truth is that even in antiquity,stretching exercises were performed in some Eastern cultures, such asChina and India.

In high performance sports, stretching exercises have been the normalthing for years. The same cannot be said of amateur athletes or people whoperform physical activity as part of their leisure time to stay in shape sincethey do not do any type of stretching exercise.

This forgetfulness originated basically from the lack of information onthe workout effects on muscle elasticity because there is no noticeableimprovement with training, unlike what happens when we train the basicphysical qualities,, especially stamina and strength.

However, muscle elasticity should be improved by stretching if we want toachieve maximum physical potential, because if they are not worked out,sports performance is reduced.

1 INTRODUCTION

2 THE CONCEPT OF STRETCHING

Stretching is muscle tension maintained in

the opposite direction of muscle contraction.

It is intended to elongate muscle structures andconnective tissue to improve extensibility in muscle.Its purpose is to achieve lower muscle tensionwhen performing a physical activity, which increasesmuscle elasticity while preventing injuries at thesame time.

Stretching must be done both before and after exercises.It is not a sport in itself but it is a warm-up, part of thephysical activity to be performed.

It is important to note that each person is different,therefore, stretching exercises must conform to the levelof flexibility and body structure of the athlete performingthem.


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The stretching of a muscle fibre begins in the sarcoma, which is the mostbasic part of the contraction of muscle fibres ( See Topic12). By contractingthe muscle, the contact area between the actin and myosin filamentsincreases. And when the contact area between both filaments is stretched,the latter decreases, so allowing the muscle fibres to lengthen.

When the muscle fibre reaches its maximum length,that is, when all the muscles are stretched completely,you can even stretch further by forcing the tissuesurrounding the connective tissue. To increase

tension, the collagen fibres of the surroundingconnective tissue align in the same direction in whichthe tension force is exerted, so creating an increasein the space that allows you to stretch a little more.

When a muscle is stretched, not all the fibres arestretched, some remain in their normal position. Thelength of the muscle depends on the total number ofstretched fibres (just like the muscle strength, which

Although muscles have a high capacity to elongate and contract, theirelasticity is limited by several factors:

Muscle tension: the degree of muscle tension affects its capacity tostretch; the greater it is, the more difficult it will be to stretch it. Therefore,to facilitate the stretching of a muscle, it is necessary to reduce itsmaximum tension.

Elastic connective tissue: there are two types of connective tissues:fibrous and elastic. The latter is abundant in the muscle fibres and itsquantity determines the degree of extensibility of the muscle cells.

Fibrous connective tissue resistance:the fibrous connective tissue is

made up of collagen fibres which are said to be very resistant and leastextendable, so they offer a great deal of opposition to stretching. It is thedominant tissue in the fasciae, ligaments and tendons.

Ageing of the fibres: both the collagen and elastic fibres suffer physicaland biomechanical changes with age. They occur in various dehydration,mineralisation and fragmentation processes which lead to gradual loss ofelasticity.

3 FACTORS LIMITING ELASTICITY

4 WHAT HAPPENS WHEN YOU STRETCH?

Myosin

Actin


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Performing stretching exercises, as in any physical activity, has a series ofeffects detailed below:

Improve joint mobility, which allows easy movement since less force isneeded to move them..

depends on the total number of activated fibres which contract), such thatthe greater the number of fibres stretched, the greater the length developedby the stretched muscle. There are two types of muscle fibres: the red fibres(also called type 1 fibres or slow-twitch muscle fibres) and the white (referred

to as type II or fast twitch muscle fibres). Each of them has a different functionwhen performing a stretch.

The red fibres are the only ones that contain myofibrils with actinfilaments and myosin and they are those that really do the stretching.

The white fibres, placed parallel to the red ones, contain several nerveendings that are sensitive to the change in muscle length as well as themagnitude and speed of this change. They also transmit all the informationabout the changes to the nervous system.

When the red fibres are stretched, the white also do so, and record

the change in length and transmit the information quickly through thenervous system to the brain. This activates the stretch reflex, also knownas myotatic reflex, which is simply an attempt to resist change in themuscle length, forcing the stretched muscle to contract.

The more rapid the change in muscle length, the stronger the contractionof the muscle (this fact is based on the work of plyometrics discussed inTopic 5, section on Strength Training Systems).

The stretch reflex is a defence mechanism to protect the muscle, avoidinga possible muscle rupture when stretching excessively and it is activated

basically for three reasons:When you are forcing too much during a stretch

When you are holding tension for too long

When there are sudden rebounds.

By maintaining the muscle in a stretched position, the white fibres get used tothe new length and reduce the signals they send to the nervous system. Staticstretching, which will be discussed later, is based precisely on maintainingthe stretch during a medium period of time.

5 EFFECTS OF STRETCHING


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Stretching exercises can be classified basically into two groups: dynamicand static. The latter is subdivided in turn into active and passive (seeDiagram 1). It is worth noting that there is considerable confusion whenit comes to their classification depending on the source consulted. Insome cases, this leads to errors stating that dynamic and active stretchingexercises are the same.

Enable greater contraction of the antagonist muscle, for example, fullstretching of the biceps brachii causes maximum contraction of theantagonist muscle, the triceps.

Cause increased blood supply to the area which leads to better bloodcirculation inside the muscle and increase cellular metabolism.

Improve the elasticity of the tissues to facilitate the slippage of fibres andmuscle bundles.

Counteract the loss of elasticity after an injury.

Optimise recovery from fatigue caused by exercise by favouring theremoval of waste and replenishment of energetic substances.

Increase the capacity of athletic performance and improve the status of

the athlete to perform subsequent physical activity.

Reduce the risk of injuries because the muscles are capable of reactingin a rapid, energetic and coordinated manner.

Although stretching exercises are generally beneficial, they can be counter-productive in certain cases (See Diagram 1).

6 TYPES OF STRETCHING EXERCISES

Muscle injury not healed completely.

Recent bone trauma: fractures, cracks, dislocations...

Inflammation: tendinitis, bursitis, arthritis...

Muscle hypotonia.

Acute or chronic instability.

Side effects


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Dynamic stretching are exercises which produce alternating contractionand relaxation of the muscle. They are characterised by movement of part ofthe body in a smooth and controlled speed until it stops at the joint involved.They should never be done when there is muscle fatigue because tiredness

will prevent the muscle from achieving total range of movement.

Diagram 1: Types of stretching exercisess

Ballistic stretching exercises: are a variant of dynamic stretching inwhich part of the inertia of the body is used to force a joint beyond itslimit of normal movement, through repeated rebounds. An example is:bouncing the body down to the ground to touch the ground with the palmof the hand. This type of stretching is not recommended because, despiteits effectiveness, it is dangerous and can cause injury.

Static stretching exercises are the ones in which the muscle elongationis not interrupted during stretching. It involves carrying the body graduallyto the stretching position, until you reach a point where you feel the

tension, and then you maintain that position.

Active stretching exercises: consists of assuming a position andmaintaining it with only the help of the antagonist muscle. An example is:raising a foot in front of you and keeping it extended with no kind of help,relying only on the strength of the antagonist muscles. These are useda lot in sports because they develop flexibility and strength at the sametime, since the tension of the antagonist muscles helps them to relax andthus increase their elasticity while strengthening them.

Stretching excercises

Dynamic

Ballistic Active

Static

Passive Isometric

Proprioceptive NeuromuscularFacilitation (PNF)


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In view of the positive effects of stretching exercises described in the precedingsection, it is clear that an elastic muscle allows for better coordination andgreater ease of movement which is essential in any sport.

When should we stretch?

Stretching should be part of any physical exercise we perform, whether it isa class, training session or competition.

Stretching can be included at various times but it is usually done after warm-up or the end of a physical activity. In each case,the goal is different and the intensity with which itmust be performed is different.

It is important at this point to emphasise two things: Whenever we exercise, stretching must be part

of it, at least at the final stages just to finish theactivity.

Stretching should be performed only whenthe area to be stretched has sufficient bloodsupply, meaning it has to be warm.

Passive stretching: consists of assuming a position and maintaining itwith the help of another part of the body, a mate or equipment. An exampleis: raising your leg in front and keeping it extended by holding it with yourhands. They are best for reducing muscle fatigue after a physical activity..

Isometric stretching: is a type of stretching in whichmuscle group resistance is achieved through isometriccontractions (without moving) the stretched muscles. Theuse of isometric stretching is one of the fastest ways toimprove flexibility. A more detailed discussion will be donein Topic 8.

Neuromuscular Proprioceptive Facilitation (NPF): itis a technique that combines both passive and isometricstretching exercises. This is a method adopted from a

rehabilitation system and it is considered as the best wayto increase flexibility. This will also be studied further inTopic 8.

7 METHODOLOGY OF STRETCHING

Stretches should

never be performedwithout firstwarming up


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Stretching during warm-upThe purpose of this is to provide the muscle with enough elasticity to performsubsequent activity without problems. It does not involve increasing theelasticity of the muscle but rather preparing it to achieve what it already has

due to previous workout done.

Stretching is always performed after warm-up since the musclesare warmer and more flexible at that time. The intensity ofstretching should also not be too great because it is just requiredto improve the elasticity already achieved in previous activity.Also, they will be limited to the muscles that will be directlyinvolved in the physical activity to be performed later.

It is a mistake to consider warm-up as the only basis forstretching because the latter does not raise the temperature of

the muscles but it only provides sufficient preparation towardsthe subsequent physical activity. On the other hand, stretching amuscle that is cold may cause injury.

After stretching, it is advisable to start the physical activity thatmust be performed immediately or at the latest, within 5 minutes.

Stretching after physical activityStretches are recommended after the completion of a physicalactivity. This is intended to reduce muscle fatigue and encourage

blood flow to improve the elimination of waste. It also makes it easier formuscles to recover after exertion.

Stretches performed after physical activity must be done gently with averageintensity. It must be remembered that the muscles are tired, therefore, theyshould not be stretched to their extreme limits after intensive efforts, sincetheir stretching capacity is reduced.

How to perform active stretching

Active stretches are the most commonly used, because they have twomajor advantages: no friends are needed and it is a static method so it

does not require support. It is also safe and effective for improving muscleelasticity.

To perform this type of stretching, certain rules must be followed becausestretching must be done slowly and always accompanied by good breathingtechniques:

It is necessary to always perform warm-up before stretching. The muscleis better prepared to stretch when it has the right temperature.


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To perform a stretch properly, attention must be focused on the musclebeing stretched.

When stretching, you should never make rebound movements, nor stretch

yourself till you feel pain. Though these methods are beneficial, they cancause muscle injury.

The first step is to bring the bodygradually to the correct position andstretch the muscle until you feel a mildtension.

Then hold the position for a period of 10to 15 seconds and relax the muscle in away that you feel the tension reducing,

whilst you hold the position. If youcannot achieve the desired relaxation,you must reduce the tension graduallyuntil you feel comfortable.

Finally, you must force a bit to holdthe position, without causing pain andmaintain it again between 10 and 15seconds.

This sequence can be repeated 2 to 5

times with 15 to 30 seconds rest between the repetitions.

Proper breathing helps to relax the body and facilitates the performanceof stretching. You should breathe slowly, maintaining a constant andcontrolled respiratory rate. Never hold your breath while maintainingtension, as this limits the supply of oxygen to the muscles.

If you are in a position that you cannot breathe naturally, it is obvious thatyou are not relaxed, so the best thing is to reduce the tension graduallyuntil you can breathe comfortably.

Stretching exercises are usually done with parts of the body (arms,trunk, legs) and each part can perform between 4 and 8 differentstretches.

Finally, it is worth noting that there is no fixed time for the durationof a stretch. Some sources suggest that it must be maintained for30 seconds, or even one minute. If there is consensus with the timeindicated above, that is 10 to15 seconds, it is the most appropriate forchildren and youths.


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Stretching of arms

8 EXAMPLES OF STATIC ACTIVE STRETCHES

Stretching the:triceps and upper shoulder.

Position: stand and bend your arm behind yourhead and hold the elbow with the other hand.

Action to be per formed: Push the elbow slowlytowards the back of the neck and hold theposition.

Stretching the: forearm and wrist.

Position:Rest on your knees and hands, withthe thumbs out and the rest of the fingers facingthe knees.

Action to be per formed: move body backwardswithout removing the palms of your hands fromthe floor and maintain that position.

Stretching the: shoulders, external muscles ofthe arms, wrist and fingers.

Position: extend your arms forward, to theheight of the shoulders, with the palms of thehands outward and fingers intertwined

Action to be per formed: stretch your armsforward and maintain the position.

Stretching the: sides, shoulders externalmuscles of the arms.

Position: extend the arms above your head withpalms together.

Action to be per formed: stretch your arms upand back slightly and hold the position.


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Stretching the:triceps, shoulders upper back.

Position: place your arm bent up to the level ofthe opposite shoulder and the other arm on yourelbow.

Action to be per formed: push the elbow withyour arm towards the opposite shoulder andhold that position.

Stretching the: side of neck and uppershoulder.

Position: take the opposite arm with your hand

behind your back.Action to be performed: pull the arm downwardsand outwards whilst you lift your head towards theshoulder on that side and hold that position.

Stretching the:shoulders, central and upperpart of the chest.

Position:stretch your arms behind you, holdingyour hands together at your back.

Action to be per formed: with your hands atyour back, lift them upwards until you feel thestretch, then hold that position.

Stretching the: shoulders and part of the chest.

Position:you must position yourself in front ofany fixed element (bar, iron rod...) and raise onehand to shoulder level; then place the other armat your back.

Action to be per formed: move your bodyforward and hold that position.

Stretching the trunk


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Stretching the: back.

Position:You must place your back at adistance of approximately half a meter from a

wall or fence...

Action to be performed : turn your body to touchthe wall with both hands and keep the position.You must repeat this with the other side.

Stretching the: shoulders and upper back.

Position: bend your body forward and touch the

top of a wall or fence with open hands, with yourknees slightly bent

Action to be per formed: bend the upper part ofthe body down and hold that position.

Stretching the:back of raised leg.

Position:lift one leg to the height of the trunk,place your heel on a bar or fence and bend thebody forward with the head facing forward.

Action to be per formed: hold the leg forwardwith both hands, until you feel the stretching andhold the position.

Stretching of the:muscles of the front part of

the hip: iliopsoas muscles.

Position:place one leg forward until the knee isplaced above the ankle. Let the other knee rest onthe ground and place your arms on the side of theforward leg, touching the ground with your fingers.

Action to be per formed: lower your hip asmuch as possible and hold that position.

Stretching the legs


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Stretching the:muscles at the lower part of theback and sides of the hip.

Position: sit with one leg extended and theother bent and with the foot of the latter on theoutside of the other knee. Fold the other handon the bent leg, with the elbow on the knee; theother arm should rest on the floor behind thebody.

Action to be per formed: push the knee with theelbow, rotate the body in the opposite directionand hold that position. Repeat on the other side.

Stretching the: calf and ankle muscles.

Position: place foot against the wall, support theforearms with your head on the wall. Move oneleg forward and bend it. Repeat the stretching atthe other side.

Action to be per formed: move your hipsforward keeping your back straight, without liftingyour heel off the ground. Hold that position andrepeat with the other leg.

Stretching the:quadriceps, knee and front ofthe leg.

Position:stand with one leg bent backwardsand take your foot with the other hand. Supportyourself by holding a wall, bar or fence with theother hand.

Action to be per formed: pull your leg slowlytowards your buttocks and hold that position.Repeat it with the other leg.


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Show the situations in which stretching exercises should be performed.

Identify the factors limiting the elasticity of the muscles.

Explain what is meant by reflex stretching.

List three effects of stretching.

Discuss the differences between dynamic and static stretching.

Explain the sentence, ballistic stretching is not recommended because, despite beingeffective, it can cause injuries.

Describe the conditions under which stretching should be performed.

Give two examples of stretching exercises recommended for the arms.

Give advantages of performing stretching exercises after physical activity.

Make a chart to show how to perform static stretching.

Stretching

EXCERCISES


Stretching: Complete Guide to Stretching for Toning, Flexibilit y and Relaxation of

the Body. Author: Anderson, Bob. Publisher: Integral. Barcelona, 2004.

Stretching Exercises: Author: Blum, Bruno. Publisher: Hispano Europea. Barcelona,

1998.

Stretching Exercises Encyclopedia: Author: scar Morn. Publisher Pila Telea,Madrid 2009.

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Stretching exercises are normally included in many routine warm-ups as a means of preventinginjury. Well, a recent study indicates that doing intensive warm-up prior to training can havenegative consequences on strength-resistance training of the muscles responsible for bendingthe knees. If there is a substance we all know that stretches and have ever consumed before, it is

chewing gum. It was observed that a 9,000 year old piece of chewing gumthat was discoveredrecently in Sweden still had teeth marks of an adolescent in the Stone Age on it. The candywas a piece of birch resin.

The tongue of the chameleon is prodigious and can expand to a length of 25 centimetres, whereasat rest, it is folded like an accordion. The chameleons tongue launches in just 4 centimetres tohunt and it folds back in half a second. After food is chewed in the mouth, it passes through thedigestive tract into the stomach. However, this is not done by using the slop down, but ratherthrough the walls of the digestive tract, which contract and stretch to push the alimentary bolusinto the stomach. This is referred to as peristaltic movement.

When a goose sees an egg outside the nest, it stares at it and stretches its neck till its beaktouches the other side of the egg and then it gently picks it up and sends it back to the nest.At first glance, this appears as a normal behaviour and intelligent as well, but in reality it is amechanical pattern of behaviour. Almost any smoothly rounded object causes the same responsein these animals. Moreover, if you take the egg away from the goose once the response patternhas begun, the latter continues to stretch its neck and carefully carries a non-existent object intothe nest.

Robert Hookewas the one who formulated thelaw of elasticitywhich bears his name. Thislaw establishes the direct proportionality relationship between a stretch suffered by a solid bodyand the force applied to produce that stretch.

Stretching


We must remember that stretching exercises should beperformed in a sustained way and concentrated in themuscle or muscle group that we want to relax.

We need to know that stretching are muscle tensions heldin the opposite direction to their contraction and they areperformed to reduce muscle tension generated through sports.


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4 Physical Fitness andBasic Physical Skills


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Physical skillsare basic components of physical fitness so they are essential elements of motor

and sports performance. Therefore, in order to improve physical performance, exercises to be

developed should be based on the training of the various skills.

Physical form should be improved through physical exercises or general fitness based on the

development of the various physical skills and their different components. The success of the

training will be based on the optimal combination of these components, depending on the

characteristics of each individual (age, gender, level of training, etc.) as well as objectives and

requirements of each sport or activity.

It is very complex to train specifically for a particular skill since most of the tasks we perform

involve all or most of them, although some predominate over others.

Despite the fact that there are many known classifications to determine basic physical skills, the

most generic way to do it is through stamina, strength, speed and flexibility. Thus we must have:

Strength: it is the ability to move or the degree of tension the muscles develop during workout.

Speed: it is a particular skill used to improve sports performance. It is involved in all sporting

events and it is the ability to perform one or several movements in the shortest possible time.

Stamina: it is the physical ability to sustain prolonged effort.

Flexibility : it is maximum range of movement in a joint.

The individual status of these skills will determine the personal level of fitness. This term is

colloquially known as being fit. Every skill can be improved through training. When we train in a

reasonable and systematic way, we can improve our physical weaknesses and move from fitness

to a state of harmony in order to reduce the time needed to recover from physical exhaustion.

Physical fitness has always been understood and analysed from the perspective of sports performance.

However, from the 60s, it was given a new focus and it began to be considered in the field of health

and quality of life. According to a recent report by the International Labour Organization (ILO), one

out of every ten adults suffers from stress, depression or exhaustion, caused by the prevailing and

demanding life style that has relegated all personal hobbies to the background.

The human body is physically and psychologically prepared to deal with pressure and stress,

but you must adapt your rhythm of life

to proportional systems and never do

more than you can handle. In order to

do this, you must find compensation

mechanisms, such as physical exercise.

This has caused more and more people

seeking to free themselves from the

hustle and bustle of daily life, to look fororganised activities in special centres

like gyms which provide freedom to their

bodies and minds.

The current lifestyle is setting the

standard of living. Leading a fast pace of

life should not be considered as exercise.

Physical activity should be prescribed,

just like medicine.

Picture


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Movement depends on different factors involved in its performance which

also determine its results. The various authors discussing this issue have

expressed diverse opinions about it. There are therefore various names and

similar classifications.

In this book, we are going to follow the most common method used today,

according to factors that can be divided into two main groups: basic physical

skills and motor skills (see Chart 1).

Basic physical skills: they are skills that generate and facilitate

movement. They are essential in most physical activities and directly

influence their result.

They are quantitative in nature, that is, they are feasible and measurable.

Everybody has them and they can be improved to a greater or lesser

extent through adequate training programs.

Within this group can be found strength, stamina, speed and flexibility

(some authors do not consider the latter as a basic physical skill). They

will be studied in Topics 5, 6, 7 and 8.

Physical fitness is the ability of human beings to perform some physical

activity such as walking, running, jumping, lifting, bending ...with maximum

efficiency.

Everyone possesses a number of physical skills which enable them to

perform different movements both in everyday life and during their sporting

activities.

These skills are responsible for human movement and every individual has a

different degree of development of their skill. The state of each of these skills

is what is referred to as physical fitness.

Physical fitness is determined by physical skills which vary depending on the

age of the person and the type and amount of physical exercise they perform.

Through constant and daily training in physical fitness, it is possible to

improve ones physical condition. What is colloquially referred to as being fit

is just a way of saying that the degree of physical fitness is good and that the

level of skills required to perform physical exercise is adequate.

1 INTRODUCTION

2 FACTORS INFLUENCING MOBILITY


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Basic physical abilities, also known as basic physical skills, are essential

components of physical fitness since physical performance can be improved

through their training.

These skills are not presented in their pure form but they are

interdependent. Several or even all of them are involved in all the

physical activities we perform, although normally, there are always some

that predominate over others. For example, in a workout involving 45minutes continuous running, stamina will be the outstanding physical

skill, while in races involving high frequency movements, speed will be

the main component.

Strength

Strength is a basic skill of human beings, from a health perspective as well

as performance in physical activities.

Motor skills: tthey are also involved in every physical activity, but they

are not indispensable. They are responsible for the processes that direct

and regulate movements and they depend on the central nervous system.

These include balance and coordination. They are qualitative in nature and

are not directly measurable. They will be studied inTopics 9, 10 and 11.

As a result of the combination of some of the basic physical skil ls and

the motor skills mentioned above, the derivative skills such as power and

agility are obtained.

Table 1Mobility factors

Basic physical skills

StrenghStamina

SpeedFlexibility

PowerAgility

Balanc

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