Mobility and the Business Case for

MIGRATION IN THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

The Sustainble Development Goals (SDGs), together known as, 'Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development', are an intergovernmental set of aspiration Goals that were adopted unanimously by 193 UN Member States during the

Post-2015 Summit in September 2015. With this, 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 targets around development issues to be addressed over the course of the next 15 years were endorsed by member states. The main goals include ending poverty and hunger, enhancing gender equality, improving health and education, making water and sanitation available for all, promoting inclusive and sustainable economic growth, reducing inequality, making cities more sustainable, combating climate change, protecting oceans and forests, and promoting peaceful and just societies. The wide ranging and ambitious agenda marks a culmination of over two years of negotiations and consultations among and with stakeholders such as Member State delegations, UN agencies, inter-governmental and non-governmental organizations, the private sector and civil society.

The SDGs build on the millennium development goals (MDGs), which were agreed by governments in 2001 with a 15 year time frame. However, the MDGs attracted a lot of criticism for failing to consider issues such as gender inequality and human rights. The SDGs were drafted with the objective of �lling these gaps. One phenomenon which is directly connected with development but any reference to which was markedly absent in the MDGs is migration, and in particular international migration. The SDGs, on the other hand, include several direct and indirect references to migration and migrants. A direct relationship can be established between migration and at least 8 of the 169 targets�. In addition to these speci�c targets, all goals can be said to be 'migration or displacement relevant,' since no goal can be met unless it has been met for everyone, and migrants constitute a particularly vulnerable segment of society. With this, migration has been included in the global development framework for the �rst time.

Inclusion of targets related to migration in the SDG agenda can largely be attributed to the signi�cant advocacy efforts of civil society groups and networks. Owing to their efforts, even the Declaration accompanying the Agenda alludes speci�cally to migration and goes on to state that, "We [signatory states] will cooperate internationally to ensure safe, orderly and regular migration involving full respect for human rights and the humane treatment of migrants regardless of their migration status, of refugees and of displaced persons."

Introduction1

� Targets 4b, 5.2, 8.7, 8.8, 10.7, 10c, 16.2, 17.18 discussed below

Mobility and the Business Case for

MIGRATION IN THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

3

The Sustainble Development Goals (SDGs), together known as, 'Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development', are an intergovernmental set of aspiration Goals that were adopted unanimously by 193 UN Member States during the

Post-2015 Summit in September 2015. With this, 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 targets around development issues to be addressed over the course of the next 15 years were endorsed by member states. The main goals include ending poverty and hunger, enhancing gender equality, improving health and education, making water and sanitation available for all, promoting inclusive and sustainable economic growth, reducing inequality, making cities more sustainable, combating climate change, protecting oceans and forests, and promoting peaceful and just societies. The wide ranging and ambitious agenda marks a culmination of over two years of negotiations and consultations among and with stakeholders such as Member State delegations, UN agencies, inter-governmental and non-governmental organizations, the private sector and civil society.

The SDGs build on the millennium development goals (MDGs), which were agreed by governments in 2001 with a 15 year time frame. However, the MDGs attracted a lot of criticism for failing to consider issues such as gender inequality and human rights. The SDGs were drafted with the objective of �lling these gaps. One phenomenon which is directly connected with development but any reference to which was markedly absent in the MDGs is migration, and in particular international migration. The SDGs, on the other hand, include several direct and indirect references to migration and migrants. A direct relationship can be established between migration and at least 8 of the 169 targets�. In addition to these speci�c targets, all goals can be said to be 'migration or displacement relevant,' since no goal can be met unless it has been met for everyone, and migrants constitute a particularly vulnerable segment of society. With this, migration has been included in the global development framework for the �rst time.

Inclusion of targets related to migration in the SDG agenda can largely be attributed to the signi�cant advocacy efforts of civil society groups and networks. Owing to their efforts, even the Declaration accompanying the Agenda alludes speci�cally to migration and goes on to state that, "We [signatory states] will cooperate internationally to ensure safe, orderly and regular migration involving full respect for human rights and the humane treatment of migrants regardless of their migration status, of refugees and of displaced persons."

Introduction1

� Targets 4b, 5.2, 8.7, 8.8, 10.7, 10c, 16.2, 17.18 discussed below

Mobility and the Business Case for

MIGRATION IN THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

3

who employ migrant workers and reap bene�ts from their labour and skills in order to maximize their pro�ts. And as employers, businesses can play a big role in cleaning up their supply chains and ensuring better treatment and integration of migrant workers.

In addition to the advantages that migration holds for individuals and businesses, the positive contributions of the phenomenon to the larger goal of development in source countries and the prosperity of host countries has also been documented in a number of studies. Signi�cant strides have made in the evolution of the discourse on migration- from a time when it was considered a failure of development and a necessary evil to be dealt with, to being seen as an enabler for development. Unfortunately, the perceived need to respond to anti-immigration sentiment has continued to result in damaging policy decisions that affect people's lives.

This knowledge paper seeks to demonstrate how the SDG Agenda, despite the many references to migration, has failed to make a case for labour and talent mobility. From an industry perspective, this is a huge shortcoming. The business case for migration is a compelling one but one that hasn't been able to mobilize signi�cant collective action even from within the private sector. The paper begins by expounding on what the business case for migration is and outlining the ways in which migrants contribute to business, economic growth and development in their host and destination countries. In the following sections an analysis of where and how migration appears in the 2030 Agenda is undertaken. A quick assessment of direct and indirect references to migration as well as peripheral targets which, in the author's opinion, offer entry points for bringing migration into the discussion is made. A cursory examination illustrates that the reasons for including migration in the Agenda are twofold. The �rst is an acknowledgement of the role that migrants play in development and poverty reduction in countries of origin, as well as contributions they make to the prosperity of destination countries. This intention comes out most clearly in the Declaration accompanying the Goals which explicitly recognizes "the positive contribution of migrants for inclusive growth and sustainable development."

The other reason for incorporating references to migration is an admission of the fact that migrants are a vulnerable group, often subject to abuse and exploitation in both countries of origin and destination. Targets to address trafficking, reduce recruitment costs, increase access to rights, or improve conditions of work among others, have been drafted with the primary intention of diminishing the social and human costs of migration, in line with the SDG's guiding principle to 'leave no one behind.'

The paper argues that while the 2030 Agenda is an enormous step forward on the protection related aspects of migration, it doesn't necessarily provide the required clarity with regards to easier mobility of skills and talent for utilizing migrants as agents of development. This has been a missed opportunity for changing the perception of migration to a positive and natural component of national development policies and sustainable development strategies. At a time when misconceptions surrounding migrants are at an all-time high, the SDGs would have done well to incorporate more concrete proposals for facilitating and easing migration in light of its

Undoubtedly, insertion of targets in the Agenda that are relevant from a migration point of view is something to be celebrated. This re�ects a sense of recognition of the key linkages between migration and development.

Migrants have also been addressed as a group of particular concern and the need to pay special attention to the challenges faced by them has been acknowledged. Additionally, the inclusion of cross thematic targets relevant to international migration, rather than including migration as a standalone goal is a strategic way of making space for addressing different issues resulting in and arising from the movement of people. While all of this re�ects a step forward in the right direction, on closer scrutiny it becomes apparent that the language on mobility of skills and labour is rather weak.Increasing demographic imbalances, economic inequality, high rates of youth unemployment, the probability of economic shocks and environmental disasters in the future, technological advancement and the global competition for skills and talent is all going to necessitate a regime with more liberalized transnational mobility. Despite the economic gains to be derived from such liberalization, anti-migration rhetoric is prevalent across the world. The SDGs offered an opportunity to change this but the Agenda fails to make a case for enhanced mobility to match supply and demand of skills, and does not advocate for lower barriers to movement. This is an enormous de�ciency both from a migrant and business perspective.

While it is also true that migration can induce vulnerabilities for migrants, particularly low-skilled ones with inadequate information and means for protecting their rights, mobility underpinned by humane, fair and well-governed migration policiescan be a boon for the migrant.

From a business point of view, vague language of migration relevant targets leaves a lot to be desired. Businesses and governments typically perceive migration from extremely different lenses. Governments have to pander to voters' demands and the popular perception of migration is generally negative, despite overwhelming evidence in its favour. In countries of destination, immigrants are often unfoundedly blamed for 'stealing' jobs from the native population and immigration is often framed as a security issue. The contribution of migrants to the economy and prosperity of host countries is completely overlooked. In countries of origin, emigration of high skilled individuals continues to be apprehended for leading to a 'brain drain' despite the increasing evidence that has been uncovered to nullify these claims. Human trafficking, economic exploitation of migrants, and sending country dependency patterns are also legitimate causes of concern for countries of origin. Consequently, there is signi�cant political resistance to the liberalization of migration policies. Businesses, however, stand to bene�t from migration. There is sufficient evidence showing that consistently governed migration can help �ll labour shortages, reinvigorate the labour force, enhance labour market efficiency and promote entrepreneurship and growth in both countries of origin and destination. Businesses are the ones

� “Are businesses �t to compete in the global competition for skills?” Background paper by the IOM for the GFMD Business Meeting from 15-16 May 2015 in Istanbul, IOM , 2015

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MIGRATION IN THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

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who employ migrant workers and reap bene�ts from their labour and skills in order to maximize their pro�ts. And as employers, businesses can play a big role in cleaning up their supply chains and ensuring better treatment and integration of migrant workers.

In addition to the advantages that migration holds for individuals and businesses, the positive contributions of the phenomenon to the larger goal of development in source countries and the prosperity of host countries has also been documented in a number of studies. Signi�cant strides have made in the evolution of the discourse on migration- from a time when it was considered a failure of development and a necessary evil to be dealt with, to being seen as an enabler for development. Unfortunately, the perceived need to respond to anti-immigration sentiment has continued to result in damaging policy decisions that affect people's lives.

This knowledge paper seeks to demonstrate how the SDG Agenda, despite the many references to migration, has failed to make a case for labour and talent mobility. From an industry perspective, this is a huge shortcoming. The business case for migration is a compelling one but one that hasn't been able to mobilize signi�cant collective action even from within the private sector. The paper begins by expounding on what the business case for migration is and outlining the ways in which migrants contribute to business, economic growth and development in their host and destination countries. In the following sections an analysis of where and how migration appears in the 2030 Agenda is undertaken. A quick assessment of direct and indirect references to migration as well as peripheral targets which, in the author's opinion, offer entry points for bringing migration into the discussion is made. A cursory examination illustrates that the reasons for including migration in the Agenda are twofold. The �rst is an acknowledgement of the role that migrants play in development and poverty reduction in countries of origin, as well as contributions they make to the prosperity of destination countries. This intention comes out most clearly in the Declaration accompanying the Goals which explicitly recognizes "the positive contribution of migrants for inclusive growth and sustainable development."

The other reason for incorporating references to migration is an admission of the fact that migrants are a vulnerable group, often subject to abuse and exploitation in both countries of origin and destination. Targets to address trafficking, reduce recruitment costs, increase access to rights, or improve conditions of work among others, have been drafted with the primary intention of diminishing the social and human costs of migration, in line with the SDG's guiding principle to 'leave no one behind.'

The paper argues that while the 2030 Agenda is an enormous step forward on the protection related aspects of migration, it doesn't necessarily provide the required clarity with regards to easier mobility of skills and talent for utilizing migrants as agents of development. This has been a missed opportunity for changing the perception of migration to a positive and natural component of national development policies and sustainable development strategies. At a time when misconceptions surrounding migrants are at an all-time high, the SDGs would have done well to incorporate more concrete proposals for facilitating and easing migration in light of its

Undoubtedly, insertion of targets in the Agenda that are relevant from a migration point of view is something to be celebrated. This re�ects a sense of recognition of the key linkages between migration and development.

Migrants have also been addressed as a group of particular concern and the need to pay special attention to the challenges faced by them has been acknowledged. Additionally, the inclusion of cross thematic targets relevant to international migration, rather than including migration as a standalone goal is a strategic way of making space for addressing different issues resulting in and arising from the movement of people. While all of this re�ects a step forward in the right direction, on closer scrutiny it becomes apparent that the language on mobility of skills and labour is rather weak.Increasing demographic imbalances, economic inequality, high rates of youth unemployment, the probability of economic shocks and environmental disasters in the future, technological advancement and the global competition for skills and talent is all going to necessitate a regime with more liberalized transnational mobility. Despite the economic gains to be derived from such liberalization, anti-migration rhetoric is prevalent across the world. The SDGs offered an opportunity to change this but the Agenda fails to make a case for enhanced mobility to match supply and demand of skills, and does not advocate for lower barriers to movement. This is an enormous de�ciency both from a migrant and business perspective.

While it is also true that migration can induce vulnerabilities for migrants, particularly low-skilled ones with inadequate information and means for protecting their rights, mobility underpinned by humane, fair and well-governed migration policiescan be a boon for the migrant.

From a business point of view, vague language of migration relevant targets leaves a lot to be desired. Businesses and governments typically perceive migration from extremely different lenses. Governments have to pander to voters' demands and the popular perception of migration is generally negative, despite overwhelming evidence in its favour. In countries of destination, immigrants are often unfoundedly blamed for 'stealing' jobs from the native population and immigration is often framed as a security issue. The contribution of migrants to the economy and prosperity of host countries is completely overlooked. In countries of origin, emigration of high skilled individuals continues to be apprehended for leading to a 'brain drain' despite the increasing evidence that has been uncovered to nullify these claims. Human trafficking, economic exploitation of migrants, and sending country dependency patterns are also legitimate causes of concern for countries of origin. Consequently, there is signi�cant political resistance to the liberalization of migration policies. Businesses, however, stand to bene�t from migration. There is sufficient evidence showing that consistently governed migration can help �ll labour shortages, reinvigorate the labour force, enhance labour market efficiency and promote entrepreneurship and growth in both countries of origin and destination. Businesses are the ones

� “Are businesses �t to compete in the global competition for skills?” Background paper by the IOM for the GFMD Business Meeting from 15-16 May 2015 in Istanbul, IOM , 2015

Mobility and the Business Case for

MIGRATION IN THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

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The Business Case for Migration 2many positive spillovers. This would have provided Member States with a sense of direction in which to work, rather than leaving it up to them to deal with the issue as they please, even if their approach is antithetical to contemporary research.

The paper concludes with some recommendations on the way forward for implementing countries to work with the Agenda in its current form, and to go beyond it to ensure that migration can result in increased opportunities and well-being of individuals, businesses and broader growth and development. A set of suggestions have also been put forth for businesses to actively engage in the issue, given that they are important stakeholders having to operate in an environment shaped by government policies. In addition, the SDGs explicitly call on all businesses to apply their creativity and innovation to solve sustainable development challenges. Their involvement is, therefore, crucial. The �nal section contains speci�c suggestions for India as an important country of origin, transit and destination.

The Business Case for Migration as a concept was articulated concisely and presented with the help of a few case studies for the �rst time by the Global Agenda Council on Migration- one of the 86 Councils of the World Economic Forum. The Council, which was constituted

by senior private-sector representatives from a gamut of business backgrounds, senior representatives of government, and members from the civil society and academia, commenced a project in 2011 to promote knowledge on how businesses interact with migrants. The idea was to throw light on the perspective of businesses and industry on migration, which largely been missing from contemporary debates and cooperation initiatives. The council emerged as a strong advocate for more systematic and meaningful consultation with Industry on international migration and migration policies. In 2013, the Council went on to share its ideas with ministers from a variety of countries at the World Economic Forum Annual Meeting in Davos-Klosters, Switzerland. Later that year, the Council presented its work to the informal interactive hearings with civil society in New York. The �ndings of the Council's research and consultations were put together in a report published in the same year.�

The World Economic Forum Report made use of a series of case studies to highlight the many facets of the relationship between migrants and business. The main premise of the report was that despite the inevitable and close relationship between migrants and business, the Industry voices have been excluded from policy debates on international migration.

Businesses offer employment opportunities to migrant workers and are one of the main reasons for the movement of economic migrants. There also exists a signi�cant body of compelling evidence to illustrate that migrants can contribute positively to business, and economic growth in both countries of origin and destination. Businesses are concerned with mobility for recruiting and sponsoring foreign workers, inter and intra company movement of people, investment and entrepreneurship. Additionally, there are companies in the business of migration. These include recruitment agencies, skill development and assessment agencies, mobility advisers among others. Despite this, businesses have largely been left out of the policy setting discussions on migration. A few reasons behind Industry's lack of willingness to engage with governments on the issue include a fear of inviting public backlash for supporting migration, concerns about the lack of in�uence among policy-makers, particularly on an issue as controversial as migration, differing time horizons for decision making, and different accountabilities between policy-

� “The Business Case for Migration” World Economic Forum, September 30, 2013

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The Business Case for Migration 2many positive spillovers. This would have provided Member States with a sense of direction in which to work, rather than leaving it up to them to deal with the issue as they please, even if their approach is antithetical to contemporary research.

The paper concludes with some recommendations on the way forward for implementing countries to work with the Agenda in its current form, and to go beyond it to ensure that migration can result in increased opportunities and well-being of individuals, businesses and broader growth and development. A set of suggestions have also been put forth for businesses to actively engage in the issue, given that they are important stakeholders having to operate in an environment shaped by government policies. In addition, the SDGs explicitly call on all businesses to apply their creativity and innovation to solve sustainable development challenges. Their involvement is, therefore, crucial. The �nal section contains speci�c suggestions for India as an important country of origin, transit and destination.

The Business Case for Migration as a concept was articulated concisely and presented with the help of a few case studies for the �rst time by the Global Agenda Council on Migration- one of the 86 Councils of the World Economic Forum. The Council, which was constituted

by senior private-sector representatives from a gamut of business backgrounds, senior representatives of government, and members from the civil society and academia, commenced a project in 2011 to promote knowledge on how businesses interact with migrants. The idea was to throw light on the perspective of businesses and industry on migration, which largely been missing from contemporary debates and cooperation initiatives. The council emerged as a strong advocate for more systematic and meaningful consultation with Industry on international migration and migration policies. In 2013, the Council went on to share its ideas with ministers from a variety of countries at the World Economic Forum Annual Meeting in Davos-Klosters, Switzerland. Later that year, the Council presented its work to the informal interactive hearings with civil society in New York. The �ndings of the Council's research and consultations were put together in a report published in the same year.�

The World Economic Forum Report made use of a series of case studies to highlight the many facets of the relationship between migrants and business. The main premise of the report was that despite the inevitable and close relationship between migrants and business, the Industry voices have been excluded from policy debates on international migration.

Businesses offer employment opportunities to migrant workers and are one of the main reasons for the movement of economic migrants. There also exists a signi�cant body of compelling evidence to illustrate that migrants can contribute positively to business, and economic growth in both countries of origin and destination. Businesses are concerned with mobility for recruiting and sponsoring foreign workers, inter and intra company movement of people, investment and entrepreneurship. Additionally, there are companies in the business of migration. These include recruitment agencies, skill development and assessment agencies, mobility advisers among others. Despite this, businesses have largely been left out of the policy setting discussions on migration. A few reasons behind Industry's lack of willingness to engage with governments on the issue include a fear of inviting public backlash for supporting migration, concerns about the lack of in�uence among policy-makers, particularly on an issue as controversial as migration, differing time horizons for decision making, and different accountabilities between policy-

� “The Business Case for Migration” World Economic Forum, September 30, 2013

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makers and business. ⁴There is also a signi�cant lack of awareness on the issue. The Council's report put together some evidence backed arguments for illustrating the importance of including the business perspective in the articulation of migration policies. This was the beginning of the conversation on the 'Business Case for Migration' as we understand it.

Some of the reasons why the business and Industry need to be involved in migration policy making are listed below:

1) Migration can help �ll skill shortages in the countries of destination

Even as unemployment �gures in many economies across the world have been persistently high in the recent times, paradoxically, many organizations continue to have a hard time �nding the right talent when needed. Skills shortages have been reported to be a problem at all skill levels. Inability to �ll vacancies with individuals with the appropriate skill sets has a negative impact on the efficiency and competitiveness of a variety of industries, from mining to healthcare.⁵ As per Manpower Group's seventh Talent Shortage Survey, half of the US based employers faced difficulties �lling mission critical positions in 2012. This is just one example demonstrating similar trends in other parts of the world. Even in emerging markets in Africa, Middle East and Asia, a global shortage of 40 million skilled workers (with a university degree or equivalent quali�cation) is expected by the year 2025 according to a McKinsey Global Institute report⁶. A WEF report from 2012 suggested that there are four key problems impeding the talent market, namely: extensive employability, skills gaps, gaps in information and the various private and public constraints on mobility.⁷ Therefore, it can be said that one solution for mitigating the problem of skills shortages lies in facilitating mobility of human resources. This strategy makes more business sense, particularly in the short run, because skilling of individuals within the host country is a long drawn process which can take time to show results.

From a business perspective, migrants are an important source of skills. However, their mobility is hampered by national legislations. Countries use various approaches ranging from labour market tests, minimum age restrictions and setting of caps and quotas to do this. On the other side of the coin, migrant workers are often employed in jobs that are not commensurate with their skills level despite the prevailing skills shortages, resulting in a "brain waste". In extreme circumstances, migrant workers are faced with many of their basic rights' violations and abuse and exploitation. Other obstacles that come their way include a lack of information, especially in the pre-departure phase, which puts them at a disadvantage in the labour market. And there are several administrative hurdles, such as the lack of recognition of their quali�cations, slow procedures of identity and document checking among others in their host countries. In fact, skills

acquired by migrants during the course of their work abroad are not usually recognized in their home countries on their return, making reintegration into the domestic market difficult.⁸ In light of all this the signi�cance of collaboration between businesses and regulators in order to balance the need for skills and talent with social welfare, integration and security objectives becomes evident.

2) Migration can help �ll labour shortages

In addition to skills shortages, labour shortages run high in many countries, especially developed countries with ageing populations. Less skilled positions, in particular, are difficult to �ll as few low-skilled native workers are available or interested in them in the more developed states. Economic development and changing cultural norms tend to make blue-collar jobs less attractive. Development also leads to decreased fertility rates and higher educational attainment rates, both of which contribute to a decline in the low-skilled labour force. These gaps create a demand for migrant workers which to some extent are already �lled by them.⁹ However, restrictions in the legal avenues for moving for low-skilled jobs often leads to irregular migration. For instance, data collected from the US-Mexico border has shown that an increase in the number of border control agents is correlated with an increase in smugglers' fees, but not necessarily a decrease in the number of migrants as intended.�⁰ It is important to better estimate such labour shortages so legal channels for meeting demand and supply can be created. Such avenues for movement, even if created temporarily to meet high demand for labour, are more likely to bestow the bene�ts of migration to all parties.

3) Migration can help increase competitiveness

According to World Economic Forum's Competitiveness Report, labour markets that function efficiently are key for increasing competitiveness of nations. Flexible and efficient labour markets ensure that the workers are assigned the kind of work where they can be most effective in the economy. As a corollary of the same, it has been observed that rigid labour markets end up having unintended negative effects on the economy, particularly, on unemployment levels, youth unemployment and business operations. Effective migrant labour policies that do not put unnecessary hurdles on migration allow labour markets to be more �exible than they would have been in the absence of migrant workers. This in turn helps companies allocate the right skills to the signi�cant activities. A case can be made therefore, that migration policy has a direct impact on the efficiency of labour markets, and thereby on the competitiveness of economies. Of course, this relationship is not necessarily so straightforward. However, the relationship is something worth exploring further.

⁴ Ibid⁵ Ibid⁶ “Engagement with the Private Sector on International Migration - Mapping Study Report,” Thematic Meeting 4 - GFMD Engagement with the Private Sector, Global Forum for Migration and Development, March 12, 2014 ⁷ World Economic Forum Report on the Business Case for Migration

⁸ World Economic Forum Report on the Business Case for Migration⁹ Ibid �⁰ "Migration and Development: A role for the World Bank Group," The World Bank, August 2016.

http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/690381472677671445/pdf/108105-BR-PUBLIC-SecM2016-0242-2.pdf

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makers and business. ⁴There is also a signi�cant lack of awareness on the issue. The Council's report put together some evidence backed arguments for illustrating the importance of including the business perspective in the articulation of migration policies. This was the beginning of the conversation on the 'Business Case for Migration' as we understand it.

Some of the reasons why the business and Industry need to be involved in migration policy making are listed below:

1) Migration can help �ll skill shortages in the countries of destination

Even as unemployment �gures in many economies across the world have been persistently high in the recent times, paradoxically, many organizations continue to have a hard time �nding the right talent when needed. Skills shortages have been reported to be a problem at all skill levels. Inability to �ll vacancies with individuals with the appropriate skill sets has a negative impact on the efficiency and competitiveness of a variety of industries, from mining to healthcare.⁵ As per Manpower Group's seventh Talent Shortage Survey, half of the US based employers faced difficulties �lling mission critical positions in 2012. This is just one example demonstrating similar trends in other parts of the world. Even in emerging markets in Africa, Middle East and Asia, a global shortage of 40 million skilled workers (with a university degree or equivalent quali�cation) is expected by the year 2025 according to a McKinsey Global Institute report⁶. A WEF report from 2012 suggested that there are four key problems impeding the talent market, namely: extensive employability, skills gaps, gaps in information and the various private and public constraints on mobility.⁷ Therefore, it can be said that one solution for mitigating the problem of skills shortages lies in facilitating mobility of human resources. This strategy makes more business sense, particularly in the short run, because skilling of individuals within the host country is a long drawn process which can take time to show results.

From a business perspective, migrants are an important source of skills. However, their mobility is hampered by national legislations. Countries use various approaches ranging from labour market tests, minimum age restrictions and setting of caps and quotas to do this. On the other side of the coin, migrant workers are often employed in jobs that are not commensurate with their skills level despite the prevailing skills shortages, resulting in a "brain waste". In extreme circumstances, migrant workers are faced with many of their basic rights' violations and abuse and exploitation. Other obstacles that come their way include a lack of information, especially in the pre-departure phase, which puts them at a disadvantage in the labour market. And there are several administrative hurdles, such as the lack of recognition of their quali�cations, slow procedures of identity and document checking among others in their host countries. In fact, skills

acquired by migrants during the course of their work abroad are not usually recognized in their home countries on their return, making reintegration into the domestic market difficult.⁸ In light of all this the signi�cance of collaboration between businesses and regulators in order to balance the need for skills and talent with social welfare, integration and security objectives becomes evident.

2) Migration can help �ll labour shortages

In addition to skills shortages, labour shortages run high in many countries, especially developed countries with ageing populations. Less skilled positions, in particular, are difficult to �ll as few low-skilled native workers are available or interested in them in the more developed states. Economic development and changing cultural norms tend to make blue-collar jobs less attractive. Development also leads to decreased fertility rates and higher educational attainment rates, both of which contribute to a decline in the low-skilled labour force. These gaps create a demand for migrant workers which to some extent are already �lled by them.⁹ However, restrictions in the legal avenues for moving for low-skilled jobs often leads to irregular migration. For instance, data collected from the US-Mexico border has shown that an increase in the number of border control agents is correlated with an increase in smugglers' fees, but not necessarily a decrease in the number of migrants as intended.�⁰ It is important to better estimate such labour shortages so legal channels for meeting demand and supply can be created. Such avenues for movement, even if created temporarily to meet high demand for labour, are more likely to bestow the bene�ts of migration to all parties.

3) Migration can help increase competitiveness

According to World Economic Forum's Competitiveness Report, labour markets that function efficiently are key for increasing competitiveness of nations. Flexible and efficient labour markets ensure that the workers are assigned the kind of work where they can be most effective in the economy. As a corollary of the same, it has been observed that rigid labour markets end up having unintended negative effects on the economy, particularly, on unemployment levels, youth unemployment and business operations. Effective migrant labour policies that do not put unnecessary hurdles on migration allow labour markets to be more �exible than they would have been in the absence of migrant workers. This in turn helps companies allocate the right skills to the signi�cant activities. A case can be made therefore, that migration policy has a direct impact on the efficiency of labour markets, and thereby on the competitiveness of economies. Of course, this relationship is not necessarily so straightforward. However, the relationship is something worth exploring further.

⁴ Ibid⁵ Ibid⁶ “Engagement with the Private Sector on International Migration - Mapping Study Report,” Thematic Meeting 4 - GFMD Engagement with the Private Sector, Global Forum for Migration and Development, March 12, 2014 ⁷ World Economic Forum Report on the Business Case for Migration

⁸ World Economic Forum Report on the Business Case for Migration⁹ Ibid �⁰ "Migration and Development: A role for the World Bank Group," The World Bank, August 2016.

http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/690381472677671445/pdf/108105-BR-PUBLIC-SecM2016-0242-2.pdf

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4) Migrant markets can generate business opportunities

Migrants, despite being embedded in their host countries, do not lose a sense of connection with their culture and countries of origin. Consequently, they form a unique section of the society and products catering to their desire to be more connected with their home countries have a huge market in migrant communities. Migrant markets have opportunities for industries across a variety of sectors such as �nancial services, telecommunications, media and entertainment, travel and tourism, consumer goods, food, hotel, restaurants and catering. Examples of successful businesses offering specialized services for migrant consumers such as telephone cars, familiar food items, or even entertainment abound. In fact, more and more companies targeting migrant markets have been sprouting up in the recent times and these are relying on developing innovative relationships with their customer base.

5) Migrants can be a source of innovation, entrepreneurship, investment and business development

Individuals who leave their homes in search for better opportunities are often cited as being risk takers and entrepreneurial in nature. Many a times, they set up enterprises in countries that they move to. Their movement can be bene�cial for business development in their countries of origin too since migrant remittances are often used to fund businesses, schools and training institutions. Diaspora networks can help foster trade, investment, innovation and knowledge �ows between countries of origin and destination. Transnational cultural, political and commercial links can contribute signi�cantly to business development across borders. Migrants' knowledge of their mother tongue as well as the language of their host country, cultural understanding and networks can be a handy resource for transnational expansion of enterprises. A good example is India's outsourcing services industry which bene�tted immensely from the skills and business opportunities brought to the table by diaspora networks. By the 1990s, many Indian engineers who had migrated to the US in the 1960s had become entrepreneurs, venture capitalists and senior executives in large and medium sized companies. A number of these professionals returned to India to start their own businesses, and others helped establish India as a preferred outsourcing destination. More recently, outward investment by major Indian companies in the western world has also started taking place. For instance, the last couple of decades have seen increasing investment in the UK by Indian companies, especially those in the IT sector. In 2016, India emerged as the third largest contributor of FDI projects to London.�� Such a reverse �ow of capital has resulted in the creation of numerous jobs. Such utilization of business opportunities can in large part be attributed to the existence of diaspora networks.��

�� "India meets Britain Tracking the UK's top Indian companies," Grant Thornton India Tracker, Grant Thornton and Confederation of Indian Industries, 2016. http://www.grantthornton.co.uk/globalassets/1.-member-�rms/united-kingdom/pdf/publication/2016/india-meets-britain-2016-report.pdf

�� "Contribution of migrants to development: trade, investment and development linkages Note by the UNCTAD secretariat," UNCTAD, 2016. http://unctad.org/en/Docs/ditctncd20092_en.pdf

6) Migration leads to workforce diversity

Numerous studies on the aggregate impact of migration on labour markets, public �nances and economic output of countries have shown how migration can be a positive phenomenon from a macro-economic perspective. There is lesser evidence on the ways in which migration can contribute to the performance of individual businesses. Nevertheless, there does exist research demonstrating that workforce diversity resulting from hiring immigrants can be bene�cial for businesses. For instance, a study of 80 businesses from across the UK who employ migrants re�ected that the overall view of migrants' impact was broadly positive. The respondents felt that migrants brought culturally unique and complimentary skills, knowledge and ideas to the workplace which added to the productivity of the company. Respondents seemed to value migrants' language skills and global outlook which enables them to identify new opportunities and openings. The study illustrated employers' recognition of the fact that sharing of insights and connections to international markets, suppliers and clients by migrants can be contribute signi�cantly to business expansion. ��

�� "The impacts of migrant workers on UK businesses," UK Department for Business, Innovation & Skills, Research Paper No. 217, February 2015.https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/�le/406760/bis-15-153-impacts-of-migrant-workers-on-uk-business.pdf

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4) Migrant markets can generate business opportunities

Migrants, despite being embedded in their host countries, do not lose a sense of connection with their culture and countries of origin. Consequently, they form a unique section of the society and products catering to their desire to be more connected with their home countries have a huge market in migrant communities. Migrant markets have opportunities for industries across a variety of sectors such as �nancial services, telecommunications, media and entertainment, travel and tourism, consumer goods, food, hotel, restaurants and catering. Examples of successful businesses offering specialized services for migrant consumers such as telephone cars, familiar food items, or even entertainment abound. In fact, more and more companies targeting migrant markets have been sprouting up in the recent times and these are relying on developing innovative relationships with their customer base.

5) Migrants can be a source of innovation, entrepreneurship, investment and business development

Individuals who leave their homes in search for better opportunities are often cited as being risk takers and entrepreneurial in nature. Many a times, they set up enterprises in countries that they move to. Their movement can be bene�cial for business development in their countries of origin too since migrant remittances are often used to fund businesses, schools and training institutions. Diaspora networks can help foster trade, investment, innovation and knowledge �ows between countries of origin and destination. Transnational cultural, political and commercial links can contribute signi�cantly to business development across borders. Migrants' knowledge of their mother tongue as well as the language of their host country, cultural understanding and networks can be a handy resource for transnational expansion of enterprises. A good example is India's outsourcing services industry which bene�tted immensely from the skills and business opportunities brought to the table by diaspora networks. By the 1990s, many Indian engineers who had migrated to the US in the 1960s had become entrepreneurs, venture capitalists and senior executives in large and medium sized companies. A number of these professionals returned to India to start their own businesses, and others helped establish India as a preferred outsourcing destination. More recently, outward investment by major Indian companies in the western world has also started taking place. For instance, the last couple of decades have seen increasing investment in the UK by Indian companies, especially those in the IT sector. In 2016, India emerged as the third largest contributor of FDI projects to London.�� Such a reverse �ow of capital has resulted in the creation of numerous jobs. Such utilization of business opportunities can in large part be attributed to the existence of diaspora networks.��

�� "India meets Britain Tracking the UK's top Indian companies," Grant Thornton India Tracker, Grant Thornton and Confederation of Indian Industries, 2016. http://www.grantthornton.co.uk/globalassets/1.-member-�rms/united-kingdom/pdf/publication/2016/india-meets-britain-2016-report.pdf

�� "Contribution of migrants to development: trade, investment and development linkages Note by the UNCTAD secretariat," UNCTAD, 2016. http://unctad.org/en/Docs/ditctncd20092_en.pdf

6) Migration leads to workforce diversity

Numerous studies on the aggregate impact of migration on labour markets, public �nances and economic output of countries have shown how migration can be a positive phenomenon from a macro-economic perspective. There is lesser evidence on the ways in which migration can contribute to the performance of individual businesses. Nevertheless, there does exist research demonstrating that workforce diversity resulting from hiring immigrants can be bene�cial for businesses. For instance, a study of 80 businesses from across the UK who employ migrants re�ected that the overall view of migrants' impact was broadly positive. The respondents felt that migrants brought culturally unique and complimentary skills, knowledge and ideas to the workplace which added to the productivity of the company. Respondents seemed to value migrants' language skills and global outlook which enables them to identify new opportunities and openings. The study illustrated employers' recognition of the fact that sharing of insights and connections to international markets, suppliers and clients by migrants can be contribute signi�cantly to business expansion. ��

�� "The impacts of migrant workers on UK businesses," UK Department for Business, Innovation & Skills, Research Paper No. 217, February 2015.https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/�le/406760/bis-15-153-impacts-of-migrant-workers-on-uk-business.pdf

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Migration and Development 3A

part from its positive contributions for businesses, the potential for migration to act as a pro-development tool has also been widely documented in the recent times.Economic migration is generally triggered by a desire to receive higher incomes. A

study found that at an average, Nigerians migrants living in the US made seven to �fteen times more money in the US than they would have in Nigeria.�⁴ This is just one example of a study that captures the positive effects of migration on the incomes of individuals.Such an increase in income accounts for signi�cant poverty reduction in many developing countries.�⁵ This is illustrated clearly by a study showing that seven in ten Haitians have risen out of poverty in the last decade by migrating outside. There is also ample research to illustrate the impact of remittances on development in countries of origin. As per an Overseas Development Institute study, remittances resulting from migration represent the most stable source of external capital in developing countries, even in times of global crisis like the one witnessed in 2008-09. Remittances in that year were estimated to have fallen by a mere 6% despite the economic circumstances.�⁶ Migrants' enhanced access to capital and the development of powerful investment and trade networks has also been noted by scholars for contributing to the economic and social development of source countries. Most importantly, a fear of 'brain drain' which was associated with the mobility of people has recently been challenged by a number of scholars. The idea that circular migration can lead to a 'brain gain' and returning migrants contribute to skills and knowledge transfers has gained much more prevalence. Research has also demonstrated that migration is rarely the root cause of skills shortages in source countries, which tend to occur more because of the inability of source countries to produce large supplies of skilled workers. On the other hand, studies have found that migration often helps stimulate the skills base of countries of origin.�⁷ According to one study, GCC countries, by opening their borders to immigrants, contribute more to the reduction of global income inequality (per head), than richer OECD countries do by providing aid while upholding restrictions on inward movement of people. If OECD countries were to open their borders to the same extent Kuwait-a country with two immigrants for every one local- global inequality could be reduced by twenty �ve percent.�⁸

Migration is no longer considered as being bene�cial for the source country alone. A lot of contemporary research has been focused on illustrating the contributions of migration to the

�⁴ Clemens, Michael, Claudio Montenegro, and Lant Pritchett., "The Place Premium: Wage Differences for Identical Workers across the U.S. Border" Center for Global Development, 2008

�⁵ Massimiliano Calì, "Restricting migration: a bad (development) idea," Overseas Development Institute, Policy Brief, May 2010.https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/�les/odi-assets/publications-opinion-�les/5930.pdf

�⁶ MassimilianoCalì and S. Dell'Erba, "The global �nancial crisis and remittances: what past evidence suggests," Overseas Development Institute, ODI Working Paper 303, 2009. www.odi.org. uk/resources/download/3366.pdf

�⁷ MassimilianoCalì, "Migration restrictions and the "brain drain": the wrong response to an ill-de�ned problem" Overseas Development Institute, ODI Opinion 98, 2008. www.odi.org.uk/ resources/download/1205.pdf

�⁸ Gwen E Weyl, "The Openness-Equality Trade-Off in Global Redistribution," The Economic Journal, October 25, 2016 https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2509305

prosperity of host countries. There is compelling evidence to prove that migration does not lead to any noticeable negative impact on domestic labour markets of host countries On the other hand, examples of immigrants acting as a source of innovation, entrepreneurship and long-term growth in the receiving economy abound. A study from the US discovered that immigrants complement the job prospects of US born citizens and do not cause any decrease in the wages and employment options available to US citizens.�⁹ In fact, it has been found that immigrants have has a positive effect on the income of US born workers in the long run. This can be attributed to the fact that immigrants don't generally compete for the same jobs, but complement jobs done by local workers, thereby increasing their productivity. For example, with the aid of low skilled immigrant labourers, US born farmers, contractors etc. are able to expand their production, which in turn leads to an expansion in employment possibilities and wages of local workers. Another reason why his happens is because the additional supply of workers is often advantageous for businesses who absorb them by opening stores, restaurants, or production facilities, which leads to more business and more jobs.�⁰ Migrants also pay taxes and contribute to the social security systems. Finally, international migration can play a role in limiting population decline, and countering the effects of reductions of the working-age population and population ageing, especially in countries with low fertility. Economically driven migration thus creates opportunities for development in both countries of origin and destination.

In light of such evidence, the overwhelming idea that migration is a "symbol of development failure" has largely been discarded in academic literature and even policy discussions have evolved in the recent times to take this into consideration. From 1994, when migration was �rst brought into global policy discussions to now, such this shift has slowly come about.

The 1994 International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD), which gathered 179 governments in Cairo, was the �rst international conference where migration was a topic of discussion. The ICPD resulted in the adoption of a 20-year comprehensive Programme of Action which had an entire chapter concerning international migration. Though this chapter contained a speci�c section on "international migration and development," the language used was re�ective of a time when migration was considered a negative phenomenon to be dealt with. The text was based on the premise of encouraging development with the end goal of rendering emigration less necessary. Migration was referred to more as a problem to be solved and as a temporary inevitability to be managed until countries of origin have developed sufficiently to reduce incentives for emigrating. The prevailing mindset was that since interventions like those to address poverty in source countries will take time to show results, migration �ows would keep taking place in the short and medium term and transparent policies and international cooperation will be required to govern them until they can be curtailed. There was no recognition of the signi�cance of mobility as a necessary condition for development.�� Although vestiges of such a perception can still be found in current day debates, over the years, a shift in this type of thinking has occurred in the international policy circles to some extent. Dialogues have become more accommodating of voices in promoting talent mobility on the grounds of its close linkages with development.

�⁹ David Crd, "Is the New Immigration Really So Bad?," UC Berkeley, January 2005. http://davidcard.berkeley.edu/papers/new-immig.pdf

�⁰ Michael Greenstone and Adam Looney, "" What Immigration Means for US Employment and Wages," Brookings Institute, https://www.brookings.edu/blog/jobs/2012/05/04/what-immigration-means-for-u-s-employment-and-wages/

�� Gurucharan Gollerkeri and Natasha Chhabra, “Migration Matters: Mobility in a Globalizing World,” Oxford University Press, July 2016.

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Migration and Development 3A

part from its positive contributions for businesses, the potential for migration to act as a pro-development tool has also been widely documented in the recent times.Economic migration is generally triggered by a desire to receive higher incomes. A

study found that at an average, Nigerians migrants living in the US made seven to �fteen times more money in the US than they would have in Nigeria.�⁴ This is just one example of a study that captures the positive effects of migration on the incomes of individuals.Such an increase in income accounts for signi�cant poverty reduction in many developing countries.�⁵ This is illustrated clearly by a study showing that seven in ten Haitians have risen out of poverty in the last decade by migrating outside. There is also ample research to illustrate the impact of remittances on development in countries of origin. As per an Overseas Development Institute study, remittances resulting from migration represent the most stable source of external capital in developing countries, even in times of global crisis like the one witnessed in 2008-09. Remittances in that year were estimated to have fallen by a mere 6% despite the economic circumstances.�⁶ Migrants' enhanced access to capital and the development of powerful investment and trade networks has also been noted by scholars for contributing to the economic and social development of source countries. Most importantly, a fear of 'brain drain' which was associated with the mobility of people has recently been challenged by a number of scholars. The idea that circular migration can lead to a 'brain gain' and returning migrants contribute to skills and knowledge transfers has gained much more prevalence. Research has also demonstrated that migration is rarely the root cause of skills shortages in source countries, which tend to occur more because of the inability of source countries to produce large supplies of skilled workers. On the other hand, studies have found that migration often helps stimulate the skills base of countries of origin.�⁷ According to one study, GCC countries, by opening their borders to immigrants, contribute more to the reduction of global income inequality (per head), than richer OECD countries do by providing aid while upholding restrictions on inward movement of people. If OECD countries were to open their borders to the same extent Kuwait-a country with two immigrants for every one local- global inequality could be reduced by twenty �ve percent.�⁸

Migration is no longer considered as being bene�cial for the source country alone. A lot of contemporary research has been focused on illustrating the contributions of migration to the

�⁴ Clemens, Michael, Claudio Montenegro, and Lant Pritchett., "The Place Premium: Wage Differences for Identical Workers across the U.S. Border" Center for Global Development, 2008

�⁵ Massimiliano Calì, "Restricting migration: a bad (development) idea," Overseas Development Institute, Policy Brief, May 2010.https://www.odi.org/sites/odi.org.uk/�les/odi-assets/publications-opinion-�les/5930.pdf

�⁶ MassimilianoCalì and S. Dell'Erba, "The global �nancial crisis and remittances: what past evidence suggests," Overseas Development Institute, ODI Working Paper 303, 2009. www.odi.org. uk/resources/download/3366.pdf

�⁷ MassimilianoCalì, "Migration restrictions and the "brain drain": the wrong response to an ill-de�ned problem" Overseas Development Institute, ODI Opinion 98, 2008. www.odi.org.uk/ resources/download/1205.pdf

�⁸ Gwen E Weyl, "The Openness-Equality Trade-Off in Global Redistribution," The Economic Journal, October 25, 2016 https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2509305

prosperity of host countries. There is compelling evidence to prove that migration does not lead to any noticeable negative impact on domestic labour markets of host countries On the other hand, examples of immigrants acting as a source of innovation, entrepreneurship and long-term growth in the receiving economy abound. A study from the US discovered that immigrants complement the job prospects of US born citizens and do not cause any decrease in the wages and employment options available to US citizens.�⁹ In fact, it has been found that immigrants have has a positive effect on the income of US born workers in the long run. This can be attributed to the fact that immigrants don't generally compete for the same jobs, but complement jobs done by local workers, thereby increasing their productivity. For example, with the aid of low skilled immigrant labourers, US born farmers, contractors etc. are able to expand their production, which in turn leads to an expansion in employment possibilities and wages of local workers. Another reason why his happens is because the additional supply of workers is often advantageous for businesses who absorb them by opening stores, restaurants, or production facilities, which leads to more business and more jobs.�⁰ Migrants also pay taxes and contribute to the social security systems. Finally, international migration can play a role in limiting population decline, and countering the effects of reductions of the working-age population and population ageing, especially in countries with low fertility. Economically driven migration thus creates opportunities for development in both countries of origin and destination.

In light of such evidence, the overwhelming idea that migration is a "symbol of development failure" has largely been discarded in academic literature and even policy discussions have evolved in the recent times to take this into consideration. From 1994, when migration was �rst brought into global policy discussions to now, such this shift has slowly come about.

The 1994 International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD), which gathered 179 governments in Cairo, was the �rst international conference where migration was a topic of discussion. The ICPD resulted in the adoption of a 20-year comprehensive Programme of Action which had an entire chapter concerning international migration. Though this chapter contained a speci�c section on "international migration and development," the language used was re�ective of a time when migration was considered a negative phenomenon to be dealt with. The text was based on the premise of encouraging development with the end goal of rendering emigration less necessary. Migration was referred to more as a problem to be solved and as a temporary inevitability to be managed until countries of origin have developed sufficiently to reduce incentives for emigrating. The prevailing mindset was that since interventions like those to address poverty in source countries will take time to show results, migration �ows would keep taking place in the short and medium term and transparent policies and international cooperation will be required to govern them until they can be curtailed. There was no recognition of the signi�cance of mobility as a necessary condition for development.�� Although vestiges of such a perception can still be found in current day debates, over the years, a shift in this type of thinking has occurred in the international policy circles to some extent. Dialogues have become more accommodating of voices in promoting talent mobility on the grounds of its close linkages with development.

�⁹ David Crd, "Is the New Immigration Really So Bad?," UC Berkeley, January 2005. http://davidcard.berkeley.edu/papers/new-immig.pdf

�⁰ Michael Greenstone and Adam Looney, "" What Immigration Means for US Employment and Wages," Brookings Institute, https://www.brookings.edu/blog/jobs/2012/05/04/what-immigration-means-for-u-s-employment-and-wages/

�� Gurucharan Gollerkeri and Natasha Chhabra, “Migration Matters: Mobility in a Globalizing World,” Oxford University Press, July 2016.

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Following the 1994 ICPD, international migration became an important topic of discussion in the biennial meetings of the second committee of the General Assembly, while the third committee addressed the issues of protection of migrants and refugees, violence against migrant workers, and trafficking in women and girls. Then at the turn of the century, more specialized and multilateral processes such as the Berne Initiative and The Hague Process brought the issue of migration and its linkages with development to the forefront. In 2003, at the initiative of the UN Secretary General, an independent Global Commission on International Migration (GCIM) was created by the governments of the Sweden and Switzerland, Brazil, Morocco, and the Philippines. The recommendations of this commission, in turn, paved the way for the 2006 General Assembly's �rst High-level Dialogue (HLD) on International Migration and Development which led directly to the establishment of the Global Forum on Migration and Development. The GFMD provides a large platform for governments and civil society to discuss policy issues surrounding that theme. A second HLD was recently held in 2013. Though these global processes and kindred consultative events have attracted some criticism for not having accomplished enough, they were signi�cant for initiating a conversation on migration and development and raising awareness about attendant issues.��

Although the discourse on migration has evolved signi�cantly over time,progress at the individual country levels has been mixed. In 2009, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) came out with a report on "Overcoming barriers: Human mobility and development." The report was drafted with a human development approach and it looked at mobility as an enabler for expanding capabilities and freedom. It brought attention to a variety of dimensions of human development that are inter linked with migration, such as income and livelihood, health, education and broader empowerment, rights and participation issues. A key recommendation that emerged out of the report was to improve the conditions of migration and the treatment of workers. But the report went further than that to also make a case for mobility and lower barriers to movement, including for low-skilled workers. Subsequent policy discussions ended up paying attention to the issue of migrants' treatment and protection of their rights which is an enormous accomplishment. However, enthusiasm for the report's liberal proposals with regards to policies on accepting migrants has been lacking.

In countries of destination, restrictions on entry of people abound and no heed has been paid to recommendations for opening up existing entry channels so that more workers can emigrate. At the same time, heavy liabilities on migrant workers through excessive fees and high migration costs also continue to exist in countries of origin. This massively reduces the bene�ts of migration. The SDG agenda offered an opportunity to bring about a change in such attitudes. Although migration and migrants appear in many several targets in the 2030 Agenda which has undoubtedly helped in raising the public pro�le of the issue, a closer analysis shows that the goals don't make a clear case for reducing obstacles to mobility either.

�� "Migration and Human Mobility," IOM and UNDESA, Thematic Think piece by the UN System Task Team on the post-2015 UN Development Agenda, May 2012 http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/Think%20Pieces/13_migration.pdf

Snapshot of Goals and Target related to Migration4

Migration is not a well-de�ned goal in the Agenda. However, there are a few targets which make a direct or indirect reference to migration. A snapshot of core and peripheral targets related to migration can be found in Table 1. Core targets are

concerned directly with the movement of people, or list migrants as a speci�c segment of the population meriting special attention. Peripheral targets are those which do have some bearing on migration but in a more indirect fashion. For instance, targets on enhancing resilience to climate hazards and economic, social and environmental shocksoffer entry points for using migration as an adaptation strategy to help meet them.

Figure 1 goes on to highlight other goals which are relevant from a migration perspective. Though all goals are relevant in some way, in particular,Goal 3 on Health, Goal 4 on Education, Goal 5 on Gender Equality, Goal 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, Goal 11 on Sustainable Cities, Goal 13 on Climate Action, and Goal 16 on Peaceful Societies are germane for inclusion in a discussion on migration. These goals are 'migration or displacement relevant' for two reasons. Firstly, because no goal can be met until it is met for everyone. This means goals have to be met for all sections of the population, including migrants. Secondly, it is important to note that migration can also contribute to achieving these goals. Migration is a powerful tool at our disposal for addressing many of the development challenges faced by the world today. The ability to move from a poorer to a richer place generally results in higher incomes for migrants. Income which is sent back by migrants in the form of remittances can be utilized by family members to meet basic needs such as getting enrolled in education, accessing healthcare facilities, or installing running water and electricity in their homes, but also for other productive purposes such as starting a new business. Moreover, remittances tend to be extremely resilient. Studies have shown that the amount remitted back home tends to witness a hike in the wake of con�ict and natural disasters in the home countries. Remittances, thus, act as vital shock absorbers.

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14

Following the 1994 ICPD, international migration became an important topic of discussion in the biennial meetings of the second committee of the General Assembly, while the third committee addressed the issues of protection of migrants and refugees, violence against migrant workers, and trafficking in women and girls. Then at the turn of the century, more specialized and multilateral processes such as the Berne Initiative and The Hague Process brought the issue of migration and its linkages with development to the forefront. In 2003, at the initiative of the UN Secretary General, an independent Global Commission on International Migration (GCIM) was created by the governments of the Sweden and Switzerland, Brazil, Morocco, and the Philippines. The recommendations of this commission, in turn, paved the way for the 2006 General Assembly's �rst High-level Dialogue (HLD) on International Migration and Development which led directly to the establishment of the Global Forum on Migration and Development. The GFMD provides a large platform for governments and civil society to discuss policy issues surrounding that theme. A second HLD was recently held in 2013. Though these global processes and kindred consultative events have attracted some criticism for not having accomplished enough, they were signi�cant for initiating a conversation on migration and development and raising awareness about attendant issues.��

Although the discourse on migration has evolved signi�cantly over time,progress at the individual country levels has been mixed. In 2009, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) came out with a report on "Overcoming barriers: Human mobility and development." The report was drafted with a human development approach and it looked at mobility as an enabler for expanding capabilities and freedom. It brought attention to a variety of dimensions of human development that are inter linked with migration, such as income and livelihood, health, education and broader empowerment, rights and participation issues. A key recommendation that emerged out of the report was to improve the conditions of migration and the treatment of workers. But the report went further than that to also make a case for mobility and lower barriers to movement, including for low-skilled workers. Subsequent policy discussions ended up paying attention to the issue of migrants' treatment and protection of their rights which is an enormous accomplishment. However, enthusiasm for the report's liberal proposals with regards to policies on accepting migrants has been lacking.

In countries of destination, restrictions on entry of people abound and no heed has been paid to recommendations for opening up existing entry channels so that more workers can emigrate. At the same time, heavy liabilities on migrant workers through excessive fees and high migration costs also continue to exist in countries of origin. This massively reduces the bene�ts of migration. The SDG agenda offered an opportunity to bring about a change in such attitudes. Although migration and migrants appear in many several targets in the 2030 Agenda which has undoubtedly helped in raising the public pro�le of the issue, a closer analysis shows that the goals don't make a clear case for reducing obstacles to mobility either.

�� "Migration and Human Mobility," IOM and UNDESA, Thematic Think piece by the UN System Task Team on the post-2015 UN Development Agenda, May 2012 http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/Think%20Pieces/13_migration.pdf

Snapshot of Goals and Target related to Migration4

Migration is not a well-de�ned goal in the Agenda. However, there are a few targets which make a direct or indirect reference to migration. A snapshot of core and peripheral targets related to migration can be found in Table 1. Core targets are

concerned directly with the movement of people, or list migrants as a speci�c segment of the population meriting special attention. Peripheral targets are those which do have some bearing on migration but in a more indirect fashion. For instance, targets on enhancing resilience to climate hazards and economic, social and environmental shocksoffer entry points for using migration as an adaptation strategy to help meet them.

Figure 1 goes on to highlight other goals which are relevant from a migration perspective. Though all goals are relevant in some way, in particular,Goal 3 on Health, Goal 4 on Education, Goal 5 on Gender Equality, Goal 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, Goal 11 on Sustainable Cities, Goal 13 on Climate Action, and Goal 16 on Peaceful Societies are germane for inclusion in a discussion on migration. These goals are 'migration or displacement relevant' for two reasons. Firstly, because no goal can be met until it is met for everyone. This means goals have to be met for all sections of the population, including migrants. Secondly, it is important to note that migration can also contribute to achieving these goals. Migration is a powerful tool at our disposal for addressing many of the development challenges faced by the world today. The ability to move from a poorer to a richer place generally results in higher incomes for migrants. Income which is sent back by migrants in the form of remittances can be utilized by family members to meet basic needs such as getting enrolled in education, accessing healthcare facilities, or installing running water and electricity in their homes, but also for other productive purposes such as starting a new business. Moreover, remittances tend to be extremely resilient. Studies have shown that the amount remitted back home tends to witness a hike in the wake of con�ict and natural disasters in the home countries. Remittances, thus, act as vital shock absorbers.

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Goal Target

Goal 4: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities

Target 4.b. By 2020, substantially expand globally the number of scholarships available to developing countries, in particular least d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s , s m a l l i s l a n d developing States and African countries, for enrolment in higher education, including vocational training and information and communications technology, technical, engineering and scienti�c programmes, in developed countries and other developing countries

Goal 5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls

Target 5.2 Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation

Goal 8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all

Target 8.7: Take immediate and effective measures to eradicate forced labour, end modern slavery and human trafficking and secure the prohibition and elimination of the worst forms of child labour including recruitment and use of child soldiers, and by 2025 end child labour in all its forms

Target 8.8: Protect labour rights and p r o m o t e s a f e a n d s e c u r e w o r k i n g environments for all workers, including migrant workers, in particular women m i g r a n t s , a n d t h o s e i n p r e c a r i o u s employment.

Goal 10: Reduce inequality within and among countries

Target 10.7: Facilitate orderly, safe, and responsible migration and mobility of people, including through implementation of planned and well-managed migration policies

Target 10.c.: By 2030, reduce to less than 3% the transaction costs of migrant remittances and eliminate remittance corridors with costs higher than 5%

Goal 16: Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels

Target 16.2 End abuse, exploitation, trafficking and all forms of violence and torture against children

Goal 17: Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development

Target 17.18 By 2020, enhance capacity building support to developing countries, including for LDCs and SIDS, to increase signi�cantly the availability of high-quality, timely and reliable data disaggregated by income, gender, age, race, ethnicity, migratory status, disability, geographic location and other characteristics relevant in national contexts

Table 1. Core and Peripheral Goals and Targets related to Migration

Core TargetsGoal Target

Goal 1: End Poverty in all its forms everywhere Target 1.5 By 2030, build the resilience of the poor and those in vulnerable situations and reduce their exposure and vulnerability to climate-related extreme events and other economic, social and environmental shocks and disasters.

Goal 11:Make Cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable

Target 11.5 By 2030, signi�cantly reduce the number of deaths and the number of people affected and substantially decrease the direct economic losses relative to global gross domestic product caused by disasters, with a focus on protecting the poor and people in vulnerable situations

Peripheral Targets

Goal 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts

Target 13.1 Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters in all countries

Target 13.2 Integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies and planning

Target 13.3 Improve education, awareness-raising and human and institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning

Migration Relevant Targets

An Analysis of Core Targets

While it is important to note the peripheral and migration relevant targets, for the purposes of this paper, an analysis of the core targets is most crucial. Of the eight core sub-goals mentioned above, Targets 5.2, 8.7 and 16.2 relate to migration because they make a call for eliminating trafficking or forced labour. The main objective is to curb coercive, irregular, and unethical movement of people which forced labour and trafficking usually, if not always, involves. Nearly half (44%) of the estimated 21 million people in forced labour globally are international and internal migrants, many of whom are subjected to sexual exploitation.�� Target 8.8 is about

�� "Realizing the Inclusion of Migrants and Migration in the Post-2015 United Nations Development Agenda," Global Migration Group, GMG Discussion Paper, April 2015. http://www.globalmigrationgroup.org/sites/default/�les/ForCirculation_Post-2015_discussion%20paper_April_2015.pdf

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Goal Target

Goal 4: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities

Target 4.b. By 2020, substantially expand globally the number of scholarships available to developing countries, in particular least d e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s , s m a l l i s l a n d developing States and African countries, for enrolment in higher education, including vocational training and information and communications technology, technical, engineering and scienti�c programmes, in developed countries and other developing countries

Goal 5. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls

Target 5.2 Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the public and private spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other types of exploitation

Goal 8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all

Target 8.7: Take immediate and effective measures to eradicate forced labour, end modern slavery and human trafficking and secure the prohibition and elimination of the worst forms of child labour including recruitment and use of child soldiers, and by 2025 end child labour in all its forms

Target 8.8: Protect labour rights and p r o m o t e s a f e a n d s e c u r e w o r k i n g environments for all workers, including migrant workers, in particular women m i g r a n t s , a n d t h o s e i n p r e c a r i o u s employment.

Goal 10: Reduce inequality within and among countries

Target 10.7: Facilitate orderly, safe, and responsible migration and mobility of people, including through implementation of planned and well-managed migration policies

Target 10.c.: By 2030, reduce to less than 3% the transaction costs of migrant remittances and eliminate remittance corridors with costs higher than 5%

Goal 16: Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels

Target 16.2 End abuse, exploitation, trafficking and all forms of violence and torture against children

Goal 17: Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the Global Partnership for Sustainable Development

Target 17.18 By 2020, enhance capacity building support to developing countries, including for LDCs and SIDS, to increase signi�cantly the availability of high-quality, timely and reliable data disaggregated by income, gender, age, race, ethnicity, migratory status, disability, geographic location and other characteristics relevant in national contexts

Table 1. Core and Peripheral Goals and Targets related to Migration

Core TargetsGoal Target

Goal 1: End Poverty in all its forms everywhere Target 1.5 By 2030, build the resilience of the poor and those in vulnerable situations and reduce their exposure and vulnerability to climate-related extreme events and other economic, social and environmental shocks and disasters.

Goal 11:Make Cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable

Target 11.5 By 2030, signi�cantly reduce the number of deaths and the number of people affected and substantially decrease the direct economic losses relative to global gross domestic product caused by disasters, with a focus on protecting the poor and people in vulnerable situations

Peripheral Targets

Goal 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts

Target 13.1 Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters in all countries

Target 13.2 Integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies and planning

Target 13.3 Improve education, awareness-raising and human and institutional capacity on climate change mitigation, adaptation, impact reduction and early warning

Migration Relevant Targets

An Analysis of Core Targets

While it is important to note the peripheral and migration relevant targets, for the purposes of this paper, an analysis of the core targets is most crucial. Of the eight core sub-goals mentioned above, Targets 5.2, 8.7 and 16.2 relate to migration because they make a call for eliminating trafficking or forced labour. The main objective is to curb coercive, irregular, and unethical movement of people which forced labour and trafficking usually, if not always, involves. Nearly half (44%) of the estimated 21 million people in forced labour globally are international and internal migrants, many of whom are subjected to sexual exploitation.�� Target 8.8 is about

�� "Realizing the Inclusion of Migrants and Migration in the Post-2015 United Nations Development Agenda," Global Migration Group, GMG Discussion Paper, April 2015. http://www.globalmigrationgroup.org/sites/default/�les/ForCirculation_Post-2015_discussion%20paper_April_2015.pdf

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improving the conditions of work for migrant workers, ensuring their human rights are respected and enhancing their access to justice. Given how migration, particularly of low skilled workers, often comes at a terrible cost and is accompanied by massive violations of their rights, the inclusion of this target is extremely critical. Target 17.18 is about enhancing capacity building support to developing countries to increase the availability of high-quality, timely and reliable data which is disaggregated by characteristics including the migratory status of individuals. Currently, very little data on migration stocks and �ows is available. Endeavors to meet this target would help ensure these gaps in knowledge are �lled. Such a disaggregation of collected data will also allow for better evidence on how far migrants are bene�tting from programmes onhealth, education, child labour, and the like.

In all the abovementioned targets, migrants are included as special group among others with the same rights as everyone else. In addition, the Declaration calls upon member states to respect the human rights of all migrants, regardless of their migration status. This re�ects a cognizance of the fact that migrants form a vulnerable section of society for whom protection measures must be put in place. The targets acknowledge the need to address migration that does not take place out of choice and/or leads to violation of migrants' rights. A recognition of the vulnerability of migrant workers is an enormous accomplishment in itself. The need for data to understand migration trends, �ows and issues more comprehensively has also been addressed by the goals. While this is a step in the positive direction, the goals have failed to respond to the expansive discussions that have taken place on how migrants and migration contribute to development. The 2030 Agenda helps show the way forward on protection related aspects of migration, but makes no clear commitments for easier and more responsive human resource and talent mobility, which in their own ways can make signi�cant contributions to growth and development in both countries of origin and destination.

This paper in no way seeks to diminish the signi�cance of the protection-related objectives. Crucial as these commitments are, a close reading re�ects that none of these targets have been framed with a larger objective of encouraging migration as a solution to development challenges. There is some sense of recognition of migration as a multidimensional reality which has relevance for development, but the potential of migration to act as a key driver of sustainable development has not been acknowledged. Target 10c, is a bit different for it makes a call for reducing the transaction cost of remittances. This re�ects an admission of the profound implications remittances have on human welfare and economic development in countries of origin. High costs of remitting money back home reduce the potential development bene�ts to be accrued from them. Target 10c illustrates a cognizance of the importance of remittances as well as of the potential a reduction in their costs offers for �nancing development objectives.

However, a broader understanding of migration as an enabler for development or as a human right is missing from this Agenda. Migration is addressed as an issue to be regulated and not necessarily facilitated. This becomes most apparent on a closer scrutiny of Target 10.7, which is

the centerpiece for migration in the SDG Agenda. Target 10.7 is migration-speci�c and demands countries to implement a migration policy to "facilitate orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration and mobility of people, including through the implementation of planned and well-managed migration policies." The inclusion of this target is owed to the efforts of international organizations and civil society which lobbied endlessly to bring the issue into the mainstream of development policy and practice. Though on �rst reading, this appears to be cause for celebration, a more thorough examination shows that the language used is rather ambiguous and leaves room for interpretation. It is unclear exactly what these word suggest and what the implications of this will be for the mobility of skills and human resources.�⁴

Target 10.7 inadequately describes which part of the formulation is the priority- 'migration' and 'mobility', or the quali�ers, that is, 'orderly, safe and regular.' The framing of the target leaves it open for interpretation and as a consequence, it is up to countries to decide how they want to de�ne their migration polices. Migrant sending countries can read 'facilitate' to mean that emigration as a whole must be encouraged. Countries that are reluctant to allow more in�ows of “irregular” and “disorderly” migrants can choose to curb immigration on the pretext of the same target by reading the word “facilitate” in conjunction with the modi�ers “safe” and “orderly.” Effectively, total immigration levels can be reduced by eliminating all irregular migration and keeping the limit for “planned” migration as it is. Discrimination in a just and 'orderly' fashion is deemed acceptable.

A prosperous country can well enact a 'planned' policy of zero mobility and it would still be consistent with the target on migration policy de�ned by the General Assembly. Target 10.7 is framed rather loosely, unlike other sub-goals. For instance, Target 1.1 asks to “eradicate extreme poverty for all people everywhere, currently measured as people living on less than $1.25 a day” by the year 2030. Target 3.1 states that “by 2030, reduce the global maternity mortality ratio to less than 70 per 1000,000 live births.” Target 7.3 asks to “double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency” by 2030. Perhaps these randomly selected targets are over-ambitious and unrealistic. Nevertheless, they seem to be speci�c, clear and concise and put forth measurable objectives. They put forward a moral vision for the future in articulate terms. Target 10.7, on the other hand, completely fails to do this. Migration and mobility are discussed as phenomena that need to be managed and controlled.

There is nothing in the text to suggest that a development friendly type migration must be enabled or facilitated.

It can be argued that strong language would not have resulted in the same number of countries signing the �nal document and that the indicators for Target 10.7 give space for clarifying the intentions behind this target. In fact, Target 10.7.1 recommends measuring recruitment costs borne by migrant as a proportion of yearly income earned in country of destination. Costs of

�⁴ Lant Pritchett and Charles Kenny, "Is this it on Migration in Addis?" Centre for Global Development, April 16, 2015. http://www.cgdev.org/blog/it-migration-addis

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improving the conditions of work for migrant workers, ensuring their human rights are respected and enhancing their access to justice. Given how migration, particularly of low skilled workers, often comes at a terrible cost and is accompanied by massive violations of their rights, the inclusion of this target is extremely critical. Target 17.18 is about enhancing capacity building support to developing countries to increase the availability of high-quality, timely and reliable data which is disaggregated by characteristics including the migratory status of individuals. Currently, very little data on migration stocks and �ows is available. Endeavors to meet this target would help ensure these gaps in knowledge are �lled. Such a disaggregation of collected data will also allow for better evidence on how far migrants are bene�tting from programmes onhealth, education, child labour, and the like.

In all the abovementioned targets, migrants are included as special group among others with the same rights as everyone else. In addition, the Declaration calls upon member states to respect the human rights of all migrants, regardless of their migration status. This re�ects a cognizance of the fact that migrants form a vulnerable section of society for whom protection measures must be put in place. The targets acknowledge the need to address migration that does not take place out of choice and/or leads to violation of migrants' rights. A recognition of the vulnerability of migrant workers is an enormous accomplishment in itself. The need for data to understand migration trends, �ows and issues more comprehensively has also been addressed by the goals. While this is a step in the positive direction, the goals have failed to respond to the expansive discussions that have taken place on how migrants and migration contribute to development. The 2030 Agenda helps show the way forward on protection related aspects of migration, but makes no clear commitments for easier and more responsive human resource and talent mobility, which in their own ways can make signi�cant contributions to growth and development in both countries of origin and destination.

This paper in no way seeks to diminish the signi�cance of the protection-related objectives. Crucial as these commitments are, a close reading re�ects that none of these targets have been framed with a larger objective of encouraging migration as a solution to development challenges. There is some sense of recognition of migration as a multidimensional reality which has relevance for development, but the potential of migration to act as a key driver of sustainable development has not been acknowledged. Target 10c, is a bit different for it makes a call for reducing the transaction cost of remittances. This re�ects an admission of the profound implications remittances have on human welfare and economic development in countries of origin. High costs of remitting money back home reduce the potential development bene�ts to be accrued from them. Target 10c illustrates a cognizance of the importance of remittances as well as of the potential a reduction in their costs offers for �nancing development objectives.

However, a broader understanding of migration as an enabler for development or as a human right is missing from this Agenda. Migration is addressed as an issue to be regulated and not necessarily facilitated. This becomes most apparent on a closer scrutiny of Target 10.7, which is

the centerpiece for migration in the SDG Agenda. Target 10.7 is migration-speci�c and demands countries to implement a migration policy to "facilitate orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration and mobility of people, including through the implementation of planned and well-managed migration policies." The inclusion of this target is owed to the efforts of international organizations and civil society which lobbied endlessly to bring the issue into the mainstream of development policy and practice. Though on �rst reading, this appears to be cause for celebration, a more thorough examination shows that the language used is rather ambiguous and leaves room for interpretation. It is unclear exactly what these word suggest and what the implications of this will be for the mobility of skills and human resources.�⁴

Target 10.7 inadequately describes which part of the formulation is the priority- 'migration' and 'mobility', or the quali�ers, that is, 'orderly, safe and regular.' The framing of the target leaves it open for interpretation and as a consequence, it is up to countries to decide how they want to de�ne their migration polices. Migrant sending countries can read 'facilitate' to mean that emigration as a whole must be encouraged. Countries that are reluctant to allow more in�ows of “irregular” and “disorderly” migrants can choose to curb immigration on the pretext of the same target by reading the word “facilitate” in conjunction with the modi�ers “safe” and “orderly.” Effectively, total immigration levels can be reduced by eliminating all irregular migration and keeping the limit for “planned” migration as it is. Discrimination in a just and 'orderly' fashion is deemed acceptable.

A prosperous country can well enact a 'planned' policy of zero mobility and it would still be consistent with the target on migration policy de�ned by the General Assembly. Target 10.7 is framed rather loosely, unlike other sub-goals. For instance, Target 1.1 asks to “eradicate extreme poverty for all people everywhere, currently measured as people living on less than $1.25 a day” by the year 2030. Target 3.1 states that “by 2030, reduce the global maternity mortality ratio to less than 70 per 1000,000 live births.” Target 7.3 asks to “double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency” by 2030. Perhaps these randomly selected targets are over-ambitious and unrealistic. Nevertheless, they seem to be speci�c, clear and concise and put forth measurable objectives. They put forward a moral vision for the future in articulate terms. Target 10.7, on the other hand, completely fails to do this. Migration and mobility are discussed as phenomena that need to be managed and controlled.

There is nothing in the text to suggest that a development friendly type migration must be enabled or facilitated.

It can be argued that strong language would not have resulted in the same number of countries signing the �nal document and that the indicators for Target 10.7 give space for clarifying the intentions behind this target. In fact, Target 10.7.1 recommends measuring recruitment costs borne by migrant as a proportion of yearly income earned in country of destination. Costs of

�⁴ Lant Pritchett and Charles Kenny, "Is this it on Migration in Addis?" Centre for Global Development, April 16, 2015. http://www.cgdev.org/blog/it-migration-addis

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migration, including recruitment fees, document procurement and checking and pro�ciency testing among others are often extremely high. A reduction in these costs would certainly bene�t the migrant herself as also the source country where a larger proportion of remittances can be sent back. The linkages between migration and development have been indirectly acknowledged with the help of this indicator. However, indicator 10.7.2 for measuring progress is as vague as the underlying target itself. This indicator recommends looking at the number of countries that have implemented 'well-managed migration policies' but offers no further information on what exactly is meant by this. This is a Tier III indicator which is a category of indicators whose measurement is rendered difficult by the lack of an established methodology/standards or for which methodology and standards are under development.

The International Organization for Migration (IOM) is a custodian agency for indicator 10.7.2 and is in the process of �eld testing a ' Migration Governance Index,' - an input-based benchmarking framework to track progress in relation to the key requisite of target 10.7- which it developed in collaboration with the Economist Intelligence Unit. This was designed as a �exible tool with over 70 indicators grouped under 6 different dimensions of migration governance. Now that research has been concluded in 15 pilot countries, the IOM will be replicating the exercise in 100 countries. To do this, the IOM is involving stakeholders in consultations through the GFMD and the IOM council. In light of the ambiguity with which Target 10.7 and indicator 10.7.2 have been de�ned, engagement with the IOM offers a good opportunity to ensure that at national and regional levels, robust pointers that go beyond the mandate of the SDG agenda for ensuring cohesive and holistic migration policies are developed. This is crucial because in its current form, the SDGs and indicators that have been developed to measure progress on them make no mention of issues related to the mobility of human resources such as streamlining and simplifying pathways and processes to support responsive migration and �exible, market driven movement of people, visa deregulation, increased transparency in employment visa granting processes and simpli�cation of procedures to assist more productive movement of people to deliver economic bene�ts for both sending and receiving countries. The SDGs offered an opportunity to include more explicit commitments to expanding regular channels of migration which has been missed. A stronger case for migration could have been made by including more speci�cs in the Agenda around the levels of migration, skills portability and mutual recognition of quali�cations, portability of social security, �nancial inclusion and ways to ensure that migrants can easily remit money back home, diaspora engagement, and efforts to promote social integration and end discrimination. The text is, however, silent on these issues. A reference is made to 'well-managed migration policies' but what this should look like has not been �eshed out. That such a policy should ensure that the country's need for talent can be met through greater mobility has not been clearly stated.

Migration's transformative nature as a means for implementing and �nancing sustainable development has not been acknowledged the post 2015-Agenda. This is not surprising in light of the broader context in which the Agenda was drafted. Discussions on the global goals began in 2013,a time when large swathes of refugees from the Mediterranean, the Andaman Sea and the Gulf of Aden had started entering Europe. This in�ux of refugees in Europe, particularly asylum seekers from Syria, mistakenly referred to as a 'migrant crisis' has brought an intense spotlight to

migration, typically in a negative light (though, media attention has also contributed to recognizing the vulnerability of forced migrants). Since the beginning of this crisis, reactionary politics and anti-immigrant sentiments have been on the rise in large parts of the western world. Recent developments like the Brexit are proof of that. Branding the situation as a 'migrant' crisis has also resulted in very little understanding of the differentiation between refugees, who are forced to �ee from their country of origin because of a fear of persecution, and economic migrants who move voluntarily. Unfortunately, both kinds of movement have earned a bad reputation for themselves. The surge in anti-immigrant sentiment in developed European countries can perhaps also be attributed to the state of their economy which hasn't completely recovered since the global �nancial crisis. In most EU countries, pro-immigration policies to enhance knowledge capital and innovation were encouraged during their period of growth. These have, however, been halted in the aftermath of the �nancial crisis and a reversion to 'domestic workers �rst' kind of thinking is taking over.�⁵ Many destination countries have resorted to measures to tighten visa requirements for some categories of migrants, reducing the numbers of temporary admissions, and strengthening compliance and enforcement mechanisms to reduce the burden of irregular migrants on local economies in the recent past.

Study after study has shown that talent mobility can accrue bene�ts for both sending and receiving countries. Research also suggests that measures aimed at restricitng migration, which do not take into account labour market needs and family ties result in more irregular migration, impose high costs and are likely to be ineffective.�⁶ All this evidence has been ignored to perpetuate a politics of fear and xenophobia in many industrialized countries, which are generally the recipients of workers. Migration has always been a contentious issue for sending and receiving countries and disagreements in policy objectives from both sides are abundant. It is for this reason that no formal, binding commitments or processes to agree on global migration policies and governance structures exist. However, the issue has become particularly sensitive and controversial over the course of the last couple of years, which co-indices with the time period during which meetings to decide upon the SDGs were held. At the same time, increased attention to the issue and coverage of incidents like the death of Alan Kurdi�⁷, have made migration an issue that is extremely difficult to ignore. This context can help us understand the reasons for the inclusion of migration in the Sustainable Development Agenda, particularly its protection related aspects, as well as the equivocal language of Target 10.7 and the ambiguous stance on mobility.

�⁵ "Employers' Role and In�uence in Migration: A Literature Review," New Zealand Department of Immigration, Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment, April 2013. http://www.mbie.govt.nz/publications-research/research/migrants---settlement/employers%20role%20and%20in�uence%20in%20migration-lit-review.pdf

�⁶ Rober Piccioto and Rachel Weaving ed., "Impact of Rich Countries' Policies on Poor Countries: Towards a Level Playing Field in Development Cooperation," Transaction Publishers, December 30, 2011

�⁷ Alan Kurdi was a three-year-old Syrianboy whose image made global headlines after he drowned on 2 September 2015 in the Mediterranean Sea. He and his family were Syrian refugees trying to reach Europe amid the European refugee crisis. Photographs of his body quickly spread around the world, prompting international responses.

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migration, including recruitment fees, document procurement and checking and pro�ciency testing among others are often extremely high. A reduction in these costs would certainly bene�t the migrant herself as also the source country where a larger proportion of remittances can be sent back. The linkages between migration and development have been indirectly acknowledged with the help of this indicator. However, indicator 10.7.2 for measuring progress is as vague as the underlying target itself. This indicator recommends looking at the number of countries that have implemented 'well-managed migration policies' but offers no further information on what exactly is meant by this. This is a Tier III indicator which is a category of indicators whose measurement is rendered difficult by the lack of an established methodology/standards or for which methodology and standards are under development.

The International Organization for Migration (IOM) is a custodian agency for indicator 10.7.2 and is in the process of �eld testing a ' Migration Governance Index,' - an input-based benchmarking framework to track progress in relation to the key requisite of target 10.7- which it developed in collaboration with the Economist Intelligence Unit. This was designed as a �exible tool with over 70 indicators grouped under 6 different dimensions of migration governance. Now that research has been concluded in 15 pilot countries, the IOM will be replicating the exercise in 100 countries. To do this, the IOM is involving stakeholders in consultations through the GFMD and the IOM council. In light of the ambiguity with which Target 10.7 and indicator 10.7.2 have been de�ned, engagement with the IOM offers a good opportunity to ensure that at national and regional levels, robust pointers that go beyond the mandate of the SDG agenda for ensuring cohesive and holistic migration policies are developed. This is crucial because in its current form, the SDGs and indicators that have been developed to measure progress on them make no mention of issues related to the mobility of human resources such as streamlining and simplifying pathways and processes to support responsive migration and �exible, market driven movement of people, visa deregulation, increased transparency in employment visa granting processes and simpli�cation of procedures to assist more productive movement of people to deliver economic bene�ts for both sending and receiving countries. The SDGs offered an opportunity to include more explicit commitments to expanding regular channels of migration which has been missed. A stronger case for migration could have been made by including more speci�cs in the Agenda around the levels of migration, skills portability and mutual recognition of quali�cations, portability of social security, �nancial inclusion and ways to ensure that migrants can easily remit money back home, diaspora engagement, and efforts to promote social integration and end discrimination. The text is, however, silent on these issues. A reference is made to 'well-managed migration policies' but what this should look like has not been �eshed out. That such a policy should ensure that the country's need for talent can be met through greater mobility has not been clearly stated.

Migration's transformative nature as a means for implementing and �nancing sustainable development has not been acknowledged the post 2015-Agenda. This is not surprising in light of the broader context in which the Agenda was drafted. Discussions on the global goals began in 2013,a time when large swathes of refugees from the Mediterranean, the Andaman Sea and the Gulf of Aden had started entering Europe. This in�ux of refugees in Europe, particularly asylum seekers from Syria, mistakenly referred to as a 'migrant crisis' has brought an intense spotlight to

migration, typically in a negative light (though, media attention has also contributed to recognizing the vulnerability of forced migrants). Since the beginning of this crisis, reactionary politics and anti-immigrant sentiments have been on the rise in large parts of the western world. Recent developments like the Brexit are proof of that. Branding the situation as a 'migrant' crisis has also resulted in very little understanding of the differentiation between refugees, who are forced to �ee from their country of origin because of a fear of persecution, and economic migrants who move voluntarily. Unfortunately, both kinds of movement have earned a bad reputation for themselves. The surge in anti-immigrant sentiment in developed European countries can perhaps also be attributed to the state of their economy which hasn't completely recovered since the global �nancial crisis. In most EU countries, pro-immigration policies to enhance knowledge capital and innovation were encouraged during their period of growth. These have, however, been halted in the aftermath of the �nancial crisis and a reversion to 'domestic workers �rst' kind of thinking is taking over.�⁵ Many destination countries have resorted to measures to tighten visa requirements for some categories of migrants, reducing the numbers of temporary admissions, and strengthening compliance and enforcement mechanisms to reduce the burden of irregular migrants on local economies in the recent past.

Study after study has shown that talent mobility can accrue bene�ts for both sending and receiving countries. Research also suggests that measures aimed at restricitng migration, which do not take into account labour market needs and family ties result in more irregular migration, impose high costs and are likely to be ineffective.�⁶ All this evidence has been ignored to perpetuate a politics of fear and xenophobia in many industrialized countries, which are generally the recipients of workers. Migration has always been a contentious issue for sending and receiving countries and disagreements in policy objectives from both sides are abundant. It is for this reason that no formal, binding commitments or processes to agree on global migration policies and governance structures exist. However, the issue has become particularly sensitive and controversial over the course of the last couple of years, which co-indices with the time period during which meetings to decide upon the SDGs were held. At the same time, increased attention to the issue and coverage of incidents like the death of Alan Kurdi�⁷, have made migration an issue that is extremely difficult to ignore. This context can help us understand the reasons for the inclusion of migration in the Sustainable Development Agenda, particularly its protection related aspects, as well as the equivocal language of Target 10.7 and the ambiguous stance on mobility.

�⁵ "Employers' Role and In�uence in Migration: A Literature Review," New Zealand Department of Immigration, Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment, April 2013. http://www.mbie.govt.nz/publications-research/research/migrants---settlement/employers%20role%20and%20in�uence%20in%20migration-lit-review.pdf

�⁶ Rober Piccioto and Rachel Weaving ed., "Impact of Rich Countries' Policies on Poor Countries: Towards a Level Playing Field in Development Cooperation," Transaction Publishers, December 30, 2011

�⁷ Alan Kurdi was a three-year-old Syrianboy whose image made global headlines after he drowned on 2 September 2015 in the Mediterranean Sea. He and his family were Syrian refugees trying to reach Europe amid the European refugee crisis. Photographs of his body quickly spread around the world, prompting international responses.

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Way forward5The 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda, in its capacity as an overarching development

framework within which to design, implement and monitor national migration policies, could have included more concrete propositions for talent mobility and provided a better

sense of direction to countries with regards to mainstreaming of migration into their policies and programmes. Although the Agenda has not been able to do this to the extent required, it is important to not belittle the progress that has been made by a mere inclusion of some migration relevant targets. This is a signi�cant step forward. Now that the SDGs have been de�ned and indicators for measuring progress have largely been agreed upon, the responsibility for implementing the goals and identifying additional indicators focused on measurable outcomes is with Member States. At this point, it is vital for Member States, including India, to treat the Agenda as guidelines for de�ning its development plans, but at the same time prioritizing migration in its policies and going further than the goals to ensure that maximum bene�ts of migration are secured. Better harmonization of employment, social protection, and migration policies with development planning is crucial. National level plans and indicators can be utilized to address issues that are not fully captured by the SDGs but are nonetheless crucial. It is also crucial for businesses to take a lead an engage in policy discussions on talent mobility. Migration is still viewed as an issue that lies strictly within the prerogatives of the sovereign state. Certainly, national governments have a big role to play, in setting the terms of their emigration and immigration policies. However, very often, national policy is informed by a public discourse which isn't necessarily based on economic realities and lived experiences. Businesses have been left out of the conversation even though ultimately they have the maximum capacity for impacting how macro level migration policy translates into the everyday life of migrants. Cross-sectoral collaboration between the private and public sector is crucial for harnessing the positive contributions of migration to sustainable development.

The role for Industry

l It is important for the Industry to advocate business friendly policies to that facilitatemobility of labour, skills and talent. Business and Industry have been reticent to enter the migration debate even though international migration and mobility of skills impacts them in myriad ways. In particular, businesses are impacted as end-user employers and as companies with complex issues related to recruitment and employment within their value chains. Protectionist policies in countries of destination, and paternalistic policies in countries of origin make hiring migrant workers more difficult, cumbersome, and

unpredictable. Businesses need to engage more actively in the policy making process. Businesses as employers are faced with innumerable challenges in hiring migrant workers including the complexity and diversity of migration laws and policies; inconsistent or opaque practices in occupational licensing, certi�cation, accreditation and registration; differences in occupational standards among others.�⁸ It is imperative for private sector actors to voice their concerns and take coordinated and collective action on critical issues of interest.

l The private sector is also well positioned to speak empirically about the bene�ts of migration and rebrand the image of labour migration. Popular perceptions of migration are currently dictated by a discourse propagating the fear of the 'other'. Businesses can help replace this with a more positive, realistic and rational outlook.�⁹

l Industry can also contribute to the creation of empirical labour market information systems – Industry has employers have considerable knowledge about demand for and supply of skills. This can be utilized to facilitate better skill matching across borders. To do this, big data tools and advanced databases can be exploited along with social media and other routes for dissemination of information for enhancing the effectiveness of labour markets and reducing information asymmetries.

l Businesses can also improve their own practices to harness the contributions of migration for sustainable development, while simultaneously enhancing protection of migrant workers. One way to do this is by employing fair and ethical recruitment practices. Ethical recruitment not only allows businesses to act as upholders of morality, but endows many reputational dividends on companies. In a fair recruitment has the potential for monetization in a similar fashion as has been done by Fairtrade and other 'ethical' brands. Additionally, companies can cover migration expenses, such as visa and passport costs. Although, this would increase upfront costs, in the long term this would create a more nurturing environment, raise employee retention rates, improve the image of the company and help it gain a good reputation. The positive reverberations of these measures must not be underestimated. According to research, employee perceptions of sustainable corporate citizenship leads to higher trust levels, which in turn results in greater employee engagement and better job performance.�⁰

l As employers, businesses can also help improve integration outcomes for migrants by providing support in the form of cross-cultural training, diversity awareness, settlement support, translation, interpretation and language, literacy and numeracy programmes, mentorship schemes and ongoing training.They can also help provide decent services in key domains such as relocation adjustment, insurance and affordable remittances and ensure that the workplace environment is diverse and inclusive, thereby contributing to better local integration of migrant workers

�⁸ GMG�⁹ Ibid �⁰ Ibid

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Way forward5The 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda, in its capacity as an overarching development

framework within which to design, implement and monitor national migration policies, could have included more concrete propositions for talent mobility and provided a better

sense of direction to countries with regards to mainstreaming of migration into their policies and programmes. Although the Agenda has not been able to do this to the extent required, it is important to not belittle the progress that has been made by a mere inclusion of some migration relevant targets. This is a signi�cant step forward. Now that the SDGs have been de�ned and indicators for measuring progress have largely been agreed upon, the responsibility for implementing the goals and identifying additional indicators focused on measurable outcomes is with Member States. At this point, it is vital for Member States, including India, to treat the Agenda as guidelines for de�ning its development plans, but at the same time prioritizing migration in its policies and going further than the goals to ensure that maximum bene�ts of migration are secured. Better harmonization of employment, social protection, and migration policies with development planning is crucial. National level plans and indicators can be utilized to address issues that are not fully captured by the SDGs but are nonetheless crucial. It is also crucial for businesses to take a lead an engage in policy discussions on talent mobility. Migration is still viewed as an issue that lies strictly within the prerogatives of the sovereign state. Certainly, national governments have a big role to play, in setting the terms of their emigration and immigration policies. However, very often, national policy is informed by a public discourse which isn't necessarily based on economic realities and lived experiences. Businesses have been left out of the conversation even though ultimately they have the maximum capacity for impacting how macro level migration policy translates into the everyday life of migrants. Cross-sectoral collaboration between the private and public sector is crucial for harnessing the positive contributions of migration to sustainable development.

The role for Industry

l It is important for the Industry to advocate business friendly policies to that facilitatemobility of labour, skills and talent. Business and Industry have been reticent to enter the migration debate even though international migration and mobility of skills impacts them in myriad ways. In particular, businesses are impacted as end-user employers and as companies with complex issues related to recruitment and employment within their value chains. Protectionist policies in countries of destination, and paternalistic policies in countries of origin make hiring migrant workers more difficult, cumbersome, and

unpredictable. Businesses need to engage more actively in the policy making process. Businesses as employers are faced with innumerable challenges in hiring migrant workers including the complexity and diversity of migration laws and policies; inconsistent or opaque practices in occupational licensing, certi�cation, accreditation and registration; differences in occupational standards among others.�⁸ It is imperative for private sector actors to voice their concerns and take coordinated and collective action on critical issues of interest.

l The private sector is also well positioned to speak empirically about the bene�ts of migration and rebrand the image of labour migration. Popular perceptions of migration are currently dictated by a discourse propagating the fear of the 'other'. Businesses can help replace this with a more positive, realistic and rational outlook.�⁹

l Industry can also contribute to the creation of empirical labour market information systems – Industry has employers have considerable knowledge about demand for and supply of skills. This can be utilized to facilitate better skill matching across borders. To do this, big data tools and advanced databases can be exploited along with social media and other routes for dissemination of information for enhancing the effectiveness of labour markets and reducing information asymmetries.

l Businesses can also improve their own practices to harness the contributions of migration for sustainable development, while simultaneously enhancing protection of migrant workers. One way to do this is by employing fair and ethical recruitment practices. Ethical recruitment not only allows businesses to act as upholders of morality, but endows many reputational dividends on companies. In a fair recruitment has the potential for monetization in a similar fashion as has been done by Fairtrade and other 'ethical' brands. Additionally, companies can cover migration expenses, such as visa and passport costs. Although, this would increase upfront costs, in the long term this would create a more nurturing environment, raise employee retention rates, improve the image of the company and help it gain a good reputation. The positive reverberations of these measures must not be underestimated. According to research, employee perceptions of sustainable corporate citizenship leads to higher trust levels, which in turn results in greater employee engagement and better job performance.�⁰

l As employers, businesses can also help improve integration outcomes for migrants by providing support in the form of cross-cultural training, diversity awareness, settlement support, translation, interpretation and language, literacy and numeracy programmes, mentorship schemes and ongoing training.They can also help provide decent services in key domains such as relocation adjustment, insurance and affordable remittances and ensure that the workplace environment is diverse and inclusive, thereby contributing to better local integration of migrant workers

�⁸ GMG�⁹ Ibid �⁰ Ibid

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Role for Governments

l States must ensure that commitments outlined in the 2030 Agenda are translated into concrete actions. Despite its shortcomings, the adoption of the sustainable development goals with targets related to migration should serve as an impetus for governments to introduce effective migration policies that are strongly anchored in human rights and to mainstream migration relevant targets into national development plans and frameworks. Well thought out policies can play an enormous role in lowering the social and �nancial costs of migration, while safeguarding the rights of migrants and increasing bene�ts for both countries of origin and destination. Some measures that can be taken to meet migration relevant targets include:

On Targets 5.2, 8.7 and 16.2 to counter human traffickingn

Trafficking is an enormous malaise plaguing the world and the importance of targets to reduce the number of persons who fall victim to human trafficking, particularly women and children, cannot be overstated. The solution to trafficking and irregular migration is usually sought in law enforcement activities by countries. Unfortunately, counter-smuggling measures often criminalize irregular migration and allow for unnecessary detention, thereby heightening the vulnerability of migrants. What might be more effective is measures to check recruitment agencies; sharing of databases on trafficking; dissemination of information on the human rights of migrants before, during and after the migration process; adoption as well as effective implementation of key conventions and international human rights and labour standards, and more channels for regular migration and regularization of irregular status in speci�ed instances.��

On Target 8.8 to protect rights and promote safe and secure working environments for l

migrant workers:

Large numbers of migrant workers across the world are faced with sub-standard working conditions. This is especially true for women migrant workers employed in sectors where the wages are low, employment is precarious and conditions of work are poor. Actions that can be taken to address this problem include adoption and application of international labour standards on migrant workers and rigid enforcement by means of targeted inspections; educational outreach, employer training and support on application of these labour standards; increased cooperation on portability of social security and bene�ts; pre-departure orientation training and skill development programmes for outgoing workers; enhanced skills portability and and initiatives for fair and ethical recruitment.

On Target 10.7 on planned and well managed migration policiesl

Guidance on how this target can be translated into a reality can be sought from the indicators that have been adopted to assess advancement here. Indicator 10.7.1 recommends measuring recruitment costs borne by employees as a percentage of their annual income thereby suggesting that a reduction in these costs can be used as a potential marker for more sensitized migration policy. In addition to recruitment fees, migration also involves costs of documents like passport, visa and work permits, medical checkup and expenditure on skills and pro�ciency testing. Together these can amount to even a whole year or more's foreign earning in some corridors.�� Reducing recruitment as well as additional costs will result in enhanced remittances and also protection since often times those who take debts to pay these are more unlikely to complain out of fear of getting sent home early. Steps that can be taken to achieve this include regulation and monitoring of recruitment practices, educating migrants about their rights, and cooperation between sending and receiving countries.

On Target 10.c to reduce costs of transmitting remittances n

High costs of remittance transactions rob migrants and their families back in their home countries of signi�cant proportions of their income, which are often low to start off with. According to World Bank data, a reduction in the cost of sending remittances by 5 percentage points relative to the value sent, would result in an additional $16 billion ending up in the hands of recipients in developing countries. This in turn could help enhance consumption, savings and investment in local economies.�� In order to meet the commitments laid out in the 2030 Agenda, governments can look into introducing and monitoring cost ceilings, making �nancial services accessible and affordable; promoting �nancial inclusion and literacy; introducing innovative ways to address obstacles to �ows of remittances while subscribing to rules and standards on anti-money laundering and �nancing of terrorism; and promoting cheaper, faster and safer transfers with the help of new and innovative technology.

On Target 17.18 to enhance capacity of developing countries to collect reliable data n

disaggregated by migratory status

High quality, timely and reliable data is crucial for developing informed migration policies and for evaluating progress achieved in migration governance. Steps that can be taken to develop capacity of countries for collecting, processing, analyzing and disseminating data include allocation of resources and provision of technical support for adapting international statistical standards and methodologies on disaggregated data relevant to migration, including data on employment, labour market participation, skills and

�� GMG Discussion Paper on Migration in Post 2015 Agenda, 2015 �� "UN: SDGs, Recruitment," Rural Migration News, Volume 21, Number 4, October 2015.https://migration.ucdavis.edu/rmn/more.php?id=1930

�� "Remittance Prices Worldwide," The World Bank.https://remittanceprices.worldbank.org/en/about-remittance-prices-worldwide

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Role for Governments

l States must ensure that commitments outlined in the 2030 Agenda are translated into concrete actions. Despite its shortcomings, the adoption of the sustainable development goals with targets related to migration should serve as an impetus for governments to introduce effective migration policies that are strongly anchored in human rights and to mainstream migration relevant targets into national development plans and frameworks. Well thought out policies can play an enormous role in lowering the social and �nancial costs of migration, while safeguarding the rights of migrants and increasing bene�ts for both countries of origin and destination. Some measures that can be taken to meet migration relevant targets include:

On Targets 5.2, 8.7 and 16.2 to counter human traffickingn

Trafficking is an enormous malaise plaguing the world and the importance of targets to reduce the number of persons who fall victim to human trafficking, particularly women and children, cannot be overstated. The solution to trafficking and irregular migration is usually sought in law enforcement activities by countries. Unfortunately, counter-smuggling measures often criminalize irregular migration and allow for unnecessary detention, thereby heightening the vulnerability of migrants. What might be more effective is measures to check recruitment agencies; sharing of databases on trafficking; dissemination of information on the human rights of migrants before, during and after the migration process; adoption as well as effective implementation of key conventions and international human rights and labour standards, and more channels for regular migration and regularization of irregular status in speci�ed instances.��

On Target 8.8 to protect rights and promote safe and secure working environments for l

migrant workers:

Large numbers of migrant workers across the world are faced with sub-standard working conditions. This is especially true for women migrant workers employed in sectors where the wages are low, employment is precarious and conditions of work are poor. Actions that can be taken to address this problem include adoption and application of international labour standards on migrant workers and rigid enforcement by means of targeted inspections; educational outreach, employer training and support on application of these labour standards; increased cooperation on portability of social security and bene�ts; pre-departure orientation training and skill development programmes for outgoing workers; enhanced skills portability and and initiatives for fair and ethical recruitment.

On Target 10.7 on planned and well managed migration policiesl

Guidance on how this target can be translated into a reality can be sought from the indicators that have been adopted to assess advancement here. Indicator 10.7.1 recommends measuring recruitment costs borne by employees as a percentage of their annual income thereby suggesting that a reduction in these costs can be used as a potential marker for more sensitized migration policy. In addition to recruitment fees, migration also involves costs of documents like passport, visa and work permits, medical checkup and expenditure on skills and pro�ciency testing. Together these can amount to even a whole year or more's foreign earning in some corridors.�� Reducing recruitment as well as additional costs will result in enhanced remittances and also protection since often times those who take debts to pay these are more unlikely to complain out of fear of getting sent home early. Steps that can be taken to achieve this include regulation and monitoring of recruitment practices, educating migrants about their rights, and cooperation between sending and receiving countries.

On Target 10.c to reduce costs of transmitting remittances n

High costs of remittance transactions rob migrants and their families back in their home countries of signi�cant proportions of their income, which are often low to start off with. According to World Bank data, a reduction in the cost of sending remittances by 5 percentage points relative to the value sent, would result in an additional $16 billion ending up in the hands of recipients in developing countries. This in turn could help enhance consumption, savings and investment in local economies.�� In order to meet the commitments laid out in the 2030 Agenda, governments can look into introducing and monitoring cost ceilings, making �nancial services accessible and affordable; promoting �nancial inclusion and literacy; introducing innovative ways to address obstacles to �ows of remittances while subscribing to rules and standards on anti-money laundering and �nancing of terrorism; and promoting cheaper, faster and safer transfers with the help of new and innovative technology.

On Target 17.18 to enhance capacity of developing countries to collect reliable data n

disaggregated by migratory status

High quality, timely and reliable data is crucial for developing informed migration policies and for evaluating progress achieved in migration governance. Steps that can be taken to develop capacity of countries for collecting, processing, analyzing and disseminating data include allocation of resources and provision of technical support for adapting international statistical standards and methodologies on disaggregated data relevant to migration, including data on employment, labour market participation, skills and

�� GMG Discussion Paper on Migration in Post 2015 Agenda, 2015 �� "UN: SDGs, Recruitment," Rural Migration News, Volume 21, Number 4, October 2015.https://migration.ucdavis.edu/rmn/more.php?id=1930

�� "Remittance Prices Worldwide," The World Bank.https://remittanceprices.worldbank.org/en/about-remittance-prices-worldwide

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education, economic development cooperation's, social protection and integration of migrants. Technical agencies with experience in this arena, such as the ILO and the IOM can contribute signi�cantly to accomplishing this objective.

l States must also go a step further to account for allied issues that are not fully captured by the agenda but are nonetheless crucial to achieving sustainable development. This is crucial, particularly with regards to Target 10.7 which, as discussed above, is more ambiguous than the other targets. Innovative policies, legislation and models are required to tap into the vast potential of labour and talent mobility for development. These policies must be progressive and embedded in thorough research and analysis of ground realities. They should be forward looking and strike a careful balance between protecting migrant workers, keeping their competitiveness in the global marketplace intact and simultaneously allowing for movement to take place in accordance with market demand. It makes economic sense to open up legal channels and opportunities for regular migration. Possible measures in this direction include:

Making employment of migrants more responsive to employer, trade union and employer l

association feedback. Countries rely on various mechanisms such as caps or quotas, labour market tests, watertight de�nitions of source countries and sectors, and admission ceilings to limit the number of immigrant workers in the country. While steps to ensure that domestic labour markets are not impacted negatively are valid, it would be useful to make systems more �exible in response to needs of business and Industry.

Reducing system complexity by ensuring faster processing and by providing information. l

Micro level initiatives for this could include establishment of fast tracking processes, increasing system �exibility, and streamlining and harmonization of visa procedures. Further, guidance can be provided to employers on the recruitment process.

Improving conditions for job matching. This can be done by collecting and providing high-n

quality, sector-based labour market information which is internationally accessible; and facilitating quali�cation recognition and document checking.

Improving integration outcomes for immigrants in countries of destination. To accomplish n

this objective, mentorship programmes and literacy and language training programmes can be put in place. Initiatives to spread a positive message on migration so as to combat xenophobia and facilitate social integration can be considered.

Partnerships with different countries. Bilateral and multilateral partnerships on mobility, n

and circular migration support must be established to facilitate regular movement of people.�⁴ Some economic models suggest that partnerships to enhance circular migration and legal alternatives to irregular migration would result in gains surpassing

the bene�ts from partnerships on other targets on the 2030 Agenda like trade liberalization and action against tax evasion.�⁵

l States must identify and develop indicators for measuring outcomes on migration relevant targets.

Indicators are the backbone of monitoring SDGs at the local, national and global levels. At the global level, the UN, through the United Nations Statistical Commission's Interagency and Experts Group on SDG indicators (IAEA-SDGs) – constituted by the national statistical offices of 28 UN member States and UN agencies- has proposed a set 0f 230 individual indicators to monitor the 17 sustainable development goals and 169 targets. Comprehensive as this list is, it is not exhaustive. It is work in progress which will evolve as “re�nements and improvements will be needed over the years, as knowledge improves and new tools and data sources become available.�⁸”Additionally, it has been left up to countries to develop any additional indicators through wider consultation, taking into account national realities, circumstances and priorities.

Countries must ensure that the migration relevant targets are not orphaned and that appropriate indicators and monitoring mechanisms for measuring progress on these are either adapted or developed in accordance with the national contexts. Adoption of additional indicators can be an effective mechanism for �lling in the gaps in migration relevant commitments in the 2030 Agenda.

Additional indicators could include�⁷

1. The proportion of migrants covered by agreements on the portability of social security bene�ts

2. The number of countries concluding bilateral agreements for the recognition of education/quali�cations, skills/competencies

3. Share of migrant workers whose foreign quali�cations are recognized by the national authorities

4. Number of countries having adopted procedures for recognition of prior learning;

5. Number of persons who have received recognition of prior learning (by sector, pro�le and gender)

6. Financial inclusion of migrant workers and their family members

7. Reduction in the average time it takes to receive documentation; proportion of migrants that return on the completion of their contracts (not returning prematurely, not absconding and not overstaying)

�⁴ Employers' Role and In�uence on Migration, Government of New Zealand Report

�⁵ "Why & How Migration Should Be Included in the Post-2015 United Nations Development Agenda," UN Special Representative for International Migration's Informal Working Group, December 1, 2013 http://www.globalmigrationgroup.org/sites/default/�les/uploads/hld/Background-Paper_Why-and-How-Migration-should-be-Included-in-the-post-2015.pdf

�⁶ “Provisional Proposed Tiers for Global SDG Indicators,” discussion document for the 3rd IAEG-SDG meeting, March 2016�⁷ ILO Brief on Labour Migration and the 2030 Agenda (Draft prepared by the ILO DWT Delhi and DWT Bangkok), October 2016

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education, economic development cooperation's, social protection and integration of migrants. Technical agencies with experience in this arena, such as the ILO and the IOM can contribute signi�cantly to accomplishing this objective.

l States must also go a step further to account for allied issues that are not fully captured by the agenda but are nonetheless crucial to achieving sustainable development. This is crucial, particularly with regards to Target 10.7 which, as discussed above, is more ambiguous than the other targets. Innovative policies, legislation and models are required to tap into the vast potential of labour and talent mobility for development. These policies must be progressive and embedded in thorough research and analysis of ground realities. They should be forward looking and strike a careful balance between protecting migrant workers, keeping their competitiveness in the global marketplace intact and simultaneously allowing for movement to take place in accordance with market demand. It makes economic sense to open up legal channels and opportunities for regular migration. Possible measures in this direction include:

Making employment of migrants more responsive to employer, trade union and employer l

association feedback. Countries rely on various mechanisms such as caps or quotas, labour market tests, watertight de�nitions of source countries and sectors, and admission ceilings to limit the number of immigrant workers in the country. While steps to ensure that domestic labour markets are not impacted negatively are valid, it would be useful to make systems more �exible in response to needs of business and Industry.

Reducing system complexity by ensuring faster processing and by providing information. l

Micro level initiatives for this could include establishment of fast tracking processes, increasing system �exibility, and streamlining and harmonization of visa procedures. Further, guidance can be provided to employers on the recruitment process.

Improving conditions for job matching. This can be done by collecting and providing high-n

quality, sector-based labour market information which is internationally accessible; and facilitating quali�cation recognition and document checking.

Improving integration outcomes for immigrants in countries of destination. To accomplish n

this objective, mentorship programmes and literacy and language training programmes can be put in place. Initiatives to spread a positive message on migration so as to combat xenophobia and facilitate social integration can be considered.

Partnerships with different countries. Bilateral and multilateral partnerships on mobility, n

and circular migration support must be established to facilitate regular movement of people.�⁴ Some economic models suggest that partnerships to enhance circular migration and legal alternatives to irregular migration would result in gains surpassing

the bene�ts from partnerships on other targets on the 2030 Agenda like trade liberalization and action against tax evasion.�⁵

l States must identify and develop indicators for measuring outcomes on migration relevant targets.

Indicators are the backbone of monitoring SDGs at the local, national and global levels. At the global level, the UN, through the United Nations Statistical Commission's Interagency and Experts Group on SDG indicators (IAEA-SDGs) – constituted by the national statistical offices of 28 UN member States and UN agencies- has proposed a set 0f 230 individual indicators to monitor the 17 sustainable development goals and 169 targets. Comprehensive as this list is, it is not exhaustive. It is work in progress which will evolve as “re�nements and improvements will be needed over the years, as knowledge improves and new tools and data sources become available.�⁸”Additionally, it has been left up to countries to develop any additional indicators through wider consultation, taking into account national realities, circumstances and priorities.

Countries must ensure that the migration relevant targets are not orphaned and that appropriate indicators and monitoring mechanisms for measuring progress on these are either adapted or developed in accordance with the national contexts. Adoption of additional indicators can be an effective mechanism for �lling in the gaps in migration relevant commitments in the 2030 Agenda.

Additional indicators could include�⁷

1. The proportion of migrants covered by agreements on the portability of social security bene�ts

2. The number of countries concluding bilateral agreements for the recognition of education/quali�cations, skills/competencies

3. Share of migrant workers whose foreign quali�cations are recognized by the national authorities

4. Number of countries having adopted procedures for recognition of prior learning;

5. Number of persons who have received recognition of prior learning (by sector, pro�le and gender)

6. Financial inclusion of migrant workers and their family members

7. Reduction in the average time it takes to receive documentation; proportion of migrants that return on the completion of their contracts (not returning prematurely, not absconding and not overstaying)

�⁴ Employers' Role and In�uence on Migration, Government of New Zealand Report

�⁵ "Why & How Migration Should Be Included in the Post-2015 United Nations Development Agenda," UN Special Representative for International Migration's Informal Working Group, December 1, 2013 http://www.globalmigrationgroup.org/sites/default/�les/uploads/hld/Background-Paper_Why-and-How-Migration-should-be-Included-in-the-post-2015.pdf

�⁶ “Provisional Proposed Tiers for Global SDG Indicators,” discussion document for the 3rd IAEG-SDG meeting, March 2016�⁷ ILO Brief on Labour Migration and the 2030 Agenda (Draft prepared by the ILO DWT Delhi and DWT Bangkok), October 2016

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st try and build strong partnerships for achieving the 2030 Agenda. No single country can address the challenges of migration singularly. Responsibility sharing and resilient partnerships are crucial for promoting well-managed migration. Progress on legal opportunities for expanding labour migration, ensuring safe and digni�ed return of migrants, reducing cost of remittance transfers, increasing mobility with the help of circulation friendly visa policies and tracking and engagement of diaspora etc. cannot be made without collaboration between countries of origin and destination. New transnational mobility regimes and migration and cooperation schemes need to be established.

Possible Policy/Strategy Directions for India

It is a widely accepted view that migration is going to continue to grow in scale in response to powerful underlying global forces. This is particularly true for India, which is already an extremely important country of origin, transit and destination. The country accounts for 28 million migrants abroad and is the world's largest recipient of remittances. This number is likely to go up in light of India's demographic surplus and rising unemployment juxtaposed with aging populations and labour and skill shortages across the industrialized world. Emigration, in particular, is going to be important for India over the course of the next two decades because of its demographic structure which will lead to an increase in its share of young, productive workers, with not enough jobs to �ll within the country. Already, more numbers of women workers in the healthcare, hospitality and household sectors, and high skilled migrants to diverse destination have been moving out of India. Even if as a percentage of the total population, the number of emigrants out of India is not too high, the absolute numbers of those who can bene�t from overseas employment will not be insubstantial in the near future. �⁸India is also a major destination country and country of transit for many nationalities. Migration is both driving and has been driven by the development process in the country. However, migration has not been cohesively woven into the overarching development vision of the country. Issues surrounding immigration into India have garnered even lesser attention over the years with an almost exclusive focus on emigration.

l A cohesive policy framework is required to draw the maximum bene�ts from migration

India does not have a clearly articulated migration policy and there is no acknowledgement of the role of migration as a whole in development plans. Policy instruments dealing with speci�c components, such as diaspora and remittances exist but an integrated and coherent approach has not been taken. The existence of a department on Overseas Indian Affairs within the Ministry of External Affairs, dedicated exclusively to dealing with matters related to the diaspora, has helped make signi�cant progress on engagement with the overseas migrant community. On the other hand, movement out of the country is still governed by the Emigration Act of 1983 which is outdated and unable to address current day challenges

effectively. It gives precedence to exit controls as the method for ensuring safety and welfare of Indians going abroad. This approach has not only failed to accomplish its desired outcomes, but has also added to the existing burdens faced by the person wishing to migrate. There is an urgent need to adopt holistic interventions that aim to secure the bene�ts of migration and protect workers in more innovative, rather than paternalist ways.

India requires a cohesive national policy on migration, as prescribed by Target 10.7 of the SDGs, which is progressive and embedded in thorough research and analysis of ground realities. Such a policy will have need to be forward looking and strike a careful balance between protecting Indian emigrants, keeping their competitiveness in the global marketplace intact and simultaneously respecting the sovereignty of destination countries. There are many stages in the migration cycle, from pre-decision to move to return and reintegration and a broad overarching policy to provide guidance on the governance of all these aspects is required.International migration holds strategic importance for India and must not be relegated to disjointed interventions. At the same time, a policy framework for guiding immigration into India is in order.

Involvement of key stakeholders, who have so far been excluded from the policy making processes, is crucial for India to enhance its migration governance capacities. States, local governments, private sector and civil society, as well migrant workers themselves, must be included in the formulation of any plans of action for the future. States are the theatre of action on migration but are not included in the formulation of rules on emigration and immigration processes. States are also ultimately the ones responsible for implementing the SDGs. Their involvement in policymaking is crucial especially since many of their regulations on state subjects such as police, labour, women and child development, and the like have a bearing on migrants but are often at loggerheads or inadequately linked with Central policies on migration.

l Mainstreaming of Migration into development plans and programmes is key

The NITI Aayog, which is coordinating the implementation of SDGs, can ensure that targets around migration are not orphaned and are accorded the priority they deserve. The institute is in the process of formulating a vision and strategy document as a roadmap for development programmes in the country for the next 15 years. The resulting document will illustrate how India will approach the global goals and translate them into nationally relevant targets. Since the work on this is still underway, there exists an enormous opportunity to mainstream migration relevant targets and weave them into the development strategies that are adopted in the near future. The document should ideally contain clear policy goals on all aspects of migration including the ones identi�ed in the SDGs as well as any contextually speci�c priorities for India such as skill development, certi�cation and standardization to facilitate skills portability across borders; brain circulation; temporary migration schemes; facilitation of remittance transfers; diaspora engagement; reintegration of returnees; improving data collection and easing mobility in accordance with market realities alongside �⁸ Gollerkeri and Chhabra, Migration Matters

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st try and build strong partnerships for achieving the 2030 Agenda. No single country can address the challenges of migration singularly. Responsibility sharing and resilient partnerships are crucial for promoting well-managed migration. Progress on legal opportunities for expanding labour migration, ensuring safe and digni�ed return of migrants, reducing cost of remittance transfers, increasing mobility with the help of circulation friendly visa policies and tracking and engagement of diaspora etc. cannot be made without collaboration between countries of origin and destination. New transnational mobility regimes and migration and cooperation schemes need to be established.

Possible Policy/Strategy Directions for India

It is a widely accepted view that migration is going to continue to grow in scale in response to powerful underlying global forces. This is particularly true for India, which is already an extremely important country of origin, transit and destination. The country accounts for 28 million migrants abroad and is the world's largest recipient of remittances. This number is likely to go up in light of India's demographic surplus and rising unemployment juxtaposed with aging populations and labour and skill shortages across the industrialized world. Emigration, in particular, is going to be important for India over the course of the next two decades because of its demographic structure which will lead to an increase in its share of young, productive workers, with not enough jobs to �ll within the country. Already, more numbers of women workers in the healthcare, hospitality and household sectors, and high skilled migrants to diverse destination have been moving out of India. Even if as a percentage of the total population, the number of emigrants out of India is not too high, the absolute numbers of those who can bene�t from overseas employment will not be insubstantial in the near future. �⁸India is also a major destination country and country of transit for many nationalities. Migration is both driving and has been driven by the development process in the country. However, migration has not been cohesively woven into the overarching development vision of the country. Issues surrounding immigration into India have garnered even lesser attention over the years with an almost exclusive focus on emigration.

l A cohesive policy framework is required to draw the maximum bene�ts from migration

India does not have a clearly articulated migration policy and there is no acknowledgement of the role of migration as a whole in development plans. Policy instruments dealing with speci�c components, such as diaspora and remittances exist but an integrated and coherent approach has not been taken. The existence of a department on Overseas Indian Affairs within the Ministry of External Affairs, dedicated exclusively to dealing with matters related to the diaspora, has helped make signi�cant progress on engagement with the overseas migrant community. On the other hand, movement out of the country is still governed by the Emigration Act of 1983 which is outdated and unable to address current day challenges

effectively. It gives precedence to exit controls as the method for ensuring safety and welfare of Indians going abroad. This approach has not only failed to accomplish its desired outcomes, but has also added to the existing burdens faced by the person wishing to migrate. There is an urgent need to adopt holistic interventions that aim to secure the bene�ts of migration and protect workers in more innovative, rather than paternalist ways.

India requires a cohesive national policy on migration, as prescribed by Target 10.7 of the SDGs, which is progressive and embedded in thorough research and analysis of ground realities. Such a policy will have need to be forward looking and strike a careful balance between protecting Indian emigrants, keeping their competitiveness in the global marketplace intact and simultaneously respecting the sovereignty of destination countries. There are many stages in the migration cycle, from pre-decision to move to return and reintegration and a broad overarching policy to provide guidance on the governance of all these aspects is required.International migration holds strategic importance for India and must not be relegated to disjointed interventions. At the same time, a policy framework for guiding immigration into India is in order.

Involvement of key stakeholders, who have so far been excluded from the policy making processes, is crucial for India to enhance its migration governance capacities. States, local governments, private sector and civil society, as well migrant workers themselves, must be included in the formulation of any plans of action for the future. States are the theatre of action on migration but are not included in the formulation of rules on emigration and immigration processes. States are also ultimately the ones responsible for implementing the SDGs. Their involvement in policymaking is crucial especially since many of their regulations on state subjects such as police, labour, women and child development, and the like have a bearing on migrants but are often at loggerheads or inadequately linked with Central policies on migration.

l Mainstreaming of Migration into development plans and programmes is key

The NITI Aayog, which is coordinating the implementation of SDGs, can ensure that targets around migration are not orphaned and are accorded the priority they deserve. The institute is in the process of formulating a vision and strategy document as a roadmap for development programmes in the country for the next 15 years. The resulting document will illustrate how India will approach the global goals and translate them into nationally relevant targets. Since the work on this is still underway, there exists an enormous opportunity to mainstream migration relevant targets and weave them into the development strategies that are adopted in the near future. The document should ideally contain clear policy goals on all aspects of migration including the ones identi�ed in the SDGs as well as any contextually speci�c priorities for India such as skill development, certi�cation and standardization to facilitate skills portability across borders; brain circulation; temporary migration schemes; facilitation of remittance transfers; diaspora engagement; reintegration of returnees; improving data collection and easing mobility in accordance with market realities alongside �⁸ Gollerkeri and Chhabra, Migration Matters

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protection mechanisms that work. At the state level, something similar has already been done in Kerala. The Kerala Perspective Plan 2030 contains an entire chapter on Diaspora and Migration Policy (Government of Kerala 2013). The chapter goes into detail about three speci�c categories of migrants: Emigrants from Kerala residing overseas, return emigrants and in-migrants. The main thrust behind this is to create an enabling environment for migrants so as to better harness them as agents of development. Such state level initiatives can be used as best practices for framing migration as a key development issue and mainstreaming it at the national level, as well as for providing guidance to other states which do not have as much experience with migration governance.

Mainstreaming, not only involves interlacing migration in state and national level development policies, but also connotes taking a 'whole of government approach' rather than piecemeal interventions by different departments. Currently, there is very little coordination between development, trade, labour, �nance and migration policies. The NITI Aayog is well placed to ensure more policy coordination and coherence on migration related issues between different departments. Establishment of a cross-institutional policy coordination mechanism could be useful in the regard.

l Articulation of indicators to measure progress on targets related to migration is a requisite

The Ministry of Statistics and Programme implementation can look into how the global indicators for migration relevant targets can be adapted in the Indian context, and which complementary indicators can be developed in line with national realities, circumstances and priorities. Such an exercise would entail a clear articulation of national priorities, which is going to be most challenging for targets such as Target 10.7 which have not been phrased in an unequivocal manner. It would be expedient for the ministry to engage in wider consultations with key stakeholders before embarking on the process of outlining speci�c indicators.

l Protection of emigrants is a priority for India and there is a need to discard measures that have not worked, strengthen those that have and introduce inventive mechanisms for empowering outgoing individuals

The SDG's include quite a few commitments for guaranteeing protection of migrant workers. For India, these goals are vital because stories of fraud and exploitation of emigrants from India, particularly from those moving along the Gulf India corridor, are not uncommon. Typically, it is workers with lower level of skills, who are in temporary contractual employment on sponsorship visas who go these gulf countries. Cases of exploitative practices of intermediaries and subpar working conditions, poor living accommodations, restrictions on freedom, non-payment of salaries, sexual abuse and violence abound. So far, protection against such practices has been sought to be provided within the framework of the Emigration Act, 1983 wherein exit controls are promoted as the primary means for

ensuring welfare of emigrants. As experience shows, this has failed to achieve the desired results. Instead, it is important for India to look into ways for empowering migrant workers and reducing information asymmetries which makes them susceptible to exploitation.�⁹ In addition to the steps already taken by the Department of Overseas Indian Affairs, provisions for protection related activities including, but not limited to, mass awareness campaigns, pre-departure trainings, vigilance over recruitment agents, establishment of grievance redressal mechanisms, analysis of remittance platforms, tracking mechanisms for combating trafficking, helplines in vernacular languages, collection of high quality data, more bilateral Social Security Agreements (SSA) should be looked into.

l India must capitalize on its demographic dividend and utilize migration an opportunity for providing employment and higher incomes to itspopulation

India's demographic dividend coupled with large scale unemployment juxtaposed against structural labour shortages and skills gaps in other parts of the world is an enormous window of opportunity for India to gain �rst mover advantage and position itself as a leading supplier of young, skilled and trained workers. To do this, India has to work on building a workforce that can meet international standards. The government's �agship 'Skill India' programme offers a good occasion to revise educational policies and enhance investment in skills that are required within but also outside the country. This will require a thorough assessment of sectors where India holds a comparative advantage, sectors where skill shortages are anticipated in the near future, and of destination countries with a demand for skills that India might be able to provide in the medium to long term. A skilling programme, grounded in such analysis that is speci�cally aimed at overseas employment will go a long way.⁴⁰ Industry can play a big role in skill development of the Indian youth with a larger aim of promoting 'brain circulation'. Partnerships on skilling wherein the onus for providing �nance and technology to train potential migrants is on developed, recipient countries can prove to be a win-win solution for all since it means more trained people in countries of origin, more quali�ed workers in host countries and enhanced mobility for people themselves.

In addition to skill development, steps to promote standardization, certi�cation and mutual recognition of quali�cations is in order. Active involvement of governments, academic institutions, regulatory bodies and commercial sectors is a prerequisite to make this ambition into a reality.

l Bilateral and regional cooperative agreements

Partnerships to foster human mobility in a manner that is re�ective of current and future needs of the market are essential for allowing more regular �ows of people, increasing the efficiency of labour markets and providing more numbers of people with decent jobs. Bilateral and regional agreements to facilitate mobility of talent and Free Trade Agreements

�⁹ Gollerkeri and Chhabra, Migration Matters⁴⁰ Gollerkeri and Chhabra, Migration Matters

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protection mechanisms that work. At the state level, something similar has already been done in Kerala. The Kerala Perspective Plan 2030 contains an entire chapter on Diaspora and Migration Policy (Government of Kerala 2013). The chapter goes into detail about three speci�c categories of migrants: Emigrants from Kerala residing overseas, return emigrants and in-migrants. The main thrust behind this is to create an enabling environment for migrants so as to better harness them as agents of development. Such state level initiatives can be used as best practices for framing migration as a key development issue and mainstreaming it at the national level, as well as for providing guidance to other states which do not have as much experience with migration governance.

Mainstreaming, not only involves interlacing migration in state and national level development policies, but also connotes taking a 'whole of government approach' rather than piecemeal interventions by different departments. Currently, there is very little coordination between development, trade, labour, �nance and migration policies. The NITI Aayog is well placed to ensure more policy coordination and coherence on migration related issues between different departments. Establishment of a cross-institutional policy coordination mechanism could be useful in the regard.

l Articulation of indicators to measure progress on targets related to migration is a requisite

The Ministry of Statistics and Programme implementation can look into how the global indicators for migration relevant targets can be adapted in the Indian context, and which complementary indicators can be developed in line with national realities, circumstances and priorities. Such an exercise would entail a clear articulation of national priorities, which is going to be most challenging for targets such as Target 10.7 which have not been phrased in an unequivocal manner. It would be expedient for the ministry to engage in wider consultations with key stakeholders before embarking on the process of outlining speci�c indicators.

l Protection of emigrants is a priority for India and there is a need to discard measures that have not worked, strengthen those that have and introduce inventive mechanisms for empowering outgoing individuals

The SDG's include quite a few commitments for guaranteeing protection of migrant workers. For India, these goals are vital because stories of fraud and exploitation of emigrants from India, particularly from those moving along the Gulf India corridor, are not uncommon. Typically, it is workers with lower level of skills, who are in temporary contractual employment on sponsorship visas who go these gulf countries. Cases of exploitative practices of intermediaries and subpar working conditions, poor living accommodations, restrictions on freedom, non-payment of salaries, sexual abuse and violence abound. So far, protection against such practices has been sought to be provided within the framework of the Emigration Act, 1983 wherein exit controls are promoted as the primary means for

ensuring welfare of emigrants. As experience shows, this has failed to achieve the desired results. Instead, it is important for India to look into ways for empowering migrant workers and reducing information asymmetries which makes them susceptible to exploitation.�⁹ In addition to the steps already taken by the Department of Overseas Indian Affairs, provisions for protection related activities including, but not limited to, mass awareness campaigns, pre-departure trainings, vigilance over recruitment agents, establishment of grievance redressal mechanisms, analysis of remittance platforms, tracking mechanisms for combating trafficking, helplines in vernacular languages, collection of high quality data, more bilateral Social Security Agreements (SSA) should be looked into.

l India must capitalize on its demographic dividend and utilize migration an opportunity for providing employment and higher incomes to itspopulation

India's demographic dividend coupled with large scale unemployment juxtaposed against structural labour shortages and skills gaps in other parts of the world is an enormous window of opportunity for India to gain �rst mover advantage and position itself as a leading supplier of young, skilled and trained workers. To do this, India has to work on building a workforce that can meet international standards. The government's �agship 'Skill India' programme offers a good occasion to revise educational policies and enhance investment in skills that are required within but also outside the country. This will require a thorough assessment of sectors where India holds a comparative advantage, sectors where skill shortages are anticipated in the near future, and of destination countries with a demand for skills that India might be able to provide in the medium to long term. A skilling programme, grounded in such analysis that is speci�cally aimed at overseas employment will go a long way.⁴⁰ Industry can play a big role in skill development of the Indian youth with a larger aim of promoting 'brain circulation'. Partnerships on skilling wherein the onus for providing �nance and technology to train potential migrants is on developed, recipient countries can prove to be a win-win solution for all since it means more trained people in countries of origin, more quali�ed workers in host countries and enhanced mobility for people themselves.

In addition to skill development, steps to promote standardization, certi�cation and mutual recognition of quali�cations is in order. Active involvement of governments, academic institutions, regulatory bodies and commercial sectors is a prerequisite to make this ambition into a reality.

l Bilateral and regional cooperative agreements

Partnerships to foster human mobility in a manner that is re�ective of current and future needs of the market are essential for allowing more regular �ows of people, increasing the efficiency of labour markets and providing more numbers of people with decent jobs. Bilateral and regional agreements to facilitate mobility of talent and Free Trade Agreements

�⁹ Gollerkeri and Chhabra, Migration Matters⁴⁰ Gollerkeri and Chhabra, Migration Matters

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and Investment Protection Agreemments with clauses on emigration of Indians for work, entrepreneurship, business and study are crucial for facilitating orderly and safe migration of people in accordance with Target 10.7 of the SDGs and for furthering India's interests.

l Diaspora Engagement

There has been increasing recognition of the contributions of Diaspora communities to their countries of origin. The role that they can play for �nancing the implementation of Sustainable Development Goals must also not be underestimated. Target 10.c. of the 2030 Agenda on reducing costs of remittance transfers is c clear statement designed to maximize the potential dividends from migration for development. The Department of Overseas Indian Affairs in the Ministry of External Affairs has come up with several schemes over the past few years to engage better with the Indian diaspora. These include the Persons of Indian Origin and the Overseas Citizen of India (OCI) card, the establishment of the International Centre for Migration, and Overseas Investment Facilitation Facility. More endeavours in the direction are important to tap migrants as agents for development and to utilize their contributions for accomplishing other goals on the Sustainable Development Agenda.

l More research coupled with improved data collection is required to help understand the consequences of migration better and invigorate India's ability to plan for the future. Enhanced data collection and thorough research must underpin a mainstreaming exercise. In the Indian context, existing national monitoring systems can be modi�ed and disaggregated by migratory status, or speci�c migration and development surveys can be commissioned. MoSPI which is responsible for deciding which sources of data will be considered for measuring progress on SDG targets should look into such ways for re�ning migration data and statistics.

Conclusion6Over the years, the theoretical discourse on Migration and Development has evolved

signi�cantly. Repeated studies have illustrated the net positives of migration for both countries of origin and destination. A Business Case for Migration has been established

and many more champions for freer mobility of people have emerged. Despite this, the popular perception of migration continues to transcend the facts. Countries are becoming more and more inward looking and an increasing number of elections are being fought over more instinctual positions arising from the growing anti-immigration sentiment across the globe. The 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda has come at a crucial time and is extremely signi�cant for having a number of references to migration. This is a considerable step forward from the MDGs which made no mention of this. It has become clearer that migrants are essential to the narrative of development both as actors that can contribute to it and as individuals who are often left out from the gains offered by increasing development. Therefore, the inclusion of migration-relevant targets in the Agenda is something to be applauded. In fact, the SDGs adopt quite a strong rights based approach to migration, acknowledging the speci�c vulnerability and marginalization of migrants. While the commitments to ensure the welfare and protection of migrants are quite strong, theSustainable Development Goals, like many past attempts at arriving at an actionable agenda on migration, fail to clearly advocate freer mobility of human resources and talent. This is a shortcoming from an individual and a business point of view but also from an overall development perspective.

It is somewhat counter-intuitive that a document with such an emphasis on rights, equality and an ambition to reduce poverty only inadequately addressed the problem of discriminatory, restrictive laws enforced by countries on the movement of people. Nevertheless, the silver lining is that the SDGs follow a 'bottom up' approach and it has been left up to Member States to de�ne their priorities, path for implementation and for evaluating progress. In light of this, it is extremely important for countries to embrace the positive targets on migration in the goals, and to go beyond them to ensure that effective policies and programmes can be put in place for capitazling on the potential and mitigating the �nancial and social costs of migration.

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and Investment Protection Agreemments with clauses on emigration of Indians for work, entrepreneurship, business and study are crucial for facilitating orderly and safe migration of people in accordance with Target 10.7 of the SDGs and for furthering India's interests.

l Diaspora Engagement

There has been increasing recognition of the contributions of Diaspora communities to their countries of origin. The role that they can play for �nancing the implementation of Sustainable Development Goals must also not be underestimated. Target 10.c. of the 2030 Agenda on reducing costs of remittance transfers is c clear statement designed to maximize the potential dividends from migration for development. The Department of Overseas Indian Affairs in the Ministry of External Affairs has come up with several schemes over the past few years to engage better with the Indian diaspora. These include the Persons of Indian Origin and the Overseas Citizen of India (OCI) card, the establishment of the International Centre for Migration, and Overseas Investment Facilitation Facility. More endeavours in the direction are important to tap migrants as agents for development and to utilize their contributions for accomplishing other goals on the Sustainable Development Agenda.

l More research coupled with improved data collection is required to help understand the consequences of migration better and invigorate India's ability to plan for the future. Enhanced data collection and thorough research must underpin a mainstreaming exercise. In the Indian context, existing national monitoring systems can be modi�ed and disaggregated by migratory status, or speci�c migration and development surveys can be commissioned. MoSPI which is responsible for deciding which sources of data will be considered for measuring progress on SDG targets should look into such ways for re�ning migration data and statistics.

Conclusion6Over the years, the theoretical discourse on Migration and Development has evolved

signi�cantly. Repeated studies have illustrated the net positives of migration for both countries of origin and destination. A Business Case for Migration has been established

and many more champions for freer mobility of people have emerged. Despite this, the popular perception of migration continues to transcend the facts. Countries are becoming more and more inward looking and an increasing number of elections are being fought over more instinctual positions arising from the growing anti-immigration sentiment across the globe. The 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda has come at a crucial time and is extremely signi�cant for having a number of references to migration. This is a considerable step forward from the MDGs which made no mention of this. It has become clearer that migrants are essential to the narrative of development both as actors that can contribute to it and as individuals who are often left out from the gains offered by increasing development. Therefore, the inclusion of migration-relevant targets in the Agenda is something to be applauded. In fact, the SDGs adopt quite a strong rights based approach to migration, acknowledging the speci�c vulnerability and marginalization of migrants. While the commitments to ensure the welfare and protection of migrants are quite strong, theSustainable Development Goals, like many past attempts at arriving at an actionable agenda on migration, fail to clearly advocate freer mobility of human resources and talent. This is a shortcoming from an individual and a business point of view but also from an overall development perspective.

It is somewhat counter-intuitive that a document with such an emphasis on rights, equality and an ambition to reduce poverty only inadequately addressed the problem of discriminatory, restrictive laws enforced by countries on the movement of people. Nevertheless, the silver lining is that the SDGs follow a 'bottom up' approach and it has been left up to Member States to de�ne their priorities, path for implementation and for evaluating progress. In light of this, it is extremely important for countries to embrace the positive targets on migration in the goals, and to go beyond them to ensure that effective policies and programmes can be put in place for capitazling on the potential and mitigating the �nancial and social costs of migration.

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Notes

Notes

Natasha ChhabraManager

International Migration and Diaspora DivisionE-mail: natasha.chhabra@�cci.com

Kanika MalikConsultant

International Migration and Diaspora DivisionE-mail: kanika.malik@�cci.com

Telephone: +91 11 23487277 Address: Federation House, Tansen Marg, New Delhi, Delhi 110001

Website: http://�cci.in/International-Migration-and-Diaspora.asp

CONTACT USFEDERATION OF INDIAN CHAMBERS OF COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY