AP Language and Composition Resources:

1.

Basic terms listGlossary of termsKey Assignment wordsLevels of languageConjunctions

22

131414

2.Analysis aids:

PAPA squareSOAPSToneRhetorical Triangle

151617

3. Power VerbsTone Words

1818

4. Writing Guidelines for essays. Pattern of Attack for M/C

2021

5.

RubricsAP basic rubric 1Test DescriptorsSynthesis Rhetorical Analysis Argument Analysis

2223242526

6. Introduction to Rhetoric PowerPoint Close

27

1

Basic A.P. LANGUAGE/LITERARY AND RHETORICAL TERMS

Every A.P. English student should be familiar with the basic terms used to describe style—imagery, diction, syntax, figures of speech, structure and tone. In addition, here are some more relatively useful terms used to describe techniques of language and argument.

Figures of S peech metaphorsimile personification apostrophe allusion hyperboleirony understatement paradox oxymoron epithetbathos euphemism

Figures of r hetoric parallelism periodic sentenceloose or cumulative sentence balanced sentencerhetorical question antithesisinversion anaphoraantistrophe (epistrophe)aphorism/epigram

Methods of developme n t cause and effect classificationprocess analysis definition comparison/contrast analogy and metaphor

Forms and genres Modes of discourse:

-narration-exposition-description-persuasion

satireparodymock heroic allegory fablemyth parable

Persuasive appeals logos pathos ethos

Devices in logic argument syllogismmajor/minor premise induction/deduction rebuttal qualify/qualifier essential/operational fallacies in logic:

Miscellane o us point of view audiencevoice literal/figurative denotation/connotation theme/motif elegy/elegiaccliché

Sound devices alliteration onomatopoeia

-hasty generalization-faulty causality (false cause)-begging the question-equivocation-non sequitur-either/or choice-ad hominem

Glossary of Important Grammatical, Literary, and Rhetorical TermsAbstract: refers to things that are intangible, that is, which are perceived not through the senses but by the mind, such as truth,

God, education, vice, transportation, poetry, war, love.

Ad Hominem: / ăd hŏm ə nəm /An argument based on the failings of an adversary rather than on the merits of the case; a logical fallacy that involves a personal attack.; relies on intimidation and ignorance

Ad Misericordiam fallacy Appeal to Pity, attempts to evoke feelings of pity or compassion not relevantAllegory: Extending a metaphor so that objects, persons, and actions in a text are equated with meanings that lie outside the

text. A sustained metaphor continued through whole sentences or eve through a whole discourse.

2

Alliteration: repetition of the same sound beginning several words in sequence.*Let us go forth to lead the land we love. J. F. Kennedy, Inaugural**Veni, vidi, vici. Julius Caesar

Allusion: A brief, usually indirect reference to a person, place, or event--real or fictional.Ambiguity: The presence of two or more possible meanings in any passage. The result of expressing an idea in words that

have two or more possible meanings. Ambiguity is sometimes unintentional, as when a pronoun is used without a clear referent [antecedent].

Anacoluthon: ( n -k -l th n ) lack of grammatical sequence; a change in the grammatical construction within the same sentence.*Agreements entered into when one state of facts exists -- are they to be maintained regardless of changing conditions? J.

Diefenbaker

Anadiplosis: ( n -d -pl s s) ("doubling back") the rhetorical repetition of one or several words; specifically, repetition of a word that ends one clause at the beginning of the next.*Men in great place are thrice servants: servants of the sovereign or state; servants of fame; and servants of business.

Francis BaconAnalogy: Reasoning or arguing from parallel cases. A set of point-by point resemblances between members of the same class

or between different classes.

Anaphora: (ə năf ər ə) the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses or lines.*We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall

fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills. We shall never surrender. Churchill.

Anastrophe: transposition of normal word order; most often found in Latin in the case of prepositions and the words they control.Anastrophe is a form of hyperbaton.*The helmsman steered; the ship moved on; yet never a breeze up blew. Coleridge, The Rime of the Ancient Mariner

Anathem: ( -n th -m ) an object of intense dislike; a curse or strong denunciation (often used adjectivally without the article)

Antecedent: ( n t -s d nt)The noun or noun phrase referred to by a pronoun.Anthimeria: the use of one part of speech (or word class) for another

“Hey, my checker reached the other side; king me.”Anticlimax: see BathosAntimetabole (an-tee-meh-TA-boe-lee): Figure of emphasis in which the words in one phrase or clause are replicated, exactly or

closely, in reverse grammatical order in the next phrase or clause; an inverted order of repeated words in adjacent phrases or clauses (A-B, B-A). (Related to Chiasmus but exact wording)"The absence of evidence is not the evidence of absence." -- Carl Sagan"We do not stop playing because we grow old; we grow old because we stop playing." -- Benjamin Franklin

Antistrophe: [æn ‘tɪs trə fɪ]repetition of the same word or phrase at the end of successive clauses. (Also called Epistrophe)*In 1931, ten years ago, Japan invaded Manchukuo -- without warning. In 1935, Italy invaded Ethiopia -- without warning. In

1938, Hitler occupied Austria -- without warning. In 1939, Hitler invaded Czechoslovakia -- without warning. Later in1939, Hitler invaded Poland -- without warning. And now Japan has attacked Malaya and Thailand -- and the UnitedStates --without warning. Franklin D. Roosevelt

Antithesis: [æn ‘tɪ θɪ sɪs]opposition, or contrast of ideas or words in a balanced or parallel construction.*Extremism in defense of liberty is no vice, moderation in the pursuit of justice is no virtue. Barry Goldwater*Brutus: Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more. Shakespeare, Julius Caesar*The vases of the classical period are but the reflection of classical beauty; the vases of the archaic period are beauty itself."

Sir John Beazley

Aphorism/epigram [‘æf ə ‘rɪ zəm]A concise statement designed to make a point or a common belief. (1) A tersely phrased statement of a truth or opinion.(2) A brief statement of a principle.Example: A penny saved is a penny earned- - Ben Franklin

3

Aposiopesis: [‘æ pə ˌ’saɪ ə ‘pi sɪs]a form of ellipse by which a speaker comes to an abrupt halt, seemingly overcome by passion (fear, excitement, etc.) or modesty.

Apostrophe: A rhetorical term for breaking off discourse to address some absent person or thing;a sudden turn from the general audience to address a specific group or person or personified abstraction absent or present.*For Brutus, as you know, was Caesar's angel.

Judge, O you gods, how dearly Caesar loved him. Shakespeare, Julius CaesarAppeal to Authority: A fallacy in which a speaker or writer seeks to persuade not by giving evidence but by appealing to the

respect people have for a famous person or institution.Appeal to Flattery Sucking Up, (plain folks is a subcategory) Apple Polishing: whenever a person attempts to compliment

or flatter another in order to get her to accept the truth of a proposition. In some instances, it may be implied that the person deserves the flattery because they accept the position in question.

Appeal to Ignorance; A fallacy that uses an opponent's inability to disprove a conclusion as proof of the conclusion's correctness.

Appeal to Prejudice fallacy: Arguing from a bias or emotional identification or involvement with an idea (argument, doctrine, institution, etc.).

Appositive: [ə ‘pɒ zɪ tɪv] a noun, noun phrase, or noun clause which follows a noun or pronoun and renames or describes the noun or pronoun. Appositives are often set off by commas.“Tom, the new student, arrived the second week of class.” Tom= the new studentJimbo Gold, a professional magician, performed at my sister's birthday party. Jimbo Gold=a professional magician,.

Archaism: [‘ɑrk keɪ ˌɪzəm]use of an older or obsolete form.*Pipit sate upright in her chair

Some distance from where I was sitting; T. S. Eliot, "A Cooking Egg"Argument ad ignorantium fallacy: that, because a premise cannot be proven false, the premise must be true; or that, because

a premise cannot be proven true, the premise must be false. Arguer offers a conclusion and calls on opponent to disprove the conclusion. If opponent cannot, arguer asserts conclusion is true.

Argument ad populum fallacy: An argument that if many believe it so, it is soArgument: A course of reasoning aimed at demonstrating truth or falsehood.Argumentum ad hominem fallacy "to the man":Name Calling and Personal Attack: uses derogatory implications or innuendos to

turn people against a rival. Name-calling by itself is not technically an ad hominem fallacy. Rather, the attack on the arguer must occur as an ostensible attack on an argument. If no argument is offered there is no ad hominem (or any other kind of fallacy) at work.

Argumentum ad populum fallacy Bandwagon appeal to popularity, authority of the many: relies on the uncritical acceptance of others' opinions; something must be true because many or all people believe it is.

Argumentum ad traditio fallacy Appeal to Inertia (don't rock the boat ) based on the principle of "letting sleeping dogs lie". We should continue to do things as they have been done in the past. We shouldn't challenge time-honored customs or traditions.

Assonance: repetition of the same sound in words close to each other.*Thy kingdom come, thy will be done.

Asyndeton: [æ ‘sɪn dɪ tən]lack of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, or words. (opposite of polysyndeton).*We shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardships, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and

the success of liberty. J. F. Kennedy, Inaugural*But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground. Lincoln, Gettysburg

AddressAtmosphere: the general feeling or emotion created in the reader at a given point in a literary work (mood)Audience one's listener or readership; those to whom a speech or piece of writing is addressed

Balanced sentence a type of parallel construction in which two major sentence elements that contrast with one another are balanced between a coordinating conjunction

Bandwagon: An appeal that tries to get its audience to adopt and opinion that “everyone else” is said to hold. Popular with advertisers and political candidates, attempts to get us to jump on a bandwagon rely on our eagerness to be on the winning side.*The candidate that “everyone is voting for,” and the jeans “everyone will be wearing”

4

Bathos: An abrupt, unintended transition in style from the exalted to the commonplace, producing a ludicrous effect, an anticlimax.

* He has seen the ravages of war, he has known natural catastrophes, he has been to singles bars: (Woody Allen).OR Insincere or grossly sentimental pathos: "a richly textured man who . . . can be . . . sentimental to the brink of bathos"

(Kenneth L. Woodward).OR Banality; triteness.

Begging the question: see circular reasoning

Cacophony: [kə ‘kɒ fə nɪ] harsh joining of sounds.*We want no parlay with you and your grisly gang who work your wicked will. W. Churchill

Catachresis: [‘kæt ə ‘kri: sɪs]a harsh metaphor involving the use of a word beyond its strict sphere. See Synethsesia*I listen vainly, but with thirsty ear. MacArthur, Farewell Address

Cause and effect A method of development in which a writer analyzes reasons for an action, event, or decision, or analyzes its consequences.

Cherry picking/Card Stacking fallacy the act of pointing at individual cases or data that seem to confirm a particular position, while ignoring a significant portion of related cases or data that may contradict that position.

Chiasmus: [kaɪ ˈæz məs]two corresponding pairs arranged not in parallels (a-b-a-b) but in inverted order (a-b-b-a); from shape of the Greek letter chi (X).*Those gallant men will remain often in my thoughts and in my prayers always. MacArthur

Circular Argument: ( Begging the question) An argument that commits the logical fallacy of assuming what it is attempting to prove. Asserts an unsupported premise and later restates that premise as a conclusion.*Here is an example [of begging the question] taken from an article on exclusive men's clubs in San Francisco. In explaining

why these clubs have such long waiting lists, Paul B. 'Red' Fay, Jr. (on the roster of three of the clubs) said, 'The reasonthere's such a big demand is because everyone wants to get in them.' In other words, there is a big demand because there is a big demand."(H. Kahane and N. Cavender, Logic and Contemporary Rhetoric: The Use of Reason in Everyday Life, 10th ed.Wadsworth, 2006)

Circular reasoning fallacy it directly presumes the conclusion which is at question in the first place. This can also be known as a "Circular Argument" - because the conclusion essentially appears both at the beginning and the end of the argument,

Claim: An arguable statement, which may be a claim of fact, value, or policy.Classification a means of organizing and analyzing a topic by grouping items into categories according to their similaritiesClause: group of words that contains a subject and a predicate.Cliché a worn-out idea or overused expressionClimax: (Climactic order) Mounting by degrees through words or sentences of increasing weight and in parallel construction

with an emphasis on the high point or culmination of a series of events; arrangement of words, phrases, or clauses in an order of ascending power. Often the last emphatic word in one phrase or clause is repeated as the first emphatic word of the next.*One equal temper of heroic hearts,

Made weak by time and fate, but strong in willTo strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield. Tennyson, Ulysses

Coherence: the quality of effective relations between all parts of a written work. When writing is coherent, there is a logical and expressive connection recognizable between sentences, paragraphs, and parts of a work. Cohesive writing presents a subject consistently, through a clear sequence of ideas.

Colloquial: (adj) [kə ‘ləʊ kwɪ əl]Characteristic of writing that seeks the effect of informal spoken language as distinct from formal or literary English.

Colloquialism: (n) An informal expression that is more often used in casual conversation than in formal speech or writing.Comparison: (Compare and contrast) A rhetorical strategy in which a writer examines similarities and/or differences between

two people, places, ideas, or objects.Complement: A word or word group that completes the predicate in a sentence.Composition/Division fallacy is a result of reasoning from the properties of the parts of the whole to the properties of the

whole itself--it is an inductive error. /opposite: what is true of the whole must be true of individual parts.Concession: An argumentative strategy by which a speaker or writer acknowledges the validity of an opponent's point.

5

Concrete: identifies things perceived through the senses (touch, smell, sight, hearing, and taste), such as soft, stench, red, loud, or bitter.

Confirmation: The main part of a text in which logical arguments in support of a position are elaborated.Connotation: The emotional implications and associations that a word may carry.Controlling Or Structural Metaphor: A form of comparison in which key resemblances between the principal subject and a

subsidiary subject or image are used to organize a composition.Coordination: The grammatical connection of two or more ideas to give them equal emphasis and importance. Contrast with

subordination.Cumulative sentence/Loose sentence a sentence in which the main independent clause is elaborated by the successive

addition of modifying clauses or phrases (main clause is at the beginning)Deduction: A method of reasoning in which a conclusion follows necessarily from the stated premises.Definition: an explanation of the meaning of a term accomplished in one of the following ways:

• Lexical definition, a dictionary definition of accepted usage.• Stipulative definition, an announced description of the limits of a term’s meaning that either extends or limits the lexical

definition.• Extended definition, an expanded discussion of the meaning of a word.

Denotation: The direct or dictionary meaning of a word, in contrast to its figurative or associated meanings.Description: a detailed verbal picture of a person, place, object, or state of mind.

• Objective description is primarily factual and excludes mention of the writer’s personal evaluation or response.• Subjective description includes attention to both the subject described and the writer’s response to it.

Dialect: A regional or social variety of a language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, and/or vocabulary. Diction:

(1) the choice of words. Good diction is the result of choosing the most appropriate words for the purpose. Words arechosen from various levels of usage: slang, colloquial, technical, informal, and formal. Drawing words from one of these levels more frequently than from the others determines the level of diction in a piece of writing. The way the chosenwords are combined is, however, a matter of style and not of diction.

(2) A way of speaking, usually assessed in terms of prevailing standards of pronunciation and elocution.

Didactic: [dɪ ˈdæk tɪk]Intended or inclined to teach or instruct, often excessively.Digression: a turning aside from the main subject to interrupt the development of an idea with unrelated or vaguely related

material. In an informal essay an interesting digression is not a fault. In a work with a strong plot or in a formal essay, a digression is usually considered a flaw.

Either/or fallacy: false dilemma,false dichotomy,where two alternative statements are held to be the only possible options, when in reality there are more.

Elegy/elegiac [‘ɛl ɪ dʒɪ ] [‘ɛl ɪ ˈdʒaɪ ək]A poem or prose selection that laments or meditates on the passing or death of someone or something of value. Mournful over what has passed or been lost; often used to describe tone. The adjective describing an elegy is elegaic.

Ellipsis: omission of a word or short phrase easily understood in context.Emphasis: stress or attention given to particular words or ideas. Emphasis ought to be controlled so that the most important and

least important points in an essay are given respectively the most and least emphasis. Repetition emphasizes a point, as does placing it at the end of a sentence, paragraph, or essay. There are also mechanical devices which add emphasis: italics (underlining), exclamation points, capital letters. Because mechanical devices are too often used in attempts to compensate a lack of real significance, readers tend to dismiss such ploys to get their attention. Making what must be remembered most memorable is best done through repetition, proportion, and position.

Encomium: [ɛn ‘kəʊ mɪ əm]A tribute or eulogy in prose or verse glorifying people, objects, ideas, or events.Enigma: [ɪ ˈnɪg mə]Obscuring one’s meaning by presenting it within a riddle or by means of metaphors that purposefully

challenge the reader or hearer to understand.

Enthymeme: [‘ɛn θɪ ˌmi:m] the rhetorical equivalent of the syllogism. An enthymeme states one premise, implies another, and contains a conclusion derived from both. A syllogism leads to a logically necessary conclusion; an enthymeme leads to a tentative conclusion. the formal syllogism is constructed of universally valid propositions, whereas the enthymeme is built upon probable premises; for example, “That car will fail inspection because its brakes are worn out.” A conclusion is stated:“That car will fail inspection.” And one premise is implied: “Any car with worn-out brakes will fail inspection.”

6

Epanodos: A figure of speech in which the parts of a sentence or clause are repeated in inverse orderO more exceeding love, or law more just? Just law, indeed, but more exceeding love!- Milton.

Epimone: persistent repetition of the same plea in much the same words.

Epistrophe: [ɪ ˈpɪs trə fɪ] The repetition of a word or phrase at the end of several clauses. (Also known as. epiphora orAntistrophe)

Epithet: a. term used to characterize a person or thing, such as rosy-fingered in rosy-fingered dawn or the Great in Catherine the Great. b. A term used as a descriptive substitute for the name or title of a person, such as The Great Emancipator for Abraham Lincoln. Strictly speaking, an epithet need not be derogatory, but the term is commonly used as a simple synonym for term of abuse or slur, as in There is no place for racial epithets in a police officer's vocabulary.

Epitaph:(1) A short inscription in prose or verse on a tombstone or monument.(2) A statement or speech commemorating someone who has died: a funeral oration.

Epitasis: [ɪ ‘pɪt ə sɪs]The addition of a concluding sentence that merely emphasizes what has already been stated. A kind of amplification.

Equivocation fallacy allows a key word or term in an argument to shift its meaning during the course of the argument. The result is that the conclusion of the argument is not concerned with the same thing as the premise(s).

Erotema: [‘ɛ rəʊ ˈti: mə], rhetorical question. To affirm or deny a point strongly by asking it as a questionEthos: A persuasive appeal based on the projected character of the speaker or narrator.Eulogy: A formal expression of praise for someone who has recently died.Euphemism: substitution of an agreeable or at least non-offensive expression for one whose plainer meaning might be harsh or

unpleasant. “Passed away” ”Visit the powder room”Exposition: A statement or type of composition intended to give information about (or an explanation of) an issue, subject,

method, or idea.Extended Metaphor: A comparison between two unlike things that continues throughout a series of sentences in a paragraph or

lines in a poem.Fable a brief story that leads to a moral, often using animals as charactersFallacy: An error in reasoning that renders an argument invalid.False Dilemma: A fallacy of oversimplification that offers a limited number of options (usually two) when in fact more options are

available.Faulty analogy assumes that because two things, events, or situations are alike in some known respects, that they are alike in

other unknown respects. – invalid comparison – apples to orangesFaulty assumption: basic idea on which the argument is based is wrong.Faulty causality Refers to the (sometimes unintentional) setting up of a cause-and-effect relationship when none exists. One

event can happen after another without the first necessarily being the direct cause of the second. "Violent crime among adolescents has risen in the past decade, and that is the result of increased sales of violent video games."

Figurative Language: Language in which figures of speech (such as metaphors, similes, and hyperbole) freely occur. Figures of Speech: The various uses of language that depart from customary construction, order, or significance. Flashback: A shift in a narrative to an earlier event that interrupts the normal chronological development of a story. Genre: A category of artistic composition, as in film or literature, marked by a distinctive style, form, or content.Glittering generalities fallacy This is an important-sounding but unspecific claim. It cannot be proved true or false because

it really says little or nothing. Vague words that embody ideals that evoke feelings such as patriotism or enthusiasm – often make a speech sound good but in practice have little meaning – freedom, justice, love, respect

Guilt or glory by association fallacy the attempt to discredit an idea based upon disfavored people or groups associated with it, or the reverse, association with favored people

Hasty generalization fallacy Jumping to Conclusions: draws a broad conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence. Afallacy in which a conclusion is not logically justified by sufficient or unbiased evidence.

Hendiadys: [hɛn ‘daɪ ə dɪs]use of two words connected by a conjunction, instead of subordinating one to the other, to express a single complex idea.*It sure is nice and cool today! (for "pleasantly cool")*I love the Lord, because he hath heard my voice and my supplications. Psalms 116

Homily: A sermon, or an inspirational saying or platitude (aphorism).

7

Hyperbaton: [haɪ ˈpɜr bə ,tɒn]separation of words which belong together, often to emphasize the first of the separated words or to create a certain image."And a small cabin build there, of clay and wattles made" (W. B. Yeats, "The Lake Isle of Innisfree" "Sorry I be but go you must."(Yoda in Star Wars)

Hyperbole: A figure of speech in which exaggeration is used for emphasis or effect; an extravagant statement.*My vegetable love should grow

Vaster than empires, and more slow; An hundred years should got to praise Thine eyes and on thine forehead gaze; Two hundred to adore each breast,But thirty thousand to the rest. Andrew Marvell, "To His Coy Mistress"

Hypostatization fallacy: [hĭ ‘pos tə tī ‘zā sh ən] Instead of using one word and changing its meaning through the argument, it takes a word with a normal usage and gives it an invalid usage. Specifically, it involves ascribing substance or real existence to mental constructs or concepts.* The government has a hand in everybody's business and another in every person's pocket. By limiting such

governmental pickpocketing, we can limit its incursions on our freedom.* I can't believe that the universe would allow humans and human achievement just to fade away, therefore there must be

a God and an afterlife where all will be preserved.*In both of these arguments, we can see use of reification in two different ways. In the first, the concept of "government" isassumed to have attributes like desire which more properly belong to volitional creatures, like people. There is an unstated premise that it is wrong for a person to put their hands in your pocket and it is concluded that it is also immoral for the government to do the same.

Hypothesis: an unproved theory that is tentatively accepted as true in order to provide a basis for further investigation or argument. In an essay we often first state our idea bout a subject as a hypothesis, and then examine, develop, support, and restate it as a conclusion.

Hysteron Proteron: ‘hɪs tə ,rɒn ‘prɒ tə rɒn] ("later-earlier") inversion of the natural sequence of events, often meant to stress the event which, though later in time, is considered the more important.*"I like the island Manhattan. Smoke on your pipe and put that in." -- from the song "America," West Side Story lyric by

Stephen Sondheim (submitted per litteram by guest rhetorician Anthony Scelba)*Put on your shoes and socks!”

Illustration: a process in which writers select specific examples ot represent, clarify, and support either general or abstract statements and principles.

Image: An image can be a verbal representation of any type (not just visual) of sensory experience. The creation of images is one of the ways writing, particularly poetry, is made more immediate and effective. In an essay, and appropriate image can do much to communicate the depth of one’s idea about a subject.

Imagery: Vivid descriptive language that appeals to one or more of the senses.Induction: A method of reasoning by which a rhetor [rhetorician] collects a number of instances and forms a generalization that is

meant to apply to all instances.; the process of reasoning by which we move from evidence about some members of a particular class to a proposition about all members of that class. The conclusions reached by induction are never logically conclusive.

Inference: a statement about what is still uncertain made on the basis of what is certain.Invective; Denunciatory or abusive language; discourse that casts blame on somebody or something.Inversion: a reversal of normal word order, especially the placement of a verb ahead of the subject

"Not in the legionsOf horrid hell can come a devil more damnedIn ills to top Macbeth." (William Shakespeare, Macbeth)

Irony: The use of words to convey the opposite of their literal meaning. A statement or situation where the meaning is directly contradicted by the appearance or presentation of the idea. The success of verbal irony depends upon the audience’s ability to detect a difference between expression and intention.*Yet Brutus says he was ambitious;

And Brutus is an honourable man. (Shakespeare, Julius Caesar)Isocolon: A succession of phrases of approximately equal length and corresponding structure.Jargon: The specialized language of a professional, occupational, or other group, often meaningless to outsiders.Juxtaposition: the purposeful placement of two things in proximity to emphasize the contrasting characteristics.

8

Literal: limited to the explicit meaning of a word or text

Litotes: [‘laɪ təʊ ˌtiz]A figure of speech consisting of an understatement in which an affirmative is expressed by negating its opposite. (Sometimes used synonymously with meiosis.)*A few unannounced quizzes are not inconceivable.*Not bad.*War is not healthy for children and other living things.*One nuclear bomb can ruin your whole day. (meiosis)

Loaded question complex question fallacy a question with a false or questionable presupposition, and it is "loaded" with that presumption. The question "Have you stopped beating your wife?" presupposes that you have beaten your wife prior to its asking, as well as that you have a wife. If you are unmarried, or have never beaten your wife, then the question is loaded.

Logos: appeal to logical argumentLoose Sentence/cumulative sentence: A sentence structure in which a main clause is followed by subordinate phrases and

clauses. Contrast with periodic sentence.Major premise the first premise of a syllogism, the main assumption on which the argument rests, a broad general statement

Malapropism: [‘mæ lə prɒp ‘ɪz əm] the substitution of a word for a word with a similar sound, in which the resulting phrase makes no sense but often creates a comic effect. heterophemism

• The doctor felt the man's purse and said there was no hope.• The chief is inclined to believe that a crossed wife might be the cause of the fire. - Leo Rosten• "Republicans understand the importance of bondage between a mother and child." (Dan Quayle)

Meiosis [maɪ ˈəʊsɪs]1. To belittle, use a degrading epithet or nickname, often through a trope of one word. A concise form of invective..2. A kind of humorous understatement that dismisses or belittles, especially by using terms that make something seem

less significant than it really is or ought to be. See also: litotes.Plural meioses; adjectival form, meiotic.• "The unspeakable in full pursuit of the uneatable." (Oscar Wilde on fox hunting)• "rhymester" for poet• "grease monkey" for mechanic• "shrink" for psychiatrist• King Arthur: The Lady of the Lake, her arm clad in the purest shimmering samite held aloft excalibur from the

bosom of the water.Peasant: Listen, strange women lying in ponds distributing swords is no basis for a system of government. Power

derives from the masses not from some farcical aquatic ceremony.King Arthur: Be quiet!Peasant: You can't expect to wield supreme power because some watery tart threw a sword at you. King Arthur: Shut up!Peasant: If I went around saying I was an emperor because some moistened bink had lobbed a scimitar at me . . .."

(Monty Python and the Holy Grail, 1975)Metalepsis: reference to something by means of another thing that is remotely related to it, either through a farfetched causal

relationship, or through an implied intermediate substitution of terms. Often used for comic effect through its preposterous exaggeration.

Metaphor: implied comparison achieved through a figurative use of words; the word is used not in its literal sense, but in one analogous to it.*Life's but a walking shadow; a poor player,

That struts and frets his hour upon the stage. Shakespeare, Macbeth*. . . while he learned the language (that meager and fragile thread . . . by which the little surface corners and edges of men's

secret and solitary lives may be joined for an instant now and then before sinking back into the darkness. . . ) Faulkner,Absalom, Absalom!

*From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the continent. W. ChurchillMetastasis:: Denying and turning back on your adversaries arguments used against you.

9

Metonymy: [mɪ ˈtɒ nɪ mɪ]A figure of speech in which one word or phrase is substituted for another with which it is closely associated (such as "crown" for "royalty").*He is a man of the cloth.*The pen is mightier than the sword.*By the sweat of thy brow thou shalt eat thy bread.*The U.S. won three gold medals. (Instead of, The members of the U.S. boxing team won three gold medals.)

Minor premise The second premise of a syllogism. The minor premise offers a particular instance of the generalization stated in the major premise

Mock heroic a form of satire in which trivial subjects, characters or events are treated with the elevated language and elaborate devices characteristic of the heroic style.

Mode of Discourse: The way in which information is presented in a text. The four traditional modes are narration, description, exposition, and argument.

Mood(1) The quality of a verb that conveys the writer's attitude toward a subject. (2) The emotion evoked by a text.

Motif The repetition or variations of an image or idea in a work used to develop theme or charactersMyth A traditional story about gods, ancestors, or heroes, told to explain the natural world or the customs and beliefs of a

society.Narrative; A rhetorical strategy that recounts a sequence of events, usually in chronological order.

Non sequitur fallacy [nɒn ‘sɛk wɪ tər] "It does not follow" in a general sense any argument which fails to establish a connection between the premises and the conclusion. In practice, however, the label tends to be reserved for arguments in which irrelevant reasons are offered to support a claim.Observation: a deliberate mental activity in which we probe a subject in order to discover as much about it as possible.Only Cause/Oversimplification fallacy: causal oversimplification, Fallacy of Reduction it is assumed that there is a single,

simple cause of an outcome when in reality it may have been caused by a number of only jointly sufficient causes.Onomatopoeia: The formation or use of words that imitate the sounds associated with the objects or actions they refer to,

accommodation of sound to sense.Oxymoron: A figure of speech in which incongruous or contradictory terms appear side by side. apparent paradox achieved by

the juxtaposition of words which seem to contradict one another.*sweet sadness, deafening silence

Parabola (parable): the explicit drawing of a parallel between two essentially dissimilar things, especially with a moral or didactic purpose.

Paradox: an assertion seemingly opposed to common sense, but that may yet have some truth in it. Paradox created temporary confusion in order to produce lasting clarity.*What a pity that youth must be wasted on the young. George Bernard Shaw*I must be cruel only to be kind. Shakespeare, Hamlet

Paralipsis: [‘pær ə ,lɪpsɪs] a kind of irony in which the speaker proposes not to speak of a matter, but still somehow reveals it;pretended omission for rhetorical effect.*That part of our history detailing the military achievements which gave us our several possessions ... is a theme too familiar

to my listeners for me to dilate on, and I shall therefore pass it by. Thucydides, "Funeral Oration"*Let us make no judgment on the events of Chappaquiddick, since the facts are not yet all in. A political opponent of Senator

Edward KennedyParallelism: The similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases, or clauses. The arrangement of words,

phrases, sentences, paragraphs, and sections of a composition so that elements of equal importance and function are given equal emphasis and form.

parenthesis par-en'-the-sis from Gk. para, "beside" and thesis, "placing" parathesis interpositio interposicion, insertour Insertion of a verbal unit that interrupts normal syntactical flow

Parody: A literary or artistic work that imitates the characteristic style of an author or a work for comic effect or ridicule.

Paronomasia: [,pær ə naʊ ˈmeɪzɪə]use of similar sounding words; often etymological word-play.*...culled cash, or cold cash, and then it turned into a gold cache. E.L. Doctorow, Billy Bathgate*Thou art Peter (Greek petros), and upon this rock (Greek petra) I shall build my church. Matthew 16*The dying Mercutio: Ask for me tomorrow and you shall find me a grave man. Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet

Pathos: The means of persuasion that appeals to the audience's emotions.

10

Pedantic: (adj) related to the display of useless knowledge or minute observance of petty rules or details (Pedantry – noun form)Periodic Sentence: A long and frequently involved sentence, marked by suspended syntax, in which the sense is not completed

until the final word--usually with an emphatic climax.

Periphrasis: [pə ‘rɪ frə sɪs] The substitution of a descriptive word or phrase for a proper name (a species of circumlocution);or, conversely, the use of a proper name as a shorthand to stand for qualities associated with it.

“He's no Fabio to look at; but then, he's no Woody Allen, either.”Personification: A figure of speech in which an inanimate object or abstraction is endowed with human qualities or abilities.

*England expects every man to do his duty. Lord NelsonPersuasion: written or oral discourse aimed at disposing an audience to think and act in accordance with the speaker’s will.Pleonasm: [‘pli ə næ zəm]use of superfluous or redundant words, often enriching the thought.

*No one, rich or poor, will be excepted.*Ears pierced while you wait!*I have seen no stranger sight since I was born.

Point of View: The perspective from which a speaker or writer tells a story or presents informationPoisoning the well fallacy Smear Tactics, Smear Campaign involves trying to discredit what a person might

later claim by presenting unfavorable information (be it true or false) about the person.Polysyndeton: pol-ee-‘sin-di-ton the repetition of conjunctions in a series of coordinate words, phrases, or clauses.

*I said, "Who killed him?" and he said, "I don't know who killed him but he's dead all right," and it was dark and there was water standing in the street and no lights and windows broke and boats all up in the town and trees blown down and everything all blown and I got a skiff and went out and found my boat where I had her inside Mango Bay and she was all right only she was full of water. (Hemingway, After the Storm)

Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc fallacy: "After this, therefore because of this." False Cause, Questionable Cause This fallacy is committed when it is concluded that one event causes another simply because the proposed cause occurred before the proposed effect.

Predicate: main parts of a sentence or clause, modifying the subject and including the verb, objects, or phrases governed by the verb.

Premise: either of the two propositions in a syllogism from which a conclusion is drawn. Etymologically, “ to go before,” premises are the assumptions either believed or entertained from which deductive reasoning proceeds. In a more general sense, premises are the assumptions upon which an author bases an argument.

Process analysis a pattern of writing or speaking which is characterized by it's explanation of how to do something or how something occurs. It presents a sequence of steps and shows how those steps lead to a particular result. (Can be seen often in recipes or directional manuals, a discussion of steps)

Prose: Ordinary writing (both fiction and nonfiction) as distinguished from verse.Pun: (paronomasia) A play on words, sometimes on different senses of the same word and sometimes on the similar sense or

sound of different words.“It would be possible to make a pencil with an eraser at both ends but what would be the point?”

Purpose: the controlling intention of a composition. In an expository essay the general purpose might be to explain, convince, or describe, but the specific purpose would be, say, to convince the editors of the local newspaper that they had chosen to support the wrong candidate, or to explain to the readers of the college paper why the proposed tuition increase was passed without student opposition. When the purpose of an essay is stated directly, it is often called the thesis statement. Although the thesis statement expresses what you are trying to say, it does not fully explain your reason for saying it.

Qualify (v)/qualifier (n) to make (a statement or assertion) less absolute; to modify, limit, or temperRebuttal refutation; response with contrary evidence; V. rebut: refute; disproveRed Herring fallacy "smoke screen"; "wild goose chase" an irrelevant topic is presented in order to divert attention from the

original issue.Refutation: The part of an argument wherein a speaker or writer anticipates and counters opposing points of view. Repetition: An instance of using a word, phrase, or clause more than once in a short passage--dwelling on a point. Rhetoric: The study and practice of effective communication.Rhetorical Question: A question asked merely for effect with no answer expected. They occur frequently when the author is

trying to disarm anticipated objections. any question asked for a purpose other than to obtain the information the question asks. The question as a grammatical form has important rhetorical dimensions; the technical term for rhetorical questions in general is erotema.

11

Sarcasm: one kind of irony; it is praise which is really an insult; sarcasm generally involves malice, the desire to put someone down,*"This is my brilliant son, who failed out of college."

Satire: A text or performance that uses irony, derision, or wit to expose or attack human vice, foolishness, or stupidity.Schemes changing the pattern of words in a sentence

Semantics: [sɪ ˈmæn tɪks] The meaning or the interpretation of a word, sentence, or other language form: We're basically agreed; let's not quibble over semantics.

Simile: an explicit comparison between two things using 'like' or 'as'.*Reason is to faith as the eye to the telescope. D. Hume [?]*Let us go then, you and I,

While the evening is spread out against the sky,Like a patient etherized upon a table... T.S. Eliot, The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock

Slippery Slope fallacy The Camel's Nose: asserts that some event must inevitably follow from another without any argument for the inevitability of the event in question. asserts that one undesirable action will inevitably lead to a worse action, which will necessarily lead to a worse one still, all the way to a terrible disaster.

Solecism: [‘sɒlɪˌsɪzəm] An element of speech or writing that is incorrect grammaticallyStrawman fallacy: exaggerated version of your opponent’s position that is easy to refute.ignores a person's actual position and

substitutes a distorted, exaggerated or misrepresented version of that position.

Style: In classical rhetoric, the choice of words and their arrangement. In contemporary usage, style generally refers to the relation between ideas and language. . . . Diction, syntax, pint of view, emphasis, figurative language all contribute to style. More difficult to define than to perceive, an author’s style produces the recognizable individuality of a composition.

SubordinationWords, phrases, and clauses that make one element of a sentence dependent on (or subordinate to) another. Contrast with coordination.

Syllepsis: [sɪ ˈlɛp sɪs] A kind of ellipsis in which one word (usually a verb) is understood differently in relation to two or more other words, which it modifies or governs.

*We must all hang together or assuredly we will all hang separately.” Benjamin Franklin"You can't just fire teachers and tomahawk missiles simultaneously." (Jon Stewart)

Syllogism: A form of deductive reasoning consisting of a major premise (All men are mortal), a minor premise (Socrates is a man), and a conclusion (Therefore, Socrates is mortal).

Symbol: A person, place, action, or thing that (by association, resemblance, or convention) represents something other than itself.

Synaesthesia: [‘sɪ nɪs ‘θi zɪə] The description of one kind of sense impression by using words that normally describe another

*I feel blue; a warm color; a smooth sound; a loud color”

Synecdoche: [sɪn ‘ɛk də kɪ]understanding one thing with another; the use of a part for the whole, or the whole for the part. (Aform of metonymy.)*Give us this day our daily bread. Matthew 6*I should have been a pair of ragged claws

Scuttling across the floors of silent seas.T. S. Eliot, "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock"

Syntax(1) The study of the rules that govern the way words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. (2) The arrangement of words in a sentence.

Systrophe: The listing of many qualities or descriptions of someone or something, without providing an explicit definition.

Tautology: [tɔː ˈtɒ lə dʒɪ]repetition of an idea in a different word, phrase, or sentence, often in a way that is wearisome or unnecessary.*With malice toward none, with charity for all. Lincoln, Second Inaugural

Theme: 1. an idea or topic expanded in a discourse, discussion, etc.2. (in literature, music, art, etc.) a unifying idea, image, or motif, repeated or developed throughout a work

Thesis: The main idea of an essay or report, often written as a single declarative sentence.

12

Tone: A writer's attitude toward the subject and audience. Tone is primarily conveyed through diction, point of view, syntax, and level of formality.

Transition: The connection between two parts of a piece of writing, contributing to coherence.Tropes using a word in a way other than what is considered its literal or normal form.

TuQuoque fallacy [tju: ‘kwaʊkwɪ] (look who's talking or two wrongs make a right) pointing to a similar wrong or error committed by another.

Understatement: A figure of speech in which a writer deliberately makes a situation seem less important or serious than it is.Understatement leaves it to the readers to build up what has been played down and therefore prompts them to engage actively in imagining the importance of what has been understated. When an offensive idea is understated, the result is akind of euphemism. Litotes is a form of understatement in which the opposite of what is intended is denied: “This is no smallmatter.”

Unreliable Authority fallacy biased authority or uninformed authority citedVoice (1) The quality of a verb that indicates whether its subject acts (active voice) or is acted upon (passive voice).

(2) The distinctive style or manner of expression of an author or narrator.Zeugma: [‘zju: gmə]two different words linked to a verb or an adjective which is strictly appropriate to only one of them.

*"You are free to execute your laws, and your citizens, as you see fit."(Star Trek: The Next Generation)*"He carried a strobe light and the responsibility for the lives of his men."(Tim O'Brien, The Things They Carried)

Essential/operationalArgu m entum ad B a culum (Appeal to Force or the "Might-Makes-Right" Fallacy):force, the threat of force, or some other

unpleasant backlash to make the audience accept a conclusion.Fallacy of Accident. This error occurs when one applies a general rule to a particular case when accidental circumstances

render the general rule inapplicable.Ignorantio Elenchi (Irre l e vant Conclusion): This fallacy occurs when a rhetorician adapts an argument purporting to establish a

particular conclusion and directs it to prove a different conclusion.Argument fr o m the Negat i ve (Arg u ment u m Ad Negan t em): Arguing from the negative asserts that, since one position is

untenable, the opposite stance must be true.Undistributed Middle Term: A specific type of error in deductive reasoning in which the minor premise and the major premise

may or may not overlap.Sources: h t t p :/ / gra m mar.a b o u t . com / od / terms/a / A P t erms . h t m , h tt p :/ / w w w . u k y . e du / A S / C lassics / rhetoric . h t ml# 2 4 , Sylva

Rhetoricae(http://humanities.byu.edu/rhetoric/silva.htm)

Appendix B: Key assignment Words

Analyze Break the issue or problem into separate parts and discuss, examine, or interpret each part and the relationships between them. Sometimes this involves looking carefully at causesand effects.

Analyze the Argument and the Conclusion

Look at the truth and persuasiveness of the reasons given for a position and the degree towhich the conclusion is justified based on these reasons.

Compare and Contrast Describe the similarities and differences between two objects, situations, or ideas. Sometimes this involves a before and after comparison.

Define Tell what a particular word or term means in your essay. Usually this is not a dictionarydefinition, but rather clarifies how you are using the term.

Describe Give a detailed account, naming characteristics, parts, or qualities.Discuss This is a general term that covers explanations, reasoning, pro and con arguments,

examples, analysis, etc.Evaluate This term literally means to determine the “value” of something, to discover how good or

bad something is. It usually means that you should argue that something is good or bad and then discuss your reasoning.

Explain Help your reader understand the reasoning behind your position by showing the logical development in step-by-step fashion. You might also be asked to show how somethingworks or how to do something.

Illustrate In a writing prompt, this usually does not mean to draw pictures. Instead, it means to giveexamples.

Prove This usually means that you should support your opinion with facts and arguments.State Tell the reader your opinion strongly and concisely.

From CSU Task Force p.

13

27(7/18/04)

14

*Registers of Language

Every language in the world has five registers

REGISTER EXPLANATIONFROZEN Language that is always the same. For example: Lord’s Prayer, wedding vows, etc.FORMAL (mainly written)

The standard sentence syntax and word choice of work and school. Has complete sentences and specific word choice.

CONSULTATIVE (mainly spoken)

Formal register when used in conversation. Discourse pattern not quite as direct as formal register.

CASUAL Language between friends and is characterized by a 400- to 800-word vocabulary. Word choice general and not specific. Conversation dependent upon non-verbal assists. Sentence syntax often incomplete.

INTIMATE Language between lovers or twins. Language of sexual harassment.

Basic Levels of Diction Examples by Dixie DillingerFormal I am not sanguine about his decision of the board.Informal I am not pleased with the board’s decisionConversational I’m not comfortable with the decision.Colloquial I’m not cool with what the brass did.Slang – y I’m ticked off at what the suits did.Vulgar I’m royally pissed

Co-ordinating Conjunctions: FANBOYS: For-And-Nor-But-Or-Yet-S o.Subordinating Conjunctions organized by general category

The word that is used as a conjunction to connect a subordinate clause to a preceding verb. . . . As a general rule, if the sentence feels just as good without the that, if no ambiguity results from its omission, if the sentence is more efficient or elegant without it, then we can safely omit the that. Theodore Bernstein lists three conditions in which we should maintain the conjunction t hat :• When a time element intervenes between the verb and

the clause: "The boss said yesterday that production in this department was down fifty percent." (Notice the position of "yesterday.")

• When the verb of the clause is long delayed: "Our annual report revealed that some losses sustained by this department in the third quarter of last year were worse than previously thought." (Notice the distance between the subject "losses" and its verb, "were.")

• When a second that can clear up who said or did what: "The CEO said that Isabel's department was slacking off and that production dropped precipitously in the fourth quarter." (Did the CEO say that production dropped or was the drop a result of what he said about Isabel's department? The second that makes the sentence clear.)

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/conjunctions.htm

TIME CAUSE/ EFFECT OPPOSITION CONDITIONafter as although as long asbefore because as if as thoughsince in order that even though even iftill now that than ifuntil since though in case (that)when so whereas now thatwhile so that while once

only if/if onlyunlesswheneverwhereverwhether or notthat

15

PAPA

(APAnalysis square, Analysis diamond)

Audience

Fill the interior space with specific evidence that supports each of the four analytical points. Show, either by position or by arrows, which point your evidence supports. Nothing should be listed that doesn’t have clear connection to those four points. No points shouldbe listed for which you do not provide evidence. Remember, you have passion but you have no credibility. “I say so”has no power at this point in your life. Prove your points.

Persuasive purpose

Persona Argument

Purpose? What is the need or occasion that is causing the author to write? What action does the speaker wantthe audience to take?Audience? What is the audience the writer envisioned and what assumptions does the author make about that audience? Pathos – how does the speaker anticipate and manipulate the audience’s emotional reaction?Persona? What persona is the writer assuming? Does the author project an authentic voice? Ethos—how does the speaker establish common values with the audience? How does the speaker create a common ground forspeaker and audience?Argument? What is the writer’s message or argument? Logos—how is the message presented? What figurative language? What mode of discourse (compare/contrast, cause/effect, classification and division, et al.) does the speaker employ to convey the message?(Loosely adapted from C ontempo r ary Compositio n . Maxine Hurston, ed. Boston: Houghton

Mifflin, 1986. and Greater Los Angeles AP Summer Institute 2006)Analysis Square AudienceAlternative Shape

Persona Persuasive Purpose

16

Argument

17

SOAPSTone

Tool to begin close reading

Subject: What is the subject of the text (the general topic, content, or ideas contained in the text)? How do you know this? How does the author present the subject? Is it introduced immediately or delayed? Is the subject hidden? Or is there more than one subject?

Occasion: What is the rhetorical occasion (the time and place of the piece or the current situation)? Is it a memory, a description, an observation, a valedictory, an argument, a diatribe, an elegy, a declaration, a critique, a journal entry, or…?

Audience: Who is the audience (the group of readers to whom this piece is directed)? Does the speaker identify an audience? What assumptions exist about the intended audience?

Purpose: What is the purpose for the passage (the reason for its composition)? What is the speaker’s purpose (the reason behind the text)? How is this message conveyed? What is the message? How does the speaker try to spark a reaction in the audience: What techniques are used to achieve a purpose? How does the text make the audience feel? What is its intended effect?

Speaker: Who is the speaker (the voice that tells the story)? Is someone identified as the speaker? What assumptions can be made about the speaker? What age, gender, class, emotional state, education or…?

Tone: If the author were to read aloud the passage, describe the likely tone of voice. It is whatever clarifies the author’s attitude toward the subject. What emotional sense pervades the piece? How does the diction point to tone? How do the author’s diction, details, images, language and sentence structure convey his or her feelings?

2004-5 Workshop Materials for AP English Language and Composition p.42

18

The Rhetorical Triangle h tt p ://www. p u b lic.asu.ed u /~j v a n as u /r h et-tr i a ng le. h tm

LOGOS (idea, message)

Rhetorical Occasion or context

PATHOS (force, emotion) ETHOS (form, manner, credibility)

Every communication is essentially a trilateral relationship. Each point of the triangle

influences the others, and all are influenced by the context of the communication. Each point

of the triangle bears some responsibility for the success of the communication, and each

point of the triangle corresponds with one of Aristotle's three appeals (i.e., general means of persuasion).

Rational Appeals (logos) Emotional Appeals (pathos) Ethical Appeals(ethos)

appeal to logical reasoning ability of readers

• facts• case studies• statistics• experiments• logical reasoning• analogies• anecdotes• authority voices

appeal to beliefs and feelings higher emotions

• belief in fairness• love• pity

• etc. lower

emotions

• greed• lust• revenge• avarice• etc.

sense you (author) gives as being competent/fair/authority

• trustworthiness• credibility• reliability• expert testimony• reliable sources• fairness

Think of how one speaks to an opponent: For example on the floor of the Senate in hearted debate the speaker would refer to "My honorable opponent." This is why one refers to the "manner of delivery."

19

Verbs Source: Chris Baldwin. POWER VERBS:alludes analogizes argues assertsaugments bolsters conveys connotescontrasts creates deduces delineates (defines)demonstrates (proves) depicts develops emphasizesenhances establishes expresses fostersillustrates (shows) implements initiates introducesjuxtaposes permeates portrays presentsqualifies reveals specifies transforms

WEAK VERBS:am, is, are, be, was, were, has been, had been, have been, being, has, had, have, makes, seems, appears, uses, and utilizes, which means the same thing as uses.

abstract

Tone words (adjectives used to describe tone, diction, etc.)Sources: Lara L. Mallard, Sarah Hayes, Dawn Hogue, Suzanne Hughes

abstruse absurdaccusatory-charging of

wrong doingacerbic admiringaggressiveaggrieved ambivalent amused – to find

something else entertaining.

amusing – to be entertaining or pleasing

angryanimatedapathetic-indifferent due to

lack of energy or concern

apprehensive - fearful archaic (old, antiquated) ardentarrogant artificial assertiveaudacious – fearless, bold,

unrestrained by convention or propriety, insolent. spirited or original

awe – to feel solemn wonder

awestruckbantering - good-humored,

playfulbefuddled belligerentbenevolentbitter-exhibiting strong

animosity as a result of pain or grief

bombastic (overblown, pompous

callous-unfeeling, insensitive to feelings of others

candidcaustic-intense use of

sarcasm; stinging,biting

cautionary celebratory chatty cheerfulcholeric-hot-tempered,

easily angeredcolloquial (conversational)comic compassionate complaining complex compliant conciliatory concretecondescending-a feeling

of superiorityconfusedconnotative (suggestive)contemplative-studying,

thinking, reflecting on an issue

contemptuous-showing or feeling that something is worthless or lacks respect

conventional-lacking spontaneity, originality, and individuality

critical-finding faultcruel cultured

cynical-questions the basic sincerity and goodness of people

defiantdeflated (reduced in

importance)demeaning depressedderisive-ridiculing,

mockingdetached - absence of

emotional involvement and an aloof, impersonal objectivity

didactic-author attempts to educate or instruct the reader

dignifieddiplomaticdisappointed - let down,

discouraged, disillusioned, discontented

disapproving disdainful-scornful dishearteneddisparagingdispassionate distressed docileearnest - intense, a

sincere state of mindegotisticalelegiac - mourning or

expressing sorrow for that which is irrecoverably past

emotional empatheticerudite-learned, polished,

scholarly

esoteric (for the initiate)euphemistic

(inoffensive, agreeable)

evasive exact excitedfactual - objective,

unbiased, correct, accurate, matter-of- fact

fanciful-using the imagination

fantastic (flights offancy)

farcical faultfinding fawning figurative flippant folksy forceful formalforthright-directly frank

without hesitationfrank frivolousfrustrated fuminggentle ghoulishgloomy - dark, sad,gobbledygook(ish) (full

of specific professional jargon)

grimgrotesque (bizarre,

incongruous)gullible hardhard-hearted

20

haughty-proud and vain to the point of arrogance

homespun (simple, homely)

horrific - causing horror;terrifying

humble hypercriticalidiomatic (dialect)impartial impassioned imploring impressionable inaneincensed incredulous indifferentindignant-marked by anger

aroused by injusticeinflated informal informativeinsipid (dull, flat)intenseintimate-very familiar ironicirreverent jadedjargon(y) (full of technical

vocab of a particular group)

jovial – happy, friendly joyousjudgmental-authoritative

and often having critical opinions

laudatory learned literallovinglyrical-expressing a poet’s

inner feelings; emotional; full of images; song-like

macabremalicious-purposely hurtful matter-of-fact--accepting

of conditions; not fanciful or emotional

mean-spirited metaphoricalmock-heroic - satirical

imitation or burlesque of

the heroic manner or style

mocking-treating with contempt or ridicule

modest moralisticmorose-gloomy, sullen,

surly, despondentmourningmundane (commonplace)naive narcissistic nasty nostalgicobjective-an unbiased

view-able to leave personal judgments aside

obscureobsequious-polite and

obedient in order to gain something

obtuse (not clear/precise)ominous – menacing,

threateningoptimistic-hopeful,

cheerfulordinary outragedoutspoken patheticpatronizing-air of

condescension pedantic - characterized

by a narrow, often ostentatious concernfor book learning andformal rules

pensivepersuasive - convincing,

telling, , winning, compelling, influential,impelling, cogent

pessimistic-seeing the worst side of things; no hope

philosophical picturesque (quaint,

charming) placating plainplayfulpoetic poetic

pompous pragmatic prayerful precisepretentious (showy)provincial (narrow,

unsophisticated)provocative – inciting

anger or sexual desirequizzical - odd, eccentric,

amusingreflective - illustrating

innermost thoughts and emotions

reflective-illustrating innermost thoughtsand emotions

regretful - sorry, disappointed, sad, ashamed, apologetic, mournful, contrite,

remorseful - guilty, ashamed, chastened, rueful, contrite, repentant, guilt-ridden, penitent, conscience- stricken, self- reproachful

resentful resigned restrainedreticentreverent - treating a

subject with honor and respect

ribald-offensive in speech or gesture

ridiculing - slightly contemptuous banter;making fun of

righteoussanguine - optimistic,

cheerfulsarcastic - sneering,

causticsardonic - scornfully and

bitterly sarcasticsatiric - ridiculing to show

weakness in order to make a point, teach

scathing scholarly scornful scorning

self-pitying sensationalistic sensuous (appealing to

the senses) sentimental simpering - coy,

affected, flirtatious, coquettish, kittenish

simplesincere - without deceit

or pretense; genuinesincere-without deceit

or pretense; genuineskepticalslang(y)solemn – somber,

deeply earnest, tending toward sad reflection

sorrowful subjective submissivesulkingsymbolic sympathetic –

compassionate, benevolent

thoughtful threatening -

menacing, intimidatory,terrorizing, sinister

tolerant tragictrite (boring from

overuse, hackneyed)unassumingunbiased uneasyurgent – insistent,

importunate, compellingimmediate action

vindictive virtuous vulgarwhimsical-odd,

strange, fantastic; fun

witty wondering world-weary worried wretched

21

Writing Guidelines for AP Essays

1. Read question carefully - circle/underline important directions and words [see task words]. Divide general concepts (tone, purpose, meaning, attitude, theme…) from specific techniques (diction, imagery, details, symbolism…) If nothing is specifically suggested for you to look at, remember: What is the Purpose, what techniques were used, why were they used, how do they affect the essay/paper/reader…

2. Read the selection carefully - mark what the prompt asks for—diction (individual words), imagery (color, details), assertions-commentary sentences (emphasis in sentences/paragraphs). Mark unique punctuation (dashes, hyphens…), mark sentence structure if it seems to be serving a purpose (parallelism, deliberately short/long sentences…)

3. Organize your ideas – stay focused on the prompt. Allow at least 10 minutes to read the selection and outline your ideas. It is OK to practice a few opening sentences before you begin the essay [or even wait to put in the opening sentence after you have finished most of the essay.]

4. Write the essayInclude only what the prompt states – stay on topic.If nothing specific is mentioned, consider the concepts and techniques of analysis we have studied in class: what stands out???Focus on what the author does, not on how the reader reactsInclude effective sentence structure for the ideas you are presenting.

Use a variety of sentences and punctuation to show mastery of sentence structure (make sure you are correct – only use what you know how to do well)

5. Introduction – keep it simple and to the point.DO NOT repeat the prompt – use it but don’t repeat it. Directly answer the main intent of the promptUse parallel structure for the items you are listing. Use specific, expressive adjectives.

6. Supporting ParagraphsHave at least 2 supporting paragraphs – include 3 or more if you have time. Each supporting paragraph should have two good, strong examples of your topic with commentary. Explain what the author does to achieve his purpose.Why are his techniques effective?Be very specific – refer directly to the selection.Include memorized quotes or passages for the free response question if you can. At the very least, include specific facts and details to support your ideas.

7. Conclusion – Bring your main ideas back together, but DO NOT repeat your first paragraph (or any other part of the essay, for that matter).Extend your ideas with an original insight, comment about the topic in general or the selection specifically.The conclusion can be very brief but it needs to be included.A poor conclusion is better than no conclusion. Make sure you have one.

8. Editing/Proofreading – if you have time, proofread your writing. Everyone knows you are writing a rough draft and that it will not be perfect, but the fewer obvious errors, the better. You are graded on what you do well, not on the small mistakes you make.

22

A few final admonitions

Don’t repeat the prompt

Use adjectives to state what kind of diction, style, imagery…the author has used (understated diction, natural imagery, parallel syntax, chronological organization…)

Use specific details and examples to support your ideas.

Never use second person pronouns (you, your you’re)

Use first person sparingly – generally needed only for personal narrative.

Use specific and varied vocabulary – avoid the overuse of adverbs; avoid using the same descriptive word in every sentence or paragraph; use specific verbs.

Write like you are comfortable with what you are doing – make your reader believe you have complete understanding of the topic and are expressing your own ideas – not what your teacher told you to write.

Let your personality show in your writing, but not interfere with the purpose of your essay. (Don’t be casual or flippant.

Stay in a completely formal style. [No colloquial speech or contractions]

Don’t write to impress; you won’t.

First SKIM the questions which follow the passage (do not read the choices at this time).

A PATTERNED PLAN OF ATTACKMultiple-Choice Section

Follow this procedure for each passage and set of questions

or Begin READING the passage as quicly as possible without losing comprehension.

↓ ↓READ the passage QUICKLY and ACTIVELY, marking the few important key points in each paragraph (DON’T OVERMARK)).

↓Answer the questions which follow the passage without spending too much time on any difficult questions. No

guessing penalty, so make your best guess.↓

Mark extremely difficult, “no-guess” questions with a check so that you can quicly return to them.

↓REPEAT this process with each passage.

23

Rubric #1 AP Scoring ModelTop Scores8-950/50

These are well-written papers, which respond fully to the questionasked. The best papers show a full understanding of the issues and support their points with appropriate textual evidence and examples. Writers of these essays demonstrate stylistic maturity by an effective command of sentence structure, diction, and organization. The writing need not be without flaws, but it should reveal the writer’s ability to choose from and control a wide range of elements of effective writing.

Upperscores6-745/50

These essays also respond correctly to the questions asked but doso less fully or less effectively than the essays in the top range. Their discussion may be less thorough and less specific. These essays are well-written in an appropriate style but reveal lessmaturity than the top papers. They do make use of textual evidence to support their points. Some lapses in diction or syntax mayappear, but he writing demonstrates sufficient control over Middle

score540/50

These essays respond to the question, but the comments may besimplistic or imprecise; they may be overly generalized, vague, or inadequately supported. These essays are adequately written, but may demonstrate inconsistent control over the elements of composition. Organization is attempted, but it may not be fully realized or particularly effective.

Lowerscores3-435/50

These essays attempt to deal with the question, but do so eitherinaccurately or without support or specific evidence. They mayshow some misunderstanding or omit pertinent analysis. The writing can convey the writer’s ideas, but it reveals weak control over diction, syntax, and organization. These essays may contain excessive and distracting spelling and grammatical errors. Statements are seldom supported with specific or persuasive evidence, or inappropriately lengthy quotations may replace discussion and analysis.

LowestScores1-230/50

These essays fail to respond adequately to the question. They mayreveal misunderstanding or may distort the interpretation. They compound the problems of the Lower Score papers. Generally these essays are unacceptably brief or poorly written. Although some attempts to answer the question may be indicated, the writer’s view has little clarity and only slight,

24

Rubric #2Past Tests1-9 Descriptors

1&2 3&4 5• Off topic (e.g. summarization

or argument instead of analysis of the rhetoric asked for)

• Soap box lecture• “I” (filter of self)• argues against writer’s

position• testimonials• teacher lecture• defining of terms

unnecessarily• major grammar problems• brevity• summary• no analysis• inaccuracies

• “Listers” “Labelers” w/o analysis of why it matters

• pointless allusion• believe Language test is the

same as Literature test• paraphrasing through over

quoting (i.e. long passages)• Prosaic paraphrase -

ineffective quoting in place of analysis

• limited task (i.e. diction only)• proving the obvious• poor analogies• obviously “2nd Person” “you”• colloquial diction “even”• clichés (“makes you stop and

wonder”)• implied analysis, but

inadequate• funnel opening (truisms)• immature focus (“Get the

reader’s attention” hook is overplayed)

• no sense of completion, abrupt (victim of lack of time management)

• Inconsistent – but adequate• Less difficult concepts (e.g.

diction – rather than point of view, symbolism, syntax)

• Linear in organization• Step by step, laborious• Rigid organization• Occasional insight• Limited thesis (often 3 parts)• Summary conclusion• “once over lightly”

6&7 8 9• More fluid in style• Sections insightful• Often one section well

developed by student affected by time

• Clear or implied thesis tied to general intent of question

• Attempts more difficult tasks• Sense of completion• Conclusion that broadens the

applications

• Strong sense of control- organization

• Insightful (often tied to human condition)

• Mature in style and vocabulary

• Tight link of support (text references to authors intent)

• Magical at times• Insightful (often tied to

human condition)• Attempts more challenging

concepts (i.e. figurative lang., symbolism, extended metaphor, organization, pacing, narrative strategies)

• Mature beginnings• Takes risks – always under

control

25

AP Language and Composition

Scoring for Synthesis Free Response Question (Usually Question 1)

9- Meets the criteria for the 8 essay and, in addition, is especially sophisticated in argument, skillful in synthesizing of sources, or impressive in control of language.

8- Effectively develops a position. Position is supported by effectively synthesizing at least three of the sources. The writer’s argument is convincing, and the sources effectively support the writer’s position. Prose demonstrates an ability to control a wide range of the elements of effective writing but is not necessarily flawless.

7- Meets the criteria for the 6 essay but provides a more complete or more purposeful argumentation and synthesis of sources or a more mature prose style.

6- Adequately develops a position. The response synthesizes at least three of the sources. The writer’s argument is generally convincing, and the sources generally support the writer’s position. The writing may contain lapses in diction or syntax, but generally the prose isclear.

5- Develops a position. The position is supported by synthesizing at least three sources, but the argument and use of sources is somewhat limited, uneven, or inconsistent. The writer’s argument is generally clear, and the sources generally support the position, but the links between the sources and the argument may be strained. The writing may contain lapses in diction or syntax, but usually conveys the writer’s ideas.

4- Inadequately develops a position. There is an attempt to present an argument and support it by synthesizing at least two sources, but may misunderstand, misrepresent, or oversimplify either the argument or the sources included. The link between the argument and the sourcesis weak. The response may suggest immature control of writing.

3- Meets the criteria for the score of 4 but demonstrates less understanding of the sources, less success in developing an argument, or less control of writing.

2- Little success in developing a position. The response may merely allude to knowledge gained from the sources rather than citing the sources themselves. The response may misread the sources, fail to present an argument, or substitute a simpler task by merely responding to the task tangentially or by merely summarizing the sources. The prose often demonstrates consistent weakness in writing.

1- Meets the criteria for the 2 score but is especially simplistic, or is weak in control of language.

http://aplangandcomp1011.wikispaces.com/Syllabus+and+Rubrics

26

AP Language and Composition

Scoring for Rhetorical Analysis Free Response Question (Usually Question 2)

9- Meets the criteria for the 8 essay and, in addition, is especially full or apt in analysis or demonstrates particularly impressive control of language.

8- Effectively responds to the prompt. Analysis effectively analyzes the strategies the author uses/ how the text is crafted. The passage is referred to explicitly or implicitly. Prose demonstrates an ability to control a wide range of the elements of effective writing but is not necessarily flawless.

7- Meets the criteria for the 6 essay but provides a more complete analysis or demonstrates a more mature prose style.

6- Adequately responds to the prompt. Analysis adequately analyzes the strategies the author uses/how the text is crafted. The passage is referred to explicitly or implicitly. The writing may contain lapses in diction or syntax, but generally the prose is clear.

5- Analyzes the strategies the author uses/how the text is crafted, but does so unevenly, inconsistently, or insufficiently. The writing may contain lapses in diction or syntax, but it usually conveys the student’s ideas.

4- Inadequately responds to the prompt. Little discussion of the strategies the author uses/how the text is crafted is offered. The analysis may be incorrect. The prose generally conveys the student’s ideas but may suggest immature control of writing.

3- Meets the criteria for the score of 4 but is less perceptive about the strategies the author uses/ how the text is crafted and/or less consistent in controlling the elements of writing.

2- Little success analyzing the strategies the author uses/how the text is crafted. The essay may misunderstand the prompt, offer vague generalizations, substitute simple tasks such as summarizing the passage, or simply list strategies. The prose often demonstrates consistent weakness in writing.

1- Meets the criteria for the 2 score but is undeveloped, especially simplistic in analysis, or weak in control of language.

27

Scoring for Argument Free Response Question (Usually Question 3)

9- Meets the criteria for the 8 essay and, in addition, is especially sophisticated in explanation and argument or demonstrates particularly impressive control of language.

8- Effectively develops a position. The evidence used is appropriate and convincing. Prose demonstrates an ability to control a wide range of the elements of effective writing but is not necessarily flawless.

7- Meets the criteria for the 6 essay but provides a more complete argument or demonstrates a more mature prose style.

6- Adequately develops a position. The evidence used is appropriate. The writing may contain lapses in diction or syntax, but generally the prose is clear.

5- Develops a position, but provides uneven, inconsistent, or limited explanations or evidence. The writing may contain lapses in diction or syntax, but it usually conveys the writer’s ideas.

4- Inadequately develops a position. The evidence may be insufficient. The prose generally conveys the student’s ideas but may suggest immature control of writing.

3- Meets the criteria for the score of 4 but demonstrates less success in developing a position or in providing evidence to support that position. The paper shows less control of writing.

2- Little success in developing a position. The essay may misunderstand the prompt, or substitute a simpler task by responding to the prompt tangentially with unrelated, inaccurate, inappropriate evidence. The prose demonstrates consistent weakness in writing.

1- Meets the criteria for the 2 score but is undeveloped, especially simplistic in explanation and argument, or weak in control of language.

26

Introduction to Rhetoric PowerPoint Close

– refer to the Intro PowerPoint for correct answers

Rhetoric part of speech? \‘rĕ tə rǐk\

Definition: the study of and and the art of

• conveys meaning as much as .• I encourage you to get past the . . . It is the that the power of

rhetoric is made apparent.

Basic Tools –

Persuasive Appeals (see page 17)

1. The appeal to , providing logical support for arguments2. The appeal to .3. The persuasive appeal , to establish one's with the

audienceDiction

When are you allowed to say an author “used diction”?

Language Registers:

1. Register : This style of communications RARELY or NEVER changes. It is - . e.g. the Pledge of Allegiance, the Lord’s Prayer, the Preamble to the US Constitution, the AlmaMater, a bibliographic reference, laws .

2. Register: This language is used in settings and is in nature. This use of language usually follows a commonly accepted format. It is usually impersonal and formal. A common format for this register are . e.g. sermons, rhetorical statements and questions, speeches, pronouncements made by judges, announcements.

3. Register: This is a standard form of communications. Users engage in a mutually accepted structure of communications. It is and accompany the users of this speech. It is . e.g. when strangers meet, communications between a superior and a subordinate, doctor & patient, lawyer & client, lawyer & judge, teacher & student, counselor & client,

4. Register: This is informal language used by and . Slang, vulgarities and colloquialisms are normal. This is . One must be a member to engage in this register. e.g. buddies, teammates, chats and emails, and blogs, and letters to friends.

5. Register: This communications is . It is reserved for or . e.g. husband & wife, boyfriend & girlfriend, siblings, parent & children.

One can usually transition from one language register to an adjacent one without encountering repercussions. However, is usually considered inappropriate and even offensive.

27

SyntaxTypes of Sentences:1. – statement ending in a period Sample: 2. – command, an understood (i.e. elliptical, not actually named) subject and sometimes followed by anexclamation point Sample: 3. –expresses strong emotion and ends with an exclamation pointSample: 4. – asks a question and ends with? Sample:

Quiz? Mark first letter of sentence type.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

Sentence structures1. - single independent clausePossible patterns:

1. S V - - (with any articles, adjectives and adverbs needed)

2. S V DO – – All of the above plus a direct object Receives the action of the verb

3. S V OI DO – – – All of the above plus an Indirect object—always between the verb and direct object—which answers “to whom” the direct object is directed.

4. S LV PA - – -A linking verb shows a state of being (appear, feel, seem look, become…) or forms of the verb “be” (am, is are, were, was…). The predicate adjective is an adjective after the verb that describe the subject of the sentence

5. S LV PN – – . The same as the previous pattern except a predicate nominative is a noun after the verb that describes the subject. .

2. A is properly joined with .

, conjunction-- ; -- ; conjunction ,I am hungry. I will fix my lunch. = I am hungry, so I will fix my lunch.

I am hungry; I will fix my lunch.I am hungry; th e refore, I will fix my lunch.

3. A contains (independent clause) modified by . (A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb which modifies the meaning of part of the original sentence. Dependent clauses usually begin with words such as: which, when, while, where, as, for, if, as soon as, whatever, whoever, because, however, that, than, who, whom, whose… see page 14 for more complete list)

1. Jim watches ships because that is his job. OR Because it is his job, Jim watches ships.2. Susan was happy that she paid all of her bills. OR Susan paid all of her bills so she was happy.3. Although John failed the test, he passed the class. OR John passed the class even though he failed the test.4. Sam stopped at the store before he went home. OR Before he went home, Sam stopped at the store.

4. A sentence simply combines the two previous sentence patterns. It has independent clauses and dependent clauses.

Whenever Julie feels tired, she thinks of her friends; that makes her work seem to go faster.If you study hard enough, you will earn good grades; in addition, your parents will stop nagging you.

Sentence Order• – complex sentence where the main or independent clause does not occur until the end – (HINT) just before the period.• – complex sentence that begins with the independent clause so you can end it any time after that and it will still be a complete sentence.• – Parallel structure where whatever is on one side of a coordinating conjunction balances with whatever comes after.

28