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Computers Application in Business

Almost every business uses computers to complete dailytasks. From making contact with clients to inputting data forreports, computers allow businesses a more ecient way tomanage aairs when compared to traditional paper andmanila folders. Businesses use a variety of dierent types ofcomputers such as desktops, laptops, servers, smartphonesand tablets, depending on their needs. With computers,employees are able to work anytime, anywhere.

Communicationommunication is key when gaining and maintaining clientsand other important contacts. omputers give businessesaccess to email, instant messaging and custom customercontact systems. omputeri!ed phone systems allow forautomated support during o hours and a virtual operatorcan "uickly direct callers to the correct department for fastersupport.

Marketingomputers allow businesses to create websites, stunning adsand complete marketing campaigns. #arketing videos can beedited and custom ads created in$house with the use ofspeciali!ed software. Businesses can completely develop andmanage websites with their own servers or connect remotelyto a third$party business to upload their latest content suchas articles, product images and blog posts.

AccountingAccounting without computers presents a high risk for humanerror. Accounting software allows businesses to simply inputtheir %nancial data and instantly see gains and losses. Allnecessary ta& reports are available the moment the data isentered. 'sing computers for invoicing, managing e&penses

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and calculating payroll is vital for ensuring %nancial data is asaccurate as possible.

Storage(nstead of %ling cabinets, businesses are able to store millionsof %les using computers and servers. )ata can be storedcentrally for easy access from multiple computers or storedlocally for individual use. omputeri!ed storage saves spaceand provides a far more ecient organi!ation strategy. Withencryption, passwords and replace keys, data remainssecure.

Documents and Reports#ost businesses have some sort of productivity softwarewhich typically includes a word processor and spreadsheetapplication. *hese two programs allow businesses to createreports, memos, tutorials and even colorful ads for companyevents. +preadsheet applications give businesses the chanceto organi!e, manage and calculate both numeric andalphabetic data. With charts and graphs, reporting becomes

visual instead of te&t$based.

EducationBusinesses use computers to help educate employees onsoftware, company policy, standard procedures and safety.(nstead of hiring teachers, computers can be used to educateemployees at their own pace or through an online webinarwith live "uestions and answers. *his form of education %tsthe busy schedules of businesses without sacri%cing the

"uality of the education.

ResearchFrom learning more about the competition to discoveringwhat customers really want, research isnt as dicult as itonce was, thanks to computers. +earch engines, forums,

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social networks and industry speci%c websites providebusinesses with a wealth of information and research data.

Microsoft Office

Microsoft Oce is an oce suite of desktop applications,servers and services for #icrosoft Windows and -+  

operating systems. (t was %rst announced by Bill /ates of#icrosoft on 0 August 0122 at -#)3 in 4as 5egas. (nitiallya marketing term for a bundled set of applications, the %rstversion of -ce contained #icrosoft Word, #icrosoft 3&cel and #icrosoft 6ower6oint. -ver the years, -ce applicationshave grown substantially closer with shared features such asa common spell checker, -43 data integration and 5isualBasic for Applications scripting language. #icrosoft alsopositions -ce as a development platform for line$of$

business software under the -ce Business Applications brand. -n 07 8uly 9709, +oftpedia reported that -ce is usedby over a billion people worldwide. *he current versions are-ce 970: for Windows, released on 00 -ctober 9709; and-ce 9700 for -+ , released 9< -ctober 9707. -n 9=-ctober 9709, the >*# %nal code of -ce 970: 6rofessional6lus was released to *ech?et and #+)? subscribers fordownload. -n 0@ ?ovember 9709, the <7$day trial version of-ce 970: 6rofessional 6lus was released for download. Atouch optimi!ed version of #icrosoft -ce is available pre$installed on Windows >* tablets. A mobile version of -ce,-ce #obile, is available for free on Windows 6hone, i-+ with separate versions for both i6hones and i6ads, andAndroid. A web$based version of -ce called -ce -nline,formerly -ce Web Apps is also available.C2D #icrosoft has

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stated that it plans to create a version of -ce for Androidtablets Eand other popular platformsE

 

Database

A database is a collection of information that is organi!ed sothat it can easily be accessed, managed, and updated. (n oneview, databases can be classi%ed according to types ofcontent bibliographic, full$te&t, numeric, and images. (ncomputing, databases are sometimes classi%ed according totheir organi!ational approach. *he most prevalent approachis the relational database, a tabular database in which data isde%ned so that it can be reorgani!ed and accessed in anumber of dierent ways. A distributed database is one thatcan be dispersed or replicated among dierent points in anetwork. An obGect$oriented programming database is onethat is congruent with the data de%ned in obGect classes andsubclasses. omputer databases typically containaggregations of data records or %les, such as sales

transactions, product catalogs and inventories, and customerpro%les. *ypically, a database manager provides users thecapabilities of controlling readHwrite access, specifying reportgeneration, and analy!ing usage. )atabases and databasemanagers are prevalent in large mainframe systems, but arealso present in smaller distributed workstation and mid$rangesystems such as the A+H=77 and on personal computers. +I4 

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Terminology and oerie! of Database

Formally, a EdatabaseE refers to a set of related data and theway it is structured or organi!ed. Access to this data isusually provided by a Edatabase management systemE)B#+ consisting of an integrated set of computer softwarethat allows users to interact with one or more databases andprovides access to all of the data contained in the databasealthough restrictions may e&ist that limit access to particulardata. *he )B#+ provides various functions that allow entry,

storage and retrieval of large "uantities of information as wellas provide ways to manage how that information isorgani!ed.Because of the close relationship between them, the termEdatabaseE is often used casually to refer to both a databaseand the )B#+ used to manipulate it.-utside the world of professional information technology, theterm database is often used to refer to any collection ofrelated data such as a spreadsheet or a card inde&. *his

article is concerned only with databases where the si!e andusage re"uirements necessitate use of a databasemanagement system.C0D

3&isting )B#+s provide various functions that allowmanagement of a database and its data which can beclassi%ed into four main functional groups

Data de"nition J reation, modi%cation and removal ofde%nitions that de%ne the organi!ation of the data.

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'pdate J (nsertion, modi%cation, and deletion of the actualdata.>etrieval J 6roviding information in a form directly usable orfor further processing by other applications. *he retrieved

data may be made available in a form basically the same asit is stored in the database or in a new form obtained byaltering or combining e&isting data from the database.Administration J >egistering and monitoring users, enforcingdata security, monitoring performance, maintaining dataintegrity, dealing with concurrency control, and recoveringinformation that has been corrupted by some event such asan une&pected system failure.Both a database and its )B#+ conform to the principles of a

particular database model.C9D E)atabase systemE referscollectively to the database model, database managementsystem, and database. 

6hysically, database servers are dedicated computers thathold the actual databases and run only the )B#+ and relatedsoftware. )atabase servers are usually multiprocessor computers, with generous memory and >A() disk arrays usedfor stable storage. >A() is used for recovery of data if any ofthe disks fail. Kardware database accelerators, connected toone or more servers via a high$speed channel, are also usedin large volume transaction processing environments. )B#+sare found at the heart of most database applications. )B#+smay be built around a custom multitasking kernel with built$in networking support, but modern )B#+s typically rely on astandard operating system to provide these functions.Ccitation

neededD

 +ince )B#+s comprise a signi%cant economical market,computer and storage vendors often take into account )B#+re"uirements in their own development plans.

)atabases and )B#+s can be categori!ed according to thedatabase models that they support such as relational or

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#4, the types of computer they run on from a servercluster to a mobile phone, the "uery languages used toaccess the database such as +I4 or Iuery, and theirinternal engineering, which aects performance, scalability,

resilience, and security.

Advantages and Limitations

A good database management system (DBMS) should provide the following

advantages over a conventional system:

Advantages

1 !educed data redundancy

" !educed updating errors and increased consistency

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# $reater data integrity and independence from applications programs

% &mproved data access to users through use of host and 'uery languages

&mproved data security

!educed data entry* storage* and retrieval costs

+owever* the following can be viewed as some of the limitations of a

database:

Disadvantages

1 Database systems are comple,* difficult* and time-consuming to design

" Substantial hardware and software start-up costs

# Damage to database affects virtually all applications programs

% .,tensive conversion costs in moving form a file-based system to a

database system

&nitial training re'uired for all programmers and users

#et!ork TopologyNetwork topology is the arrangement of the various elements (lin/s*

nodes* etc) of a computer networ/ 010" .ssentially* it is the topological0# 

structure of a networ/ and may be depicted physically or logically Physical

topology is the placement of the various components of a networ/* including

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device location and cable installation* while logical topology illustrates how

data flows within a networ/* regardless of its physical design Distances

 between nodes* physical interconnections* transmission rates* or signal types

may differ between two networ/s* yet their topologies may be identical

An e,ample is a local area networ/  (2A3): Any given node in the 2A3 has

one or more physical lin/s to other devices in the networ/4 graphically

mapping these lin/s results in a geometric shape that can be used to describe

the physical topology of the networ/ 5onversely* mapping the data flow

 between the components determines the logical topology of the networ/ 

Topology *here are two basic categories of #et!ork topologies physical topologies and logical topologies. *he cabling layout used to link devices is the physicaltopology of the network. *his refers to the layout of cabling,the locations of nodes, and the interconnections between thenodes and the cabling.C0D *he physical topology of a network

is determined by the capabilities of the network accessdevices and media, the level of control or fault tolerancedesired, and the cost associated with cabling ortelecommunications circuits. *he logical topology in contrast, is the way that the signalsact on the network media, or the way that the data passesthrough the network from one device to the ne&t withoutregard to the physical interconnection of the devices. Anetworks logical topology is not necessarily the same as its

physical topology. For e&ample, the original twisted pair3thernet using repeater hubs was a logical bus topology witha physical star topology layout. *oken >ing is a logical ringtopology, but is wired a physical star from the #edia Access'nit.

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 *he logical classi%cation of network topologies generallyfollows the same classi%cations as those in the physicalclassi%cations of network topologies but describes the paththat the data takes between nodes being used as opposed to

the actual physical connections between nodes. *he logicaltopologies are generally determined by network protocols asopposed to being determined by the physical layout ofcables, wires, and network devices or by the Low of theelectrical signals, although in many cases the paths that theelectrical signals take between nodes may closely match thelogical Low of data, hence the convention of using the termslogical topology  and signal topology  interchangeably.4ogical topologies are often closely associated with #edia

Access ontrol methods and protocols. 4ogical topologies areable to be dynamically recon%gured by special types ofe"uipment such as routers and switches.

)iagram of dierent network topologies.

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 *he study of network topology recogni!es eight basictopologiesC@D point$to$point, bus, star, ring or circular, mesh,tree, hybrid, or daisy chain.6oint$to$point

 *he simplest topology with a permanent link between twoendpoints. +witched point$to$point topologies are the basicmodel of conventional telephony. *he value of a permanentpoint$to$point network is unimpeded communicationsbetween the two endpoints. *he value of an on$demandpoint$to$point connection is proportional to the number ofpotential pairs of subscribers and has been e&pressed as#etcalfes 4aw.

$ermanent %dedicated& 3asiest to understand, of the variations of point$to$pointtopology, is a point$to$point communications channel thatappears, to the user, to be permanently associated with thetwo endpoints. A childrens tin can telephone is one e&ampleof a physical dedicated channel.Within many switched telecommunications systems, it ispossible to establish a permanent circuit. -ne e&ample mightbe a telephone in the lobby of a public building, which is

programmed to ring only the number of a telephonedispatcher. E?ailing downE a switched connection saves thecost of running a physical circuit between the two points. *heresources in such a connection can be released when nolonger needed, for e&ample, a television circuit from a paraderoute back to the studio.S!itched' 'sing circuit$switching or packet$switching technologies, apoint$to$point circuit can be set up dynamically and dropped

when no longer needed. *his is the basic mode ofconventional telephony.

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(usMain article' (us net!ork 

(us net!ork topology(n local area networks where bus topology is used, each nodeis connected to a single cable. 3ach computer or server isconnected to the single bus cable. A signal from the sourcetravels in both directions to all machines connected on thebus cable until it %nds the intended recipient. (f the machineaddress does not match the intended address for the data,the machine ignores the data. Alternatively, if the data

matches the machine address, the data is accepted. Becausethe bus topology consists of only one wire, it is ratherine&pensive to implement when compared to othertopologies. Kowever, the low cost of implementing thetechnology is oset by the high cost of managing the

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network. Additionally, because only one cable is utili!ed, itcan be the single point of failure.)inear bus *he type of network topology in which all of the nodes of the

network are connected to a common transmission mediumwhich has e&actly two endpoints this is the bus, which isalso commonly referred to as the backbone, or trunk J alldata that is transmitted between nodes in the network istransmitted over this common transmission medium and isable to be received by all nodes in the networksimultaneously.C0D

#ote' When the electrical signal reaches the end of the bus,the signal EechoesE back down the line, causing unwanted

interference. As a solution, the two endpoints of the bus arenormally terminated with a device called a terminator thatprevents this echo.Distributed bus *he type of network topology in which all of the nodes of thenetwork are connected to a common transmission mediumwhich has more than two endpoints that are created byadding branches to the main section of the transmissionmedium J the physical distributed bus topology functions ine&actly the same fashion as the physical linear bus topologyi.e., all nodes share a common transmission medium.

StarMain article' Star net!ork 

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Star net!ork topology(n local area networks with a star topology, each networkhost is connected to a central hub with a point$to$pointconnection. (n +tar topology every node computerworkstation or any other peripheral is connected to a centralnode called hub or switch. *he switch is the server and theperipherals are the clients. *he network does not necessarilyhave to resemble a star to be classi%ed as a star network, butall of the nodes on the network must be connected to one

central device. All trac that traverses the network passesthrough the central hub. *he hub acts as a signal repeater. *he star topology is considered the easiest topology to designand implement. An advantage of the star topology is thesimplicity of adding additional nodes. *he primarydisadvantage of the star topology is that the hub represents asingle point of failure.E*tended star A type of network topology in which a network that is based

upon the physical star topology has one or more repeatersbetween the central node the hub of the star and theperipheral or spoke nodes, the repeaters being used toe&tend the ma&imum transmission distance of the point$to$point links between the central node and the peripheralnodes beyond that which is supported by the transmitter

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power of the central node or beyond that which is supportedby the standard upon which the physical layer of the physicalstar network is based.(f the repeaters in a network that is based upon the physical

e&tended star topology are replaced with hubs or switches,then a hybrid network topology is created that is referred toas a physical hierarchical star topology, although some te&tsmake no distinction between the two topologies.Distributed Star A type of network topology that is composed of individualnetworks that are based upon the physical star topologyconnected in a linear fashion J i.e., daisy$chained J with nocentral or top level connection point e.g., two or more

stacked hubs, along with their associated star connectednodes or spokes.

RingMain article' Ring net!ork 

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Ring net!ork topologyA network topology that is set up in a circular fashion inwhich data travels around the ring in one direction and eachdevice on the ring acts as a repeater to keep the signalstrong as it travels. 3ach device incorporates a receiver forthe incoming signal and a transmitter to send the data on to

the ne&t device in the ring. *he network is dependent on theability of the signal to travel around the ring. When a devicesends data, it must travel through each device on the ringuntil it reaches its destination. 3very node is a critical link.C=D (n a ring topology, there is no server computer present; allnodes work as a server and repeat the signal. *hedisadvantage of this topology is that if one node stopsworking, the entire network is aected or stops working.MeshMain article' Mesh net!orking *he value of fully meshed networks is proportional to thee&ponent of the number of subscribers, assuming thatcommunicating groups of any two endpoints, up to andincluding all the endpoints, is appro&imated by >eeds 4aw.+ully connected net!ork 

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+ully connected mesh topologyA fully connected net!ork  is a communication network in

which each of the nodes is connected to each other. (n graphtheory it known as a complete graph. A fully connectednetwork doesnt need to use switching or broadcasting.Kowever, its maGor disadvantage is that the number ofconnections grows "uadratic ally with the number of nodes,as per the formula

and so it is e&tremely impractical for large networks. A two$

node network is technically a fully connected network.$artially connected

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$artially connected mesh topology *he type of network topology in which some of the nodes ofthe network are connected to more than one other node inthe network with a point$to$point link J this makes it possibleto take advantage of some of the redundancy that is provided

by a physical fully connected mesh topology without thee&pense and comple&ity re"uired for a connection betweenevery node in the network.

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Analog and Digital signals

(nstrumentation is a %eld of study and work centering onmeasurement and control of physical processes. *hesephysical processes include pressure, temperature, Low rate,and chemical consistency. An instrument is a device thatmeasures andHor acts to control any kind of physical process.)ue to the fact that electrical "uantities of voltage andcurrent are easy to measure, manipulate, and transmit over

long distances, they are widely used to represent suchphysical variables and transmit the information to remotelocations.A signal is any kind of physical "uantity that conveysinformation. Audible speech is certainly a kind of signal, as itconveys the thoughts information of one person to anotherthrough the physical medium of sound. Kand gestures aresignals, too, conveying information by means of light. *histe&t is another kind of signal, interpreted by your 3nglish$

trained mind as information about electric circuits. (n thischapter, the word signal will be used primarily in reference toan electrical "uantity of voltage or current that is used torepresent  or signify  some other physical "uantity.An analog signal is a kind of signal that is continuouslyvariable, as opposed to having a limited number of stepsalong its range called digital. A well$known e&ample ofanalog vs. digital is that of clocks analog being the type withpointers that slowly rotate around a circular scale, and digitalbeing the type with decimal number displays or a Esecond$handE that Gerks rather than smoothly rotates. *he analogclock has no physical limit to how %nely it can display thetime, as its EhandsE move in a smooth, pauseless fashion. *hedigital clock, on the other hand, cannot convey any unit oftime smaller than what its display will allow for. *he type of

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clock with a Esecond$handE that Gerks in 0$second intervals isa digital device with a minimum resolution of one second.

Both analog and digital signals %nd application in modernelectronics, and the distinctions between these two basicforms of information is something to be covered in muchgreater detail later in this book. For now, ( will limit the scopeof this discussion to analog signals, since the systems usingthem tend to be of simpler design.With many physical "uantities, especially electrical, analogvariability is easy to come by. (f such a physical "uantity isused as a signal medium, it will be able to representvariations of information with almost unlimited resolution.(n the early days of industrial instrumentation, compressedair was used as a signaling medium to convey informationfrom measuring instruments to indicating and controllingdevices located remotely. *he amount of air pressurecorresponded to the magnitude of whatever variable was

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being measured. lean, dry air at appro&imately 97 poundsper s"uare inch 6+( was supplied from an air compressorthrough tubing to the measuring instrument and was thenregulated by that instrument according to the "uantity being

measured to produce a corresponding output signal. Fore&ample, a pneumatic air signal level EtransmitterE deviceset up to measure height of water the Eprocess variableE ina storage tank would output a low air pressure when the tankwas empty, a medium pressure when the tank was partiallyfull, and a high pressure when the tank was completely full.

 *he Ewater level indicatorE 4( is nothing more than apressure gaugemeasuring the air pressure in the pneumatic signal line. *hisair pressure, being a signal, is in turn a representation of thewater level in the tank. Any variation of level in the tank canbe represented by an appropriate variation in the pressure of

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the pneumatic signal. Aside from certain practical limitsimposed by the mechanics of air pressure devices, thispneumatic signal is in%nitely variable, able to represent anydegree of change in the waters level, and is therefore analog

in the truest sense of the word.rude as it may appear, this kind of pneumatic signalingsystem formed the backbone of many industrialmeasurement and control systems around the world, and stillsees use today due to its simplicity, safety, and reliability. Airpressure signals are easily transmitted through ine&pensivetubes, easily measured with mechanical pressure gauges,and are easily manipulated by mechanical devices usingbellows, diaphragms, valves, and other pneumatic devices.

Air pressure signals are not only useful for measuring physical processes, but for controlling them as well. With alarge enough piston or diaphragm, a small air pressure signalcan be used to generate a large mechanical force, which canbe used to move a valve or other controlling device.omplete automatic control systems have been made usingair pressure as the signal medium. *hey are simple, reliable,and relatively easy to understand. Kowever, the practicallimits for air pressure signal accuracy can be too limiting insome cases, especially when the compressed air is not cleanand dry, and when the possibility for tubing leaks e&ist.With the advent of solid$state electronic ampli%ers and othertechnological advances, electrical "uantities of voltage andcurrent became practical for use as analog instrumentsignaling media. (nstead of using pneumatic pressure signalsto relay information about the fullness of a water storagetank, electrical signals could relay that same information over

thin wires instead of tubing and not re"uire the support ofsuch e&pensive e"uipment as air compressors to operate

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Analog electronic signals are still the primary kinds of signals

used in the instrumentation world today 8anuary of 9770,but it is giving way to digital modes of communication inmany applications more on that subGect later. )espitechanges in technology, it is always good to have a thoroughunderstanding of fundamental principles, so the followinginformation will never really become obsolete.-ne important concept applied in many analoginstrumentation signal systems is that of Elive !ero,E astandard way of scaling a signal so that an indication of 7percent can be discriminated from the status of a EdeadEsystem. *ake the pneumatic signal system as an e&ample ifthe signal pressure range for transmitter and indicator wasdesigned to be 7 to 09 6+(, with 7 6+( representing 7 percentof process measurement and 09 6+( representing 077percent, a received signal of 7 percent could be a legitimate

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reading of 7 percent measurement or  it could mean that thesystem was malfunctioning air compressor stopped, tubingbroken, transmitter malfunctioning, etc.. With the 7 percentpoint represented by 7 6+(, there would be no easy way to

distinguish one from the other.(f, however, we were to scale the instruments transmitterand indicator to use a scale of : to 0@ 6+(, with : 6+(representing 7 percent and 0@ 6+( representing 077 percent,any kind of a malfunction resulting in !ero air pressure at theindicator would generate a reading of $9@ percent 7 6+(,which is clearly a faulty value. *he person looking at theindicator would then be able to immediately tell thatsomething was wrong.

?ot all signal standards have been set up with live !erobaselines, but the more robust signals standards :$0@ 6+(, =$97 mA have, and for good reason.