mgimo.ru file · Web viewA summary is an overview of a text. The main idea is given, but details,...

1

MANUAL

ANNEX 1: HOW TO WRITE A PARAGRAPHIn many languages, the fundamental unit of composition is the

paragraph. A paragraph consists of several sentences that are grouped together. This group of sentences discusses one main subject. In academic English, paragraphs have three principal parts: the topic sentence, body sentences, and the concluding sentence.

Checklist for paragraph writing:

Does the first sentence tell the topic?

Are all other sentences about the topic?

Do the sentences tell about facts, not opinions?

Are all the facts accurate and consistent with source material?

Is the amount of information sufficient?

Is information presented in logical order?

ANNEX 2: HOW TO WRITE A SUMMARYWhat is a Summary?A summary is an overview of a text. The main idea is given, but details, examples and formalities are left out. The main aim of summarising is to reduce or condense a text to its most important ideas.How to Summarise?

Read the text and make notes of the key ideas and the main points, leaving out examples, evidence etc.

In the introduction it is important to characterise the article as a whole bringing out the main idea of the text (remember that the main idea of the text is usually either worded in the sub-title or in the last sentence of the introductory paragraph).

Your summary should begin with the reference to the author of the article, its title and the source.

Pay special attention to paragraphing (ideally, there is one central idea in every paragraph presented in a topical sentence).

Rewrite your notes in your own words; restate the main ideas and the arguments of the author while remaining neutral and impartial in tone.

Proofread your summary to make sure you neither missed any key points from the article nor included any unimportant details in your summary.

Did you manage to avoid your own opinions in your summary? Where there any points in the summary where you were lost because a transition was

missing?

Graduation Course Ekaterina D. Prodayvoda

2

Transitional synonyms:though = albeit, but even so, nonetheless, notwithstanding (this)anyway = either way, in either case, admittedlybecause = for the (simple) reason that, owing to (the fact)if = granted / provided / given (that), only if, as long asfor = with this intention, with this in mind, in the hope that, so as to

Summary Writing Practice

Skim the text paying special attention to the text structure. Answer the questions that follow.

WHY THE MONARCHY MUST STAYMarch10, 1996Harold Brooks Baker, Newsweek

Churchill often described parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy as being imperfect--but the best that man had yet devised.

It is human nature to require a leader at the helm. In our century we have looked to our heads of state for this role. Apart from carrying out ceremonial duties, a head of state should foster the notion of political accountability, while remaining above politics. That, of course, can't be true in places where the head of state is an ex-politician--or in America, where the head of state is the political leader. The British system of constitutional monarchy, like the more than half-dozen monarchies still in existence in Europe, aptly shows why a monarch is a more successful figurehead than a president.

"In Great Britain things that are conventional become habitual, and things that are habitual become constitutional," wrote American historian George Brinton Cooper 40 years ago. In Britain the monarch remains very much at the heart of its Constitution. As constitutional monarch, Queen Elizabeth II holds powers that may surprise many. She can choose a prime minister, dissolve Parliament and declare war. In reality, she waives these powers and is bound by tradition to accept the advice of Parliament. This system prevents politicians from too easily usurping power and, it may be argued, has prevented a dictator from dominating Great Britain since Oliver Cromwell's short rule in the 17th century.

It is one of the great strengths of monarchy that it has never taken sides in any political debate, that it shows itself, as an institution, to be evenhanded. This apolitical stance has made it possible for the political culture of Great Britain to assimilate, with relative ease, theories that would appear on the face of things to be radically at odds with a system of monarchical government-- for example, socialism. Monarchy in this century has worked with socialist governments as effectively as with those whose politics one might choose to think were more sympathetic to the institution.

If one were to jettison the monarchy, government, Parliament, the nation and the commonwealth would be turned upside down. Every nut and bolt of every one of Britain's major institutions would have to be altered to make way for change. Bear in mind that every organ from the post office to the armed services acts with authority from the monarch. The troops that are sent to Bosnia and the letters that arrive in one's letter box are all effectively Her Majesty's. This is a system that has shown itself to work--and it's generally agreed that if something works, it should be retained. Any replacement would be ruinously costly, both in financial terms and


3

also in terms of the loss of a unifying national symbol and a vital historical link. Only a monarchy can provide such continuity, remaining constant in a country's ever-changing national vision.

British monarchy has served both the empire and the commonwealth with great distinction. It is easy to forget in Great Britain that Queen Elizabeth is head of state not only of one small island nation, but also of the 53 nations of the commonwealth, with a combined population of 1.5 billion. In short, she is head of state to more than one quarter of the earth's inhabitants. As such, she flies the world nurturing a sense of unity between nations. From this follows trade, and a vital economic boost to the nation's industry and commerce. At home, monarchy is at the center of a multimillion-dollar tourist industry. (And Elizabeth II donates more than $90 million a year to the treasury.) Monarchy adds dignity and historical relevance to all state occasions, and there can be no doubt that it is still more impressive to be met by a monarch than by a president.

And yet monarchy is threatened because the idea of republicanism seems more democratic and less overtly hierarchical. After the "annus horribilis", "Camillagate", "Squidgygate" and other royal antics, support for the monarchy in Great Britain dropped to 38 percent. Yet these poll results stem largely from a confusion in the public mind between the words "monarchy" and "royal family." In a monarchy there is only one person of importance: the reigning monarch. The public actions and statements of other members of the royal family -- however laudable or distressing they may be--have no effect on the monarch's power or status. Nor should any individual's character or conduct be confused with those of an institution of much longer standing. Monarchy's legitimacy flows from its history and traditions and from the fact that it cannot be overwhelmed by any short-lived cult of personality. It commands too much respect.

Despite recent bursts of anti-monarchical feeling, however, it is still hard to discover a strong movement toward a republic in this country. There is still no focus for this opposition, nor has any popular political party taken up the call for the monarch's removal. Even The Independent, one of Britain's most respected broadsheet newspapers, in its call for a wider debate on this issue still advocated the retention of Queen Elizabeth as head of state until her death. Taken together, what does all this show? That people like things the way they are.

Single out introduction, body and conclusion. Is there a thesis statement? Where do you usually find it? Does every paragraph have a topic sentence? See, if all of them are relevant. Is every topic sentence developed into a paragraph by giving examples, facts or figures

and by stating reasons or giving an explanation? Does the author stick to the rule: One paragraph – one thought or idea?

FOLLOW-UP:Now read the summary written by an American student and analyse it.

Did the student manage to cover all the important points while complying with major structural requirements? Analyse the summary using Summary Writing instructions in the MANUAL.

In his article “Why the Monarchy must stay” published in the Newsweek magazine on March 11, 1996 Harold Brooks-Baker writes that Great Britain’s monarchy should be preserved not only because of its symbolic and


4

historical significance. The author makes the case for monarchy both by giving convincing arguments in its support and by refuting the counter arguments of the republicans.

The monarchy should be preserved first and foremost due to its role as a functioning part of British political life. The main political benefit of having a monarch as the head of state is that, unlike a president, a monarch is not a politician. The monarch is above the changeable and sometimes murky world of politics. In England’s constitutional monarchy, Queen Elizabeth II serves as an impartial observer of the political process, and even a check on politicians’ power. Although the British monarch does not make real political decisions, deferring instead to Parliament, the power to declare war, choose a Prime Minister, and dissolve Parliament legally rest with the monarch. This ensures that no elected politician could take these powers for himself. The monarchy guides Great Britain on its traditional path, keeping the political system from undergoing radical changes.

The decision to do away with the monarchy would greatly interfere with nearly every aspect of British life, from the Royal mail, to currency, to Britain’s relationship with the 53 countries of the British Commonwealth. The monarch is a unifying force that fosters goodwill, trade, and cooperation between these nations. Of course, the end of the monarchy would also mean the end of centuries of British tradition, not to mention the significant loss of revenue from the tourist trade.

Statistics that show public dissatisfaction with the monarchy are mostly fuelled by embarrassment or disapproval of the actions of members of the royal family. But the monarchy still commands respect due to its historical significance and because it is a lasting institution, greater than the individual who holds the title.

ANNEX 3: CHECKLIST TO REVISE YOUR ESSAY Does it have a clear thesis statement? (Thesis – is an arguable

statement which is usually worded in the last sentence of the introductory paragraph.)

Is the content of your essay appropriate to the title, the thesis statement and the conclusion?

Have you managed to adequately split your essay into paragraphs (remember, each paragraph should have no more than one idea)?

Does every paragraph have a topic sentence (a topic sentence is a sentence whose main idea or claim controls the rest of the paragraph; the body of a paragraph explains, develops or supports with evidence the topic sentence's main idea or claim; it is usually the first sentence of a paragraph)

Is there a clear presentation and development of ideas? Will the reader be able to follow your line of reasoning?


5

Is all information relevant? Check for any information that may be interesting but is irrelevant to the topic, redundant or repetitive.

Have you incorporated any elements of analysis into your essay (such as generalizations and particularizations)?

Did you manage to avoid logical fallacies in developing the subject of your essay?

Isn’t your language too complex or too simplistic? Do all sentences/paragraphs have a logical connection with

preceding/following sentences/paragraphs? Have you kept to the objective structures that characterise academic

writing, such as impersonal forms and passive verbs? Have you selected an appropriate level of formality (e.g. no use of

contractions such as it's instead of it is)?

Did you use English grammar effectively to convey the message (subject-verb agreement, word order, the use of countable/uncountable nouns, etc.)?

Did you follow the rules for spelling, capitalisation, and punctuation? Your standard essay should be about 350 words.

KINDS OF LOGICAL FALLACIES

1. False Cause The false cause fallacy occurs when people assume that just because one event follows another, the first event was the cause of the second.

For example, suppose you observe a young child entering the yard belonging to people who have a big dog. You cannot see the child once the gate closes. Soon after the child enters the yard you hear him crying. If you assume, without seeing what happened, that the child is crying because the dog bit him or frightened him, you make an error in thinking called the post hoc fallacy. It is very possible that the child tipped entering the yard or that another child frightened or hurt him. The conclusion was reached using wrong evidence.

2. Hasty generalizationComing to quick conclusion without having adequate evidence is a frequent and hazardous error in reasoning. This kind of thinking error leads to prejudice and can destroy human relations.

People often make hasty generalizations when they find themselves in cultures different from their own. People tend to assume that what they


6

experience in a new situation is the common experience in that situation. What they experience, however, may be the exception to the rule.

3. False analogyAn analogy is a comparison made to make the point clearer. Analogies compare two things that are basically unlike each other, but that have some important characteristics in common. A fallacy takes place, however, when a person compares two things that are similar only in unimportant ways, and concludes that because of these similarities, the two things are alike in other ways.

4. Circular reasoningPeople also reach unsupported conclusions when they use circular reasoning. A person using circular reasoning repeats the same thing in different words rather than giving effective proof for a conclusion. Instead of giving evidence to prove a point, the person using this kind of faulty reasoning merely repeats the point. The following statement is the example of circular reasoning: "If such actions were not illegal, then they would not be prohibited by the law."

5. Misuse of Authority: It is accepting for truth what is claimed simply because someone said so. It is easy to be mislead by "authorities" who are really not authorities at all. Incompetent authorities include celebrities selling products about which they have no more knowledge than the average person. It is also a misuse of authority to quote a person who does know a great deal about a subject, but who is extremely biased. Quoting biased "authorities" will make your evidence biased and, therefore, unconvincing to your audience.

6. Card stackingCard stacking occurs when writers use only data that support their arguments and fail to use that which is contrary to their points of view. Although the facts that the writers employ may be both pertinent and correct, if they present only one side of the picture, they do not form a good argument. They deceive the reader.

As you prepare to write an essay of persuasion, you will want to make a list of all the arguments against the position you are taking, as well as all the arguments for your point of view. If you were to use only those arguments on the "for" side, you would be "stacking the cards" in your favour. It is much more effective to include a discussion of the main arguments against your point of view, then show how these arguments are not as important as those that support your

7. Either/or (black/white) fallacy Narrowing the options to just two extremes when in actuality more options exist


7

When thinking about complex issues, some people fall into a pattern of thought that assigns only two sides to every issue - good and bad, or right and wrong. Complex issues cannot be simplified in this way. A writer who oversimplifies complex issues is not respected by readers. This error in thinking causes people to assume that there are only two sides to as issue; that it must be either this way or that way, with no alternatives. But there are very few so-called black and white situations or issues.

8. Stereotypes are formed when people use knowledge about one or two members of a particular race, country, or religion to generalise about the entire group. There are numerous stereotypes of nations of people. But any nation is made up of many different kinds of people; therefore, while the words and phrases may apply to some people from this country, they certainly do not apply to all.

It is not logical to make a general statement about anything based on just one or two examples; therefore, to form general ideas about groups of people based on one or two examples is illogical reasoning.

IDENTIFY THE LOGICAL FALLACIES IN THE FOLLOWING ARGUMENTS:

1. Your test was on Friday the 13th. You failed it.2. Either we allow airlines to make a large profit or we can expect more

accidents as the airlines cut down the money spent for safety.3. Women's just can't understand math.4. Of course she’s rich! Just look at that diamond ring she is wearing! 5. He went to college and came back a pothead; college corrupted him. 6. If Bruce Willis drinks Seagram’s Wine Cooler, it must be good. 7. Einstein became a great physicist because his parents and his teachers

left him alone to dream. 8. Of Mice and Men is really popular because a lot of people like it. 9. Cleveland won their first three games. They win all their games.10. You take time every day to exercise, and you are careful about what

you eat. Your weight is normal for your size and age.11. Either learn how to program a computer or you won't be able to get a decent job after

college. The belief in God is universal. After all, everyone believes in God.

12. Either your marriage is perfect or you should get a divorce.13. If you love your family, you'll buy this new stealth security system.14. Rap and hip-hop artists have low moral standards.15. Ford is an American-made car. I owned a Ford, and it broke down all

the time. American-made cars are not very good.16. Even though it's only the first day, I can tell this is going to be a boring course. 17. I had a hot dog yesterday which I didn’t quite like and now I am sick, this hot dog must

have made me sick. 18. Obama is a good communicator because he speaks effectively.


8

19. We should either stop using cars or we’ll destroy the Earth. 20. Since G. took office, unemployment of minorities in the state has decreased by 7 percent.

G should be applauded for reducing unemployment among minorities.

THESIS WRITING PRACTICEIdentify and fix the problem with each thesis statement in the following introductory paragraphs:

1. Voting to elect public officials is one of the most invaluable rights available to a citizen in a democratic society. Through voting, people realize the basic principles of democracy and establish a government of the people, by the people and for the people. In countries where voting is a compulsory duty of every citizen, voter turnout is between 70% and 90%. In contrast, voter turnout in the U.S. is only 50%. That is because the U.S. government does not require people to vote and also places a number of restrictions on voter eligibility. In addition, another deterrent is that the two-party system offers a limited choice to voters. Therefore, citizens of the US vote on the Election Day which is the first Tuesday in November.

2. Nowadays, there is a heated debate going on regarding euthanasia, also known as assisted suicide. Proponents of euthanasia say that it is inhumane to keep alive terminally ill people who are experiencing immense suffering. However, life is precious, and regardless of the amount of suffering a person might be experiencing, he should not take his own life. Moreover, because the interests of the patient may be in conflict with those of the family or medical community, there is always the chance that euthanasia could be abused. Lastly, as medical science and technology are always advancing, there is always the possibility that what is incurable today could be curable or manageable in the near future. Therefore, people should not kill.

3. In recent years, there has been a heated debate about whether the government shouldcensor and control the television broadcast of movies with violent content in order toprotect children from the harmful effects of watching violence. However, if kids arebecoming ever more violent, the answer perhaps is in what might havegone wrong with present day American families. As for the claim that there is abundantviolence in movies, one should realize that there is actually more violence in the news.Censoring movies for the sake of protecting the morale of young viewers is simply anattack on our treasured right to free expression. Therefore, the government should ban the television broadcast of movies with violent content.

The highlighted thesis is incorrect because: The thesis is unrelated to the introductory paragraph. The thesis contradicts the introductory paragraph.


9

The thesis is a fact. The thesis is too general. The thesis is unclear.

TRANSITIONAL WORDS AND PHRASES

In an essay, you can use an array of transitional words and phrases.to argue:on the other hand, in fact, furthermore, although, most convincinglyto illustrate:thus, for example, for instance, namely, to illustrate, in other words, in particular, specifically, such as.to contrast:on the contrary, contrarily, notwithstanding, but, however, nevertheless, in spite of, in contrast, yet, on one hand, on the other hand, rather, or, nor, conversely, at the same time, while this may be true.to add:and, in addition to, furthermore, moreover, besides, than, too, also, both-and, another, equally important, first, second, etc., again, further, last, finally, not only-but also, as well as, in the second place, next, likewise, similarly, in fact, as a result, consequently, in the same way, for example, for instance, however, thus, therefore, otherwise.to present result:so that, with the result that, thus, consequently, hence, accordingly, for this reason, therefore, so, because, since, due to, as a result, in other words, then.to summarise:therefore, finally, consequently, thus, in short, in conclusion, in brief, as a result, accordingly.to suggest:for this purpose, to this end, with this in mind, with this purpose in mind, therefore

ANNEX 4: TIPS FOR THE SPEAKING ASSIGNMENT

1. Start with an overview statement which repeats the topic given, for example:

Today I'm going to talk about …, the theme of my statement today is…, in my statement I will deal with the topic…;

2. Then say something to acknowledge the importance of the topic:

I would like to start by saying/ let me begin by saying that/ before I get to the subject matter I’d like to say that…/

this is a significant issue at the moment in many ways…this is a really important topic today because...people have been discussing this issue a lot recently.....this question is relevant to our life, because...


10

this issue is particularly significant in this country at the moment because....

3. After this introduction, try to preview your topic in some way which gives your presentation structure:

I'm going to look at this issue from different angles. Firstly, I will talk about …. Then, I will deal with… Finally, I will try to explain the …

First, I will tell you some facts about the history of…, then I will look into where things stand and finally…

I will first cover the most common approaches and then I will share my vision of the problem…

4. When you speak, try to give frequent examples to illustrate your ideas. Make use of your own experience and background knowledge.

Only the other day I read in the news that…It was only yesterday that I saw…5. It is often reasonable to consider the likely consequences of

the situation or problem and suggest some remediesNow that I have presented my most important arguments (ideas) I would like to

focus on the ways to deal with the problem

6. If you dry up towards the end of your speech, either recap what you have said

Let me now summarise what I have said about...To recap briefly, …Before I conclude I would like to sum up the most important points once

againor - better - refer to a personal experience that will allow you to keep talking until the end.

ANNEX 5: HOW TO WORK ON A PROJECT

Stage 11. Think of a topic for your Project on the UK. Come up with a list of points you will want to

cover. Share your ideas with the class. Together brainstorm for what other points might be of interest to your peers.

2. Draft an outline of the presentation

Stage 2 Present an outline of your project. Expand on the items central to your presentation. Try and find a catchy title for the Project (you may want to use a line from a well-known

song, a commercial slogan or a pun even for a “serious” topic) Get ready with the ideas about the design of the slides in your PowerPoint (pay attention

to the colours and fonts you will be using)Stage 3


11

Speak on the design of your Power Point Presentation slides Draft a reference list of the sources you used in getting ready for your

presentation

Stage 4 Speak on the reference materials you used when drafting your project

(websites, newspaper/magazine articles, books etc.) Get ready to present your project in class

ANNEX 6: HOW TO DEAL WITH THE PROFICIENCY FILEMultiple choice lexical cloze

Each text contains six gaps and is followed by six four-option multiple choice questions which test your knowledge of Idioms, collocations, fixed phrases, complementation, phrasal verbs, semantic precision

Read the text carefully before looking at the options. When choosing the answer remember that you are often being tested not just on choosing a word which is grammatically correct, but also one which best fits the sense or tone of the text.Open Cloze

In this type of exercises you will have to complete a text which has several numbered spaces. The missing words have a mainly grammatical focus, although there might be a few vocabulary items. Each space must be filled with one word only. First of all read through the whole article carefully and go back and decide which type of word is missing from each space, e.g. a verb, a noun or a preposition, etc. It is very important to read through the whole text carefully before you decide to write anything down. Some answers may be dependent on a sentence which comes later in the text. The areas which are often tested are:Fixed phrasesRelative pronounsPrepositional phrasesPhrasal verbsPrepositions

CollocationsPronounsArticlesComparison

Remember that the missing words are more likely to have a grammatical focus rather than a lexical one.

Word formationIn this type of exercises the students will need to read a text and

complete the ten numbered spaces with a form of the word at the end of the line.

Read through the text carefully and decide which form of the given word you need to use.


12

Make sure that you think about all the changes a word may require: suffix, prefix, internal, more than one, singular, plural or negative, change of word class.

Gapped SentencesThis type of exercises mainly tests collocations. There are six

questions and each question contains three sentences. In each of the three sentences, one word has been taken out. Only one word will fit all three sentences. The gapped word is always in the same form.

Do not attempt an answer until you have read all three sentences very carefully.

Make sure that your answer will fit in all three sentences. Check that it fits both grammatically and with the sense of the sentences.

Key word transformationsFor each question, you have a ‘lead-in’ sentence followed by a key

word. There is then a response sentence with a gap. Using the key word, you have to complete the response sentence in 3–8 words so that it means the same as the ‘lead-in’ sentence.

Don't alter the word given. Don't write more than eight words, including the given word. Contracted words count as the number of words they would be if they

were not contracted. For example, isn’t, didn’t, I’m, I’ll are counted as two words (replacing is not, did not, I am, I will). Where the contraction replaces one word (e.g. can’t for cannot), it is counted as one word.

Make sure you haven't left out any information from the prompt sentence.

ANNEX 7: HOW TO MAKE AN ARTICLE ANALYSIS

An article analysis is an “essay” that seeks to summarize, analyze, comment on and critique another article published elsewhere. Article analyses consider all angles of an article and ultimately determine the true nature and worth of the arguments outlined within the reviewed article. Drafting an article analysis is similar to writing an essay; the main difference is that the reviewer must use critical thinking skills to analyze an external article.

INSTRUCTIONS:1. Determine the author's purpose for writing the article. Typically, the author will

implicitly or explicitly state it in the first few paragraphs, usually in the form of a thesis statement.

2. Assess the article's overall tone. The writer's delivery could be detached and objective or overtly political and biased.


13

3. Ascertain the author's intended audience. If the author has published an article on molecular biology in a scholarly journal, his audience is the scientific community. However, a letter to the editor targets a wider, more public audience.

4. Establish the subject matter of the article. Outline the author's argument and include his main points. Typically, the first and last paragraphs of an article will contain summaries of an author's argument. Titled articles will likely include the author's main subject matter explicitly within the title. The article may also have a subhead that usually carries the message.

5. Do not critique the author’s argument in your introduction. Better ascertain any potential sources of bias or conflicts of interest.

6. Draft the body of the article analysis which is the most important. State your opinions on the author's argument and cite evidence to support your thoughts. Include an analysis of how well the author supported his points and how well he presented evidence. Determine the strength of his argument, assessing one point at a time. Include assessments of the article's strengths, as well as the rhetorical or substantive shortcomings you detect.

7. The final part of your analysis will summarise the article's conclusion. Include your thoughts on this conclusion, as well as your final thoughts about the validity of the author's argument. Refer back to the author's initial thesis statement. Include any questions left unanswered by the article's author and finish with a strong statement that encapsulates your overall assessment of the article.

8. Speak about the style of the article: (scientific prose, official document, newspaper style, publicistic style, belles-lettres style)

The style of the editorials (leaders) in quality press is wavering between the Newspaper style (NS), Publicistic style (PS) and the Essay substyle (ES) of the Belles-lettres style and is characterized by:

1) coherent and logical syntactical structure (PS) or complex syntactical structure (NS)2) an expanded system of connectives (PS, ES)3) careful paragraphing (PS, ES)4) the use of words with the emotive meaning (PS, ES)5) the use of special political or economic terms, non-term political vocabulary, newspaper

clichés, neologisms (NS)6) not very evident individual element (PS); the use of the first person singular (ES)7) few stylistic devices (PS); the use of similes and metaphors (ES)

The list of phrases for article analysis:

the article is concerned with the problemthe article takes a look at/looks intoit should be noted thatthe author explores/investigates the problem of

proceeds from the assumption/idea thatmakes a statement concerning


14

backs up/supports/substantiates his assertion/claim/statement with several sound/weighty arguments

makes an unsubstantiated claimgives an honest/objective presentation of the problemrefutes the statement/allegation

the argumentation is strong / rather weak and needs to be reinforced/amplifiedthe argument is fallacious in several respectsto elaborate on/amplify the point it can be added that

ANNEX 9: DEBATE FORMATThe main purpose of debate club is to develop critical thinking skills and

tolerance for differing viewpoints. To facilitate these goals, debaters work together in teams, affirmative and negative, and must research both sides of each issue. Each team is given the opportunity to offer arguments and direct questions to the opposing team. Judge then will offer constructive feedback, commenting on logical flaws, insufficient evidence, or arguments that debaters may have overlooked.

Suggested Debate Format: Team 1 (Affirmative), Team 2 (Negative)

Opening Statements of Two Teams: (1 minute each)Like an introduction to a formal paper, introduce yourself/team and the

topic you will be debating. Tell what you are going to argue during the debate (like a thesis statement) and tell why your position should win.

1. Team 1: Constructive Statement 1 (2-3 minutes) In this speech, the affirmative team is expected to offer its argument in favour of the proposition.

2. Team 2: Cross-Examination The negative debater is expected to ask questions rather than make speeches. The affirmative debater is expected to answer these questions; he or she should not make speeches or ask questions in return. Team members should not assist their teammates by answering questions on their behalf.

3. Team 2: Constructive Statement 1 (2-3 minutes) The negative team is expected to offer its argument against the affirmative position.

4. Team 1: Cross-Examination Now the Affirmative debater asks questions and the Negative debater is expected to answer them.

The number of constructive statements (i.e. arguments) each team is supposed to present is subject to preliminary agreement between the teams.

5. Team 1: Rebuttal The affirmative speaker summarizes team’s refutations of the negative arguments.


15

6. Team 2: Rebuttal The negative speaker summarizes team’s refutations of the affirmative arguments.

7. Team 1: Closing Argument The affirmative speaker summarizes the key points the team presented concluding with a persuasive argument that will win the debate for the team!

8. Team 2: Closing Argument The negative speaker summarizes the key points the team presented concluding with a persuasive argument that will win the debate for the team!

Debating is an important and interesting way to discuss issues facing our society. However, debating is in a way an artificial way of doing this since debaters are expected to follow suggested format, and teams are assigned the position they must support. Therefore, although we debate about important public issues, debating is not a public forum: debates don’t necessarily reflect the most important issues for the participants, and speakers are not invited simply to speak their mind. So you should not feel personally uncomfortable arguing a particular side of a topic, – as a debater, you should debate as best you can, within the rules, to win the game no matter what your real attitude to the issue is.

ANNEX 10: HOW TO MAKE YOUR ARGUMENT CONVINCING

In a Debate, an argument is viewed as a distinct point supporting your side of the topic.

Each argument itself needs some kind of INTERNAL STRUCTURE:

Label - is a short and simple statement of what your argument is about. It need not explain why the argument is true – it is really just a simple ‘reference’ for you and your opposition to use in referring to this argument.Explanation - this is the ‘theoretical’ or ‘abstract’ explanation of how and why your argument is generally true. Ideally, the explanation and reasoning should be a few sentences long. Examples should convince your audience that your argument is actually true not just in theory but in the ‘real world’.Tie-back - shows explicitly how the argument supports your case. A useful technique is to answer the question “so what?” about your argument.

EXAMPLES MUST BE:REAL - that is, they cannot be hypothetical.GENERAL - relatively isolated incidents will not show general truth.SIGNIFICANT - where possible, focus on the ‘big examples’ relating to your particular topic.

Young debaters are prone to use insignificant examples by using personal anecdotes. These examples should be avoided at all costs – they are insignificant to substantiate your argument, and they leave you open to an attack from the opposition

TESTING YOUR ARGUMENTSThere are a number of potential weaknesses with arguments that are sufficiently common


16

to receive specific mention.

InconsistencyQuite obviously, arguments must be consistent with each other and with your team’s

theme. A direct and relevant contradiction will almost certainly cause a team to lose, because it erodes so much of a team’s credibility..

InsignificanceIt is usually necessary to show that your side of the topic is generally true. It is possible to

present arguments or examples that are logically relevant, and well argued, but which nonetheless do not show your side of the topic to be true in general.

Arguments that are too generalQuite obviously, the objective of a debate is to argue about an issue. Therefore, your

arguments must relate to the issue of debate, and do so directly. If you find yourself stating general propositions in the abstract, your argument is probably not specific enough.

IrrelevanceThe simplest form of irrelevant argument is an argument that does not prove what your

team set out to show. Even if they are well substantiated and well argued, some arguments simply do not assist your side of the topic. For that reason, quite obviously, you should never use them!

Dependent argumentsOne special form of invalid argument is an argument whose effectiveness depends

entirely upon the success of another argument, and is therefore not a distinct reason in support of the topic.

ANNEX 11: POWERPOINT PRESENTATIONStructure of Your Presentation:

State your name, the number of the group you are in and the name of your presentation on the first slide.

State your presentation objectives or make a brief outline on the second slide.

The total number of slides in the body of your presentation should be no more than the number of minutes you were asked to speak (~10-12 min)

The final slides should carry the conclusion (the bulleted list of conclusions) and invite the audience to ask you questions.

Limit the information on the slide to a single point or idea. Follow the rule of 5s and 6s. No more than five lines on a slide and

each line should be no more than six words.


17

Use short phrases rather than complete sentences. Make certain all phrases are parallel in grammatical structure.

Format of Your Presentation: Keep the font size large but not too large. Generally, a font size of 24

will suffice in most presentations. Use colors with care. Select 2 or 3 tasteful but contrasting colors. Make your backgrounds simple. If you are using any kind of

backgrounds, make certain they do not overwhelm the information on the screen.

Use pictures effectively. Don't overwhelm your slides with pictures. However, your slides (or at least a good amount of them) should have pictures to hold your audience's attention.

To display information - use a chart whenever possible. For data presentation, use

o bar charts to compare data;o line graphs to show trends;o box charts to illustrate makeup or organizations or processes;o pie charts to emphasize the relationship of parts to the whole;

ando photographs to illustrate realism.

Use ALL CAPS for the Title only. Use initial caps or lower-case letters for body text

Do not use underlines – it is very distracting and difficult to read. Use slide builds (where each bulleted point is added to the slide) and

animation but be consistent about the way you do it. Pick an approach, generally Wipe Right, and stay with it.

Proofread your presentation carefully

ANNEX 12: STRATEGIES FOR DESCRIBING CHARTS

Illustrations (graphs, tables and charts) are used to make a point in reports so they must be clear, simple and relevant to the objectives of the report. The commentary must be accurate and varied.

1. Your report should be structured simply with an introduction, body and conclusion.

2. Tenses should be used appropriately.3. Use two standard opening sentences to introduce the graph or chart.

These opening sentences should make up the first paragraph. Sentence one should define what the graph is about, that is the date,

location, what is being described in the graph etc. Sentence two (and possibly three) might sum up the overall trend.


18

4. The body of the report will describe the graph or graphs in detail. You will need to decide on the most clear and logical order to present the material.

5. Your report should end with one or two sentences which summarize it or draw a relevant conclusion

The following words are used to describe upward, downward or horizontal changes in figures. For each verb say which movement is described: UPWARD, DOWNWARD or STAYING THE SAME

to level offto plungeto surgeto climbto declineto halveto crashto boomto plummetto drop

to fluctuateto slumpto recover to top outto rocket to stabilizeto come downto doubleto leapto deteriorate

to dipto peakto soarto diveto hit bottomto see the improvementto be up and down

Describing the degree of change

Sharply, gradually, moderately, slightly, steeply, significantly, dramatically, markedly, considerably;

Describing the speed of change

Steadily, abruptly, uninterruptedly, rapidly, swiftly, suddenly, gradually, continuously;

Expressing approximation

Just under/just over, well under/well over, roughly, nearly, approximately, around, about;

MODEL:


19

The graph compares the rate of smoking in men and women in Someland between the years 1960 and 2000. It can be clearly seen that the rate of smoking for both men and women is currently declining and that fewer women have smoked throughout the period.

In 1960, 600 men in every 1,000 were smoking. This number decreased gradually to 500 by 1974 and continued to decrease but more steeply to 250 in 2000. In contrast, the rate of smoking in women in 1960 was very low at only 80 in every 1,000. By 1968 this increased to 170, and increased again but more steeply to 320 in 1977. The rate of female smokers then remained stable at 320 until 1984 at which point the figures began to decline and dropped to 200 by 2000.

In conclusion we can see that the rate of smoking in men dropped throughout the whole period but was always at a higher level than the female figures. The rate of smoking in women increased until 1977 but then decreased for the rest of the period.

Look at the chart and complete the report below with a suitable preposition where needed.

CRUDE OIL PRICES: US DOLLARS PER BARREL

Source for chart: OECD Factbook 2006 ISBN

The chart shows fluctuations in the price of crude oil over a thirty five year period, and clearly illustrates how oil prices are affected by world events.

In general there has been an upward trend in the price of crude oil [1]…….. 1970, when it was only $1.30 per barrel. The oil embargo of the early 1970s, however, caused the price to rise sharply [2]…….. nearly $11 per barrel. The crisis ended soon afterwards, but the price remained [3]…….. around $11 to $13 per barrel until 1979. The Iranian revolution of that year had a huge impact on oil prices, which shot up [4]…….. $17 to reach [5]…….. about $30 per barrel in the same year.

The following Iran-Iraq war caused a further increase, and the price reached [6]…….. a peak [7]…….. nearly $36 in 1980. From that point until 1985, the price fell steadily. However, from 1985 to 1986 the price suddenly plunged [8]…….. $13. For the next few years the price fluctuated [9]…….. $14, but with the invasion of Kuwait in 1990 there was a sudden rise [10]…….. $5. The price quickly fell again and remained stable for most of the 1990s.


20

Things changed once again at the end of the decade, and from 1999 to 2000 the price increased [11]…….. almost $10 per barrel. Despite a slight drop in 2000, the rise continued and by the end of the period, the price of crude oil had shot up [12]…….. a peak of $50 per barrel

Now choose one of the following graphs and in 150-200 words write a report describing the information shown in it:

1. The graph below compares the number of visits to two new music sites on the web

2. The table describes

Underground Railways Systems

City Date openedKilometres of

routePassengers per year

(in millions)

London 1863 394 775


21

Paris 1900 199 1191Tokyo 1927 155 1927Washington DC 1976 126 144Los Angeles 2001 28 50

Orally speak on American spending pattern

13%

17%

9%21%

29%

10% 1%

American Spending Pattern 2008 Food - 13%

Cars - 17%Petrol - 9%Eating out - 21%Rent/Utilities - 29%Computers - 10%Books - 1%

Write a survey report of 250-300 words

SURVEY: WHAT MAKES PEOPLE HAPPY

The Survey was conducted by the Pew Research Center in October-November 2010. The results for this survey are based on telephone interviews with 3,014 adults, aged 18 years and over, living in the U.S. Margin of sampling error is plus or minus 2 percentage points for results based on the total sample at the 95% confidence level.

age gender annual income

ethnicity marital status

location parental status

party id0

10

20

30

40

50

60

young 20%

female 43%

less 100,000 -

24%

white 36%

married 48%

urban 28%

kids over 18 - 49%

republi-cans 52%

middle 56%

male 40%over

100,000 - 49%

hispanic 32%

single 34%

rural 34%

kids under 18 - 47%

democrats 35%

elderly 44%

black 28%

suburban 58%

no kids - 18%

indepen-dents 28%

ANNEX 13: HOW TO MAKE A GLOSSARY


22

A glossary is an alphabetical list of terms in a particular domain of knowledge with the definitions for those terms. Traditionally, a glossary appears at the end of a report and includes terms which are either newly introduced, uncommon or specialized. In a general sense, a glossary contains explanations of concepts relevant to a certain field of study or action.

The word is derived from the Latin glossa, which means “foreign word.”A bilingual glossary is a list of terms in one language which are defined in a second

language or glossed by synonyms (or at least near-synonyms) in another language.

Here are the guidelines to making a bilingual glossary:

Choose an article from an English source (approximately 15,000 printed characters) you might want to use in drafting your diploma paper.

When choosing the article make sure it is a piece of academic writing containing relevant data and abounding in terms.

Go through the article, locate the terms and concepts you think need explanation, make a list of the terms (there should be no less than 20 items on your list)

Alphabetize your term list and insert the words in the left column of a table. Fill the right column with the definitions of the terms borrowed either from dictionaries

or other reliable sources

Now follow the guidelines and make a glossary of terms based on a chosen article.


mgimo.ru file · Web viewA summary is an overview of a text. The main idea is given, but details,...

Documents

Transcript of mgimo.ru file · Web viewA summary is an overview of a text. The main idea is given, but details,...