PrivatePesticideApplicatorManual

Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Stationand Cooperative Extension Service

1

Certification Process 3IntroductionHow to Become Certified

Pests of Agricultural Plants 5Common Plant Feeding Insect PlantsCommon WeedsCommon Plant DiseasesCommon Vertebrate Pests

Pests of Agricultural Animals 21CattleSheep and GoatsSwineHorses, Mules, and DonkeysPoultry

Pest Control 25Principles of Pest ControlIntegrated Pest Management (IPM)Pest Control MethodsPutting It All TogetherSummary

Pesticides 30Nature of PesticidesHow Pesticides WorkFactors Affecting Pesticide ActivityPlant Growth Regulators, Desiccants,

Defoliants and AntitranspirantsTypes of FormulationsUsing the Correct Formulation

Labels and Labeling 39Pesticide Registration in KansasParts of the LabelSafe Use PrecautionsPesticide Label Examples

Protecting Your Body and the Environment 56

Using Pesticides SafelyProtecting HumansToxicity and HazardSymptoms of Pesticide PoisoningFumigationPesticide AccidentsTreatment of PoisoningCleanup of Pesticide Spills

Table of Contents

2

Protecting AnimalsProtecting the EnvironmentChemigationPotential BenefitsPesticide and Bees

Application Equipment 78SprayersNozzlesDusters and Granular ApplicatorsControlling Drift

Calibration 86SprayersGranular Applicator CalibrationVolume and Area Determinations

Laws and Regulations 94Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and

Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) as AmendedKansas Pesticide LawLaws and Regulations in Regard to Wildlife

Damage Control

Terms Used in Pest Control 98

Table of Contents

3

IntroductionFederal Regulations set minimum

standards for persons handling “re -stricted use” pesticides. This manualcontains the practical information toprepare you to meet these require-ments. It does not include all thethings you need to know about thepests you wish to control. It does in-clude information to meet the certifi-cation requirements for the state ofKansas. This book will tell you:

n how to become a certified privateapplicator in Kansas,

n some features of common pests,how they develop, and the kindsof damage they do,

n some pests of animals and livestock in Kansas,

n methods you can use to controlpests,

n how pesticides work,n how pesticide labels can help

you, and some examples of labels,

n how to use pesticides so theywill not harm you or the environment,

n pesticide exposure,n pesticide toxicity and pesticide

hazard,n cholinesterase tests,n symptoms of pesticide

poisoning,n pesticide accidents,n toxicity of pesticides to bees,n application equipment and

calibration, andn laws and regulations.

How to Become Certified or Renew Certification as a Private Applicator

Under the Kansas Pesticide Law,private certification would authorizeyou to use or supervise the use of arestricted use pesticide only to pro-duce an agricultural commodity (1) on property owned or rented byyou or your employer, or (2) on theproperty of another for no compensa-

tion other than trading of personalservices between producers; or, forcontrolling ornamental shrubbery or turf pests at your own residence. Private applicator certification doesnot authorize you to apply pesti-cides on someone else’s propertyand charge a fee for the service. Ifyou wish to apply pesticides com-mercially, you must first obtaincommercial applicator certificationand a business license. Contact theKansas Department of Agriculture (785-296-3786) for details.

As a private applicator you mustcomplete the application procedureprescribed by the Kansas StateDepartment of Agriculture, pass anexamination, and pay fees. Under theKansas Pest i cide Law, the PrivateApplicator certification period is fiveyears and ex pires on the applicator’sbirth date of the fifth year.

Requirements for Initial Certification

Private Applicator initial certifica-tion and reentry (initial certificationhas expired) are accomplished bypassing an open book exam (75%score) over this manual, paying thefees and submitting the applicationform. The examination is taken in theCounty Agent’s office.

Requirements for Renewal Certification

Private applicators can renew certi-fication by passing an open book ex-amination (75% score). Prior to yourbirth date on the fifth year of yourcertification period, the Kansas StateDepartment of Agriculture (KDA)will mail you the appropriate PrivateApplicator Training Manual and

CertificationProcessUnder Kansas and Federal

laws, it is unlawful for any person to use pesticides in amanner that is inconsistentwith such pesticide’s label or labeling.

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renewal examination. Certificationmay be renewed for a succeedingfive-year period by:

1. Paying the fee as prescribed bythe Kansas State Department ofAgriculture,

2. Passing the examination, and3. Submitting the application for re-

newal. All requirements mustbe met prior to the expirationdate or else you must follow theprocedure for reentry.

Certification

Process

5

The first step in solving any prob-lem is to understand what is causingit. So the first step in your job is torecognize the pests you need to control.

We favor certain plants and ani-mals that provide us food and fiber.But we also provide good growingconditions for other plants and ani-mals that harm them. These livingthings that compete with us for foodand fiber, or attack us directly, arepests. The living plant or animal apest depends on for survival is calledthe host.

Pests can be put into five maingroups:

n insects (plus mites, ticks, and spiders),

n snails and slugs,n vertebrates,n weeds, andn plant disease agents.Most applicators know most of the

pests they see on the job. But some-times unfamiliar pests may appear.You can get identification aids, publi-cations, and pictures to help find outwhat they are, but the best thing todo is to contact local experts. Ask theCooperative Extension Service or acompetent consultant to help you.

Common Plant Feeding Pests

Insects thrive in more environ-ments than any other group of ani-mals. They live not only on theearth’s surface but within the soil andin water. They eat the choicest foodsof man’s table. They can even eat thetable.

Many types of insects affect crops.They cause damage in a variety ofways. They may:

n feed on leaves,n tunnel or bore in stems, stalks,

and branches,n feed on and tunnel in roots,n feed on and in seeds and nuts,n suck the sap from leaves, stems,

roots, fruits, and flowers, andn carry plant disease agents.

The plants are damaged, weakened, or killed. This causes reduced yields, lowered quality andplants or plant products that cannotbe sold. Even after harvest, insectscontinue their damage in the storedor processed products. Insects alsofeed on and in man and other ani-mals. Some of these pests carry dis-ease agents which have caused mil-lions of deaths to man and livestock.

Not all insects are pests. Some helpman by doing such things as pollin at -ing plants or feeding on other in sectsthat are pests.

Insect FeaturesAll adult insects have two things in

common—six jointed legs and threebody regions. But how do you tellone insect from another? Often, themost important parts to look at arewings and mouthparts. Some insectshave no wings. Others have two orfour. The wings vary in shape, size,thickness, and structure. Insects withchewing mouthparts have toothedjaws that bite and tear the food. In -sects with piercing–sucking mouth-parts have a long beak which theyforce into a plant or animal to suckout fluids or blood.

Almost all insects change in shape,form, and size during their lives. Thischange is called metamorphosis.

Some insects change only in size asthey develop. The adult lays eggs. Anymph, which looks like a tiny adult,hatches from the egg and goesthrough several stages. Thesenymphs change into wingless adults.

Some insects change form slightly.Their nymphs hatch from eggs. Thesenymphs, which have no wings, gothrough several growing stages. Theychange into winged adults.

Other insects change completely.They go through four stages. Thelarva hatches from an egg. It is aworm, caterpillar, grub, or maggot.This is the stage in which these in -sects grow and do the most damage.When full-grown, the larva changesinto a pupa. During this stage itchanges into the adult. The adultstage usually has wings.

Pests ofAgriculturalPlants

Rootworms

May Beetle

Grasshopper

adult

larva

a. Western CornRootworm

b. Southern CornRootworm

c. Northern CornRootworm

d. Corn Rootworm Larva

6

Here are the insect groups that in-clude most of the insects which manconsiders pests. You should be famil-iar with the characteristics of eachgroup that you control and the typeof damage each group does.

Insects with Chewing Mouthparts

Grasshoppers and Crickets

These insects have chewing mouth-parts. Most are plant feeding andcause damage by chewing holes in foliage. All have a gradual life cycle;that is, adults lay eggs that hatch intonymphs and gradually grow into theadult stage as they feed.

Eggs begin to hatch in mid-Mayand continue until July. Nymphs re -semble the adults but are smaller andwingless. They feed on the samethings and cause the same kind ofdamage as adults.

Adults generally have two pairs of wings. The top wings are narrow,straight, and leathery; the bottomones broad, pale, and membranous.

Damage occurs from June to Sep -tember. Nymphs begin feedingaround field margins close to hatch-ing areas and gradually migrate far-ther into adjacent fields.

Control of grasshoppers is moresuccessful where treatments can bedi rected against the small nymphsstill confined to the hatching areas.Rangeland problems are often causedby a different complex of grass hop -per species. Egg laying is usuallythroughout the range area and thisrequires treatment of the entire range.

Beetles

There are chewing insects in thelarval as well as the adult stage. Inone group of beetles, the head hasbeen prolonged forward and formedinto a long, beak-like structure orsnout and they are known as “weevils.”

Beetles develop in a complete lifecycle. The stages consist of eggs, lar-vae, pupae and adults. Sometimes,one kind of injury is caused by the

larva and yet another kind is associ-ated with the adult. The larvae are to -tally different in appearance fromadults. A typical beetle larva has a distinct head capsule, more or lesselongated body, and the majorityhave three pairs of legs located on thefirst three segments behind the head.There are no legs on the abdominalsegments of beetle larvae. The larvaeof the weevils and a few others areoften called “grubs.” Larvae of wee-vils are short, robust, legless grubs.

Most adult beetles have four wings—the front pair, thickened and leathery, serve as protective coversfor the second; the top pair of wingcovers meets and forms a straight linedown the center of the back. Thischaracteristic is useful in separatingbeetles from other groups of insects.

Some examples of common plantpest beetles in Kansas include: whitegrubs, northern, western and south-ern corn rootworms, granary weevil,blister beetles, bean leaf beetle, wire-worms and alfalfa weevil.

Moths and Caterpillars

This is the second largest group ororder of insects and represents one ofthe most destructive groups. We rec-ognize the adults as moths. Themoths are the more or less drab colored “millers” that are seenaround lights at night.

As adults (moths), these insects arenon-damaging, but they do selectsuitable plants for egg laying. Eggssoon hatch into worm-like larvae orcaterpillars. The larvae migrate overplant surfaces and feed for severaldays.

All of the cutworms belong to thisgroup. They usually live in the soiland migrate from plant to plant, feed-ing on either above or below groundportions of suitable plants. Somespecies damage trees and shrubs byfeeding on the foliage or tunneling inthe stems.

Cutworm larvae usually completetheir feeding in a matter of days, al-though others require longer. The larvae of most species are between 1 and 2 inches in length at maturity.

Pests of

Agricultural

Plants

Wireworm or Click Beetle

Beetle

Granary Weevil

adult

larva pupa

Three stripedBlister Beetle

StripedCucumber Beetle

Bean Leaf Beetle

larva (side view)

larvae (top view)

adult

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Pests of

Agricultural

Plants

Corn Earworm, Cabbage Looper

True Armyworm

Forage Looper Green Cloverworm

Fall Armyworm

Adult Stage

Green Cloverworm

Adult Stage

Larva Stage

Corn earworm

Cabbage looper

Adult moth or “miller”

newly hatched larva

eggs pupa

head capsule

3 pairs thorasic legs fleshy legs

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On a few kinds (woolly bears) thebody is covered with a dense coat ofhair. On others, the body is coveredwith spines, but the majority of thedamaging species that we commonlysee have smooth bodies that are rela-tively free of hair or spines.

One of the most helpful identifyingtechniques is to examine the legs.Start on the first segment behind thehead. You should see three pairs ofslender legs. Looking midway backalong the body, you will usually seean additional series of fleshy legs,usually four pairs. Finally, youshould find a final pair of fleshy legsattached to the rear of the body.

A complete generation consists ofegg, larva, pupa, and adult. The timerequired to complete the life cycle isusually about 4 to 5 weeks. Examplesof destructive insects in this groupare cutworms, armyworms, corn borers, corn earworms, forage looper,cabbage looper, and green cloverworm.

Ants

All members in this group arethread-waisted due to a restriction inthe thorax and the abdomen. Use ofthis characteristic alone is of greathelp in identification of orders. Wingsare membranous, and the front wingsare noticeably longer than the hindwings. Some are wingless as adults.The mouthparts of insects in thisgroup are of the chewing type.

These insects have a complete typeof life cycle. The immature stages aregrub-like or maggot-like, and as such,recognition of the adults gives fewclues to the appearance of the larvae.

The social insects belong in thisgroup. They live in colonies and haveperfected elaborate social organiza-tions. The social instincts are particu-larly noticeable among the ants. Theybuild large, complex, multi-storyhomes with special rooms for nurs-eries and food storage, and elaboratepassageways connecting one cham-ber to another.

Insects with Piercing–Sucking Mouthparts

True Bugs

This is a large group of insectsquite similar in appearance and theonly insects properly referred to asbugs. Most tend to be rather shieldshaped, but usually have bodies thatare noticeably longer than wide. Mostof the bugs have two pairs of wings.

The basal half of each top wing(where they attach to the body) ishard and leathery, but the remainderis thin and transparent. At rest, thewings lay flat against the top of thebody and the transparent portions areoverlapped.

The mouthparts are formed into along, narrow beak which they use tosuck out the sap. Since they are suck-ing insects, early damage is not al-ways obvious as being insect caused.Thus, signs of infestation can be eas-ily confused with disease symptoms.

The bugs have a gradual life cycle—that is, females deposit eggs thathatch into nymphs and nymphs grad-ually develop into adults. Nymphsresemble the adults except they aresmaller and wingless. They cause thesame kind of injury and attack thesame plants as the adults.

Some examples of destructive truebugs are: squash bugs, stink bugs,leaf-footed bug, plant bugs andchinch bugs.

Aphids and Leafhoppers

This is another large group of sucking insects. They are closely -related to the true bugs, and similarto them in general appearance, develop ment of their life cycle, and the way they feed. Most mem-bers are winged in the adult stage.Wings are entirely thin and membra-nous. They tend to fold their wingsroof-like over their bodies when atrest.

Cicadas are among the largest in-sects of this group. Many of thesmaller species, often no more than 1⁄16 inch in length, resemble cicadas

Pests of

Agricultural

Plants

Mouthparts of Bugs

Ants

node

Long slender beak forfeeding on plants.

Short thick beak for attacking prey. Manybugs are beneficial.

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Pests of

Agricultural

Plants

Squash Bug

Leaf-footed Bug

Typical wing

Stink Bug

Chinch Bug

Greenbug

Melon Aphid

hard leatherymembranous

Cicada Leafhopper

winged

wingless

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in overall appearance. Many are nolarger than a pin head when they arefully grown.

Leafhoppers are small, wedge-shaped insects which suck plant sapfrom the undersides of the plantleaves. They are usually light greencolored and run sideways when theleaf is turned over.

The alfalfa leafhopper causes al-falfa and bean leaves to turn yellowto yellowish-brown, a conditionknown as “hopper burn.” Otherleafhoppers transmit various plantdiseases.

Examples of leafhoppers are alfalfaleafhopper, bean leafhopper and sixspotted leafhopper.

Aphids (plant lice) make up a largeproportion of this group. Aphids aretiny, soft-bodied sucking insects,winged or wingless, frequently foundon the undersides of plant leaves.They suck large quantities of plantsap. Some are damaging, yet othersshow very little effect on crop yield.

Aphids reproduce very rapidly. Alarge number of generations is possi-ble during a single season. Hundredsof species of aphids occur in Kansas.Almost every kind of plant is subjectto attack by one or more kinds.

Some examples of aphids com-monly present in Kansas include:greenbug, corn leaf aphids, greenpeach aphid, pea aphid, spotted al-falfa aphid and the Russian wheataphid.

Insects with Sponging orRasping Mouthparts

Flies and Thrips

True flies have only one pair ofwings. The hind wings have been re-duced in size and function for bal-ance. The larvae of flies are usuallywhitish, lack a distinct head, are leg-less and called maggots.

The seed corn maggot, Hessian fly,and wheat stem maggot are recog-nized as plant pests in Kansas.

Thrips are very tiny insects, com-mon on many different kinds ofplants. As adults they are generally

about 1⁄l6 inch in length, and resembletiny “splinters” as you see themcrawling over plant surfaces (theirbodies are noticeably longer thanwide).

Thrips feed in a peculiar fashion byrasping the surface of the plant tissueand then sucking up the liquids thatflow from the injury.

The adults are usually tan to darkbodied with four feather-like wings,while the immature forms (nymphs)are smaller, wingless and usuallycreamy white.

Both nymphs and adults cause injury by feeding on buds, flowers, orleaf tissues. The feeding causes dis-tortion in flowers and buds and grayor silvery speckled areas on leaves.

Thrips can usually be found earlyin the spring feeding in the whorls oron the undersides of leaves of seed -ling sorghum and corn. The presenceof a few is considered common andnot serious, although damage mayoccur under some situations whenlarge numbers of thrips are present.

Mites

The members of this group are notinsects. The adults have eight legs instead of six and they only have twomajor body regions rather than three.

Mites are of major importanceamong plant damaging pests. Mitesare very small, about the size of theperiod at the end of this line. Adultshave eight legs and most of the time afew spots of color are visible in amite’s body. Mites are soft-bodied,wingless and cause injury by suckingplant juices.

Mites feed primarily on the under-side of plant leaves. The area of amite infested leaf takes on a speckledappearance consisting of tiny yellowspots surrounded by normal greentissue. As feeding continues and themite population increases, affectedfoliage will gradually change intomore of a uniform yellowish or red-dish color, becoming brown as theleaf begins to die. As they feed, mitesmake thin webs usually on the under-surface of the leaves.

Pests of

Agricultural

Plants

Mites

Flies and Thrips

Hessian Fly

Thrips

Spider Mite

Brown Wheat Mite

European Red Mite

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Mites are generally thought of asdry weather pests. They do not usu-ally develop as rapidly during wetweather and heavy rains. Mites candevelop a damaging population in a very short time. Populations arehighly regulated by temperature.

Wheat in Kansas is subject to attackby a rather large mite called thebrown wheat mite. It is common dur-ing dry years in the western part ofthe state.

In recent years corn, and to someextent sorghum, production has beenplagued in the irrigated areas by miteinfestations.

Common WeedsA weed can be defined as “a plant

out of place, ” or “a plant growingwhere it’s not wanted.” Weeds are a problem because they reduce cropyields, increase costs of production,and reduce quality of crop and live-stock products. Some weeds causeskin irritation and allergies, whileother weeds can be poisonous to manand other animals. Weeds also can beunsightly in turf and ornamentallandscapes, as well as create traffichazards by obstructing the view at intersections.

Plants can be separated into twogroups based on plant morphology.Grasses generally have long, narrowleaves with parallel venation, whilebroadleaf plants tend to have widerleaves of various shapes with a net-like venation. Plant susceptibility todifferent herbicides depends on thespecific plant species.

A complete understanding of weedlife cycles, reproduction, and spreadis necessary to implement an effectivecontrol program. Weeds can be classi-fied as annuals, biennials, and peren-nials based on their life cycle.

Annuals

Plants that grow from germinatedseed, mature, and produce seed forthe next generation in one year orless, are referred to as annuals.

Annuals are the most abundant typeof weeds in conventional croplandand frequently disturbed sites, butgenerally are easier to kill than bien-nial or perennial weeds. The opti-mum time to control annual weeds iswhen they are in the seedling stage ofgrowth and rapidly growing. Afterannual weeds have flowered, theyhave nearly completed their life cycle,so control at that time is of little eco-nomic value.

Summer annual weeds germinate inthe spring, grow, mature, produceseed, and die before winter. Summerannual weeds are prolific seed pro-ducers and are most common in sum-mer annual crops such as corn, milo,and soybeans. Examples of summerannual weeds include large crab-grass, foxtails, pigweeds, lambs -quarters, cocklebur, and commonsunflower.

Winter annual weeds germinate inlate summer or fall, overwinter, ma-ture and produce seed by late springor early summer, and then die.Winter annual weeds are most pre va -lent in winter annual crops such aswheat. Examples of winter annualweeds include downy brome, cheat,henbit, field pennycress, and variousmustard species.

Biennials

Plants with a 2-year life cycle arebiennials. Biennial weeds germinateand develop a deep taproot and acom pact cluster of leaves called a ros -ette, in the first year of their life cycle.In the second year of a biennial lifecycle, the stem elongates (called bolt-ing), the plant flowers, producesseeds, and dies. Biennial weeds aremost susceptible to herbicides whenthey are in the rosette stage of growthand before they have bolted. Biennialweeds are most common in pasturesand noncropland sites. Ex am ples ofbiennial weeds include commonmullein, common burdock, and muskthistle.

Pests of

Agricultural

Plants

Biennials

Annuals

Large Crabgrass—a summer annual

Downy Brome—a winter annual

Musk Thistle

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Perennials

Perennials

Plants that live 2 or more years areperennials. Perennial plants generallygo dormant during the wintermonths and produce new foliage dur-ing the spring and summer fromstored food reserves in the stems orunder-ground plant parts. Perennialscan be spread by seed, but also canreproduce vegetatively from tubers,bulbs, rhizomes (below groundstems), stolons (above ground stemsthat produce roots), and root stemsegments.

Simple perennials reproduce primar-ily by seed. However, new plants candevelop from root pieces that resultfrom mechanical injury such as tillageor hoeing. Examples of simple peren-nial weeds include common dande-lion, curly dock, and many trees andbushes.

Creeping perennials produce seed,but also spread vegetatively oncethey become established in an area.Vegetative spread occurs with rhi-zomes, stolons, and spreading rootsystems. Examples of creeping peren-nials include bermudagrass, quack-grass, Johnsongrass, field bindweed,and common milkweed.

Bulbous perennials may reproduceby seed, bulblets, or bulbs. Examplesof bulbous perennial weeds includewild onion and garlic, which produceseed and bulblets above ground andbulbs below ground.

Perennials generally are the mostdifficult type of weeds to kill. Sincemost perennials can reproduce vege-tatively and regrow from under-ground plant parts, destroying thetop growth only provides temporarycontrol until the shoot regrows. Thus,systemic herbicides such as 2,4-D,dicamba (Banvel), picloram (Tordon),or glyphosate (Roundup or Kleenup)that will translocate to the under-ground plant parts are most effectivefor long-term perennial weed control.

Noxious Weeds in Kansas

The Kansas Noxious Weed Law en-acted by the Kansas Legislature hasdeclared several weeds as noxious

weeds in Kansas, which according tothe law must be controlled. Kansasnoxious weeds include:

n Kudzun Russian knapweedn Canada thistlen Leafy spurgen Field bindweedn Hoary cressn Pignutn Johnsongrassn Quackgrassn Woollyleaf bursage

(Bur ragweed)n Musk thistlen Multiflora rose (county option)n Sericea lespedeza (county

option)

Common Plant DiseasesA plant disease is any harmful con-

dition that makes a plant differentfrom a normal plant in its appearanceor function. Plant diseases are dividedinto two groups based on their cause.

Non-parasitic Plant Diseases

These are caused by non-livingagents, such as nutrient deficiency,extreme cold or heat, toxic chemicals(e.g., air pollutants, some pesticides,salts, too much fertilizer), mechanicalinjury, and lack or excess of water.Non-parasitic diseases cannot bepassed from one plant to another.

Parasitic Plant Diseases

These are caused by living agentswhich live and feed on or in hostplants. They can be passed from oneplant to another. The most commoncauses of parasitic diseases are fungi,bacteria, viruses, and nematodes.

Three things are required before a parasitic disease can develop:

1. a susceptible host plant,2. a parasite, and3. an environment favorable for

parasite development.Fungi are usually composed of

multi-celled thread-like filamentscalled hyphae. Most are microscopic,but some, such as the mushrooms,may become quite large. Most

Pests of

Agricultural

Plants

Dandelion—asimple perennial

Wild Garlic—abulbous perennial

Field Bindweed—acreeping perennial

reproduce by spores, which functionabout the same way seeds do. Not allfungi are harmful, and many arehelpful to man.

Fungi may attack a plant bothabove and below the soil surface.Fungus diseases include apple scab,smut in corn, powdery mildew inlandscape plants, rose black spot, rustof wheat, and root and stalk rots ofmany crops.

Bacteria are single-celled organismswhich are much smaller than fungi.They usually reproduce by simply dividing in half. Each half becomes a fully developed bacterium. Bacteriacan build up fast under ideal condi-tions. Some can divide every 30 min-utes. Fireblight of pears, halo blightof beans, and bacterial leaf spot onpeaches are caused by bacteria.

Viruses are much smaller than bacteria and are composed of proteinand genetic material. They come in a variety of shapes and sizes, but theycan only be seen with a high- powered electron microscope.Viruses are often identified by theirsymptoms on host plants.

Many viruses that cause plant dis-ease are carried by insects, usuallyaphids or leafhoppers. Some virusesare transmitted when machines orpeople touch healthy plants aftertouching diseased plants. Manyviruses are easily carried along inbulbs, roots, cuttings. and seeds. Afew are transmitted in pollen. At leastone virus, wheat soilborne mosaicvirus, is transmitted by a fungus.

Wheat streak mosaic, maize dwarfmosaic of corn and sorghum, andtomato spotted wilt are diseasescaused by viruses.

Nematodes are small, usually micro-scopic, round-worms. Many nema-todes are harmless, but some feed onor in plant roots. Nematodes usuallydo not kill plants, but reduce growthand plant health. They may weakenthe plant and make it susceptible toother disease agents.

All nematodes that are parasites onplants have a hollow feeding spear.They use it to puncture plant cells

and feed on the cell contents. Nema -todes may develop and feed either inside or outside of a plant.

The life cycle of nematodes in-cludes an egg, four larval stages, andan adult. Most larvae look like adults,but are smaller. Many nematodes mi-grate from root to root. The femalesof some, such as root knot and cystnematodes, become fixed in the planttissue. The root knot nematode de-posits its eggs in a mass outside of itsbody. The cyst nematode keeps partof its eggs inside its body after death.They may survive there for manyyears.

Development of Plant Diseases

Development of a parasitic diseasedepends on the life cycle of the para-site. Some parasites (e.g., smuts) haveone cycle per year. Others (e.g.,wheat rust) have many cycles peryear. The environment affects thiscycle greatly. Temperature and mois-ture are especially important.

The disease process starts when theparasite arrives at a part of a plantwhere infection can occur. This stepis called inoculation. If environmentalconditions are good, the parasite willbegin to develop. This stage beforeinjury develops is called incubation. If the parasite can get into the plant,the stage called infection starts.

The three main ways a plant responds are

1. over-development of tissue suchas galls, swellings, and leaf curls,

2. under development of tissue,such as stunting, lack of chloro-phyll, and incomplete develop-ment of organs, and

3. death of tissue, such as blights,leaf spots, wilting, and cankers.

Identifying Plant Diseases

Disease identification depends onsymptoms (leaf spots, mosaic, galls,etc.) and signs of the causal agent (visual evidence of fungal hyphae,nematode cysts, etc.). Other evidencesuch as disease field pattern, timing

Pests of

Agricultural

Plants

Different kinds of viruses

Bacteria reproducing

Rose black spot symptoms and magnified

fungus spores

13

14

of symptoms, and preceding weatherare often needed.

Many plant disease fact sheets,often with color photographs, areavailable from your local countyExtension office. Your Extension office can also help you submit speci-mens to the Plant Disease DiagnosticLaboratory.

Controlling Plant Diseases

Plant disease control is usuallyachieved through some combinationof the following methods: crop rota-tion, resistant varieties, sanitation ofinfested crop debris, eradication ofdiseased plants, use of disease-freeplanting stock, use of cultural prac-tices which suppress disease develop-ment, or protection with pesticides.

Common Vertebrate PestsMany forms of vertebrate wild ani-

mals are involved in damage tocrops, livestock, rangeland and otheragricultural property. Animals thatare a pest in some situations may behighly desirable in others. There fore,wildlife damage control (also calledanimal damage control) is often con-troversial. These matters should beapproached with caution and with agreat deal of knowledge about theoptions and laws relating to damagecontrol procedures. Modern ap-proaches to resolving problems ofthis kind are aimed at controlling thedamage, not the population of thespecies involved. At times, local pop-ulation control may be desirable butnever widespread population control.These higher forms of animals havetremendous compensation factorsand to accomplish complete eradica-tion of a species in a given area isthought to be impossible.

Much of the damage involving ver -t e brate animals can be avoided byusing preventive management strate-gies and/or integrated damage con-trol methods.

Generally, common agriculturalpests in the vertebrate animal worldare classified as either bird, rodent, or predator. In a few cases, other

animals such as snakes, deer, bats,moles, etc., may be involved in dam-age to agriculture in Kansas.

Animal Damage Control in Kansas

Today, as at the beginning of thiscentury, animal damage control(ADC) is an important component of agricultural production. In dealingwith this issue, Kansas producers re-ceive assistance from Kansas StateUni versity, Cooperative ExtensionServ ice (KSU–CES), Kansas Depart -ment of Wildlife and Parks (KDWP),and United States Department of Ag -ri culture, Animal Damage Control(USDA–ADC). The KDWP enactsreg ulations aimed at resolving ADCprob lems. All three major agencies,KSU, Kan sas Department of Wild lifeand Parks, and the USDA–ADC worktogether to alleviate wild animaldamage in Kansas.

Before doing any wild animal dam-age control, you should check withthe KDWP. Also, for any spe cies of problem animal, information forcontrol procedures is available fromKansas State Uni vers ity, WildlifeDamage Control, Man hattan, KS(phone: 785-532-5734).

Birds

Some of our most costly bird dam-age problems involve non-nativebirds such as starlings, pigeons, andhouse sparrows. All of these birds aregenerally closely associated with peo-ple. Not all bird problems are causedby introduced species. Blackbirds,grackles, cowbirds, and crows areoften involved in damage situations.

Feedlots are damaged when birdsconsume feed, contaminate feed andwater, and may spread diseases.Studies have shown that starlingsmay eat one pound of feed per monthdirectly from livestock feed bunks.

Starlings have been implicated inthe spread of transmissible gastroen-teritis (TGE) of pigs.

Blackbirds, grackles, crows, star-lings and house sparrows damagegrowing crops of milo, sunflowers,

Pests of

Agricultural

Plants

Birds

Nematode with feeding spear extended

Common Pigeon

female

House sparrow

male

winter phase summer phase

Starling

15

and corn in Kansas. In some smallerfields near marshes or wooded areasdamage can be excessive.

Pigeons, sparrows, and starlingsmay damage farm and ranch machin-ery and other property by leavingbird droppings at roosts. These drop-pings may ruin paint finishes andcreate a bad smell, leave parasitesand might cause human and livestockhealth problems.

Cultural Bird Damage Control at Livestock Feedlots

Some livestock feeding manage-ment practices can be changed to re-duce bird depredations. The simplestmeans of reducing feed losses toprob lem birds is to make the feed lessavailable for their consumption. Feedcan be made less available to starlingsby physical separations of feed fromstarlings by the use of feeds that areeither less palatable or that cannot bephysiologically used by starlings. Be -fore changing any feeding manage-ment practices, consult your livestocknutritionist.

The best, although the costliest,method of preventing starling depre-dations is to feed livestock in an en-closed bird-proof area. Feeding live-stock in bird-proofed buildings hasshown to be beneficial not only in re-ducing feed losses to starlings butalso in improving animal perfor-mance. Enclosure by conventionalmeans (i.e., doors, windows, orscreens) may result in an undesirablerestriction of animal movements. Toalleviate this, some researchers en-closed farm buildings and feedingareas with industrial polyvinyl chlo-ride plastic (PVC) strips. These stripsare similar to those used to minimizeair flow through cold food sections ofsome grocery stores.

If grain products must be fed out-doors, several management practicesare available that can reduce feedlosses to starlings. Feeds can be of-fered in self feeders or automaticfeeders with lids that are diligentlymaintained to prevent flip tops frombeing bent, dislodged, or lost. Self

feeders should be concentrated at afew sites to limit the sources for po-tential depredation.

Since starlings forage only duringthe daylight hours, feeding livestockin the late afternoon or early eveningwill limit the amount of time feed isexposed to starlings. However, cattlefed at night have shown slowerweight gain. Therefore, livestock pro-ducers may wish to limit this optionto periods when high numbers ofbirds are present.

Starlings consumed 3⁄16 inch dia -meter pellets at a much higher ratethan granular meal. The granularmeal, does, however, attract starlingsto the feed site and daily consump-tion of this meal could be economi-cally significant. Consumption bystarlings of 1⁄2 inch diameter pelletswas significantly less than consump-tion of the granular meal. Based onthese findings, grain products shouldbe fed as large pellets or cubes (= 1⁄2inch diameter), liquids, or less desir-able, granular meal.

Nutritionists must have accuratedata on cost benefit ratios before theyencourage feedlot operators to switchfeeding practices and feed forms.

Field Rodents

Animals like prairie dogs, pocketgophers, pack rats, norway rats,house mice, cottonrats, and prairievoles sometimes damage storedcrops, feed, livestock, buildings,rangeland and growing crops inKansas.

Again, two of the worst offendersare non-native animals; the norwayrat and the house mouse. Norwayrats and house mice generally live inclose association with people and areusually found around buildings andnot out in the wild.

Native rodents such as 13-linedground squirrels, cottonrats, prairievoles, deer mice and white-footedmice often eat planted seeds. Packrats or wood rats sometimes buildtheir nest in agriculture-related build-ings and these rodents also eat the in-sulation off wires of automobiles,

Pests of

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Plants

Crows

Grackles

Birds

16

Ground Squirrel

trucks, and farm machinery. Largerrodents, such as beaver, dig burrowsinto stream and pond banks whichsometimes cave in and create hazardsto cattle or farm machinery. Muskratsdig burrows into earthen dikes thathold water, and at times, these dikesbreak as a result of muskrat burrow-ing activity.

Hantavirus Infection

The recently recognized hanta -virus-associated disease among resi-dents of the southwestern UnitedStates and the identification of rodentreservoirs for the virus in the affectedareas warrant recommendations tominimize the risk of exposure to ro-dents for both residents and visitors.The Centers for Disease Control andPrevention has given the hantavirus anew name: Muerto CanyonHantavirus.

Rodents are the primary reservoirhosts of recognized hantaviruses.Each hantavirus appears to have pre -ferential rodent hosts, but other smallmammals can be infected as well.Available data strongly suggest thatthe deer mouse is the primary reser-voir of the newly recognized hanta -virus in the southwestern UnitedStates. Serologic evidence of infectionhas also been found in pinon mice,brush mice, and western chipmunks.The deer mouse is highly adaptableand is found in many different habi-tats, including human residences inrural and semi-rural areas.

Human infection may occur wheninfective saliva or excreta are inhaledas aerosol produced directly from theanimal. Transmission may also occurwhen dried materials contaminatedby rodent excreta are disturbed, di-rectly introduced into broken skin, in-troduced onto the conjunctive, or,possibly, ingested in contaminatedfood or water. Persons have also be-come infected after being bitten byrodents.

Known hantavirus infections of hu-mans occur primarily in adults andare associated with domestic, occupa-tional, or leisure activities that bring

humans into contact with infected ro-dents, usually in a rural setting. Pat -terns of seasonal occurrence differ,depending on the virus, species of ro-dent host, and pattern of human be-havior. Cases have been epidemiolog-ically associated with the followingsituations:

n planting or harvesting fieldcrops;

n occupying previously vacantcabins or other dwellings;

n cleaning barns and other outbuildings;

n inhabiting dwellings with indoorrodent populations;

The reservoir hosts of the hanta -virus in the southwestern UnitedStates also act as hosts for the bac-terium agent of plague. Althoughfleas and other ectoparasites are notknown to play a role in hantavirusepidemiology, rodent fleas transmitplague. Control of rodents withoutconcurrent control of fleas may in-crease the risk of human plague asthe rodent fleas seek an alternativefood source.

Eradicating the reservoir hosts ofhantaviruses is neither feasible nordesirable. Currently, the best avail-able approach for disease control andprevention is risk reduction throughenvironmental hygiene practices thatdeter rodents from colonizing thehome and work environment.

Rodent infestation can be deter-mined by direct observation of ani-mals or inferred from the presence offeces in closets or cabinets or onfloors or from evidence that rodentshave been gnawing at food. If rodentinfestation is detected inside thehome or outbuildings, rodent abate-ment measures should be completed.

Areas with evidence of rodent ac-tivity (e.g., dead rodents, rodent ex -creta) should be thoroughly cleanedto reduce the likelihood of exposureto hantavirus-infected materials.Clean-up procedures must be per-formed in a manner that limits thepotential for aerosolization of dirt ordust from all potentially contami-nated surfaces and household goods.

Pests of

Agricultural

Plants

Rodents

White-footed mice

Wood Rat

Deer Mice

House Mice

Pocket Gophers

17

Special precautions are indicated inthe affected areas for cleaning homesor buildings with heavy rodent infes-tations. Persons conducting these ac-tivities should contact the responsiblelocal, state, or federal public healthagency for guidance. These precau-tions may also apply to vacant dwell -ings that have attracted numbers ofrodents while unoccupied and todwellings and other structures thathave been occupied by persons withconfirmed hantavirus infection.Workers who are either hired specifi-cally to perform the clean-up orasked to do so as part of their workactivities should receive a thoroughorientation from the responsiblehealth agency about hanta virus trans-mission and should be trained to per-form the required activities safely.

Persons who frequently handle orare exposed to rodents (e.g., mam -mal ogists, pest-control workers) inthe affected area are probably athigher risk for hantavirus infectionthan the general public because oftheir frequency of exposure. There -fore, enhanced precautions are war-ranted to protect them against hanta -virus infection.

There is no evidence to suggest that travel into the affected areasshould be restricted. Most usualtourist activities pose little or no riskthat travelers will be exposed to ro-dents or their excreta. However, per-sons engaged in outdoor activitiessuch as camping or hiking shouldtake precautions to reduce the likeli-hood of their exposure to potentiallyinfectious materials.

Controlling Prairie Dogs withPoison Grain Bait

Controlling prairie dogs with poi-son grain bait is most effective duringclear settled weather (rain washes thetoxicant from some baits) and is onlyeffective when their most desirablefood (green grass) has become driedand dormant. Fall baiting is success-ful because prairie dogs are activelyeating grass seeds to build up fat re-serves for the winter. Baiting is

restricted to the July through Januaryperiod and is most successful fromSeptember to November.

Prebait with untreated oats (pre -ferably steam-rolled oats) one to twodays prior to baiting. Prebaiting is es-sential because:

1. it will increase the acceptance oftreated bait which will result insignificantly better control,

2. it gives more predictable resultsthan without prebaiting, and

3. it is required by the label.Apply both prebait and bait on the

edge of each mound where the baresoil and grass interface; do not placeon the top of the mound or down theburrow. Watch the weather; applybait only on clear, sunny days whenmoisture is not predicted. Bait shouldbe applied during the early morningto allow time for the daytime activeprairie dogs to eat the bait; bait ap-plied during the late afternoon isoften consumed by other rodents thatare primarily active at night.

Livestock should be removed fromthe pasture when poison grain is be -ing used to control prairie dogs. Live -stock can be returned two weeks fol-lowing bait application or when baithas been eaten by prairie dogs. Thebait should be thinly scattered in a 6-inch bait spot; avoid placing thebait in piles which may endangerlive stock. Apply treated bait onlyafter all or most of the prebait hasbeen eaten and only to burrowswhere the untreated bait was con-sumed, usually two days after prebaiting.

Controlling Commensal Rodents

Common barn rats, or the norwayrat, house mice, and occasionally deermice occur on many farms andranches in and around farm buildingsacross Kansas. A good rule of thumbto remember in commensal rodentcontrol is to follow five steps. It is im-portant to follow each step startingwith number 1, then 2, and so on. Donot start at number 2 first. Here arethe steps:

Pests of

Agricultural

Plants

18

1. Stress. Put rodents under asmuch stress as you can by practicinggood sanitation. Remove as muchfood, water, and hiding places as pos-sible. Then, at maximum stress level,go to step 2.

2. Single-dose. Use a single-doserodenticide so as to obtain a quickknockdown of a rat population. Pre -baiting with unpoisoned bait for sev-eral days prior to baiting will increasebait acceptance, indicate rats will eatbait and the amount eaten per daywill give you an idea of the amountneeded when you bait the area. Usesingle dose baits only once per yearand then for a week or less.

3. Multiple-dose. Use multiple-dose rodenticides after knocking pop-ulation of rats down. Keep baits freshcontinuously as long as feeding oc-curs, usually for at least 2 weeks.

Bait selection and placement.Anti coagulant baits are available inseveral types. Grain baits in a meal orpelleted form are often available inbulk or packaged in small plastic, cel-lophane, or paper packets. These“place packs” keep baits fresh andmake it easy to place baits into bur-rows, walls, or other locations. Ro -dents will readily gnaw into thesebags to get into an acceptable bait.

Anticoagulant baits that have beenformulated into paraffin blocks areavailable from various suppliers.These blocks are particularly usefulin sewers or where moisture maycause loose grain baits to spoilquickly. Acceptance of paraffin blockbaits by rodents is usually less thanthat of loose grain baits.

Sodium salts of anticoagulants tobe mixed into a water solution areavailable. Since norway rats requirewater daily, they can be drawn towater stations in some situations.Mice may not always require freewater. Water baits are particularly effective in grain storage structures,warehouses, and other locationswhere water is scarce.

Use of bait boxes protects rodenti-cides from weather and provides asafeguard to people, pets, and otheranimals. For rats, bait stations should

have at least two openings approxi-mately 21⁄2 inches in diameter andshould be large enough to accommo-date several rats at a time. Place baitboxes next to the walls, with theopenings close to the wall, or in otherplaces where rats are active. Label allbait boxes clearly with the words“Caution—Rodent Bait” or anothersimilar warning.

Where it is impossible to excluderodents from buildings and aroundtheir perimeter, fresh anticoagulantbait will control invading rats beforebreeding populations become established.

4. Traps. Trapping can be an effec-tive method of controlling rats, butrequires more skill and labor thanmost other methods. Trapping is recommended where poisons seeminadvisable, and it is the best methodto try first in homes, garages, andother small structures where theremay be only a few rodents present.Trapping has several advantages:

1. it does not rely on inherentlyhazardous rodenticides;

2. it permits the user to view hissuccess; and

3. it allows for disposal of rodentcarcasses, thereby eliminatingodor problems which may occurwhen poisoning is done withinbuildings.

A simple, inexpensive wood-basedsnap trap is available in most hard-ware and farm supply stores. Wirecage traps are more expensive butsomewhat more successful than snaptraps. Bait traps with peanut butter ora small piece of hot dog, bacon, ornutmeat tied securely to the trigger.The trigger should be set lightly sothat it will spring easily. Set trapsclose to walls, behind objects, in darkcorners, and in places where rodentactivity is seen. Place the traps so thatrodents, following their naturalcourse of travel (usually close to awall), will pass directly over the trigger.

Use enough traps to make the cam - paign short and decisive. Leav ingtraps unset until the bait has beentaken at least once reduces the chanceof rodents becoming trap-shy.

Pests of

Agricultural

Plants

19

An alternative to traps are glueboards, which catch and hold rodentsattempting to cross them in much thesame way flypaper catches flies. Placeglue boards along walls or in otherareas where rodents travel. Do notuse them where children, pets, or de-sirable wildlife can contact them.Glue boards lose their effectiveness industy areas unless covered. Extremesin temperature also may affect thetackiness of the adhesive.

5. Rodent-Proof Construction. Themost successful and permanent formof rodent control is to “build themout” by making their access to struc-tures impossible. Ideally, all placeswhere food is stored or used shouldbe rodent-proof.

Seal any openings larger than 1⁄4 inch to exclude both rats and mice.Openings where utilities enter build-ings should be sealed tightly withmetal or concrete. Equip floor drainsand sewer pipes with tight-fittinggrates having openings less than 1⁄4 inch in diameter. Doors, windows,and screens should fit tightly. It maybe necessary to cover edges withsheet metal to prevent gnawing.

PredatorsAnimals such as coyotes are the

most well known form of predator inKansas. Other mammalian predatorswhich are involved in common agri-cultural damage problems includingthe domestic dog, skunks, badgers,raccoon, bobcat, puma, bear andfoxes.

While the puma and bear are rarein the state, there is evidence of bothbeing present at times. The damagethey might cause would be to live-stock, and in the cases involvingbears, they destroy bee hives.

Skunks and foxes are most often in-volved in the transfer of rabies. Do -mestic dogs, either wild or free- ranging, do considerable damage tolivestock and at times threaten peo-ple. Badgers, in their search for fieldrodents, dig large holes in whichfarm machinery falls and may cause a breakdown. Raccoons raid sweet

corn, water melon and cantaloupepatches. Rac coons also destroy build-ings and eat livestock feed.

Even though a person confrontedwith a predator problem can see littleuse for predators, all native wildpredators are essential to a healthyenvironment.

Some Insights About Predators

By biological definition, a predatoris an animal that satisfies some or allof its nutritional requirements bykilling and feeding on other animals.A more humanistic definition maystate that a predator is anything thatcompetes with man for a particularresource. In the broadest sense, pre -dators include a variety of speciesfrom spiders, to rainbow trout, toAfrican lions. Perhaps the most com-monly thought of species in this cate-gory is the coyote. A close familymember of the coyote is the domesticdog which, on a national scale, mayeven exceed the coyote in terms of thenumber of sheep operations it nega-tively impacts. However, most dogsdo not fit the traditional definition ofa predator in that they do not need tofeed on sheep to survive. Their acts ofpredation are usually carried out asplay behavior. On the other hand,truly feral dogs prey on sheep for rea-sons similar to those of coyotes andother natural predators of livestock.

Other predators of sheep not neces-sarily ranked in order of importanceinclude bears, mountain lions, foxes,bobcats, eagles, ravens, and hogs.Other raptors and scavenging birdsincluding vultures, crows, magpies,and some gulls may also occasionallykill lambs. Poisonous snakes mayalso kill sheep, but they are not gen-erally considered predators sincetheir motive for killing livestock israrely to secure food.

Some predators such as cat species,eat almost exclusively other animalsor animal products (e.g., eggs) andrarely scavenge on carrion.

Coyotes often include many itemsin their diet. In many areas, rabbitstop the list of dietary components for

Pests of

Agricultural

Plants

Coyote

20

coyotes. Carrion, rodents, ungulates(usually fawns), insects (e.g., grass -hoppers), and livestock and poultry(when available), are also consumed.Coyotes readily eat fruits such as watermelons, berries, and other vege-tative matter when they are available.In some areas, coyotes feed on humanrefuse at dump sites and take pets(cats and small dogs) in some urbansettings.

A trait common to most predatorsis that they are opportunistic. Theygenerally take prey that is the easiestto secure in terms of a minimizationof energy expended and risk of in-jury. For these reasons, young, inex-perienced animals are often victimsof predation as are old, sick, or weak-ened individuals. Many predators are cap able of catching and killinghealthy, adult prey. Prey is selectedbased on opportunity and on a myr-iad of behavioral cues. Strong,healthy lambs are often taken from a flock by a coyote even thoughsmaller, weaker lambs are there also.Usually, the stronger lamb is on theperiphery and is more active. Bothfactors make it more prone to be at-tacked than a weaker lamb that is atthe center of the flock and relativelyimmobile.

Predation on livestock is generallymore severe during summer than inwinter. This stems largely from twofactors. Sheep are usually under moreintensive management during winter,either in feedlots or in pastures that

are close to human activity. There isless opportunity for predators to takelivestock under such conditions. Thesecond factor is related to predatorbiology. Predators bear young in thespring and raise them through thesummer. This process demands in-creased nutritional input, both to thewhelping and nursing mother, aswell as to growing young. This timecorresponds to when young sheepare on pastures or rangeland and aremost vulnerable to attack. Predationalso may rise during fall when youngpredators disperse from their homeranges in search of territories to occupy.

Predators are generally secretiveanimals and avoid contact with hu-mans and human activity. As a result,the act of predation is not usuallyseen by people. Predation most oftenoccurs from evening to early morn-ing, although it can take place at anytime during the day or night.

Predation is a natural phenomenonand occurs on a daily basis within theecosystem. Sheep have been bred forcenturies to be docile, tractable ani-mals, and they do not have the be-haviors to survive among predatorswithout help from man. When asheep is killed by a wild predator, thepredator is seizing an opportunity inits game of survival. The objective ofa program of predation control is toremove or minimize the opportunityfor predators to prey on sheep.

Striped Skunk

Pests of

Agricultural

Plants

21

Agricultural animals are attackedby mites and ticks, insects, and ani-mal predators. These pests affect ani-mal productivity by: killing animals,spreading disease agents and para-sitic worms, causing loss of blood,causing physical damage to animalsor animal products, reducing weightgains, reducing milk or egg produc-tion, and decreasing animal resis-tance to other diseases.

The biology and habits of eachspecies provide clues to selecting andtargeting helpful control measures.

CattleThe insects and related pests that

attack cattle include the following:

Horn Fly

This small, bloodsucking fly re-mains on the animal most of the time.The female lays eggs in fresh cattledroppings. The larvae develop there,and the adult fly then migrates tohost animals. The horn fly can com-plete its life cycle from egg to adult inas little as 10 days.

Face Fly

The face fly also develops in singlefresh cattle droppings. Adult faceflies cluster around the eyes andnoses of animals. These flies feed onanimal secretions, nectar, and dungliquids. Face flies are important fac-tors in the spread of pinkeye amongcattle. The life cycle from egg to adultis completed in 2 to 3 weeks in favor-able weather.

Control is difficult due to the mo-bility of the flies and short, effectivelife of insecticides.

Heel Fly (Cattle Grub)

These flies produce one generationeach year. They lay eggs on hairs ofthe host animals. The larvae (grubs)enter the skin at the base of the hairs.After migrating to the gullet or spinal

canal, the larvae move to the loinarea. Here they cut breathing holesthrough the hide and produce cysts(warbles). Cattle brought in fromother states may be carrying grubs ina different stage of development thanthose in local cattle, so treatment tim-ing may vary. The fully grown grubsemerge through the breathing holes,drop to the ground, and pupate in thesoil. Adults emerge in warm weather.

House Flies and Stable Flies

House flies can transmit many ani-mal diseases. House flies feed on ma-nure and animal secretions throughsponging mouthparts. Large numbersof flies may annoy feeder and dairycattle, causing reduced efficiency orproduction and increased bacterialcounts in milk.

The stable fly is similar to thehouse fly but sucks blood throughpiercing mouthparts which protrudespearlike from under the head of theadult.

Both house and stable flies developin decaying silage, spilled feeds, ani-mal bedding, manure, moist hay andother forage.

House flies may develop from eggto adult in as little as 8 days; stableflies usually require 3 to 4 weeks.

Sanitation is the key step in controlof these flies. Disposal of animalwastes and organic debris is essential.Chemical control and biological con-trol work only when used in conjunc-tion with good sanitation practices.

Horse Flies and Deer Flies

Horse and deer flies are commonbiting flies of cattle and horses. Thereare many species, each of which has adifferent preference for biting specificparts of the animal’s body. The fe-males are strong fliers with painfulbites. The bites of horse flies oftencontinue to bleed after the fly leaves.

Immature stages live under thesoil, usually in aquatic or semiaquaticplaces.

Horse flies often spread the dis-ease, anaplasmosis. Control of theseflies is difficult because they may

Pests ofAgriculturalAnimals

Horn Fly Face Fly

Heel Fly(Cattle Grub)

Stable Fly

House Fly

22

migrate over long distances and donot stay on the host long enough tobe killed by residual sprays.

Chewing and Sucking Lice

Lice spend their entire life cycle onthe animal. They hatch from eggs de-posited on the hair. They feed bysucking blood or chewing on theskin. Most louse populations aregreatest during cold weather months.Cattle tail lice are more numerousduring summer, but occur only oncattle from southern states. Lice arespread chiefly by contact with in-fested animals.

Mosquitoes

Mosquitoes transmit diseases of animals and man and may affect effi-ciency of animal meat and milk pro-duction. Life cycles of mosquitoesvary greatly, depending on the typeof mosquito and the environment.The female lays eggs on water or inareas subject to flooding. The larvaeand pupae develop in water and theadults emerge from the pupae.

The best control method is to elimi-nate or minimize standing-waterareas, such as potholes, water tanks,unused receptacles, and other man-made containers. Some insecticidescontrol both larvae and adults.Others are classed either as larvicidesor adulticides. Health concerns mayrequire treating swamps and seepareas where mosquitoes breed.However, great care should be takento preserve the ecology of the wetlands.

Ticks

Ticks are parasites of domestic andwild animals, and humans. They cantransmit diseases. In addition, loss ofblood and injection of toxins duringtick feeding affect animal health,weight gains, and milk production.

Correct identification of ticks is im-portant for economical and effectivecontrol. To control ear-infesting ticks(such as Gulf Coast and spinose ear

ticks), apply pesticides directly to theear. To control species infesting thebody (such as the lone star tick), treatthe entire body. Treatment must berepeated for some tick species. Tickcontrol may be required during anyseason of the year.

Cattle Scabies

Scabies is caused by an infestationof a specific mite. These mites tunnelin the skin, causing mange.

Scabies causes skin irritation, ex-cessive hair, skin, and water loss, se-vere weight loss, and reduced milkproduction. It also makes the animalmore susceptible to other diseases.Transmission is by contact with in-fested animals or mite-contaminatedmaterial.

Treat infested animals by sprayingor dipping them in insecticides regis-tered for this purpose or by subcuta-neous injection of an appropriatelylabeled parasiticide. Scabies treat-ment is regulated by Federal quaran-tine laws.

Sheep and GoatsThe insects and related pests that

attack sheep and goats include thefollowing:

Sheep Ked

Adult sheep keds resemble ticksand are often misnamed as “sheepticks.”

The sheep ked is a wingless flywhich spends its entire life cycle onsheep. It is occasionally found ongoats.

The nearly mature larvae are de-posited on wool strands, where theypupate almost immediately. Theadult emerges and begins to feed onblood.

The sheep ked reduces wool yieldand lamb growth rate and causes adamaged hide condition called“cockle.” Applying insecticides atshearing gives the most efficient control.

Mosquito

Cattle Louse

Horse Fly

Short-Nosed Little Red

Deer Fly

Pests of

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Animals

23

Chewing and Sucking Lice

Sheep and goat lice cause intenseskin irritation, resulting in reducedquality and quantity of fleeces, andblood loss, resulting in anemia.Several species are involved.

Infestations are spread by contactwith infested animals. Insecticideswill provide louse control.

Sheep Scabies

This mite pest is under Federalquarantine regulations and infesta-tions MUST be reported. Call a veteri-nary service.

Nose Bot

Living fly larvae are deposited inor around the nostrils of the sheep.The larvae migrate to head sinuses,where they develop. At maturity,they migrate back down the nasalpassages and drop to the ground,where they pupate and becomeadults. Migration of the larvae irri-tates the nasal membranes and isoften followed by secondary infec-tions. An effective drench treatmentis now registered for control of sheepnose bots.

Wool Maggot (Black Blow Fly)

This fly lays eggs in dirty wool oron wounds. After hatching, the flymaggots spread over the animal andfeed on skin tissue under the fleece.Their damage sometimes causesdeath.

Early shearing and medication ofwounds before blow fly season is aneffective preventive measure. Clip -ping and cleaning the fleece will helpprevent infestations. Insecticides areeffective in controlling this pest.

Spinose Ear Tick

This is the only tick which nor-mally poses a problem to sheep. Itsfeeding on the inner folds of the earproduces much discomfort and re-sults in a breakdown of the ears.

The spinose ear tick can be con-trolled by applying insecticides to theinner folds of the sheep’s ear.

Swine

Flies

Stable flies, house flies, horse flies,and mosquitoes are also pests ofswine. Refer to descriptions in theCattle section.

Hog Lice

The presence of hog lice may be in-dicated by excessive scratching andrubbing. This causes reddening andthickening of skin and results in re-duced weight, particularly in youngpigs. Heavy infestations may causedeath. The life cycle is the same asthat of cattle lice.

Mange Mites

Burrowing mites cause mange.They can be controlled by spraying ordipping or by injection with an ap-propriately labeled parasiticide.

Horses, Mules, and Donkeys

Insects and related pests that attackthese animals include the following:

Deer Flies, Stable Flies, House Flies,Face Flies, Horse Flies, andMosquitoes

See Cattle section.

Lice

For descriptions, refer to Cattle section. Damage includes loss of hair, scurfiness of skin, and irritabil-ity of the animal. Animals may be-come unmanageable and may injure themselves.

Horse Bots

The three main species—nose, chin(or throat), and common bots—attach their eggs to the hair of the Spinose Ear Tick

Sheep Ked

Scabies Mite

Tick

Pests of

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Animals

24

horse. The eggs hatch and the larvaeare transferred to the animal’s mouth.They migrate to the stomach, wherethey remain until full grown.

They are then eliminated with thedung and pupate in the soil, emerg-ing as adult bot flies at various timesfrom early summer to October.Horse bots usually have one genera-tion each year.

Treatments include orally appliedpastes and drenches.

Ticks

Equine ticks are the same speciesthat attacks cattle. Refer to tick sec-tion under Cattle.

Poultry

Lice

Several species of chewing lice in-fest poultry. They spend their entirelife on the host. Louse transmission isby direct contact with infested birdsor with louse infested debris. Lice aremore common during cold weather.Infested birds become restless anddamage themselves by pecking atbody areas. Weight gain and egg pro-duction may decrease.

Mites

Several species of mites infest poul-try. The most common is the chickenor red mite, which feeds on bloodduring the night and hides in cracksof the house during the day. Anothercommon mite is the northern fowlmite, which spends all of its life onthe bird.

Infested birds develop skin irrita-tion and anemia. If not controlled,dense mite populations may reduceweight gains and egg production orcause death.

Mite infestations are transferredfrom bird to bird. They sometimesare a result of invasion of poultryhouses by wild birds. Other meansare infested feathers and poultry han-dling equipment, flats, manure,workers, and poultry feet.

Chiggers

Chiggers are a problem on rangebirds, primarily turkeys. Infestedturkeys may be downgraded in qual-ity by lesions caused by chigger bites.Apply pesticides to the ground assprays or dusts. Repeated applica-tions may be necessary.

Fowl Ticks

Although several species of ticksmay infest poultry, the most preva-lent is the fowl tick. The fowl tickcauses about the same kind of dam-age as poultry mites. All forms (lar-vae, nymphs, and adults) attach tothe skin. They suck blood and causeskin irritation. Loss of blood in chickscan be great enough to cause death.Older birds become anemic, and pro-duction is reduced.

These ticks hide in cracks andcrevices in poultry houses. Infestedbirds also transmit ticks to otherbirds.

Bed Bugs

Bed bugs are serious pests in poul-tryhouses and may become a pest ofman. They hide from the light duringthe day and feed on poultry in thedark. They may survive for long pe -riods without feeding. Infested poul-try suffer blood loss, which may re-sult in anemia.

Flies

Many types of flies are pests onpoultry ranches. The house fly is themost common problem.

Some flies may transmit disease to poultry. Adult flies which disperseinto the surrounding environment area nuisance to man and may transmithuman and animal diseases.

Good sanitation is important forsuccessful fly control. Follow the sug-gestions in the Cattle section forhouse and stable fly control.

Bed Bug

Chicken Mite

Chicken Louse

Pests of

Agricultural

Animals

25

a balance between costs and returns,and between farm production andthe overall environment. IntegratedPest management practices includeuse of: cultivation, changes in crop-ping sequence, barriers, pest resistantor tolerant varieties, sanitation, traps,beneficial insects, timely planting andharvesting, and judicious use ofchemical pesticides. IPM is accom-plished by growers who consider allalternative pest control practices thatare available on their farms, then useone or more cost-effective pest con-trol practices that are least harmful tothe environment.

Use of effective IPM practices mustbe based on current informationabout the pest problem such as thenumbers and kinds of pests in thespecific crop or herd. Inadequateknowledge or improper diagnosis ofthe pest problem results in wastefuluse of time and money and disap-pointing control of the pest(s).

Management Tests

IPM must be practical and tailoredto each pest problem on your farm.Three tests of practicality are:

1. Is it available (to my farm, whenI need it)?

2. Does it fit my entire crop or herdmanagement program (or canpresent management be feasiblychanged to accommodate thepest management practice(s)being considered)?

3. Cost effectiveness. The “bottomline” when one’s livelihood is in-volved must always be: “Will itpay?”

The third factor is the basis of thetwo concepts economic injury level andeconomic threshold. Economic injury levelis the lowest number of pests that willcause an amount of injury equal to thecost of applied control practices. Eco -nomic threshold, sometimes called the“action threshold” is the pest numberor density at which remedial controlpractices should be taken to preventthe pests from exceeding the eco-nomic injury level. The economicthreshold is necessarily lower than theeconomic injury level to allow time to

Here are six steps you must followto solve pest problems:

1. Identify the pest.2. Know what control meth ods are

available.3. Evalu ate the benefits and risks

of each method or combinationof methods.

4. Choose the most effective methods that cause the leastharm to you and the environment.

5. Know the correct use of themethods, and

6. Know local, state, and federal regulations that apply to the situation.

Principles of Pest ControlWe often talk about the “war”

against insects, plant diseases, weeds,and rats. In a war between countries,would a national leader use only the Army? Wouldn’t he also useother tools—Navy, Air Force, and propaganda?

Yet, in our struggle against pests,how often do we just use the hand i estor least expensive pesticide? Howoften do we forget to consider othermethods or combinations of methods? How often do we forgetabout effects on the environment? Itmay be too often.

The use of a combination of methods to control pests is basic to all pest control. Modern pest controluses all available methods to keeppests be low economically harmfullevels, and damages the environmentas little as possible in the process.

The challenge lies in our ability tocontrol pests so that injury caused bythem is held to a minimum, and torecognize when direct action, such asa pesticide application, is necessary.

Integrated PestManagement (IPM)

Integrated Pest Management (IPM)is the planned manipulation of pestpopulations in an attempt to achieve

Pest Control

Biological Control

Resistant Varieties

eggs

larva

pupa

adult

Lady Beetle

26

apply control practices and to permittime for those control practices to con-trol the pests.

Integrated pest management consistsof selection of specific control practiceswhich work well together to best solve a specific set of pest problems under the conditions which prevail at that timeand place.

Pest Control MethodsMany pest control methods have

been known and used for years. Butsome methods, what we call them,and the way we put them togetherare new. Here are the most importantpest control methods.

Resistant Varieties

Some crops, animals, and woodsresist pests better than others. Byusing resistant types, we make theenvironment less favorable for pests.

Varieties that are genetically resis-tant to injurious insect and disease in-festations can produce higher yieldsthan varieties not tolerant to thesepests. Kansas farmers are familiarwith Newton wheat which is resistantto the disease, soil-borne mosaic; andLarned which is resistant to the in-sect, Hessian fly.

The Extension fact sheet, “WheatVariety Disease and Insect Ratings,”(MF-991) gives the reaction of wheatvarieties to several important wheatdiseases and Hessian fly. It is up-dated regularly to include currentlygrown varieties.

Biological Control

Biological control refers to the useof parasites, predators, and diseaseorganisms to control pests. “Bene -ficial organisms” are living organismsthat destroy pests of man and ofcrops, and thus are beneficial to us.

Many serious pests are controlledby beneficial organisms. Introductionof beneficial organisms for pest con -trol is seldom cost-effective for a single farm, however. The effective-ness of biological control depends on

a thorough understanding of injur -ious pests and the beneficial organ-isms, as well as their interactionswith one another in the environment.

Beneficial organisms occur natu-rally in growing crops. Natural bene-ficial organisms reduce the damagefrom our injurious plant and animalpests. Below are a few of the exam-ples of natural biological controls thatoccur in wheat fields.

Lady beetles help control green-bugs, and tiny parasitic wasps canannihilate established infestations ofgreenbugs in wheat and grainsorghum. Cutworm populations arereduced by large predatory beetlesthat roam the fields at night but areseldom seen in the daytime. Duringyears of armyworm infestations, ahigh percentage of armyworms aresoon destroyed by parasitic tachinidflies and parasitic wasps. Grass -hoppers are parasitized by nema-todes, mites, and tachinid flies;preyed upon by robber flies, quail,pheasants, and foxes; and subjectedto a naturally occurring fungus dis-ease. Grasshopper eggs are destroyedby certain mites, blister beetle larvae,and other predators. The tiny Hessianfly is parasitized by even smallerwasps. In years with favorable mois-ture, chinch bug populations may bedecimated by a white fungus. Thetake-all root rot fungus is suppressedby bacteria which build up in fieldscontinuously cropped to wheat.

Because beneficial organisms arecomplex, and because their require-ments vary, there is no single culturalpractice that will aid all these bene -ficial organisms. Beneficial organismsrequire at least low populations ofpest species upon which they feed.Therefore, insecticides should only beused in fields where the economicthreshold is reached.

More beneficial insects are usuallypresent where several kinds of cropsare grown. Many of these organismsare abundant in alfalfa and they mi-grate to other crops when alfalfa iscut. During the winter, winter wheatshelters many beneficial organisms,

Biological Control

Biological Control

Biological Control

Small Braconid Wasp layingan egg in an aphid.

Tiny Trichogramma Waspputting egg into a moth egg

Praying Mantid

Pest Control

Spider

27

and when the wheat ripens theymove to other crops where they de-stroy pests.

The Kansas Department of Agri -culture rears, releases and promotesthe spread of tiny wasps which attackthe eggs, larvae and pupae of the al-falfa weevil.

Hedge rows, weedy fence lines,roadsides, and strip cropping gener-ally favor beneficial species but mayalso favor certain pests. This empha-sizes the need for a thoughtful ap-proach to pest control efforts.

Many other organisms such as spiders and praying mantids feed ona wide array of insects, and their beneficial presence must always be considered.

Cultural Control

Planting, growing, harvesting, andtillage practices may influence pestproblems.

Changing the cropping sequencehelps reduce infestations of diseases,insects, and weeds that develop in acrop. If wheat is infected with take-allroot rot, rotate to a row crop for atleast a year to control this disease.This practice also helps reduce thedisease tan spot, the seedling blights,and insects such as annual whitegrubs, brown wheat mites, false wire-worms, and wireworms.

Cultivating helps control weedsbut may result in the spread of dis-eases and nematodes.

Changes in cropping sequence, as aweed control practice, have beenused less extensively since the devel-opment of herbicides. Weed infesta-tions often increase if the same crop isproduced on the same land year afteryear. For example, winter annualgrasses such as downy brome, cheat,and jointed goatgrass increase in con-tinuous wheat. Although some herbi-cides can be used to control somewinter annual grasses in some var -ieties of winter wheat, planting a rowcrop for at least two and preferablythree years is still an effective andeconomical practice to reduce winterannual weed populations. Planting

wheat for one or more years alsohelps control shattercane, which infests row crops such as grainsorghum and corn. Perennial weedssuch as field bindweed and Johnsongrass are more difficult to controlthan annual weeds. For cost-effectivecontrol of perennial weeds use til lage,herbicides, and changes in croppingsequence in an integrated weed man-agement program.

Mechanical–Physical Control

Some physical methods and examples of their use are as follows:

n traps for rats, mice, and birds,n barriers to protect against ter-

mites, rodents, and flies,n light to attract or repel pests,n sound to kill, attract, or repel

pests,n heat to kill pests,n cold to kill pests,n radiation to sterilize or kill pests,

andn electrocution to kill pests.

Legal Control

Legal controls result from federal,state, or local laws and regulations.They include such things as quaran-tines, inspections, embargoes, andcompulsory crop or product destruction.

Sanitation

Removing the source of food helpscontrol some types of pests. Fly, ro-dent, and cockroach control is oftenhard unless you remove the food orfilth they feed on.

Practices that remove crop or weedhosts for pests are also examples ofsanitation. Volunteer wheat providesfood and shelter for Hessian flies andwheat curl mites. Wheat streak mosaic virus may also build up invol un teer wheat and this virus can betransmitted by wheat curl mites toplanted wheat. Destruction of volun-teer wheat breaks the cycle by remov-ing the summertime link between thetwo wheat crops. Sanitation

Mechanical–Physical Control

Cultural Control

Pest Control

28

Thorough cleaning of machinerymoving from farm to farm or fromfield to field is another example ofsanitation. This practice prevents thespread of weed seeds, rhizomes ofperennial weeds, destructive nema-todes, disease organisms, and someinsects. To avoid an increase in dis-ease and weed infestations plant onlycleaned certified seed.

Sanitation of certain farm machinesis required under the Kansas NoxiousWeed Law as follows:

It shall be unlawful for any person,company or corporation to

1. bring any harvesting or thresh-ing machinery, portable feedgrinders, portable seed cleaners,or field ensilage cutters or otherfarm vehicles or machinery intothe state without first cleaningsuch equipment free from allweed seed and litter, or

2. to move any harvesting orthresh ing machines, portablefeed grinders, portable seedcleaners, or field ensilage cuttersfrom any field or farm infestedwith any noxious weed withoutfirst cleaning such equipmentfree from all weed seed and lit-ter. Each such machine operatedby a person doing work for an-other shall be labeled with an ap-propriate label on a form pro-vided by the law. (K.S.A. 2-1327)

Pesticides

Pesticides often must be used.Other methods cannot always pre-vent harmful pest levels. Use pesti-cides where they are needed andwhere they can be used safely.

Pesticides can help the environ-ment when they are used carefullyand wisely. For years they have beenused to control pests which are harm-ful to humans. With the help of pesti-cides, we produce food, feed, andfiber. Forests, ornamentals, buildings,and turfgrass plantings can be pro-tected. Diseases, insects, and otherplant pests can be greatly reduced.

There can be higher yields and bettercrop quality using less land to pro-duce more food products.

Pesticides can be used to enhanceoutdoor activities in parks and camp-ing areas. Fly and mosquito controlprograms give relief from the annoy-ing pests. Aquatic pest control pro-grams help keep lakes and water-ways usable for swimming, boating,and fishing.

Pesticides protect livestock and do-mestic animals from harmful and an-noying pests. The quantity and qual-ity of livestock products—milk, eggs,meat, wool, and leather—are im-proved when pests are controlled.

Herbicides help keep rights-of-wayclear of weeds. Highways, runways,train tracks, and utility right-of-waymust be weed-free to allow safe, un-obstructed traffic flow. Barnyards,warehouses, utility lines, and othersimilar areas are safer when herbi-cides are used to keep weeds out.

By selecting pesticides wisely andapplying them correctly, the respon-sible pesticide applicator can usethese chemicals for the benefit of theenvironment.

Select and use pesticides so theywork with other methods. Be carefulnot to harm yourself or the environ-ment. Using pesticides along withother methods is often better thanusing any one method by itself.Always read and follow all label directions.

Putting It All TogetherThe combination of methods you

choose will depend on the kind andlevel of control you need. The threemain types of controls are:

Prevention

Prevention means keeping a pestfrom becoming a problem. This in-cludes sanitation, treated seed, pesti-cides, cultural controls, quarantines,seed certification, and resistantplants, animals or wood.

Pest Control

29

Suppression

Suppression means reducing pestnumbers or damage to an acceptablelevel. Suppression includes use ofsuch things as:

n sanitation,n resistant plants, animals, or

wood,n pesticides, andn cultural controls.

Eradication

Destroying or removing a pestcom pletely from a crop, an area, or ageographic region is the goal of eradi-cation but often may be impractical

or impossible. Some state and federallaws require eradication of certainpests, mostly of foreign origin.

SummaryRemember, the most important

principle of pest control is using apest control method only when thatmethod will prevent the pest fromcausing more damage than is reason-able to accept.

Even though a pest is present, itmay not do very much harm. It couldcost more to control the pest thanwould have been lost because of thepest’s damage.

Pest Control

30

After considering all available con-trol methods, you may decide that a pesticide is needed. Here are somethings you should know in order tochoose the right pesticide and use itmost effectively.

Pesticides are chemicals used to de -stroy, prevent, or control pests. Theyalso include chemicals used to attractor repel pests, and chemicals used toregulate plant growth or remove orcoat leaves.

Pesticide TypesInsecticide: controls insects and

other related pests such as ticks andspiders.

Miticide: control mites.Acaricide: controls mites, ticks, and

spiders.Nematicide: controls nematodes.Fungicide: controls fungi.Bactericide: controls bacteria.Herbicide: a chemical used to con-

trol, suppress, or kill plants.Rodenticide: controls rodents.Avicide: controls birds.Piscicide: controls fish.Molluscicide: controls mollusks,

such as slugs and snails.Predacide: controls vertebrate

pests.Repellent: keeps pests away.Attractant: lures pests.Plant Growth Regulator: stops,

speeds up, or otherwise changes nor-mal plant processes.

Defoliant: a chemical which causesthe leaves to drop from a plant.

Desiccant: dries plant tissues andinsects.

Antitranspirant: coats the leaves ofplants to reduce unwanted water loss(transpiration).

Sources of PesticidesPesticides can be grouped accord-

ing to their chemical nature. Thegroups are:

Inorganic Pesticides

These are made from minerals.Min erals used most often are copper,boron, sulfur, tin, and zinc. Examples:Bordeaux mixtures, and zinc phosphide.

Synthetic Organic Pesticides

These are man-made pesticides andcomprise the largest group. They con -tain carbon, hydrogen, and one ormore other elements such as chlorine,phosphorous, and nitrogen.Examples: 2,4-D, atrazine, captan,para thion, and malathion.

Living Micro-organisms

These are viruses, bacteria, andfungi, cultured by humans.Examples: the bacterium Bacillusthuringiensis and the polyhedrosisvirus.

Plant-Derived Organic Pesticides

These are made from plants orplant parts. Examples: rotenone, redsquill, pyrethrins, strychnine, andnicotine.

How Pesticides WorkPesticides also can be grouped ac-

cording to what they do. Many syn-thetic organic pesticides work inmore than one way. Read the label tofind what each pesticide will do. Themajor groups are:

Protectants: applied to plants, ani-mals, structures, and products to pre-vent entry or damage by a pest.

Sterilants: make pests unable to reproduce.

Contacts: kill pests simply by con-tacting them.

Stomach poisons: kill when swallowed.

Systemics: an insecticide or fungi-cide taken into the blood of an animalor sap of a plant. They kill the pestwith little or no harm to the host,plant, or animal (see translocated).

Residual: any pesticide that re-mains active over a period of time. Micro-organisms

Synthetic Organic

Inorganic

Pesticides

31

Translocated: usually refers to aherbicide that is moved within theplant from one location to other partsof the plant. Frequently the term re -fers to herbicides applied to the fo li -age which move downward to under -ground parts (see systemic).

Fumigants: gases which kill whenthey are inhaled or otherwise ab-sorbed by the pest.

Anticoagulants: prevent normalclotting of blood.

Selective: more toxic to some kindsof pests than to others.

Nonselective: toxic to most plantsor animals.

Pheromones: affect insect pests bychang ing their behavior.

Using Pesticides

Many terms used in labeling de-scribe when and how to use pesti-cides. They also are found in leafletsand bulletins that you may get fromyour local Cooperative Extensionagent or Kansas State University. You should know and understandthese terms. They help get the best re-sults from your pesticides with theleast possible harm to you and the environment.

When To Apply

Terms that tell you when to use thepesticide product:

Preplant: applied on the soil sur-face before the crop is planted.

Preemergence: applied before cropor weeds emerge.

Postemergence: applied after thecrop or weeds have emerged.

How to Apply

Terms that tell you how to use thepesticide product:

Band: application to a strip over or along a crop row or on or around a structure.

Basal: application to stems ortrunks at or just above the groundline.

Broadcast: uniform application to an entire field area.

Crack and crevice: application in structures to cracks and creviceswhere pests may live.

Dip: complete or partial im mersionof a plant, animal, or object in a pesticide.

Directed: aiming the pesticide at a portion of a plant, animal, or structure.

Drench: saturating the soil with a pesticide or oral treatment of an an-imal with a liquid pesticide.

Foliar: application to the leaves of plants.

In-furrow: application to or in thefurrow in which a plant is planted.

Over-the-top: application over thetop of the growing crop.

Pour-on: pouring the pesticidealong the midline of the back of livestock.

Sidedress: application along theside of a crop row.

Soil application: application to thesoil rather than to vegetation.

Soil incorporation: use of tillageimplements to mix or blend the pesti-cide into the soil.

Soil injection: application beneaththe soil surface.

Spot treatment: application to asmall area.

Accuracy Is Important

The rate and time of application ofpesticides are critical. Most pesticideswork at very low rates. If you use toomuch, they can harm or even kill theplant or animal you wish to protect.Pesticides work best when applied atspecific times. Applying them beforeor after the correct time reduces oreven eliminates their effectiveness.

Since all these chemicals work insmall amounts, be careful to treatonly the intended target. Avoid get-ting them on anything else as a resultof drift with wind currents, or of res i -due in application equipment or soil.Pesticide movement off of the targetarea is generally inconsistent with thepesticide’s labeling and is a violationof state and federal laws.

Soil Incorporation

When To Use

Plant-Derived Organic

Preemergence

Postemergence

Pesticides

32

Recordkeeping Is Important

Keeping records is a very impor-tant business practice. By keeping accurate records of when pesticideswere applied to which fields, at whatrates, for what pests, etc., you will bebetter able to manage your futurepesticide applications and overallfarming operations. For informationon the recordkeeping requirementprovisions of the 1990 Farm Bill, referto the chapter on “LAWS ANDREGULATIONS” at the end of thismanual.

Factors Affecting Pesticide Activity

Soil Factors

Organic matter in soils may limitpesticide activity. Soils with high or-ganic matter content may need higherrates of pesticides for good pest con-trol. Follow label instructions.

Soil texture also affects the way pes-ticides work. Soils with fine par ticles(silts and clays) provide the most sur-face area. They may need higherrates. Coarser soils (sands) have lesssurface area and may need lowerrates. Follow label instructions.

Weather Factors

Soil moisture and rain affect the waypesticides work. They also affect howlong pesticides stay on soil andplants. Pesticides work best withmod erate soil moisture. Wetness maykeep the pesticide from contactingthe soil particles. Rain causes solublepesticides to leach down through thesoil. Rain is good when preemergencepesticides are applied to the surface.It carries them down into the soil tothe roots. But rain after over-the-topor foliar applications is not good. Itmay wash pesticides off the leaves.The pesticide should be allowed todry on the leaves before exposure torain or irrigation. This time span willvary depending on mode of applica-tion, crop type, temperature, and humidity.

Humidity and temperature also affectthe way pesticides work. Herbi cideswork best when plants are growingfast. High relative humidity and opti-mum temperatures usually cause thisfast growth. High temperatures causesome pesticides to evaporate quickly.Low temperatures may slow down orstop the activity of some pesticides.

Light may break down some pesticides if they are left on the soilsurface.

Pesticide Resistance

The ability of pests to resist poison-ing is called pesticide resistance. Con -sider this when planning pest controlprograms that rely on the use of pesticides.

Rarely does any pesticide kill allthe target pests. Each time a pesticideis used, it selectively kills the mostsensitive individuals. Some pestsavoid the pesticide. Others are able to withstand its effects. Pests that arenot destroyed pass along to their offspring the trait that allowed themto survive.

When we use one pesticide re -peatedly in the same place, the pestpopulation sometimes builds up itsresistance. Some pests have becomepractically immune to poisoning bycertain pesticides.

A recent example of pesticide resis-tance in Kansas is seen with the ex-tensive use of eartags containingpyrethroid insecticides to controlhorn flies. In some areas, after twoyears of use, horn flies were nolonger controlled and other productshad to be used.

The most important factors to man-age to reduce the development ofpesticide resistance include:

n pesticide type—persistent chemi-cals lead to resistance.

n high levels of control—thehigher levels of control lead toresistance, and

n wide areas of coverage can en-courage resistance.

Recordkeeping

Pesticides

33

Not every pesticide failure iscaused by pest resistance, however.Make sure that you have:

n used the correct pesticide,n used the correct dosage, andn applied the pesticide correctly.Your Cooperative Extension

Service can help you find out whyyou did not get the desired results.

Plant Growth Regulators,Desiccants, Defoliants, and Antitranspirants

Plant growth regulators, desic-cants, defoliants, and antitranspirantschange normal plant processes. Eachworks in a different way.

Plant Growth Regulators

All plant parts are made of tinycells which continually multiply andgrow. Plant growth regulators speedup, slow down, or otherwise affectcell growth and reproduction. Hereare some ways they are used:

n decrease preharvest drop,n increase fruit firmness,n reduce scald,n delay water core (water-soaked

area around core of fruit),n increase red color,n thin fruit,n increase flowering,n reduce Fruit cracking,n promote uniform bearing of

fruit,n control plant height,n prevent or delay sprouting of

tubers,n promote dense growth of land-

scape plants,n promote earlier flowering,n prevent seed formation,n induce branching,n reduce suckering,n hasten fruit maturity,n increase seed yield, andn control excessive growth.

Desiccants and Defoliants

These often are called harvest-aidchemicals, because they help thefarmer harvest his crop. Both are

used to get rid of leaves, stems, andweeds in such crops as cotton, soy-beans, and potatoes.

Antitranspirants

By reducing water loss, antitrans -pirants can prevent winter damage,maintain color in evergreens, protectagainst salt damage, help protecttransplants, and prevent needle dropon Christmas trees.

Types of FormulationsActive ingredients are the chemi-

cals in a pesticide that do the work.Other ingredients may be added tomake them convenient to handle andsafe and easy to apply. These are theinert ingredients. This mixture of active and inert ingredients is called a pesticide formulation. Some formula-tions are ready for use. Others mustbe diluted with water or a petroleumsolvent. The directions for use willtell you how to use a pesticide formulation.

Here are the most common types of liquid and dry formulations. The abbreviations are included becauseExtension Service recommendationsand the labels may refer to the formu-lations in this way.

Liquid Formulations

There are six basic kinds of liquidformulations:

1. Emulsifiable concentrates,2. Microencapsulation,3. Solutions,4. Flowables,5. Aerosols, and6. Liquified gases.

Emulsifiable concentrates (EC)—These can be mixed with water toform emulsions. Each gallon of an ECusually contains 2 to 8 pounds of ac-tive ingredient. Diluted EC’s usuallyneed little agitation in the spray tank.

EC’s can damage some crops.These crops may require a differentformulation of the active ingredientsuch as a wettable powder or a dust. Formulations

EmulsifiableConcentrates

(EC or C)

Flowables(F)

WettablePowders

(WP)

Baits(B)

Pesticides

34

Microencapsulation—microencap-sulated formulations are microscopicparticles of pesticides (either liquid or dry) surrounded by a very thinplastic coating. The formulated prod-uct is mixed with water and appliedas a spray. Once applied, the capsuleslowly releases the pesticide. The en-capsulation process can prolong theactive life of the pesticide by provid-ing a timed release of the active ingredient.

Microencapsulated formulationsare easy to mix, handle, and applyand therefore increase safety to theapplicator. However, they need con-stant agitation in the tank. Also,some times bees may pick up the cap-sules and carry them back to thehives where the released pesticidemay poison entire hives.

Solutions—High concentrates arespecial formulations. They usuallycontain 8 or more pounds of activeingredient per gallon. They may con-tain only the active ingredient itself.Most are designed to be used as is ordiluted with oil or petroleum sol-vents. They contain chemicals thatallow them to spread and stick well.Ultra-low-volume (ULV) concentratematerials should be used without further dilution.

Low concentrates are formulationsusually containing less than 2 poundsof active ingredient per gallon. Mostof them are solutions in highly re-fined oils. They need no further dilu-tion. The label will give you direc-tions for use. They are often used forcontrolling household and industrialpests, mothproofing, livestock sprays,or space sprays in barns.

Flowables—Some active ingredi-ents can be made only as a solid, or at best, a semisolid. These are finelyground and put into a liquid alongwith other substances that make themixture form a suspension. They areflowable solids. Flowables can bemixed with water. They seldom clogspray nozzles. They need only mod-erate agitation. Most of them handleas well as EC formulations.

Aerosol pesticide formulations areliquids that contain the active ingre-dient in solution in a solvent. More

than one pesticide may be in theseformulations. Most aerosol formula-tions have a low percentage of activeingredient. They are made for useonly in fog or mist generating ma-chines. They are used in structures,greenhouses, and barns for insectcontrol.

Liquified gases are fumigantswhich become liquid when placedunder pressure. This type formula-tion is stored under pressure. Thepressure may be either high or low,depending on the product. Some ne-maticides, insecticides, fungicides,and rodenticides are formulated thisway. These formulations are appliedby injecting them directly into thesoil, releasing them under tarps, orreleasing them into a structure suchas a grain storage elevator.

Some other active ingredients re-main liquid or solid in an ordinarycontainer, but turn into a gas orvapor as or after they are applied.These formulations do not requirestorage under pressure. They must be put into the soil or confined in aspace before they turn to gas. Other -wise, they could be lost into the air.

Dry Formulations

Dry formulations include:1. Dusts,2. Granules,3. Water dispersible granules (Dry

flowables),4. Wettable powders,5. Soluble powders,6. Pellets, and7. Baits.Dust formulations are ready to use

and contain an active ingredient, plusa fine or powdered dry inert sub-stance such as talc, clay, nut hulls, orvolcanic ash. The amount of active ingredient usually ranges from 1 to10 percent.

All the ingredients are ground intofine, uniform particles. Inert ingredi-ents are often added so the formula-tion will store and handle well. Someactive ingredients are prepared asdusts because they are safer for cropsin that form. Dusts always must be

Pesticides

35

used dry. They can easily drift intonon-targeted areas. You can get dustsfor use on seeds, plants, and animals.

Granular formulations are dry.Most are made by applying a liquidform of the active ingredient to coarseparticles (granules) of some porousmaterial. Clay, corn cobs, or walnutshells are often used. Granule parti-cles are much larger than dust parti-cles. The pesticide is absorbed intothe granule, or coats the outside, orboth. The amount of active ingredientranges from 2 to 40 percent.

Granular formulations are safer toapply than EC’s or dusts. They aremost often used for soil treatments.They may be applied either directlyto the soil or over plants. They do notcling to plant foliage, but they may betrapped in the whorls of some plants.Granular formulations, like dusts,should always be used dry. Nevermix them with water.

Water dispersible granules or (dryflowables) are a dry granular flow-able formulation which is dispersiblein water. Agitation in the tank is re-quired. While these formulations looksimilar to the granular formulations(discussed above), they are much dif-ferent in that they must be mixed inwater and are at a much higher con-centration, generally 75 to 90 percentactive ingredient in the dry state.These formulations of products aredescribed as DF—Dry Flowable orWater Dispersible Granules.

Wettable powders (WP) are dry,finely ground pesticide formulations.They look like dusts. But, unlikedusts, they are made to mix withwater. Most wettable powders aremuch more concentrated than dusts.They contain 15 to 95 percent activeingredient—usually 50 percent ormore.

Wettable powders form a suspen-sion rather than a true solution whenadded to water. Good agitation isneeded in the spray tank to maintainthe suspension. Good wettable pow-ders spray well and do not clog noz-zles. They are abrasive to pumps andnozzles. Most wettable powders aresafer for use on plants than are EC’s.

Soluble powders (SP) also are dryformulations. But when they areadded to water, they form true solu-tions. Agitation in the spray tank maybe needed to get them to dissolve.After that, no more agitation usuallyis needed. The amount of active in-gredient in an SP is usually above 50 percent.

Pelleted formulations are uniformsized particles, usually of clay or sim-ilar material. The particles of uniformsize and specific weight, are createdby extruding or molding under pres-sure. The active ingredient is usuallyabsorbed into the pellet and releasedby water into the soil. The amount ofactive ingredient ranges from 1 toover 40 percent.

Pelleted formulations are mostoften used to apply pesticides to thesoil to control weeds, brush, and ne-matodes. They are applied by aircraft,ground applicators, and spot treat-ment methods.

A bait formulation is an edible orattractive substance mixed with apesticide. The bait attracts pests andthe pesticide kills them when they eatthe formulation. Baits usually areused to control rodents and insectpests. They can be used in buildingsor outdoors. The amount of active in-gredient in most bait formulations isquite low, usually less than 5 percent.

Fumigant Formulations

Fumigation is relatively compli-cated, requires specialized trainingand well-maintained application,monitoring, and safety equipment,and can be fatal to the user if recom-mended procedures are not closelyfollowed. Unless willing to investthe time and money necessary to ac-quire the equipment and knowledgeneeded, this job should be left toreputable professionals.

Fumigants do not provide anyresidual protection so reinfestationcan occur immediately after thegrain or other treated product hasbeen “aired out” and gas concentra-tions fall below lethal levels.

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Fumigants are compounds that be-come gases at ordinary temperatures.Fumigation is pest control with gases.Various aerosol space sprays and thebug bombs that are frequently usedin household pest control are not truefumigants. Most fumigants are highlypenetrating, capable of reaching intocracks and crevices and through largemasses of materials to kill insects andcertain other organisms that couldnot otherwise be reached. They maybe the only practical means of pestcontrol in stored grain, stored com-modities, or for soil fumigation. Fum -i gants are very hazardous to handle(See Flammability Table, p. 37); theyare almost as toxic to humans as theyare to the pests that we are trying tocontrol.

All fumigants are RESTRICTEDUSE pesticides and as such can onlybe obtained legally by certified pesti-cide applicators. Fumigants shouldonly be applied by persons who havebeen trained in proper, safe applica-tion procedures.

Three general types of fumigantsare available based on formulations.Aluminum phosphide is a solid mate-rial which produces toxic phosphinegas. It is applied in the solid form, ei-ther as tablets or pellets; forms thatare easier and safer to apply thanother fumigants. It is purchased inthe solid form either as pellets ortablets and often is safer to use thanother fumigants. Once the tablets areremoved from the flask, however, themoisture in the air reacts with thechemical to form phosphine gas,which once released, is highly toxic toman. For use in grain, tablets are usu-ally probed into the grain after it hasbeen placed in storage. Pellets areusually added to a grain stream asthe grain is transferred from one binto another. Applying tablets or pelletsto grain being augered into a bin atharvest time is not advisable becausegas released may escape from the binbefore the bin is filled.

Chloropicrin is formulated as a liquid and changes rapidly into a gasin temperatures above about 40˚F. Labeling restricts chloropicrin to

empty bin treatments to eliminate existing infestations. No grain shouldbe present.

Methyl bromide is an example of a gas fumigant. It is a gas at ordinarytemperatures and is therefore pack-aged in special pressurized cylinderssimilar to oxygen, propane, and othergases. Gas fumigants are used pri-marily by industrial or commercialfirms, although one pound canistersof methyl bromide were formerlyavailable for soil fumigation uses.Concerns about environmental haz-ards (ozone depletion) make it likelythat this product will become lessavailable.

Liquid Fumigant—Chloropicrin (CP)

Properties: Clear liquid with intenseirritating odor which makes it a pow-erful tear gas; vaporizes readily into aheavy gas; high sorption rate intograin gives poor penetration intograin masses. CP is substantiallyheavier than air and therefore has atendency to flow out of any openingin the lower portion of treated struc-tures. It is one of the most toxic fumi-gants to insects but has limited usebecause of the tear gas effect. CP isalso injurious to plants. Fire hazard:Nonflammable.

Human hazard: One part per million(1 ppm) in air produces intensesmarting pain in the eyes and irrita-tion of the respiratory tract (tear gaseffect). Man’s immediate reaction isto leave the vicinity quickly which is fortunate because continued expo-sure to this level could cause seriouslung injury.

Uses: READ THE LABEL. Uses arelimited because of the tear gas effectand because fumigated commoditiesare unpleasant to handle for sometime after fumigation.

One of the few remaining uses ofthis product is in disinfesting emptybins, particularly the area beneathperforated floors used in aeration.Choloropicrin should not be used tofumigate grain held for planting be-cause it can significantly reduce germination.

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Gas Fumigant—Methyl Bromide (MB)

Properties: Colorless, odorless gaswhich is heavier than air and pene-trates commodities and grain massesreadily; easily removed by aeration.Fire hazard: Nonflammable at usagelevels (flammable at 13.5 to 14.5% inair). Extinguish pilot lights andflames in building before using.

Human Hazard: Use requires ex-treme caution because of lack of odor.Liquid MB will cause severe blisterson contact with skin. Tests with ahalide leak detector will indicatehighly dangerous concentrations by a light green to dark green to bluegreen to blue flames. Use detectortubes or thermal conductivity appara-tus for proper monitoring for MB gasconcentrations in air. Gas concentra-tions below 5 ppm do not require respiratory protection; 5 ppm orgreater require positive pressure self-contained breathing apparatus.Exposure brings neurological symp-toms (headaches, incoordination, vi-sual disturbances). Monthly bloodbromide tests are suggested for thoseusing or exposed to MB. Chronic ef-fects often irreversible. Delayed ap-pearance of symptoms and lack ofodor make this fumigant very haz-ardous to use.

Uses: READ THE LABEL. Goodpenetration into commodities. MB readily penetrates flour andmilled products and has been usedfor that purpose. Certain commodi-ties (iodized salt, sponge rubber,leather goods, viscose rayons, photochemicals, etc.) should not be ex-posed to MB.

Solid Fumigant—AluminumPhosphide (Phosphine (PP))

Properties: Tablets or pellets of alu-minum phosphide react slowly withmoisture in the air to evolve phos-phine gas (PP). Ammonium carba-mate is included in some formula-tions and decomposes to give off car-bon dioxide and ammonia. Thesegases dilute the PP and reduce thedanger of spontaneous combustion.

Fire hazard: Highly flammable at1.79% in air (and up) which is consid-erably above the usage concentration.Reacts with all precious metals andespecially copper causing severe cor-rosion; therefore, all wiring, motors,switches and other electrical equip-ment must be protected or removed.

Human hazard: Highly toxic to man.The maximum safe exposure limit(for 40 hr/week) is 0.3 ppm (.00003%air). Garlic odor warns of toxic con-centrations but may not always bepresent when PP is above 0.3 ppm.Detector tubes must be used to en-sure safe working levels for em -ployees. Symptoms include fatigue,buzzing in ears, nausea, pressure inchest, intestinal pain, diarrhea andvomiting. Phosphine apparently isnot chronic and is not absorbed bythe skin in appreciable amounts.Notify your physician of PP exposure.

Below 0.3 ppm of phosphine gas in the air no protection is needed, be-tween 0.3 and 15 ppm users must atleast wear a NIOSH/MSHA-approved canister gas mask and filter capable of protecting the userfrom phosphine vapors. Above 15 ppm, a positive pressure self- contained breathing apparatus mustbe worn. WHERE GAS CONCEN-TRATIONS ARE UNKNOWN YOUMUST USE A SELF-CONTAINEDBREATHING APPARATUS.

Uses: READ THE LABEL. Usuallyintroduced into the grain by auto-matic injectors as the grain flows intostorage bins in commercial storagestructures. Usually placed into farmstored grain masses through the useof special probes. Some aluminumphosphide labels may allow place-ment of a portion of the dose below

Table: Grain Fumigant Flammability

Flammability (Explosive Fumigant concentrations in air)

Chloropicrin NonflammablePhosphine Very (1.79%)*Methyl bromide Nonflammable

*Phosphine reacts with copper and copper alloys giving severe corrosion.Such metals should be protected from the gas.

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perforated floors to eliminate hiddeninfestations if the area is free of mois-ture. Caution: Contact of tablets orpellets with standing water can leadto autoignition (explosion). Read andfollow instructions.

Using the CorrectFormulation

One formulation may be legal touse on a pest while another formula-tion of the same chemical may be ille-gal, so read and follow the label.

When applying pesticides to agri-cultural animals, consider how thepesticide formulation will affectthem. Sprays are generally suited fortreating most animals except in freez-ing weather. Some pour-ons, smearsand dust formulations are recom-mended in cold weather. Do not letoil sprays penetrate the hair to the an-imals’ skin in any weather unless di-rected on the label.

Adjuvants

Adjuvants are added to a pesticideformulation or spray solution to in-crease the effectiveness of the activeingredient. Most pesticide formula-tions contain at least a small percent-age of additives. Some applicatorsadd additional adjuvants while mix-ing for special applications. Someproduct labels may caution the useragainst adding adjuvants. Commonadjuvants are:

Wetting agents—allow wettablepowders to mix with water and stickon plant or animal surfaces.

Emulsifiers—allow petroleum-based pesticides (EC’s) to mix withwater.

Invert emulsifiers—allow water-based pesticides to mix with petro-leum carrier.

Spreaders—allow pesticide to forma uniform coating layer over thetreated surface.

Stickers—allow pesticide to stayon the treated surface.

Penetrants—allow the pesticide to get through the outer surface to theinside of the treated area.

Drift retardants—may help reducespray drift by decreasing the quantityof fine spray droplets.

Thickeners—may reduce drift byincreasing droplet size.

Safeners—reduce phytotoxicity of pesticide to protected crop.

Compatibility agents—aid in com-bining pesticides effectively.

Buffers—allow mixing of pesti-cides of different acidity or alkalinity.

Anti-foaming agents—reducefoaming of spray mixtures that re-quire vigorous agitation.

Compatibility

Two or more pesticides which canbe mixed together to control a widerrange of pests with a single applica-tion are said to be compatible witheach other. Sometimes the pesticidesare formulated together by the manu-facturer, but the applicator oftenmust mix separate formulations inthe tank. It is important to rememberthat not all pesticides work well incombination. Pesticides which are notcompatible can cause:

n loss of effectiveness against thetarget pests,

n injury to the treated surface(phytotoxicity in plants, toxicityin treated animals, stains or cor-rosion on treated surfaces), and

n separation of ingredients intolayers or settling out of solids.

Some pesticide labels list other pes-ticides with which the product iscompatible. Pesticide publications,land-grant universities, and indepen-dent experts can supply informationbased on local experience. Be carefulwith do it yourself mixes; they couldcost you time and money.

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Each time you buy a pesticide, youalso receive instructions to tell how touse it. Those instructions are the labeling.

What is labeling? What is a label?These Words seem alike but they donot mean the same thing.

Labeling is all information that youreceive from the company or its agentabout the product. Labeling includessuch things as:

n the label on the product,n brochures,n flyers, andn information handed out by your

dealer.The label is the information printed

on or attached to the container of pes-ticides. This label does many things:

n To the manufacturer, the label isa “license to sell.”

n To the State or Federal Govern -ment, the label is a way to con-trol the distribution, storage,sale, use, and disposal of theproducts.

n To the buyer or user, the label is a main source of facts on howto use the product correctly andlegally.

n The label is a way to tell usersabout special safety measuresneeded.

Some labels are easy to understand.Others are complicated. But all labelswill tell you how to use the productcorrectly. Anyone who uses pesti-cides is responsible by law for follow-ing label directions. This section willexplain the items that must be on a label.

Pesticide Registration in Kansas

There are four basic ways for regis-tering pesticides: (1) Federal Regis -tration, (2) Special Local Needs (Sec -tion 24(c)) Registration, (3) Emer -gency Exemptions (Section 18), and(4) Experimental Use Permit. All pes-

ticides intended for sale and use inKansas must be registered with theKansas State Board of Agriculture.

1. Federal Registration is the normalor usual method by which a pesticideis labeled and becomes commerciallyavailable. A Fed eral Registration is is-sued by the EPA on a national basisso that the labeled product is avail-able to all states or in some cases allstates within a specified region. Theresearch information needed for aFederal Registration generally comesfrom throughout the country, and inmany cases, research data fromKansas is incorporated into the totalregistration data. Residue tolerancesare set for all labeled uses and repre-sent the maximum amount of a par-ticular chemical that may safely re-main in or on raw agricultural prod-ucts at the time of sale. Ob taining aFederal Registration is the responsi-bility of the pesticide industry work-ing with EPA.

2. Special Local Needs Regis tra tions(SLN), Section 24(c). The Federal Pest -icide Law (FIFRA) allows individualstates to register pesticides for specialneeds within the state. To do so, theproposed use must already have a tol-erance if it is to be used on a raw agri-cultural product. It must not result inunacceptable exposure or dam age,and it must be necessary, effective,and safe. An SLN must have the man-ufacturer’s support and althoughthey are usually initiated by the man-ufacturer, anyone can initiate an SLA.The SLA label is a supplement to theFederal label and must be in the pos-session of the user when the productis being applied.

3. Emergency Exemption. Section 18 of the Federal Pesticide Law al-lows EPA, in consultation with theSecretary of Agriculture and theGovernor, to exempt certain neces-sary pesticide uses from the registra-tion requirements of the law. Thisstyle of exemption requires that sometype of emergency condition exists.Gen er ally, the Emergency Exemptionis obtained to allow the limited use ofa pesticide on a particular farm

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40

Approximate AmountNeeded to Kill the

Signal Words Toxicity Average Person

DANGER Highly toxic a taste to a teaspoonful

WARNING Moderately toxic a teaspoonful to a tablespoonful

CAUTION Low toxicity or an ounce to more thanComparatively free a pintfrom danger

product for which a tolerance has notbeen established. The requirementsfor obtaining and using anEmergency Exemption are strict andtime consuming.

4. Experimental Use Permits (EUP).An EUP is usually obtained by thecompany producing the particularpesticide and is used by the companyto obtain the information needed toregister that pesticide for a certainuse. Pest i cides available under anEUP are to be distributed or sold onlyto persons who have agreed to partic-ipate in an experimental program. A person who uses an EUP productmust follow the permit and label di-rections (as required for all pesti-cides) and should cooperate in re-porting the results of use to thosewho supply the product.

Parts of the Label

Brand Name

Each company has brand names forits products. The brand name is theone used in ads. The brand nameshows up plainly on the front panelof the label. It is the most identifiablename for the product.

Type of Formulation

Different types of pesticide formu-lations (such as liquids, wettablepowders, and dusts) require differentmethods of handling. The label willtell you what type of formulation thepackage contains. The same pesticidemay be available in more than oneformulation.

Common Name

Many pesticides have complexchemical names. Some have beengiven another name to make themeasier to identify. These are calledcommon names. For instance, carbarylis the common name for 1-naphthylN-methylcarbamate. A chemicalmade by more than one company willbe sold under several brand names,but you may find the same commonname on all of them.

Ingredient Statement

Every pesticide label must list whatis in the product. The list is written sothat you can see quickly what the ac-tive ingredients are. The amount ofeach active ingredient is given as a per-centage by weight or as pounds pergallon of concentrate. It can be listedby either the chemical name or thecommon name. The inert ingredientsneed not be named, but the labelmust show what percent of the con-tents they make up.

Net Contents

The net contents number tells youhow much is in the container. Thiscan be expressed in gallons, pints,pounds, quarts, or other units of measure.

Name and Address of Manufacturer

The law requires the maker or dis-tributor of a product to put the nameand address of the company on thelabel. This is so you will know whomade the product.

Registration and EstablishmentNumbers

A registration number must be onevery pesticide label. It shows thatthe product has been registered withthe Federal Government. It usually isfound on the front panel of the labeland will be written as “EPA Reg. No. 0000-00.” The establishmentnumber tells what factory made the

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41

chemical. This number does not haveto be on the label, but will be some-where on each container.

Signal Words and Symbols

To be effective, pesticides mustcontrol the target pest. By their na-ture, they are toxic. Therefore, somemay be hazardous to people. You cantell the toxicity of a product by read-ing the signal word and looking at thesymbol on the label.

One of the most important parts ofthe label is the signal word. It tells youapproximately how toxic the materialis to people. The signal words thatfollow are set by law. Each manufac-turer must use the correct one onevery label: (see table below).

All products must bear the state-ment “Keep out of reach of children.‘’

Symbols are one of the best ways to catch a person’s eye. This is why a skull and crossbones symbol is usedon all highly toxic materials alongwith the signal word DANGER andthe word POISON.

Pay attention to the symbol on thelabel. It is there to remind you thatthe contents could make you sick, or even kill you.

Precautionary Statements

Hazards to Humans (and DomesticAnimals)—This section will tell youthe ways in which the product maybe poisonous to man and animals. Italso will tell you about the kind ofprotective equipment needed toavoid poisoning.

If the product is highly toxic, thissection will inform physicians of theproper treatment for poisoning.

Environmental Hazards—Pesticidesare useful tools. Wrong or carelessuse of them can cause undesirable ef-fects on the environment. The labelcontains environmental precautionsthat you should read and follow.

Here are some examples:n “This product is highly toxic to

bees exposed to direct treatmentor to residues on crops.

n “Do not contaminate water whencleaning equipment or when dis-posing of wastes.”

n “Do not apply where runoff islikely to occur.”

Labels may contain broader warn-ing against harming birds, fish, andwildlife.

Physical and Chemical Hazards—Thissection will tell you of any specialfire, explosion, or chemical hazardsthat the product may pose.

Worker Protection Standard

The U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency’s Worker Protection Stan -dard (as revised in 1992) must becomplied with when pesticide prod-ucts are used on agricultural estab-lishments (farms, forests, nurseries,and greenhouses) for the commercialor research production of agriculturalplants. The Worker Protection Stan -dard (WPS) requires employers topro vide agricultural workers andpest icide handlers with protectionsagainst possible harm from pesti-cides. Persons who must comply with these instructions include owners/operators of the agriculturalestablishment and owners/operatorsof commercial businesses that are

Field Warning Signs

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hired to apply pesticides on the agricultural establishment or to per-form crop-advising tasks on such establishments. You and any familymembers who work on your agricul-tural or commercial pesticide estab-lishment are considered “employees”in many situations and must receivesome of the required protections.Some of the basic requirements theWPS establishes for employers in-clude:

n Displaying information aboutpesticide safety, emergency pro-cedures, and recent pesticide applications on an agricultural establishment.

n Training workers and handlersabout pesticide safety.

n Helping employees get medicalassistance in case of a work- related pesticide emergency.

n Setting up decontamination sitesfor washing pesticide residuesoff hands and body.

n Compliance with restricted-entryintervals—the time immediatelyafter a pesticide applicationwhen workers may not enter thetreated area.

n Notifying workers (throughposted and/or oral warnings)about areas where applicationsare taking place and areas whererestricted-entry intervals are ineffect.

n Allowing only trained andequipped pesticide handlers tobe present during a pesticide application.

n Providing personal protectiveequipment for pesticide handlersand also for workers who enterpesticide-treated areas before ex-piration of the restricted-entryinterval (in the few very limitedcircumstances permitted by theWPS).

n Protecting pesticide handlers bygiving them safety instructionabout the correct use of personalprotective equipment and mix-ing loading, and applicationequipment; inspecting and main-taining equipment they will beusing; and monitoring them inhazardous situations.

For detailed information aboutyour responsibilities under the WPS,get a copy of EPA’s manual, “WorkerProtection Standard for AgriculturalPesticides—How To Comply.” It willtell you what you need to do to be incompliance with the Federal workerprotection requirements. The manualmay be available from EPA regionaloffices, State or Tribal pesticide agen-cies, Extension Services, pesticidedealers, the Government PrintingOffice, and other commercial sources.

Endangered Species

In order to protect specific endan-gered species from adverse effects ofpesticides, many product labels willchange. They will include a statementdirecting users to obtain and abide bya special bulletin which identifiesspecific geographical areas where thepesticide may not be used. These ac-tions are required by the EndangeredSpecies Act.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services(FWS) is the final authority for the in-terpretation of the Endangered Spe -cies Act, particularly for geographicareas where certain pesticides may beused with certain safeguards or areprohibited. Imple men tation of the en-dangered species labeling project willbe phased in over several years.

The label will direct pesticide usersto refer to county bulletins on endan-gered species. Bulletins referred to onthe label are “labeling” and are,there fore, legal documents and en-forced the same way as the label.

The Endangered Species Bulletinwill include:

n a county map clearly identifyingthe ranges of species jeopardizedby specific pesticides;

n commonly recognized border-lines such as roads, powerlines,and water bodies:

n affected pesticides listed by ac-tive ingredient;

n a list of protected endangeredspecies;

Use of listed pesticides in identifiedranges of endangered species will beprohibited or limited. EPA will makethe Endangered Species Bulletins

How To Comply

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available to users through CountyExtension agents, pesticide dealers,and at other outlets.

At the time this manual went topress, EPA was still developing thedetails of this program. It appearsthat labeling will be in the field in thegrowing season of 1996. Any bul-letins appearing prior to reference on the label will contain voluntary provisions.

Statement of Practical Treatment

If swallowing or inhaling the prod-uct or getting it in your eyes or onyour skin would be harmful, the labelwill tell you emergency first aid mea-sures. It also will tell you what typesof exposure require medical attention.

The pesticide label is the most im-portant information you can take tothe physician when you think some-one has been poisoned.

Statement of Use Classification

Every pesticide label must showwhether the contents are for generaluse or restricted use. EPA will eventu-ally put every product use into one of these two classes. The classificationis based on the hazard of poisoning,the way the pesticide is used, and itseffect on the environment.

A general use pesticide will harmthe applicator or the environmentvery little or not at all when used ex-actly as directed.

The label on general use productsDOES NOT have the “restricted use”statement shown below.

A restricted use pesticide is onewhich could cause some human in-jury or environmental damage evenwhen used as directed on the label.The label on these products says:

RESTRICTED USE PESTICIDE

For retail sale to, and use onlyby, Certified Applicators or persons under their direct supervision, and only for thoseuses covered by the CertifiedApplicator’s certification.

The restricted use statement mustbe at the top of the front panel of thelabel.

Directions for Use

The instructions on how to use thepesticide are an important part of thelabel for you. This is the best way youcan find out the right way to applythe product.

The use instructions will tell you:n the pests the product is regis-

tered to control (Labels use com-mon name for pests. Knowingthese names will help you choosethe proper pesticide and findcontrol information),

n the crop, animal, or other itemthe product can be used on,

n whether the product is for gen-eral or restricted use,

n in what form the product shouldbe applied,

n how much to use,n where the material should be

applied, andn when it should be applied.

Misuse Statement—This section willremind you that it is a violation ofFederal law to use a product in aman ner inconsistent with its labeling.Before the product could be regis-tered, EPA required the manufacturerto conduct many tests to be sure thelabel directions were correct. By fol-lowing them exactly, you will get thebest results the product can give, andavoid breaking the law.

Reentry Statement—If required forthe product, this section will tell youhow much time must pass before apesticide-treated area is safe for entryby a person without protective clothing.

Storage and Disposal Directions—Every pesticide should be stored anddisposed of correctly. This sectionwill tell you how to store and disposeof the product and empty containers.

Following directions on the prod-uct label will help you obtain practi-cal pest control, use the product cor-rectly, and store it safely.

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Safe Use PrecautionsPeople who work with pesticides

have some risk of pesticide injurywhen they perform such tasks as:

n hauling pesticides,n storage,n mixing,n calibrating equipment before

use,n loading,n applying,n repairing equipment,n working in pesticide-treated

crops and buildings,n cleaning application equipment

after use,n disposing of surplus pesticides

and empty containers,n cleaning up spills, andn cleaning protective clothing and

equipment.Some of these tasks are done in-

doors. Many are done outdoors. Eachone requires some safety measures toprevent harm to people, animals, andplants as well as to soil and wateroutside the target area.

You can prevent harm from pesti-cides if you follow safety precautionsand use common sense. Here are theminimum safety steps you shouldtake.

Before You Buy a Pesticide

The first and most important stepin choosing a pesticide is to knowwhat pest you need to control. Thenfind out which pesticides will controlit. You may have a choice of several.You may need help to guide you.Com mon sources of information areyour Cooperative Extension Service,most agricultural schools, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, andpesticide manufacturers and dealers.

At the Time of Purchase

Read the Label of the pesticide youintend to buy to find:

n restrictions on use,n if this is the correct chemical for

your problem,n if the product can be used safely

under your conditions,

n environmental precautionsneeded,

n if the formulation and amount of active ingredient are right foryour job,

n if you have the right equipmentto apply the pesticide,

n if you have the right protectiveclothing and equipment, and

n how much pesticide you need.

Before You Apply the Pesticide

Read the label again to find:n the protective equipment needed

to handle the pesticide,n the specific warnings and first-

aid measures,n what it can be mixed with,n how to mix it,n how much to use,n safety measures,n when to apply to control the pest

and to meet residue tolerances,n how to apply,n the rate of application,n special instructions.

Transportation of Pesticides

You are responsible for the safetransport of your pesticide. The safestway to carry pesticides is in the backof a truck. Fasten down all containersto prevent breakage and spillage.

Keep pesticides away from food,feed, and passengers. Pesticidesshould be in a correctly labeled pack-age. Always keep paper and card-board packages dry.

If any pesticide is spilled in or fromthe vehicle, clean it up right away.Use correct cleanup procedures. Donot leave unlocked pesticides unat-tended. You are responsible if acci-dents occur.

Pesticide Storage

The label will tell you how to storethe product. The storage area shouldkeep the pesticides dry, cool, and outof direct sunlight, in a locked andposted place. Children and other un-trained persons should not be able toget to them. Some chemicals requireprotection from freezing.

Read the label

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45

An ideal storage place would havefire-resistant construction, includinga concrete floor, an exhaust fan forventilation, good lighting, and a lockon the door.

Keep the storage access lockedwhen not in use.

The storage location should beaway from where people and animalslive to avoid or minimize harm tothem in case of fire.

Store all pesticides in the originalcontainers.

Do not store them near food, feed,seed, or animals.

Check every container often forleaks or breaks. If one is damaged,transfer the contents to a containerthat has held exactly the same pesti-cide. Clean up any spills correctly.

Keep an up-to-date inventory ofthe pesticides you have.

Mixing and Loading Pesticides

Keep livestock, pets, and peopleout of the mixing and loading area.

Do not work alone, especially atnight.

Work outdoors. Choose a placewith good light and ventilation. Donot mix or load pesticides indoors orat night unless there is good lightingand ventilation.

Before handling a pesticide con-tainer, put on the correct protectiveclothing and equipment.

Each time you use a pesticide, readthe directions for mixing. Do this be-fore you open the container. This is essential. Directions, includingamounts and methods, are oftenchanged, and it is a violation of Stateand Federal laws to use a pesticide ina manner inconsistent with its label.

Do not tear paper containers toopen them. Use a sharp knife. Cleanthe knife afterwards, and do not useit for other purposes.

When taking a pesticide out of thecontainer, keep the container andpesticide below eye level. This willavoid a splash or spill on your goggles or protective clothing. Do thesame thing when pouring or dump-ing any pesticide.

If you splash or spill a pesticide whilemixing or loading, stop right away.Remove contaminated clothing andwash thoroughly with detergent andwater. Speed is essential. Clean up thespill.

When mixing pesticides, measurecarefully. Use only the amount calledfor on the label. Mix only the amountyon plan to use.

When loading pesticides, stand sothe wind blows across your body(from the right or left) to avoid conta-minating yourself.

To prevent spills, replace all pourcaps and close containers after use.

Mixing/Loading Facilities

Recent regulations have been intro-duced outlining new requirementsfor load/mix/storage facility require-ments for commercial operations. Atthe present time, farmers are ex-empted from the rules. However,large farm operations may fall underthe rules at a later date. The facilityrequirements are similar to thosepresently required for fertilizer facilities where quantity used exceedsthe threshold limits (generally ≥ 2000 Gal storage or when 125 tonsliquid or 25 tons dry material usedduring any 365 day period).

When possible, load and mix atseveral locations at the field site toavoid accumulation of materials inany one location. Field rinse allequipment and apply rinsate back tothe field being treated. If not possibledue to your operation configuration,use common sense housekeepingprocedures around your mix/loadarea to prevent contamination or en-vironmental damage. Store all pesti-cides according to label recommenda-tions and in a location separated fromfertilizers, feed or access by unautho-rized personnel.

Additional load/mix/storage facil-ity information may be obtained byrequesting Designing Facilities forPesticide and Fertilizer Containment,MWPS-37, available from your localCounty Extension Agent or ExtensionAgricultural Engineering at KansasState University.

Mixing and Loading Pesticides

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Pesticide Application

Wear the correct protective cloth-ing and equipment.

To prevent spillage of chemicals,check all application equipment forleaking hoses, pumps, or connections,and plugged, worn, or dripping nozzles.

Use water to correctly calibratespray equipment before use. Beforestarting a field application, clear allpeople from the area to be treated.

Drift is the movement of spraydrop lets or dust particles away fromthe target area. Drift increases asdrop let or particle size decreases, andas wind speed increases. It can beminimized if you select the properequipment for the job, spray at lowpressure, use the largest practicalnozzle openings, and spray duringthe calmer times of the day.

Vaporization is the evaporation ofan active ingredient during or afterapplication. Pesticide vapors cancause injury far from the site of appli-cation. High temperatures increasevaporization. You can reduce vapor-ization by choosing nonvolatilechem ical formulations, and sprayingin the cooler parts of the day.

Cleaning Equipment

Mixing, loading, and applicationequipment must be cleaned as soonas you finish using it. Use water anda detergent to clean both the insideand outside, including nozzles. Useextreme caution and avoid fumes ifusing pressure cleaners. Steam clean-ers are not recommended for use onpesticide containers.

When possible, pesticide applica-tion equipment must be cleaned inthe field to avoid concentration in onelocation. NEVER clean equipment nearany well.

Equipment sometimes must be re-paired before it is completely cleaned.Warn the person doing the repairs ofthe possible hazards.

Disposal

The following procedures allow in-dividuals using a pesticide at theirprivate residences or farms to prop-erly dispose of any pesticide wastesas required by Kansas law. Failure todo so can result in civil and criminalpenalties. Assistance can be obtainedfrom a field representative of theKansas Department of Health andEnvironment (KDHE) who may becontacted through the Topeka office,phone no. 785-296-1600 or the KansasDepartment of Agriculture (KDA),Pesticide & Fertilizer Program, phoneno. 785-296-3786.

Kinds of Pesticide Wastes—The arethree kinds of wastes which can origi-nate from the use of a pesticide; (1) left-over or unused pesticides, (2) empty containers, and (3) the rinsesolutions obtained by rinsing of apest icide container or applicator device.

1. Pesticides (left-over or unused)The best way to solve the problem

of pesticide waste disposal is to sim-ply avoid producing any. Excess pes-ticides should be properly collected,labeled and temporarily stored foruse in another spray mixture. Pesti -cide inventories should be carefullymanaged so that old or useless pesti-cide products do not accumulate. Allpesticides or pesticide solutionsshould be stored according to labeldirections.

2. ContainersDo not leave pesticides or pesticide

containers at the application site. Donot reuse pesticide containers for anyother purpose and do not allow chil-dren to play with pesticide contain-ers. Leftover pesticides should bekept in tightly closed containers inyour storage facility.

Always triple rinse or pressurerinse empty containers of liquid pesticides.

For triple rinse, follow this procedure:

1. Empty the container into thetank. Let it drain an extra 30 seconds.Containers

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2. Immediately begin rinsing proce-dures or the product may be-come difficult to remove.

3. Fill it one-fifth to one-fourth fullof water.

4. Replace the closure and shakethe contents to rinse all insidesurfaces.

5. Drain the rinse water from thecontainer into the tank. Let thecontainer drain for 30 seconds.

6. Repeat steps 3 through 5 at leasttwo more times for a total ofthree rinses. Remember to emptyeach rinse solution into the tank.

Be sure closure threads and outsideof container are also clean.

For pressure rinse, follow this procedure:

1. Follow steps 1 and 2 listedabove.

2. Hold the container so the open-ing can drain into the spray tank.

3. Force the tip of the special pres-sure nozzle through the lowerportion of the side closest to thehandle.

4. Connect the nozzle to a cleanwater source of at least 40 psi.Rotate the nozzle inside the con-tainer to assure good coverage ofall sides, including the handle.

5. Rinse for at least 30 seconds.6. Drain all rinse water into the

spray tank.

Burnable Paper Containers

n You may burn small numbers ofthem if permitted by state andlocal regulations unless prohib-ited by the label.

n You may take them to a landfilloperating under state permit forpesticide disposal.

n Burning of plastic containersmade of petroleum-based products is prohibited.

Nonburnable Containers (metal,plastic, or glass)

n Rinse the containers three times.n Many large containers in good

shape can be recycled by yoursupplier. Return them to yoursupplier, a pesticide manufac-turer or formulator, or a drumreconditioner.

n Some counties and commercialpesticide dealers will acceptclean, high-density polyethlenecontainers for chipping and recycling. Contact your countyextension agent or county nox-ious weed director for details.

n You can send or take them to aplace that will recycle them asscrap metal or dispose of themfor you.

n Properly rinsed containers maybe crushed and buried in a sani-tary landfill. Follow state andlocal standards.

n If it is not possible to rinse con-tainers, contact the Departmentof Health and Environment forassistance.

3. Rinse SolutionsReuse all rinse solutions if possible.

Otherwise, each rinse solution shouldbe sprayed or uniformly spread overa preselected ground surface which islisted as a target site on the label andwhich is at least 100 feet from anywater source such as a stream, pond,or well. Damage to vegetation shouldalso be avoided. Make sure that rinsesolutions do not contain amounts ofactive ingredient that will approachlabeled rates.

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49

50

51

52

53

54

55

56

Using Pesticides SafelyThere are two good reasons for

using pesticides safely:1. to keep yourself and other peo-

ple from being poisoned, and2. to avoid harming the

environment.

Protecting HumansMost pesticides can cause severe

illness, or even death, if misused. Butevery registered pesticide can be usedsafely if you use it correctly.

Children under 10 are the victimsof at least half of the accidental pesti-cide deaths in this country. If pesti-cides were always cared for correctly,children would never touch them.

Many accidental pesticide deathsare caused by eating or drinking theproduct. But some mixers, loaders,and applicators die or are injuredwhen they breathe a pesticide vaporor get a pesticide on their skin. Re -peated exposure to small amounts of some pesticides can cause suddensevere illness.

Pesticide Exposure

Pesticide exposure is divided intotwo, time related, categories: ACUTEand CHRONIC.

Acute exposure is when theamount of pesticide getting on or in the body from a single exposure(eg. spill or splash) is great enough tocause signs and symptoms of poison-ing. Onset of symptoms after expo-sure may range from almost immedi-ately to 12 hours after termination ofexposure depending on the particularpesticide involved.

Chronic exposure is when theamount of pesticide getting on or in the body is at such a low level(amount) that signs and symptoms(of acute poisoning) are not present.Chronic exposure takes place over along period, month after month oryear after year. The health effects ofchronic exposure to pesticides are not

well known. The main reason for thisunknown is that it may take 40 to 50 years of chronic exposure to resultin a disease, e.g., some form of can-cer, or other reaction such as allergicsensitization—the development of al-lergies to pesticides or chemicals usedin the formulation of pesticides. Afurther complication is that we arechronically exposed to many otherchemicals which, perhaps, cause thesame symptoms.

Whether the exposure is acute orchronic, there are three routes of ex -posure. These are ORAL, DERMALand RESPIRATORY.

Oral exposure may occur becauseof an accident, but it is more likely tobe the result of carelessness. Blowingout a plugged nozzle with yourmouth, smoking or eating withoutwashing contaminated hands, or eating food that has been recentlysprayed with a pesticide can result in oral exposure.

The acute oral LD50 ratings shownbelow range from extremely toxic to slightly toxic. The probable lethaldose for a 150 pound adult variesfrom a few drops to more than 2 pounds.

Dermal exposure is skin contami-nation. It can occur anytime a pesti-cide is mixed, applied, or handled,and it is often undetected. Its serious-ness depends upon:

1. the dermal toxicity of the material;

2. the rate of absorption throughthe skin;

3. the size of the skin area contami-nated; and

4. the length of time the material is in contact with the skin.

Table: Acute Oral LD50 Ratings

Acute oral Probable Lethal dose,LD50 150 pound adult

5 .................... few drops50 .................... l teaspoonful

500 .................... 2 tablespoonsful1,500 .................... 1 pound5,000 .................... 2 pounds

Protective Clothing

Scalp, 32.1%

Ear canal, 46.5%Forehead, 36.3%

Abdomen,18.4% Forearm, 8.6%

Scrotal Area,100%

Palm, 11.8%

Ball of foot, 13.5%

Parathion absorption in percent throughthe skin on various body areas.

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Dermal absorption is the mostcommon route of exposure althoughthe rate of absorption is higher for agiven amount of chemical in the sen-sitive tissues of the respiratory anddigestive tracts.

Rates of absorption through theskin are different for different parts ofthe body. The figure (on page 56)shows this variation.

The results show that parathion,for example, is absorbed at differentrates on various areas of the bodyand that protective clothing must beworn to prevent skin exposure.Special care should be given to pro-tect the scalp, ear canal and forehead.The abdominal area and belt (orwaist) line should be protected toprevent chemical access to the scro-tum and lightweight natural rubbergloves and boots should be worn toprotect the hands and feet.

Absorption through the skin in thescrotal area is rapid enough to ap-proximate the effect of injecting thepesticide directly into the blood-stream. At this rate, the absorption of pesticide through the skin into thebloodstream is more dangerous thanswallowing it.

Absorption continues to take placethrough all the affected skin area aslong as the pesticide is in contact withthe skin. The seriousness of the expo-sure is increased if the contaminatedarea is large, or if the material re-mains on the skin for a long time.

Respiratory exposure results frombreathing pesticide vapors, dust, orspray particles. Like oral and dermalexposure, inhalation exposure ismore serious with some pesticidesthan with others.

Poisoning through the lungs ismore common in confined areas suchas greenhouses than it is outdoors be-cause the pesticide is kept inside thestructure. Poisoning can occur out-doors if the concentration of materialis high or a highly volatile material isused.

Inhalation exposure can occur fromthe applicator smoking, breathingsmoke from burning containers,breathing fumes from pesticides

while applying them without protec-tive equipment, and inhaling fumesimmediately after applying a pesti-cide. Fumigants produce toxic vaporsand the primary means of exposure is by inhalation.

Protecting Your Body

To prevent a pesticide from enter-ing the body (through the skin, byswallowing it, or by inhaling it), youmust wear protective clothing anduse proper equipment. No safety rec-ommendations can cover all situa-tions. Your common sense should tellyou to use more protection as thehazard increases. The pesticide labelwill tell you the kind of protectionyou need.

Remember to bathe, using a deter-gent, when you finish working withpesticides or pesticide-contaminatedequipment. Any time you spill a pes-ticide on yourself, wash immediately.

Protective Clothing

Body Covering—Any time youhandle pesticides, you should wear at least a long-sleeved shirt and long-legged trousers, or a coverall-typegarment, and shoes and socks.

They should be made of closelywoven fabric. Fabric protectants, e.g..Scotch guard, can increase the repel-lent ability of the fabric to spills andsplashes yet allow the fabric tobreathe. However, retreatment of thefabric is necessary after two to threewashings. When handling pesticideconcentrates or very toxic materials,you also should wear a liquid-proofraincoat or apron. Wear trousers out-side of the boots to keep pesticidesfrom getting inside. Follow the labelwith regard to protective clothing re-quirements when working with allpesticides including fumigants.

Hat—Wear something to protectyour head. A wide-brimmed, water-proof hat will protect your neck, eyes,mouth, and face. It should not have a cloth or leather sweatband. Thesesweatbands are hard to clean if chem-icals get on them. Plastic “hard hats”with plastic sweatbands are good.

Hard Hat

Gloves

Coveralls

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They are waterproof and are cool in hot weather.

Boots—Wear unlined neopreneboots except when applying fumi-gants. Check label instructions.

Goggles or Face Shield—Weargog gles or a face shield when there isany chance of getting pesticides inyour eyes. Your eyes will absorbmany pesticides. You can wear gog-gles alone or with a respirator.

Care of Clothing—Wear cleanclothing daily. If clothes get wet withspray, change them right away. Ifthey get wet with pesticide concen-trates or highly toxic pesticides, de-stroy them. They can not be cleanedby normal methods. Protective cloth-ing contaminated by fumigantsshould be thoroughly aired and thenlaundered. Do not store or wash con -taminated clothing with the familylaundry. Wash hats, gloves, andboots daily, inside and out. Hangthem to dry. Test gloves for leaks byfilling them with water and gentlysqueezing.

Wash goggles or face shields atleast once a day. Elastic fabric head-bands often absorb pesticides and aredifficult to clean. Have some sparesso you can replace them often, or useneoprene headbands.

Respiratory Protective Devices

The respiratory tract—the lungsand other parts of the breathing system—is much more absorbentthan the skin. You must wear an ap-proved respiratory device when thelabel directs you to do so. Follow thelabel instructions on respiratory protection.

You probably will need a respiratorif you will be exposed to a pesticidefor a long time, if the pesticide youare using is highly toxic, or if you areworking in an enclosed area.

Chemical Cartridge Respirator—You should wear this kind of respira-tor when you are exposed to intermit-tent concentrations of a toxic pesti-cide. Cartridge respirators will notprotect you during fumigation orwhen the oxygen supply is low, as ina silo.

The inhaled air comes throughboth a filter pad and a cartridge madeto absorb pesticide vapors. Mostharmful vapors, gases, and particlesare removed. The half-face maskscover the mouth and nose. To coverthe eyes also, use one that is com-bined with goggles or wear separategoggles.

Chemical Canister Respirator (GasMask)—You should wear this kind ofrespirator when you are exposed to acontinuous concentration of a toxicpesticide.

Canister-type gas masks usuallyprotect the face better than cartridgetypes. Canisters have longer lastingabsorbing materials and filters thancartridge respirators. Neither typerespirator will protect you during abnormally high fumigant concentra-tions or when the oxygen supply islow. Fumigant labeling provides spe-cific requirements for monitoring gasconcentrations and respiratory pro-tection for the various fumigants.

Supplied Air Respirator—Youshould use this kind of respiratorwhen mixing or applying pesticides:

n when the oxygen supply is low,e.g., in a silo

n when you are exposed to highconcentrations of highly toxicpesticides in enclosed areas, as infumigation, e.g., in a grain bin, or

n when your work can be doneclose to a supply of clean air.

Clean air is pumped through ahose to the face mask.

Self-Contained BreathingApparatus—You should wear thiskind of respirator under the sameconditions as the supplied air respira-tor. The difference is that you carrycylinders of air or oxygen with you,usually on your back. This lets youmove more freely and over a widerarea than you can with a supplied airrespirator.

Selection and Maintenance—Specific types of cartridges and canis-ters protect against specific chemicalgases and vapors. Be sure you chooseone made for the pesticides you areusing. Use only those approved by theNational Institute for Occupational

Respiratory Protective Devices

Cartridge Respirator

Canister Respirator

Supplied AirRespirator

Self-containedBreathingApparatus

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Safety and Health (NIOSH), or theMining Enforcement and SafetyAdministration (MESA).

The respirator must fit the facewell. Long sideburns, a beard, orglasses may prevent a good seal.Read the manufacturer’s instructionson the use and care of any respiratorand its parts before you use it.

When applying pesticides, changefilters, cartridges, and canisters if youhave trouble breathing, or if yousmell pesticides. Remove and discardfilters, cartridges, and canisters afteruse as you would excess pesticides.Then wash the face piece with deter-gent and water, rinse it, and dry itwith a clean cloth. Store it in a clean,dry place away from pesticides.

The useful life of a cartridge or can-ister depends on:

n the amount of absorbent material,n the concentration of contami-

nants in the air,n the breathing rate of the wearer,

andn the temperature and humidity.As a rule of thumb, the cartridge

should be changed after eight hoursof use or unprotected exposure to theair (keep in a sealed plastic bag be-tween uses) because there is no wayof knowing when it will fail. Discardany canister that has been used formore than 30 minutes in a fumigantatmosphere.

Worker Protection

Due to the newly revised WorkerProtection Standard, personal protec-tive equipment (PPE) requirementson labels will become more specific.Based on the toxicity of the product,long-sleeved shirts, coveralls, aprons,or other PPE may be required. It ismore important than ever to carefullyread the label to determine the PPE isrequired. For additional information,refer to the chapter on “Labels andLabeling” in this manual.

Toxicity and HazardPesticides are poisonous. They

have to be poisonous to kill undesir-able plants, insects, diseases, or other

pests. Safe and proper use of pesti-cides depends upon a knowledge oftheir toxic properties and a respectfor the potential hazards associatedwith their use.

Toxicity

Toxicity is the inherent capacity of a pesticide to produce injury ordeath. If you know the toxicity of apesticide, you will know what pre-cautions to take.

Tests are performed with each pes-ticide to determine the toxicity to rats,rabbits, guinea pigs, or other animals.These tests are helpful in determininghow hazardous the pesticide prob -ably would be to humans.

In oral tests, the animal is givenquantities of the pesticide by mouthaccording to the animal’s bodyweight. The dose is increased untilthe dose that will kill 50 percent ofthe test animals is found. This lethaldose is called “Oral LD50.” The dose isexpressed in milligrams per kilogramof body weight (mg/kg). The lowerthe LD50 number, the more toxic thepesticide.

In dermal tests, the pesticide isplaced on the skin of the test animaland covered with a bandage so that itwill remain on the skin for 24 hours.If 100 milligrams of the pesticide arerequired to kill 5 out of 10 test ani-mals weighing one kilogram, theDermal LD50 is 100.

In inhalation tests, the test animalsare placed in an airtight containerwith specific quantities of the pesti-cide. The animals remain in the con-tainer for one hour. Inhalation values,called LC50s, are measured in micro-grams per liter (ug/l). The LC50 is thelethal concentration that will kill 50 percent of the test animals. LC50 also refers to toxicities to fish inwater, and is expressed in parts permillion (ppm).

Hazard

Hazard and toxicity are not thesame. Hazard is a combination of tox-icity and exposure. It is the potential

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threat that injury will result from theuse of a pesticide in a particular for-mulation or quantity.

Some hazards do not involve toxi -city to humans or other animals. Forexample; sulfur, oils, and numerousother chemicals are considered safe,or relatively safe, to animals but maycause considerable injury to someplants.

A compound may be extremelytoxic but present little hazard whenused:

1. in a very dilute formulation,2. in a formulation that is not read-

ily inhaled or absorbed throughthe skin,

3. only occasionally and under con-ditions in which humans are pro-tected with protective equipmentand clothing, and

4. only by knowledgeable applica-tors who are properly equippedto handle the chemical safely.

Conversely, a chemical may be rel-atively nontoxic but present a hazardbecause it is normally used in a con-centrated form that may be readilyabsorbed or inhaled. Or it may beused by a nonprofessional, such as ahome gardener, who is not aware ofthe possible hazards to which he isbeing exposed.

You should help prevent all acci-dents with pesticides by using andstoring pesticides away from childrenand other untrained persons, and bytaking care to follow directions whenusing them.

Products for restricted use needspecial care. The label is your guide.

Cholinesterase Tests

Cholinesterase is an enzymeneeded in the nervous system. Re -peated exposure to the organophos-phate and carbamate pesticides canlower this enzyme level and causepoisoning.

Persons who work with organo -phosphates or carbamates for an ex-tended time during the year (farmers,pesticide applicators, pesticide manu-facturers, formulators, etc.) should es-tablish a regular cholinesterase test-ing program with their doctor. For a

farmer, such a program would likelyconsist of one (initial) cholinesterasetest to determine his “base line level.”This test should be done in the “offseason” (e.g., January or February).

Then, when the pesticides are be -ing used during the summer, similartests are done on the individual andthe results compared with the baseline level of cholinesterase. Throughthis testing procedure, the pesticideuser can be made aware of his chol -inesterase level during the time ofyear when he is exposed to pesti-cides. When cholinesterase levels aredepressed to a given level, the doctormay advise that the individual limitor possibly completely stop his expo-sure to these pesticides until thecholinesterase level returns toward“normal.”

Doctors should arrange for their pa-tients to have these tests and may ob-tain additional information throughtheir state health department.

Symptoms of Pesticide Poisoning

You should know what kinds ofsickness are caused by the pesticidesyou use. You also should know theconditions under which each onemay make you sick.

There are two kinds of clues to pes-ticide poisoning. Some are feelingsthat only the person who has beenpoisoned can notice—such as nauseaor headache. These are symptoms.Others, like vomiting, also can be noticed by someone else. These aresigns. Learn to recognize:

n what your own feelings mightmean, and

n what signs of poisoning to lookfor in your co-workers and others who may have been exposed.

All pesticides in the same chemicalgroup cause the same kind of sick-ness. This sickness may be mild or se-vere, depending on the pesticide andthe amount absorbed. But the patternof illness caused by one type of pesti-cide is always the same. Having someof the signs and symptoms does not

Doctor’s Office

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always mean you have been poi-soned. Other kinds of sickness maycause similar signs and symptoms.Headache and a feeling of being un-well, for example, may signal thestart of many kinds of illness. It is thepattern of symptoms that makes it pos-sible to tell one kind of sickness fromanother. Contact your doctor immedi-ately if you or your co-worker have symp-toms or signs of pesticide poisoningswhich occur after using a pesticide. Takethe label of the pesticide with youwhen you go to the doctor.

Most chemical manufacturers areequipped to provide emergency in-formation on their products. Manu -facturers may be contacted throughCHEMTREC. For help in a ChemicalEmergency Involving a Spill, Leak,Fire, or Exposure, Call Day or NightCHEMTREC—(800) 424-9300 (TOLL FREE).

InsecticidesOrganophosphates

These pesticides affect the nervoussystem. The signs and symptoms gothrough stages. Some common exam-ples are parathion, methyl parathion,Di-Syston, Phosdrin, Counter, Dia -zinon, Thimet, and malathion. Theynormally occur in this order:

Mild Poisoningn fatigue,n headache,n dizziness,n blurred vision,n too much sweating and

salivation,n nausea and vomiting, andn stomach cramps or diarrhea.

Moderate Poisoningn unable to walk,n weakness,n chest discomfort,n muscle twitches,n constriction of pupil of the eye,

andn earlier symptoms become more

severe.

Severe Poisoningn unconsciousness,n severe constriction of pupil of

eye,

n muscle twitches,n secretions from mouth and nose,n breathing difficulty, andn death if not treated.Illness may be delayed a few hours.

But if signs or symptoms start morethan 12 hours after you were exposedto the pesticide, you probably havesome other illness. Check with yourphysician to be sure.

Carbamates

Carbamates act almost like organo -phosphates. They produce the samesigns and symptoms. But the injurythey cause can be corrected more eas-ily by a physician. For this reason,most carbamates are safer than or -gan o phosphates. The label will warnyou of the danger. Examples include,Temik, Furadan, Sevin, Vydate, andmethomyl.

Organochlorines

Not many organochlorines (chlori-nated hydrocarbons) have poisonedapplicators. Examples are endrin,aldrin, endosulfan (Thiodan), dield-rin, toxaphene, lindane, and chlor-dane. EPA has sharply curtailed useof many of these products.

Early signs and symptoms of poi-soning include:

n headache.n nausea,n vomiting,n general discomfort, andn dizziness.With more severe poisoning, con-

vulsions follow. They may even ap-pear without the warning symptoms.Coma may follow the convulsions.The person also may be unusually excited or irritable.

Pyrethroids

Pyrethroid insecticides began enter-ing the market place in the early 1980sand increased dramatically by the endof the decade. They are similar, inmany respects, to the naturally occur-ring pyrethrins but are chemicallymodified to increase their stabilityunder environmental use conditions.

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Pyrethroids are effective at verylow use rates and are effective againsta wide range of insect pests. In gen-eral, pyrethroids are low in toxicity to humans.

Extraordinary absorbed amounts(doses) of pyrethroids may cause:

n incoordinationn tremorsn salivationn vomitingn diarrhea, andn irritability to sound and touch.

Extreme doses have caused con-vulsions in laboratory animals.

Examples of pyrethroids are fen-valerate (Pydrin, Ectrin), permethrin(Ambush, Pounce, Ectiban, Atroban),cypermethrin (Ammo, Cymbush,Demon, Ripcord), flucythrinate (Pay-off), fluvalinate (Mavrik), and cyflu -thrin (Tempo).

FungicidesDithiocarbamates

This class of chemicals includesmany fungicides, such as thiram, ferbam, maneb, and mancozeb. Although these chemicals are similar,they are metabolized differently byanimals and effects on human healthare also different. Thiram and ferbamirritate the skin and mucous mem-brane. Maneb and mancozeb degradein the environment and in animal tis-sues to a compound that apparentlycauses cancer in laboratory animals.

Signs and symptoms depend onthe chemical and route of exposure.Skin irritation may result from con-tact with thiram and ferbam. Swal -lowing large amounts of one of thesepesticides may produce nausea, vom-iting, and diarrhea. If excessiveamounts of spray or dust are inhaled,maneb and mancozeb irritate the skinand cause itching, sneezing andcoughing.

HerbicidesPhenoxy Compounds

Herbicides in this group include2,4-D and 2,4-DB. Some of the phe-noxy acids, salts, and esters are mod-

erately irritating to skin, eyes, andrespiratory and stomach linings.These compounds are absorbedthrough the gut wall, lungs, and skin.Excretion in the urine occurs withinhours, or at most, days.

The signs and symptoms of phe-noxy compounds are moderately irri-tating to skin and mucous mem-branes. Inhalation of sprays maycause burning sensations in the chestand coughing may result. Swal low -ing of very large amounts has pro-duced fever, hyperventilation andsweating.

Thiocarbamates

This class of chemicals includesmany herbicides. Herbicides of thisgroup include butylate, vernolate,and EPTC.

Although these chemicals are simi-lar, they are metabolized differentlyby animals and effects on humanhealth are also different. Thio car ba -mate herbicides do not appear to behighly toxic.

Signs and symptoms of thiocarba-mates are moderate irritation to eyesand some irritate the skin and causeitching, sneezing and coughing.

Paraquat and Diquat

Herbicides and products in thisgroup include paraquat (GramoxoneExtra or Cyclone) and diquat(Diquat).

These chemicals injure the skin,nails, cornea, liver, kidney and lin-ings of the gastrointestinal and respi-ratory tracts. Contact with the con-centrate may cause irritation and fis-suring of the skin of the hands, andcracking and sometimes loss of thefingernails. When absorbed by inges-tion, paraquat damages the liver andkidney. Diquat appears less likelythan paraquat to cause death.

Signs and symptoms for ingestedparaquat are:

n pain,n nausea,n vomiting, andn diarrhea.

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For diquat ingestionn intense nausea,n vomiting, andn diarrhea.

RodenticidesRodenticides include both single-

dose and multiple-dose toxicants. Themultiple-dose rodenticides are pri-marily anticoagulant compounds thatcause death through internal bleed-ing and organ damage following sev-eral days of consumption. Some ofthe newer anticoagulant compounds,however, can cause death after only asingle dose.

The single-dose rodenticides in-clude zinc phosphide, cholecalciferol(Quintox), strychnine, and the secondgeneration anticoagulants brodifa-coum (Havoc, Talon) and bromadi-olone (Maki, Contrac).

The multiple-dose rodenticides in-clude the hydroxycoumarins such aswarfarin and fumarin; and the indan-diones such as diphacinone (Ramik),chlorophacinone (RoZol) and Pival.

Signs and symptoms: very smallamounts of the extremely toxic com-pound—zinc phosphide—can causefatal poisoning. Strychnine is also ex-tremely toxic, but human poisoningwith this compound is rare becauseof its bitter taste. Havoc, Talon andthe multiple-dose (anticoagulant) ro-denticides present relatively less toxichazard to humans and domestic animals.

Inorganic Pesticides

Large single doses of most inor-ganic pesticides cause vomiting andstomach pain. The signs and symp-toms depend on the mineral fromwhich the pesticide is made.

Plant-derived Pesticides

Some plant-derived pesticides arevery toxic. Technical pyrethrum maycause allergic reactions. Some roten -one dusts irritate the respiratory tract.Nicotine is a fast-acting nerve poisonabout as dangerous as para thion.

Some other plant-derived pesticidesare strychnine, rotenone, and redsquill.

Fumigants

Examples are phosphine (gener-ated by aluminum or magnesiumphosphide, e.g., Phostoxin, Detia,Fumitoxin, Gastoxin, Weevilcide),methyl bromide, and chloropicrin.Fumigants have the ability to pene-trate lining membranes of the respira-tory and gastrointestinal tracts andthe skin. They may also penetrate orbe absorbed by the rubber and/orplastics used in protective clothingbut are not effectively taken up by theabsorbents used in ordinary respira-tors. Inhaling is obviously the com-mon route of absorption.

Signs and symptoms of fumigantexposure depend on the variouschemicals. In general, respiratorytract irritation is the most common injury caused by fumigants.

CHLOROPICRIN (tear gas):Acute symptoms n eye and respiratory irritationn breathing difficulty, coughingn nausea, vomitingn weakness, rapid unconscious-

ness and deathChronic symptoms—none known.Severe burns can occur with pro-

longed skin contact.

METHYL BROMIDE:Acute symptomsn headachen nausea, vomitingn staggersn visual problemsn slurred speechn convulsions and deathChronic symptomsn tremors (shakes)n vision problemsn numbness of arms and legsn speech problemsn mental confusionSevere burns can occur with pro-

longed skin contact.

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PHOSPHINE:Acute symptomsn headachen giddinessn faintnessn nausean discomfort in chestChronic symptoms—none known.The severe irritation caused by

chloropicrin makes it unlikely thatexposed persons would voluntarilyinhale sufficient gas to cause lungdamage. Methyl bromide and phos-phine are generally not irritating tothe nose and throat but cause seriousinjury to the cells lining the fine airsacs of the lung and are more likely to cause lung damage. In varying de-grees, fumigants depress the centralnervous system and cause difficultyin breathing or total stoppage ofbreath resulting in death.

FumigationFumigation of farm stored grain

has been dramatically changed by theEPA cancellation of traditional liquidgrain fumigants and the enactment ofnew, stringent regulations governingusage of the remaining products.

The following total grain handlingprocedures are more important thanever:

n pre-harvest preparation of thebins, including cleaning, repair-ing, and application of residualsprays. Remember the first cou-ple of bushels “scoured” out ofthe harvesting machinery may beinfested from previous crops andshould not be placed in storage.

n harvest operations, includingproperly adjusted harvest, andconveying equipment, visuallychecking incoming grain, usegrain protectant sprays in incom-ing grain, and moisture sampl -ing; and

n post harvest operations, includ-ing regular grain inspections forinsects and spoilage; monitoringof grain temperatures at severallocations within the mass; properuse of aeration; and fumigation ifnecessary.

Fumigation is the use of chemicalswhich volatilize to form toxic vaporsor gases used to kill insect pests.These gases (fumigants) are also toxicto humans. Fumigants penetratecracks, crevices, and the commoditybeing treated. They must be retainedwithin a confined space (grain bin orunder a gas tight sheet) at a toxic con-centration for a minimum period oftime to effectively kill the insects.Fumigants do not provide any resid-ual protection, so reinfestation canoccur immediately after the grain orother treated product has been “airedout” or the gas concentration fallsbelow the lethal level. READ AND FOLLOW ALL LABEL DIRECTIONS.

Several factors can alter the effec-tiveness of fumigants. They include:

n temperature of the commodity,n moisture of the grain,n pest or pest complex present,

andn structure of the bin.

Pre-Application

Fully understand the facility—binor elevator—and its surroundings inpreparation for fumigation. The fol-lowing are some of the major consid-erations before fumigating.

n Can some other method of con-trol be used? Is fumigation reallythe best method?

n Does the design and constructioninsure the gas-tightness of thestructure being fumigated? Whatis the volume of the structureand amount of commodity to befumigated?

n Are there connecting buildingsor offices with persons or com-modities that might be affectedby the fumigant gases? Wherewill vented gases go when released?

n Have you selected the best fumi-gant for the job and READ ALLLABEL DIRECTIONS.

n Are you certified and properlytrained in fumigation proceduresand do you have all the requiredsafety and gas detection equipment?

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n Do you really want the liabilitythat goes along with conductingthe fumigation yourself? Com -mercial fumigators often guaran-tee their work and immediate re-treatment to correct a poor kill isoften done at little or no addi-tional cost to you. If you treat thegrain or structure yourself thereis no guarantee.

Application

Everyone involved in the fumiga-tion should be trained in fumigationprocedures and be familiar with firstaid and other emergency procedures.FUMIGANTS ARE RESTRICTEDUSE PESTICIDES.

n Follow label directions exactlywhen applying a fumigant. Cal -culate the quantity needed andapply it according to label direc-tions. Consider prevailing windsand other pertinent weather fac-tors such as temperature and humidity.

n Monitor gas concentrations dur-ing the application to insure thatallowable exposure levels are notexceeded.

n When applying a fumigant frominside the structure being fumi-gated (such as in a grain bin) twotrained persons are required. Atleast one of the applicators mustbe certified (preferably both).

n Proper respiratory protectionmust be available to applicators.

n All fumigated areas should beposted with warning signs bearing the skull and crossbonesand signal word DANGER andother required information i.e.name of person fumigating, typeof fumigant, date of fumigation,etc. Entrances should be securedby locks or guards as appropriate.

n Be aware of any indications of ill-ness or physical discomfort (diz -ziness, nausea, headache, or lackof coordination) no matter howminor they seem. Do not con-sume alcohol for 24 hours beforeor after fumigating.

Post-Application

Before re-entry, a suitable gas de-tector (by law) must be used to deter-mine whether gas concentrations arebelow hazardous levels. Wear correctrespiratory protection when takinggas readings. Make a written recordof all steps taken and gas concentra-tions observed for future reference.DO NOT DEPEND ON ODORS.Some fumigant gases are odorless.

n Turn on all ventilating or aerat-ing fans.

n Check for gas concentrations inareas that are expected to aerateslowly.

n Remove warning signs when thegas concentration is within safelimits for human exposure.

n Remove and dispose of anypackaging and waste products of solid fumigants according tolabel directions.

On those occasions when a fumi-gated area must be entered, a selfcontained breathing apparatus(SCAB) consisting of a tank of air anda full face mask must be worn whenthe concentration of gas is unknownor is above that safe for use of canis-ter masks or for human exposure.

Pesticide AccidentsIf a pesticide spill or accident oc-

curs, you should:n get medical attention if there are

any poisoned victims.n give first aid to help a victim

while help is on its way.n rope off the area of the spill.n call the chemical company who

manufactured the product.If the manufacturer is not known

or several chemicals are involved, getas much information as you can, e.g.,type of pesticide, location, type of ac-cident, approximate amount of pesti-cide involved, and any other informa-tion which you think will aid in solv-ing the problem, and callCHEMTREC, the National Agri - cultural Chemicals AssociationPesticide Safety Team Network, 1-800-424-9300.

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n Notify the U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency, 913-551-7030.

n Notify the Kansas Department ofAgriculture (the state pesticideregulatory agency), 785-296-3786.

n Notify the Kansas Department of Health and Environment, 785-296-1600.

n Notify your county agent.

Treatment of Pesticide Poisoning

First aid is the initial effort to help a victim while medical help is on theway. The first step in any poisoningemergency is to call an ambulance ordoctor except when you are alonewith the victim. Then you must makecertain that the victim is breathingand is not further exposed before call-ing an ambulance or a doctor.

The label of the pesticide responsi-ble for the poisoning should alwaysbe saved for the doctor. FIRST AIDDOES NOT REPLACE PROPERMEDICAL TREATMENT!

While waiting for the ambulance or doctor, follow the proper first-aidpro cedures for poison on the skin, in the eyes, inhaled, or swallowed.These procedures are describedbelow.

Poison on the Skin

Drench the victim’s skin and cloth-ing with water. The faster the poisonis washed off, the less injury will re-sult. In an emergency, use any sourceof fairly clean water, such as irriga-tion canals, lakes, ponds, or watertroughs.

Wash a chemical burn area withlarge quantities of running water, andcover immediately with a clean, softcloth. Do not use ointments, greases,powders, or drugs in first aid treat-ment of burns. Be careful not to getany pesticide on yourself while help-ing the victim.

Poison in the Eyes

It is most important to wash theeyes out as quickly but as gently aspossible. Holding the victim’s eyelids

open, wash his eyes with a gentlestream of clean, running water for 15 minutes or longer. Do not usechem icals or drugs in the wash water.They may increase the extent of theinjury.

Inhaled Poison

If the victim is in an enclosedspace, do not go in after him withoutan air-supplied respirator. Open alldoors and windows. Carry the victim(do not let him walk) into the freshair immediately. Loosen the victim’sclothing. Apply artificial respirationif his breathing has stopped or is ir-regular, and keep him as quiet as possible.

If the victim is convulsing, watchhis breathing and protect him fromfalling and striking his head. Keep his chin up so that his air passage willremain free for breathing. Preventchilling. Wrap the victim in blanketsbut don’t allow him to become overheated.

Swallowed Poison

The best first-aid treatment for aperson who has swallowed a pesti-cide is to give him large amounts ofplain water or milk. Give 1 to 2 cupsfor victims up to 5 years of age, andup to 1 quart for victims 5 years oldand older.

Milk is preferable to water becauseit both dilutes and helps neutralizethe poison. Water simply dilutes thepoison. Diluting the poison will oftenbe sufficient treatment until you canget the victim to a hospital.

In addition to diluting the poisonwith milk or water, give the victimone of the following universal anti-dotes to neutralize the effects of thepoison.

For acids only. If you are sure thatthe poison is an acid, give the victimmilk of magnesia (1 tablespoon to 1 cup of water), baking soda, or chalkin water.

For alkali only. If you are sure thatthe poison is an alkali, give the victimlemon juice or vinegar.

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For concentrated petroleum products.Dilute with milk or water only.

Universal sponges that absorb excesspoisons are recommended where thetype of poison swallowed is un-known. Activated charcoal (such asthat used in aquarium filters) is a uni-versal sponge that absorbs many poi-sons at a high rate. Mix it with waterinto a thick soup for the victim todrink. Grosafe, a commercial prepa-ration of activated charcoal, is soldfor use on pesticide spills or over-doses on crops and soil. In a poison-ing emergency, this product may besubstituted for a pharmaceuticalgrade of activated charcoal.

A homemade universal sponge forpoison is a mixture of 4 tablespoonsof toast (burnt black), 2 tablespoonsof strong tea (instant tea mix can beused), and 2 tablespoons of milk ofmagnesia. This mixture will absorband neutralize most poisons.

Medical Antidotes

Medical antidotes are also availableto neutralize the poisoning effects ofother pesticides. Taken improperly,however, these antidotes can be moredangerous than the effects of the pes-ticide itself. Medical antidotes shouldbe prescribed and given only by aphysician. No known antidotes existfor some pesticides. Once a lethaldose has been ingested, the effects areirreversible and terminal.

REMEMBER—The pesticide labelwill contain directions on what to doin case of a poisoning. Read the direc-tions in the FIRST-AID statement oneach label. These instructions cansave your life and the lives of youremployees. Refer to the label beforeusing the pesticide so that you maybe prepared in case an emergencyarises.

Poison Control Centers have beenestablished at various locations inKansas to provide pertinent informa-tion on all types of poisoning, includ-ing pesticide poisoning. Tell yourdoctor what pesticides you will beusing. He can then determine the poi-

soning symptoms and appropriatetreatment and have antidotes onhand if a poisoning should occur.

Get medical advice quickly if youor any of your fellow workers haveunusual or unexplained symptomswhile at work or later in the day. Donot allow yourself or anyone else tobecome dangerously ill before callinga doctor or going to a hospital. It isbetter to be too cautious than too late.

If you believe that you may havebeen poisoned, be sure to take thepesticide container (as labeled) to thedoctor. Do not carry the pesticidecontainer in the passenger space of a car or truck.

Heat StressHeat stress is the illness that occurs

when your body is subjected to moreheat than it can cope with. Heat stressis not caused by exposure to pesti-cides but may affect pesticide han-dlers who are working in hot condi-tions. Personal protective equipmentworn during pesticide handling activ-ities can increase the risk of heatstress by limiting your body’s abilityto cool down. If you are under aphysician’s care, you should consultyour physician before working in hotconditions.

Signs and Symptoms of Heat Stress

Mild forms of heat stress will makeyou feel ill and impair your ability to do a good job. You may get tiredsooner, feel weak, be less alert, and be less able to use good judgment.Severe heat stress is a serious illness.Unless victims are cooled downquickly, they can die. Severe heatstress is fatal to more than 10 percentof its victims, even young, healthyadults. Many who survive suffer per-manent damage. Sometimes the vic-tims remain highly sensitive to heatfor months and are unable to returnto the same work.

Learn the signs and symptoms ofheat stress and take immediate actionto cool down if you suspect you may Heat Stress

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be suffering from even mild heatstress. Signs and symptoms may include:

n fatigue (exhaustion, muscleweakness),

n headache, nausea, and chills,n dizziness and fainting,n severe thirst and dry mouth,n clammy skin or hot, dry skin,n heavy sweating or complete lack

of sweating,n altered behavior (confusion,

slurred speech, quarrelsome orirrational attitude).

First Aid for Heat Stress

It is not always easy to tell the dif-ference between heat stress illnessand pesticide poisoning. The signsand symptoms are similar. Don’twaste time trying to decide what iscausing the illness. Get medical help.

First aid measures for heat stressvictims are similar to those for personswho are overexposed to pesticides:

n Get the victim into a shaded orcool area.

n Cool victim as rapidly as possi-ble by sponging or splashingskin, especially face, neck, hands,and forearms, with cool water or,when possible, immersing incool water.

n Carefully remove all personalprotective equipment and anyother clothing that may be mak-ing the victim too warm,

n Have the victim, if conscious,drink as much cool water as possible.

n Keep the victim quiet until helparrives.

Severe heat stress or heat stroke is a medical emergency! Brain damageand death may result if treatment isdelayed.

Heat Cramps

Heat cramps can be quite painful.These muscle spasms in the legs,arms, or stomach are caused by lossof body salt through heavy sweating.To relieve cramps, have the victimdrink lightly salted water or “sportsdrinks.” Stretching or kneading the

muscles may temporarily relieve thecramps. However, if you suspect thatstomach cramps are being caused bypesticides rather than heavy sweat-ing, get medical help right away.

Cleanup of Pesticide SpillsMinor Spills

Keep people away from spilled chemi-cals. Rope off the area and flag it towarn people. Do not leave unlesssomeone is there to confine the spilland warn of the danger. If the pesti-cide was spilled on anyone, wash itoff immediately.

Confine the spill. If it starts tospread, dike it up with sand or soil.Use absorbent material such as soil,sawdust, or an absorbent clay to soakup the spill. Shovel all contaminatedmaterial into a leak-proof containerfor disposal. Dispose of it as youwould a pesticide waste. Do not hosedown the area, because this spreadsthe chemical. Always work carefullyand do not hurry.

Do not let anyone except properlytrained persons enter the area until thespill is completely cleaned up.

Major Spills

The cleanup of a major spill may betoo difficult for you to handle, or youmay not be sure of what to do. In either case, keep people away, givefirst aid if needed, and confine thespill. Then call CHEMTREC, the localfire department, and state pesticideauthorities for help.

CHEMTREC stands for ChemicalTransportation Emergency Center, apublic service of the ManufacturingChemicals Association. Its offices arelocated in Washington, D.C. CHEM -TREC provides immediate advice forthose at the scene of emergencies.

CHEMTREC operates 24 hours aday, seven days a week, to receivecalls for emergency assistance. Forhelp in chemical emergencies involv-ing spills, leaks, fire, or explosions,call toll-free 800-424-9300 day ornight. This number is for emergenciesonly.

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If a major pesticide spill occurs ona highway, have someone call thehighway patrol or the sheriff for help.(Carry these phone numbers withyou.) Do not leave until responsiblehelp arrives.

Cleanup Notification ofPesticide SpillsMinor Spills

Generally speaking, a minor spill isone involving one quart or approxi-mately two pounds or less of pesti-cide concentrate. However, commonsense must be used in determininghow much action you as an individ-ual take regarding pesticide spills.For example, one quart of a highlytoxic insecticide requires more exper-tise and precautions in handlingcleanup and disposal than does onequart of low toxicity herbicide.

Keeping the product toxicity inmind, a general procedure for clean-ing up a minor spill should be to usean absorbent such as pet litter, coverwith bleach, and scrub the area withdetergent. Then follow label state-ments for disposal or telephone theState Department of Health and En -vironment (785-296-1600) or the StateDepartment of Agriculture (785-296-3786) for further instructions on disposal.

Major Spills

Pesticide spills caused by commer-cial spray rigs, aerial spray planes,and large pesticide containers may betoo big to be handled by one person.There are certain procedures oneshould follow to notify the proper authorities.

All spills should be reported bytelephone to the Kansas Division ofEmergency Management 785- 296-3176. If contact cannot be made,you should notify the local authori-ties such as the police department,fire department or civil defense office.

If individuals have been exposed tothe spilled pesticide, the local poisoncontrol center should be notified.

Every effort should be taken to keepother people from being exposed to the spill until local authorities canassume responsibility at the site.

For all problems, accidents, or inci-dents that occur, you should have alist of the phone numbers of these authorities available and accessible.

Pesticide Regulatory Agencies

Department of Emergency Management................ 785-296-3176

or 1-800-905-7521Department of Health and

Environment ............... 785-296-1600Kansas Department

of Agriculture.............. 785-296-3786

Pesticide Emergency Phone Numbers

1. Local Poison Control Center: .........2. County Extension Agent: ...............3. Local Police Department:

City ....................................................County ..............................................State ...................................................

4. Local Fire Department: ...................5. Civil Defense: ...................................6. Department of Emergency

Management: ........... 785-296-3176or 1-800-905-7521

7. Department of Health and Environment: ............ 785-296-1600

8. Kansas Departmentof Agriculture: .......... 785-296-3786

9. U.S. Environmental Protection AgencyRegion VII Office...1- 800-223-0425

10. Mid-America Poison Center ........ 1-800-222-1222

Before authorities arrive, get a copyof the pesticide label and if possibledetermine the toxicity of the pesticideinvolved. Information from the labelcan be very helpful to the doctor.

Protecting AnimalsPesticides can protect animals from

pests, but they may be toxic to the an-imals being treated as well as to thepests. Apply them correctly to pre-vent adverse effects. Animals may besensitive to certain pesticides. Poison -ing signs usually include excessive

Pesticide Emergency Line

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salivation, eye watering, defecation,urination, and muscle twitching.

DO NOT treat animals which areunder stress or which will be putunder stress. Be careful not to over-dose young or smaller animals. Whenplanning a pesticide application,choose the pesticide which has theleast risk of adverse effects and willgive good control.

Protecting the EnvironmentThe “environment” is our sur-

roundings and its many forms of life.Every plant or animal is affected byother plants or animals in the envi-ronment. Factors like rain, tempera-ture, and wind are part of the envi-ronment. We cannot do much aboutthem, but we can control some otherthings, including the use of pesticides.

Many people consider pesticides atool for preserving or improving theenvironment. Others feel that theycause pollution. Correct use preventspollution by pesticides.

Using pesticides in a way otherthan as directed on the label can in-jure plants and animals, leave illegalresidues, and damage the environ-ment in many other ways.

Any pesticide can cause harm if notchosen and used with care. Here aresome ways damage can occur.

Potential Hazards

When pesticides are used in a wayother than as directed on the label,they can:

n injure nontarget plants and animals,

n leave harmful residues,n move from the application site

into the surrounding environ-ment, and

n move into the groundwater andsurface waters.

Direct Kill of Non-target Plants and Animals

Pesticides which are improperlyapplied can kill non-target organisms.Drift from the target area may injurefish, birds, other wildlife, and sensi-

tive plants. Humans may also be ex-posed to pesticides because of drift.Drift of herbicides can damagenearby crops, forests, or landscapeplantings. Poorly timed applicationscan kill bees and other pollinatorswhich are working in the area, or killbeneficial parasites and predatorsthat help control pests.

Runoff from treated areas can killfish and other aquatic animals andplants in nearby ponds, streams, andlakes. Aquatic life also can be killedby careless tank filling or drainingand by rinsing or discarding usedcontainers along or in waterways.

Pesticides can harm other wildlife,too. Even tiny amounts of pesticidemay kill them or destroy their sourceof food.

Ask for help in choosing the safestpesticide for the job. Injury or deathto non-target plants and animals canlead to lawsuits, fines, and loss ofyour applicator certification, and/orcriminal charges.

Persistence and Accumulation

Pesticides can be harmful in the en-vironment even if they do not causedirect kills of non-target plants andanimals. Some pesticides can buildup in the bodies of animals (includinghumans). These are called accumula-tive pesticides. The chemicals may bestored in an animal’s body until theyare harmful to it or to the meat-eaterwhich feeds on it. Long-term effectsinclude eggs that will not hatch andyoung that will not develop nor-mally. The behavior of an animal maybe altered so that predators can moreeasily catch and kill it. Many accumu-lative pesticides are in the chlorinatedhydrocarbon family (eg. dieldrin, en-drin, heptachlor, and aldrin) andhave limited uses in the UnitedStates.

Some pesticides stay in the envi-ronment without change for long pe-riods of time. These are persistent pes-ticides. Persistent pesticides whichare not stored by animal tissues areoften harmless to the environment.They may stay on or in the soil andgive long-term pest control without

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repeated applications. Sometimesthese pesticides injure sensitiveplants in the treated soil.

Pesticides which break downquickly in the environment to formharmless materials are called nonper-sistent. These pesticides are often bro-ken down easily by microorganismsor sunlight or are highly soluble inwater. Most organophosphate andcarbamate insecticides are nonpersistent.

Pesticide Movement

Pesticides which move away fromthe target area are problems in the en-vironment. Highly volatile pesticidessuch as 2,4-D esters can move greatdistances as invisible vapor in the airand injure non-target plants. Dusts,aerosols, and fogs can easily driftaway from the target area with aircurrents. Any application that pro-duces fine dust or spray particlesmay result in drift.

Pesticides move off target in otherways also. They may be carried offtarget by rain and runoff water. Theymay leach through the soil to areasnearby or to groundwater below.

Whenever you are applying a pes-ticide, select the pesticide, the formu-lation, and the application equipmentwhich will most likely result in an ap-plication which stays on target.

Contamination of Soils

Pesticides which move off targetonto soil or which persist in soil maylimit the use of that soil. Agricultural,ornamental, turf, and forestry cropsmay be killed or contaminated ifplanted on the site. Residential, graz-ing, and recreational uses of the soilmay be impossible if the soil containspesticide residues. The pesticide labelwill list crop rotation limits and othergrowing restrictions.

Contamination of Air

The movement of pesticides in theair cannot be controlled. The pollutedair creates a hazard for people, ani-mals, or plants that come into contact

with it. Pesticides in the air may settleonto water, crops, livestock, trees,parks, or houses. Provide adequatespacing or a buffer zone when apply-ing pesticides near sensitive areas.Keep in mind that the wind can carrypesticide particles or droplets manymiles off target.

Contamination of Surface Water

Water is necessary for all life. Hu -mans and animals need clean waterfor drinking and bathing. Most fishand other aquatic animals and plantscan survive only slight contarninationof their water environment.

Farmers, ranchers, horticulturists,foresters, and turf growers need un-contaminated water for their live-stock and for irrigation. Pollutedwater can injure the plants or animalsdirectly or cause illegal residues inthe food, feed, poultry, or livestockproducts.

Pesticides get into water in manyways. Sometimes they are applied di-rectly to the water to control aquaticpests. Pesticide contamination ofwater occurs most often when pesti-cides reach the water through care-lessness or misuse of pesticides, suchas atrazine.

Contamination of Groundwater

Groundwater is by far the largestwater resource in Kansas. Pumpedfrom thousancls of wells, it is used byvirtually every person in Kansasevery day. A few of the uses ofgroundwater include drinking, cook-ing, irrigating, municipal, industrial,and recreational (such as swimmingpools).

In general, the sources of ground-water include water from rain (andother precipitation), lakes, streams,ponds, etc., which slowly leachesthrough the surface soil and accumu-lates in the underlying sand andgravel layers. Such layers may beonly a few feet from the soil surfaceand others are several hundred feetbelow. These ground-water collectionlayers are called aquifers and can bethought of as underground lakes.

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72

Runoff

Construction

Infiltration

Ground Table

Municipal Well

Sand & Gravel Aquifer

Livestock wastestorage pit

Irrigation

Manure Spreading

Road Salt

Undergroundstorage tank

Landfill

EvaporationTranspiration

Crop Dusting

City

Transpiration

Evaporation

Infiltration

Private Well

Septic system

Creviced Limestone Aquifer

Direction of Groundwater Movement

Porous Sandstone Aquifer

Zone of Saturation

Lake

Evaporation

Sand & GravelAquifer

Leacher

Wetland

Soil Erosion

Runoff

Municipal sewagetreatment plant

River

Runoff

Transpiration

Abandoned mine shaft

Groundwater Table

Tailings Pile

Slurry Tank

Precipation

Infiltration

Creviced Limestone Aquifer

Porous Sandstone Aquifer

Direction of Groundwater Movement

Human Indeed Impacts on Groundwater

Natural Process

Groundwater and Land Usein the Water Cycle

Direction of Groundwater

Infiltration

Runoff

73

Runoff

Construction

Infiltration

Ground Table

Municipal Well

Sand & Gravel Aquifer

Livestock wastestorage pit

Irrigation

Manure Spreading

Road Salt

Undergroundstorage tank

Landfill

EvaporationTranspiration

Crop Dusting

City

Transpiration

Evaporation

Infiltration

Private Well

Septic system

Creviced Limestone Aquifer

Direction of Groundwater Movement

Porous Sandstone Aquifer

Zone of Saturation

Lake

Evaporation

Sand & GravelAquifer

Leacher

Wetland

Soil Erosion

Runoff

Municipal sewagetreatment plant

River

Runoff

Transpiration

Abandoned mine shaft

Groundwater Table

Tailings Pile

Slurry Tank

Precipation

Infiltration

Creviced Limestone Aquifer

Porous Sandstone Aquifer

Direction of Groundwater Movement

Human Indeed Impacts on Groundwater

Natural Process

Groundwater and Land Usein the Water Cycle

Direction of Groundwater

Infiltration

Runoff

Runoff

Construction

Infiltration

Ground Table

Municipal Well

Sand & Gravel Aquifer

Livestock wastestorage pit

Irrigation

Manure Spreading

Road Salt

Undergroundstorage tank

Landfill

EvaporationTranspiration

Crop Dusting

City

Transpiration

Evaporation

Infiltration

Private Well

Septic system

Creviced Limestone Aquifer

Direction of Groundwater Movement

Porous Sandstone Aquifer

Zone of Saturation

Lake

Evaporation

Sand & GravelAquifer

Leacher

Wetland

Soil Erosion

Runoff

Municipal sewagetreatment plant

River

Runoff

Transpiration

Abandoned mine shaft

Groundwater Table

Tailings Pile

Slurry Tank

Precipation

Infiltration

Creviced Limestone Aquifer

Porous Sandstone Aquifer

Direction of Groundwater Movement

Human Indeed Impacts on Groundwater

Natural Process

Groundwater and Land Usein the Water Cycle

Direction of Groundwater

Infiltration

Runoff

There are many potential sourcesof groundwater contamination. Someof these include industrial and mu-nicipal wastes, livestock and humanwaste septic systems, pesticide use,and various microbes. Fortunately, asthe water slowly leaches through thesoil, most (if not all) of these contami-nants are removed through chemicaiand microbiological actions in thesoil. However, aquifers which areonly a few feet below the soil surfaceare being found contaminated with avariety of chemicals—including pesti-cides. Abandoned, unplugged farm-stead, irrigation, stock water, etc.wells serve as direct conduits to thegroundwater. Studies are presentlyintensifying to determine the extentof groundwater contamination.

When filling a sprayer tank, ALWAYS be absolutely sure that thehose-end is in such a position that itcan NOT become submerged as thetank fills. Never leave to do otherthings when the tank is being filled.By following these two procedures, a pump power failure will not result in a back-siphon that could result in the water source becomingcontaminated.

Pesticides are essential chemicaltools used in the production, trans-portation, and storage of food, feed,and fiber. They are also vital in pestcontrol related to food preparationand serving, and in health and recre-ation related situations. It is ex-tremely important that pesticideusers recognize the importance ofproperly handling pesticides to avoidsurface water and soil contaminationwith these chemicals.

Minimizing GroundwaterContamination

Pesticide contamination of ground-water is a public concern. Con tam i na -tion results from two types of sources—point and non-point.

Point Source Contamination

Point source contamination resultsfrom localized spills or accidents,which is to say, the contamination

can be traced back to an identifiablearea. Point source contamination ac-counts for large doses being intro-duced into groundwater and as a re-sult poses the greatest risk of render-ing the water unfit for drinking.

Spills and other mishaps whichoccur during the handling and mix-ing of pesticides are a major con-tributing factor. There are severalsteps we can take to minimize contamination.

Wells are a direct conduit to thegroundwater and extra care shouldbe taken at these sites when handlingpesticides. In addition, many wellsare not adequately sealed which in-creases the risk of contamination inthe event of a spill. Mix pesticides atleast 200 ft. from a well. Using anurse-tank as a water source helpsavoid these problems. Prevent back-siphoning into the well. Keep the endof the filler hose above the water levelof the tank at all times. Anti-backflowdevices for hoses can be purchasedfrom irrigation and spray equipmentsuppliers. Clean up spills, especiallynear wells and other water supplies.

Additional practices which helpprevent point source contaminationinclude triple-rinsing and the properdisposal of pesticide containers andexcess pesticides.

Non-point Source Contamination

Contamination which occurs fromnon-point sources cannot be tracedback to a specific location or event.Examples of non-point source conta-mination would include the leachingof pesticides through the normalcourse of pesticide use, or pesticidescarried in surface run-off as a resultof soil erosion. The extent of non-point source contamination is depen-dent upon pesticide (herbicide, insec-ticide, fungicide), soil, geological,production management, andweather factors.

There are several practices whichminimize non-point source contami-nation. Apply the proper amount ofpesticide for the crop, pest and site.Read the label to determine what theminimum use rate is. Proper sprayer

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calibration assures application unifor-mity and more effective control. Theamount of product can also be re-duced by using band applications in-stead of broadcast treatments. Thesepractices not only reduce the poten-tial for groundwater contaminationbut also decrease the chance of cropinjury, residual problems and makecontrol more economical.

In choosing a herbicide, less mo-bile, short residual products are lesslikely to leach to the water table.Crop and herbicide rotation also re-duces risk as a result of using differ-ent herbicides each year.

It is also helpful to identify highrisk areas. The greatest risk for conta-mination exists where the groundwa-ter table is close to the soil surface. Inaddition, herbicides are more likelyto contaminate groundwater whenapplications are made to coarse tex-tured soils low in organic matter.High pH soils also present concernsbecause some herbicides leach morereadily under these conditions. Extracare should be taken when any ofthese situations exist.

ChemigationIn Kansas, chemigation is regulated

by the “Kansas Chemigation Law.”The basic intent of this law is to pro-tect surface and groundwater fromcontamination by fertilizers and pes-ticides. There are specific require-ments, such as paying a fee, passingan examination, completing the regis-tration forms, etc., which must be metin order to chemigate. Several impor-tant terms in relation to chemigationare defined below.

“Chemigation” is any processwhereby pesticides, fertilizers orother chemicals or animal wastes areadded to irrigation water applied toland or crops, or both, through an ir-rigation distribution system.

“Irrigation distribution system” isany device or combination of deviceshaving a hose, pipe or other conduitwhich connects directly to any sourceof surface or groundwater, throughwhich water or a mixture of waterand chemicals is drawn and appliedto land. The term does not includeany handheld hose sprayer or other

Vacuum Breaker

To Pump andWater Supply

ManuallyOperated Valve

CalibrationDevice

DirectionOf Flow

MainlineCheckvalve

Injection PortWith Checkvalve

PositiveDisplacementInjection Pump

Low Pressure Drain

Air Bleeder Valve

InterlockIn-Line Strainer

Suction LineTo Bulk Chemical Storage Tank

For further information and the necessary registration forms, contact: Kansas State Department of Agriculture,Pesticides & Fertilzer Program, 109 SW 9th Street, Topeka, KS 66612–1281 or phone 785-296-3786.

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Usefulness of Honeybees

By visiting flowers, bees follow apattern set by their behavior and biol-ogy. Colony numbers vary accordingto the time of the year, but the colonyis always social. Boxes, called hivebodies, contain 8 to 10 movableframes in which the honeycomb isbuilt and where bees raise the youngand store honey. Each colony may re-quire one or more hive bodies, andcontain from 10,000 to 60,000 or morebees.

Protecting Bees from Pesticides

Do not spray while crops are in bloom:Apply insecticides to target plants orweeds when still in the bud stage, orjust after flowering.

Spray when bees are not flying: Beesfly on sunny days when the air tem-perature is above 55–60°F. Bees aremost active from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m., butapplicators should always check afield for bee activity immediately be-fore spraying. Pesticides hazardousto honeybees must be applied toblooming plants when bees are notworking and preferably in the earlyevening. Evening applications allowdecomposition time for many chemi-cals and new, unsprayed flowers toopen overnight.

Do not contaminate water. Bees re-quire water to cool the hive and feedyoung bees. They will be killed if thewater is contaminated. Never spraystanding water or drain spray tankcontents onto the ground to createpuddles.

Use less toxic compound: Many pestcontrol situations give the grower–applicator some choice in the com-pound to use. Those hazardous tohoneybees must state such on thelabel, in which case another may beselected. Generally, botanical materi-als, specific miticides, dinitro com-pounds, fungicides and herbicidesare relatively non-toxic to honeybees.However, there is new research evi-dence that some herbicides and fung -i cides might be affecting bee develop-

similar device which is constructed so that an interruption in water flowautomatically prevents any backflowto the water source. Nor does it in-clude greenhouse irrigation or resi-dence yards.

“Operating chemigation equip-ment” includes:

n preparation of the solution andfilling the chemical supply container,

n calibration of injection equipment,

n starting and stopping the equip-ment when injection of chemicalsis involved, and

n supervision of the chemigationequipment to assure its safe operation.

“Supervision” means the attentiongiven to the chemigating system dur-ing its operation when chemicals arebeing applied. “Direct supervision “means supervision with ability tochange the procedures.

“Anti-pollution devices” means themechanical equipment used to reducehazard to the environment in cases ofmalfunction of the equipment duringchemigation and includes (but is notlimited to): interlock, waterline checkvalve, chemical line closure device,vacuum relief device and automaticlow pressure drain.

Pesticides and BeesWhile there are other species of

bees, the honeybee is the only onethat produces surplus honey andwax, pollinates important agricul-tural crops, contributes to naturalfood chains by pollinating wildlifefood plants, and provides importantsources of income and recreation.Chemical pesticide destruction ofthese bees would significantly affectmillions of dollars worth of honey,wax, and bee-pollinated agriculturalcrops. While colony losses are not asextensive or severe as in other areasin the country, serious losses rou-tinely occur each year.

Honeybee

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ment, so it is wise for the grower touse caution with all pesticides whenbees are involved.

Consult your county AgriculturalExtension Agent for details, recom-mendations, and further informationabout bee toxicity to specific compounds.

Use less toxic formulations: Not allcompounds are the same when madeinto different formulations. Researchand experience indicate that:

n Dusts are more hazardous tobees than liquid formulations.

n Encapsulated formulations areespecially hazardous.

n Emulsifiable concentrates haveshorter killing power than wet-table powders.

n Ultra-low-volume (ULV) formu-lations often are much more haz-ardous to bees than other liquidformulations.

Eliminate attractive weeds: Prior toinsecticide treatment, mow, beat, orotherwise control flowering weeds inorchards, nurseries, or other situa-

tions where insecticides are to be applied to non-flowering plants.

Choose application technique wisely:Use the application technique that ismost precise to avoid contaminationof non-target crops. Drift by movingair currents and wind adds to thecontamination problem.

Notify, beekeepers: Some beekeeperswill move bees from a spray area, butthey need at least 48 hours notice.Others may wish to cover colonies.

Protect colonies in the area: Workwith beekeepers so they will locatetheir apiaries where they will not bedirectly sprayed with any type ofpesticide. Beekeepers may wish toloosely cover hives with burlap orcoarse cloth to confine bees so theycannot fly, yet allowing them to clus-ter outside the hive, under the cloth.Repeated sprinkling with water willprevent bees from overheating. Com -munications among growers, applica-tors, and beekeepers are essential toprevent bee losses.

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The pesticide application equip-ment you use is important to the suc-cess of your pest control job. Youmust first select the right kind of ap-plication equipment. Then you mustuse it correctly to suit your needs andtake good care of it. These things aretrue whether you use hand-carried,tractor-drawn, self-propelled or air-craft-mounted equipment. Here aresome things you should know aboutchoosing, using, and caring for equipment.

SprayersYour sprayer should be designed

to do the job you want to do. Itshould be durable and convenient to fill, operate, and clean.

Hand Sprayers

Hand sprayers are used for smalljobs. You can use them in restrictedareas where a power unit would notwork.

Advantages :n economical,n simple, andn easy to use, clean, and store.Limitation :n frequent lack of good agitation

and screening for wettable pow-ders. Keep WP’s in suspensionby shaking the sprayer.

Low Pressure Hydraulic Sprayers

These sprayers deliver low to mod-erate volume at 15 to 50 psi. Most ofthese are used for treating field andforage crops, pastures, fencer rows,and structures. They also may applyfertilizer-pesticide mixtures.

Advantages :n medium to large tanks,n low cost, andn light weight.Limitations:n low-gallonage output may limit

their use when high volume isrequired, for example, liquid fer-tilizer applications,

n low pressure limits versatility,and

n agitation system may be of lim-ited capacity.

High Pressure Sprayers

These are designed to delivermedium volumes at high pressure.They are used to spray fruits, vegeta-bles, trees, landscape plants, and live-stock. When fitted with the correctpressure regulators, they can also beused at low pressures. Applicationsusually are made at high gallonages(100 gallons or more per acre above100 psi). Even though very largetanks are used, they may need to befilled often.

Advantages:n well built,n usually have mechanical agita-

tion, andn last a long time even when using

abrasive solutions.Limitations:n high cost,n large amounts of water, power,

and fuel needed,n high tire loads, andn high pressure capability which

makes a spray that drifts easily.

Air Blast Sprayers

These units use a high speed, fan-driven air stream to break the nozzleoutput into fine drops which movewith the air stream to the target. Theair is directed to either one or bothsides as the sprayer moves forward.These sprayers are used in applyingpesticides to landscape plants, fruits,and vegetables, and for biting fly con-trol. Most air blast sprayers can beadapted to apply either high or lowvolumes of spray. These sprayersshould not normally be used to ap -ply herbicides or for field broadcast applications.

Advantages:n good coverage and penetration,n low pump pressures, andn mechanical agitation.Limitations:n drift hazards,n chance of overdosages,

High Pressure Sprayer

Low Pressure Sprayer

Portable Sprayer

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n difficult to use in small areas,and

n hard to confine discharge to limited target areas.

Ultra-Low-Volume (ULV) Sprayers

ULV’s deliver undiluted pesticidesfrom the air, on the ground, or inbuildings.

Advantages:n no water is normally needed, andn equal control with less gallonage.Limitations:n does not provide for thorough

wetting,n hazards of using high

concentrates,n chance of overdosage, andn small number of pesticides la-

beled for use in this manner.

NozzlesAgricultural chemical spraying is

becoming increasingly sophisticatedand precise. Chemicals used by farmers today are designed for spe-cific needs and require different noz-zles to be applied properly.

The difference in nozzle styles isimportant because it is the nozzle thatactually dispenses thousands ofchemical and fertilizer dollars. Yet, la-bels on these products often containlittle information about the kind ofspray nozzle that should be used.

Kansas farmers use five basic kindsof spray nozzles: the flat fan, even flatfan, hollow cone, solid cone, andflooding spray.

Each has a specific use, distinctivespray distribution, and operating re-quirements. These nozzle styles,along with the Raindrop (Delevan)and Whirl Jets (Spraying Systems),are summarized according to recom-mended uses, distinctive spray distri-butions, and operating requirementsin Table 1, “Nozzle Styles,” and inTable 2, “Nozzle Operations.”

Questions to Consider

It is not easy to make specific noz-zle recommendations because manyquestions must be considered.

n What kind of chemical will besprayed: herbicide, insecticide,fungicide?

n What is the chemical’s formula-tion: wettable powder, flowable,emulsifiable concentrate?

n When is the chemical used: pre-plant incorporated, preemerge,postemerge?

n Is spray drift a problem?n What will carry the chemical:

water, liquid fertilizer?n Will two or more chemicals be

used in combination?n What kind of sprayer will be

used in the application: airplane,ground sprayer, floater, kit attached to some other farm implement?

n What pressure range is desired?n What speed will sprayer

operate?n What is nozzle spacing on boom?

Nozzle Selection Procedure

Refer to Table 1, Nozzle Styles, todetermine the proper nozzle patternfor the intended use and particularsprayer. Then you can select the cor-rect size of nozzle to insure properchemical distribution.Step 1. Determine the sprayer appli-

cation volume in gallons peracre (gpa) from the pesticidelabel or printed recommen-dations. The application vol-ume is the gallons of carrier(water, fertilizer) plus theamount of chemical formula-tion applied per treated acre.

Step 2. Select an appropriate groundspeed in miles per hour(mph) according to existingfield conditions. The actualspeed should be measured aspart of the calibration procedure.

Step 3. Determine the spray widthper nozzle (w) in inches. Forboom spraying, w = the noz-zle spacing. For band spray-ing, w = band width. For fo-liar applications, such asrow-crop spraying from droppipes or direct spraying. Solid Cone Spray

Hollow Cone Spray

Air Blast Sprayer

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row spacingw = ________________________________________

number of nozzles per row

Step 4. Determine the output re-quired for each nozzle byusing a manufacturer’s cata-log or this equation:

gpa × mph × wgpm = ________________________

5940*

gpm = individual nozzle out-put in gallons perminute

gpa = label requirements ingallons per acre

mph = speed of applicator inmiles per hour

w = width in inches sprayedper nozzle as deter-mined in step 3

*Using 6,000 instead of 5,940 makesthe calculation easier and results inan error of only one percent.

Step 5. Select a nozzle size from themanufacturer’s catalog thatwill give the gpm outputwhen operating at the de-sired pressure.

You can purchase nozzles in manymaterials. Here are the main featuresof each kind.

Brass:n inexpensive,n wears quickly from abrasion,n probably the best material for

limited use.Stainless steel:n will not corrode, andn resists abrasion, especially if it

is hardened.Nylon :n resists corrosion and abrasionn some solvents may cause

swelling of older nylon compounds.

n available in color coding for easyidentification

New combination nozzles featur-ing stainless steel orifice inserts in in-jection molded nylon bodies offer theadvantages of both stainless steel andnylon at a reasonable price.

The formulation of the pesticidebeing sprayed determines the mater-ial of which the nozzle can be made.Brass nozzle tips should not be usedwith wettable powder or other abra-sive formulations. The relative costsof materials are summarized in figurebelow: Nozzle Material.

For most Kansas farm sprayers in-volved in a yearly spraying program,the stainless steel/nylon combinationnozzles will be the cheapest over thelife of the sprayer.

Check Nozzles Often

Keep nozzles in good working condition. For most boom applica-tions, select nozzles of uniform typeand size.

Nozzle caps should not be over-tightened. Adjust nozzle height andspacing to suit the target. Follow thenozzle manufacturer’s instructionsand the pesticide label. Allow forcrop or weed height if necessary.Check each nozzle for uniform flowusing water and a jar marked inounces.

With the sprayer running, hold ajar under each nozzle and time howlong it takes to fill the jar. Thereshould be no more than 10 percentdifference among all the nozzles.Replace any nozzle tips that dis-charge ±5 percent more than speci-fied by the nozzle manufacturerwhen new.

Nozzle Material(Delavan LF-3–80° with Wettable Powder)

Initial ActualLife Cost Cost/Hr.

Material (Hrs.) Factor Factor

Brass 100 1.0 1.0Nylon 300 1.9 0.64Stainless Steel 500 2.9 0.57Flooding Spray

Flat Spray

Even Spray

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Replace any nozzles having faultyspray patterns. A good check is tospray on asphalt pavement movingslow enough to get the area thor-oughly wet. Watch for streaks as youincrease speed or as spray dries.

Clean nozzles only with a tooth-brush or wooden toothpick. A nail orpocket knife can damage the nozzletip and ruin the spray pattern.

Operation and Maintenance

Always read and follow the opera-tor’s manuals for all your sprayequip ment. They will tell you exactlyhow to use and care for it. After eachuse, rinse out the entire system.Remove and clean nozzles, nozzlescreens, and strainers, and completeany maintenance required. Check forleaks in lines, valves, seals, and tankboth after filling with water and dur-ing running.

Be alert for nozzle clogging andchanges in nozzle patterns. If nozzlesclog or other trouble occurs in thefield, be careful not to contaminateyourself while correcting the prob-lem. Shut off the sprayer and move itto the edge of the field before dis-mounting. Wear protective clothingwhile making repairs.

Clean the sprayer thoroughly whenchanging chemicals or before storing.Contamination from the previous chemi-cal can injure your crop or react with thenew chemical to decrease its effectiveness.The following steps are suggested fora thorough cleaning. Spray andmix/load equipment should havebeen thoroughly rinsed with cleanwater and the rinsate applied to afield area prior to the cleaningprocess. Additional precautions maybe necessary for certain chemicals.

1. Choose a cleaning area so thatthe discharge will not contami-nate streams or water supplies.Keep children, pets, and live-stock away from puddles.

2. Hose down the inside of the tankand fill it about half full. Thenflush the cleaning water outthrough the nozzles by operatingthe sprayer.

3. Repeat step 2.4. Fill the tank about half full of

water and add about one poundof detergent per 50 gallons ofwater. Circulate the detergentthrough the sprayer for about 1⁄2 hour, then spray it out.

5. If you have last used 2,4-D or anorganophosphate chemical, con-tinue the cleaning process by re-placing the screens and nozzletips. Then fill the sprayer halffull of water and add one pint of ammonia for each 25 gallonsof water. Circulate this solutionthrough the sprayer for a shortwhile, then discharge a smallamount through the nozzles. Letthe remaining solution stand inthe sprayer overnight, and dis-charge it in the morning.

6. Flush the sprayer one final timewith clean water.

7. Remove the nozzle tips andscreens and clean them withkerosene or a detergent solution.Nozzle tips should be dried andstored in a dry place or may bestored in light oil or diesel fuel.

8. If the sprayer is to be stored, filltank almost full with cleanwater. Add a small amount ofnew light oil to the tank. Coat thesystem by pumping tank con-tents out through nozzles orhandgun. Drain the pump andplug its openings or fill thepump with light oil or antifreeze.Remove nozzles and nozzlescreens and store in light oil ordiesel fuel.

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Table 1. Nozzle StylesRecommended

Suggested Pressure Single NozzleStyle Use (psi) Comments DistributionPattern

Flat Spray Weed and 10–30; Reasonably coarse spray in a Bell Shapedbrush control. never exceed 40 fan-type pattern that will overlap

along a spray boom.Wider operating pressure rangesmay be used with certain “widerange” flat fan nozzle tips.

Even Spray Band application 15–30; Fan-type pattern that gives a Rectangular Shapedof preemergence never exceed 40 uniform volume of sprayand postemergence across entire fan width.postemergenceherbicides

Cone Insecticides and 60 and above Circular fan-type pattern giving Hollow Conefungicides (foliar good penetration of sprayedapplications). surfaces.

Solid Cone

Flooding Preemergence and 8–20 for Coarse fan-type pattern. SpraysSpray postemergence maximum drift wide surface yet can be sprayed

herbicides where control; never close to surface.drift is hazardous exceed 40 Nozzle spacing should be 60 “ Flooding Spray

or less for herbicide applications.

Raindrop® Preemergence and 20–60 psi Produces very large drops in a Raindroppostemergence hollow cone patternherbicides wheredrift control is needed. (Aerial and ground applications.)

Whirl Jet® Herbicide 5–20 psi Produces medium size drops in a Whirl Jetincorporation kits. hollow cone pattern with typical

fan angles up to 140°.

Raindrop Weed and brush 10–40 psi Special drift reduction fan-type Bell Shaped FanFlat Fan control. nozzle.

Drift-guard Weed and brush 10–40 psi Special drift reduction fan-type Bell Shaped Flat FanFlat Fan control. nozzle.

Turbo-flood Preemergence and 10–40 psi Special drift reduction flooding- Wide Anglepostemergence type nozzle with improved Bell Shapedherbicides where distribution with improveddrift is a factor. distribution uniforming

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Dusters and Granular ApplicatorsHand Dusters

Like hand sprayers, hand dusterscan be used around homes and ingardens. They may consist of asqueeze bulb, bellows, tube, orshaker, a sliding tube, or a fan pow-ered by a hand crack.

Advantages:n the pesticide is ready to apply,

andn good penetration in confined

spaces.Limitations:n high cost for pesticide,n hard to get good foliar coverage,

andn dust is subject to drifting.

Power Dusters

Power dusters use a powered fanor blower to propel the dust to thetarget. They range from knapsack orbackpack types to those mounted onor pulled by tractors. Their capacityin area treated per hour compares fa-vorably with some sprayers.

Advantages:n simply built,n easy to maintain, andn low in cost.Limitations:n drift hazards,n high cost of pesticide, andn application may be less uniform

than with sprays.

Table 2. Nozzle OperationRecommended Boom Recommended

Spray Pressure Spacing Height SprayType Angle (psi) (inches) (inches) Orientation Overlap

Flat Spray 65° 10–30 20” 21–23 Vertical 30–50%73° 10–30 20” 20–2280° 10–30 20” 17–19

110° 10–30 30” 13–15

5”= 8” band Vertical NeverEven Spray 80° 15–30 Row Spacing 6”=10” band

7”=12” band8”=14” band

Cone 40°–110° 60 and above As required for adequate foliar application.

100°–145° 8–20 40” 12–15 100%Flooding Spray100°–145° 8–20 60” 18–22 Spray discharged

100°–145° 8–20 120” 36–45 30°–45° from horizontal

Raindrop® 80°–140° 20–60 20” 15–30 Spray discharged 50–100%80°–140° 20–60 30” 16–31 30°–45° from horizontal

Whirl Jet® 120°–140° 5–20 30” 10–11 Spray discharged 80–160%120°–140° 5–20 40” 14–15 30°–45° from horizontal

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Selecting a Duster

Look for a power duster that iseasy to clean. It should give a uni-form application rate as the hopper isemptied. Look for both hand andpower dusters that keep the dustcloud well away from the user.

Granular Applicators

These include hand-carried knap-sack and spinning disk types forbroadcast coverage, mounted equip-ment for applying bands over therow in row crops, and mounted ortractor-drawn machines for broadcastcoverage.

Advantages:n eliminates mixing,n minimizes drift, andn is less hazardous to applicator.Limitations:n high cost for pesticide,n limited use against some pests

because granules won’t stick tomost plants,

n need to calibrate for each granu-lar formulation, and

n poor lateral distribution, espe-cially on side slope.

Selecting a Granular Applicator

Choose a granular applicator that iseasy to clean and fill. It should havemechanical agitation over the outletholes. This will prevent bridging andkeep flow rate constant. Applicationshould stop when drive stops even ifoutlets are still open.

Use and Maintenance

Both dusters and granular applica-tors are speed-sensitive, so maintainuniform speed. Do not travel too fastfor ground conditions. Bouncingequipment will cause the applicationrate to vary. Stay out of any dustcloud that may form.

Watch banders to see that bandwidth stays the same. Small heightchanges due to changing soil condi-tions may cause rapid changes inband width.

Clean equipment as directed by theoperator’s manual.

Controlling DriftDrift is one of the major problems

facing the application of agriculturalchemicals. In addition to the potentialdamage to non-target areas, drifttends to reduce the effectiveness ofchemicals and waste money. Drift isgenerally inconsistent with pesticidelabeling and is a violation of state andfederal laws. There are two differenttypes of drift.

Vapor Drift

Vapor drift occurs when a chemicalvaporizes after being applied to thetarget area. The vapors are then car-ried to another area where damagemay occur. The amount of vaporiza-tion that occurs depends largely onthe temperature and formulation ofthe chemical being used. Volatileester formulations vaporize rapidlyas low as 65°F, while the “low vola -tile” esters resist vaporization up to85–100°F. The amine formulations arereferred to as “non-volatile.” Thus bychoosing the correct herbicide formu-lations, the dangers of vapor drift canbe reduced substantially.

Physical Drift

Physical drift is the actual move-ment of spray particles away fromthe target area. Many factors affectphysical drift, but one of the most im-portant is droplet size. Small dropletsfall through the air much moreslowly, so they are carried farther byair movement. The particle may betrapped in a temperature inversionand carried for a great distance ifweather conditions are unfavorable.In addition, evaporation has a greatereffect on the smaller droplet, which inturn slows the settling rate and cre-ates still more opportunity for drift.The end result is that the carrier insome of the smaller particles evapo-rates completely before reaching theground.

All nozzles produce a wide rangeof droplet sizes. and the very small,drift-prone particles cannot be elimi-nated completely. However, there are

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several things that can be done tominimize unwanted physical drift.

First of all, use adequate amountsof carrier, usually 15–20 gallons peracre. This has several benefits fromthe standpoint of drift control. Withlower concentrations, more driftdroplets will be necessary to produceill effects. In addition, more carriermeans larger nozzles, which in turnusually produce larger droplets.Although this will increase the num-ber of refills, the added carrier mayalso improve coverage and increasethe effectiveness of the chemicals.

Avoid high pressures. A higherpressure creates a finer spray, whichis more subject to drift. Forty psishould be considered maximum pres-sure for flat fan, even fan, and flood-ing nozzle tips. For maximum driftcontrol with flooding nozzle tips, operate within the 8–20 psi pressurerange (see table 1).

Use a flooding nozzle where practi-cal. The flooding nozzle produceslarger droplets and operates at lowerpressure than the equivalent taperedfan nozzle. Special low drift hollowcone, flat fan, and flooding nozzlesare claimed to greatly reduce thenumber of fine particles.

Numerous drift-reducing spray ad-ditives are available today, althoughtheir effectiveness generally has notbeen thoroughly tested. Foams andinvert emulsions also have potential,although special equipment is usuallyrequired.

Extreme care should be exercisedto avoid drift away from the targetarea. Either physical drift or vapordrift can cause damage and exposethe applicator to civil liability andpossible criminal charges

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Calibration is simply a process toadjust your equipment to apply thedesired rate of pesticide. This processis needed to insure that each pesticideis applied as directed on the label.Too much pesticide is dangerous; toolittle will not do a good job. Only bycorrect calibration can the best resultsbe obtained.

Accurate calibration is the onlyway to know how much chemical isbeing applied.

Failure to calibrate a sprayer caninjure crops, create hazardous situa-tions, and cost money in wastedchemical. In addition to calibratingthe sprayer at the start of the season,it should be recalibrated every fewdays of use. Tests have shown thatwettable powders can wear nozzletips enough to increase the dischargerate by 20 percent after spraying foronly ten hours. Also, some brandnew nozzles show a tendency to“wear in” and increase discharge by afew percent during the first hour ortwo.

Before calibrating, check thesprayer carefully. Be sure that nozzletips are clean. Is pressure holdingconstant?

When the sprayer is operatingproperly, proceed to calibrate. Thereare many techniques for calibrating asprayer, but they are all based on de-termining the volume of chemical ap-plied to a measured area of land. Twomethods are given for sprayers andone method is given for granular ap-plicators. The choice between the twosprayer methods will depend on thetype of equipment to be calibrated aswell as personal preference. Use theseor another method, but CALIBRATE.

SprayersTo apply a pesticide evenly and ac-

curately, the sprayer must move at aconstant speed and operate at a con-stant pressure. Each nozzle must beclean and at the right height. All noz-zles must be of the correct type and

size for the job. Each nozzle in thesystem must deliver its rated amount.

Measured Course and Banding

1. Measure off a distance of 1⁄8-mile(660 feet or 40 rods).It is best torun the test in the field that willbe sprayed, since sinkage in asoft field can change travelspeed.

2. Start with a full spray tank, andbe sure to eliminate air pocketsin the pump, lines, and tank.Water (or the usual carrier) willusually do for calibration, but ifyou are using a chemical thatchanges the viscosity of the car-rier, you should use the chemicalas it will be sprayed.

3. Spray the 1⁄8-mile strip, using thegear and throttle setting that youwill use while spraying. Youshould run the engine well intothe governed rpm range so thatthe governor can hold the speedconstant.

4. Measure carefully the amount ofwater needed to refill the tank.Again, be careful to eliminate airpockets in the tank.

5. Calculate the application rate asfollows:

Broadcast—Gallons Used × 66___________________________ =Swath width in ft.

Banding—Gallons Used × 66___________________________ =Band width in ft. ×Number of Bands

6. Divide tank capacity by gallonsper acre determined in step 5.This gives the number of acrescovered by one tankful of spray.

7. To determine the amount ofchemical to add to each tank,multiply the recommended rateof application by the number ofacres covered per tankful.

Gallons pertreated acre

Gallons pertreated acre

Calibration

86

Calibration Jar

1. With the tractor stationary, oper-ate the sprayer at the same pres-sure that will be used in the field.Use clean water for calibrationunless you are using a chemicalthat changes the viscosity of thewater. Hold a one-quart jarunder each nozzle and measurethe number of seconds needed tofill the jar.

2. Calculate the flow rate of eachnozzle by the formula:

15G.P.M. = _____S

Where :G.P.M. = Gallons per minute de-livered by nozzleS = Number of seconds neededto fill quart jar

3. Average the nozzle flow rates asdetermined in Step 2. Comparethe flow rate of each individualnozzle tip with the average. Anytip that has flow rate more than±5% different than the averageshould be replaced. If the aver-age flow rate differs from the fac-tory specifications for new tipsby more than ±5%, then the en-tire set of nozzle tips should be replaced.

4. Measure a distance of 176 feetand time the tractor over thatdistance while operating at thesame gear and rpm that will beused in the field. If possible, dothis in the actual field to besprayed so the sinkage will beconstant.

5. Determine the speed of the trac-tor in miles per hour from theformula:

120MPH = ________

TWhere:MPH = Speed of tractor in miles

per hourT = Number of seconds

needed to travel 176 feet 6. Now, determine the application

rate from the formula:G.P.M. × 5,940G.P.A. = ___________________________

MPH × W

Where:G.P.A. = Application rate in gal-lons per acre (treated area)G.P.M. = Gallons per minute de-livered by nozzleMPH = Speed of tractor in milesper hourW = Width(a) For broadcast spraying, W is

nozzle spacing in inches(b) For band spraying, W is band

width in inches7. Divide tank capacity by the gal -

lons per acre determined in step6. This gives the number of acrescovered by one tankful of spray.

8. To determine the amount ofchemical to add to each tank,multiply the recommended rateof application by the number ofacres covered per tankful.

Calibration Nomograph

The nomograph eliminates the cal-culations usually required to calibratea sprayer. Needed are a quart jar,funnel, tape measure, watch with asweep second hand, pencil and astraight edge. This procedure is notadapted to sprayers with ground driven, positive displacement pumps.The only other requirement is that thespeed, nozzle spacing, and nozzleflow rate fall within the limits shownon the scales of the graph.

Procedure

1. Operate the sprayer standing stillwith plain water (or the usualcarrier) in the tank. Use the nor-mal engine speed and pressuresettings. Use a funnel to catch theflow from one nozzle in a quartjar. Determine the length of time(in seconds) needed to fill thequart jar. Repeat this for all nuz-zles and average the results. Re -place any nozzles that vary morethan ±5% from the average.

2. Measure a distance of 176 feet,and determine the length of time(in seconds) needed to cover the176 feet distance. This should bedone with the same gear andthrottle setting as will be used

Calibration

87

for spraying. If possible, do thisin the field that will be sprayedso that sinkage will be nearlyconstant.

3. Measure the swath width of eachnozzle. For boom sprayingwhere the total area is covered,this is the nozzle spacing ininches. For band spraying, this isthe band width in inches.

4. Now, refer to the nomograph onpage 89. Draw a straight linefrom the “seconds to travel 176 feet” to the “nozzle spacingin inches.”

5. Locate the point where your firstline crosses the pivot line. Drawsecond straight line from thatpoint to the “seconds to fill quartjar” using the average deter-mined in step 1.

6. Read “Gallons per Acre” fromthe appropriate scale.

Example (Shown in dashed lines)A field crop sprayer is equippedwith nozzles that fill a quart jar in 50 seconds at the usualspraying pressure. The sprayercovers the distance of 176 feet in24 seconds. Nozzle spacing is 20 inches. When operated underthese conditions, the sprayer willdeliver 17.8 gallons per acre.

Note: For a more thorough dis-cussion of sprayer components,nozzle selection and calibration,refer to Extension Bulletins FM-l3, “Understanding YourSprayer,” and AF-20, “Selectingthe Right Sprayer Nozzle.”

Adjusting Your Sprayer

If the sprayer is delivering more orless spray than the label directs, youcan change the rate three ways:

n Change the pressure. Lowerpres sure means less spray deliv-ered; higher pressure meansmore spray delivered. This is nota good method, because a pres-sure change may change the nozzle pattern and droplet size.Pres sure must be increased 4 times to double the output.

n Change the speed of yoursprayer. Slower speed meansmore spray delivered, fasterspeed means less spray deliv-ered. This method is practical forsmall changes in delivery rate. Ifyou drive half as fast, you doublethe delivery rate.

n Change the nozzle tips to changethe amount delivered. The largerthe hole in the tip, the morespray delivered. This is the bestmethod for making majorchanges in the delivery rate ofsprayers. Always select propernozzles for the job. Use the man-ufacturer’s performance charts tomake the selection.

After making a change, recalibrateto make sure the rate is correct.

Determining the Correct Dosage

Next, the correct amount of pesti-cide to put in the tank to apply thecorrect dosage must be determined.To do this you need to know twomore facts:

1. How much the sprayer tankholds.

2. The amount of formulation to beused per unit of area. This will begiven on the label.

Suppose the tank holds 200 gallonsof spray. The directions say to applyone pint of formulation on each acre,and the sprayer applies 20 gallons peracre. First find the number of acresone tank load will spray. Divide 200 gallons by 20.

200 gallons per tankful____________________________________ =20 gallons per acre

To find the amount of formulationto add to the tank for spraying 10 acres with one pint per acre, multiply 1 pint by 10.

1 pint per acre × 10 acres per tankful= 10 pints per tankful.

Suppose the formulation of a pesti-cide is a 50 percent wettable powderand you want to apply 1⁄2 pound of ac-tive ingredient per acre. In this exam-ple the tank will cover 10 acres.

10 acres per tankful

Calibration

88

Calibration

89

Find how many pounds of formu-lation are needed to apply 1⁄2 pound of active ingredient per acre. There is 1⁄2 pound of active ingredient in 1 pound of 50 percent wettable pow-der formulation. So 1 pound of for-mulation is needed for each acre yoursprayer will cover.

1 pound per acre × 10 acres per tankful= 10 pounds per tankful.

Add the 10 pounds of wettablepow der to a small amount of water ina clean bucket. Stir until it is mixedwell and add this mixture (called aslurry) to the partly filled tank.Remember to operate the sprayer’sagitator while adding the slurry andfilling the tank.

Granular ApplicationCalibration

Granular chemicals for weed or in-sect control must be applied with pre-cision. This is particularly true of pre-emergence herbicides and soil insecticides.

Both herbicides and insecticidesmay be broadcast before planting orapplied after planting. It is common,however, to apply those chemicals ina band over the row by attaching ap-plicators to the planter. This reducesthe amount of material used and thuslowers costs.

Check and Maintain Ground Speed

Speed should be checked carefullyin the field where the chemicals willbe applied. One method is to setmarkers 176 feet apart and check thetime (in seconds) required to drivebetween them. Make each check witha running start. To determine thespeed in miles per hour, divide 120 by the traveling time in seconds.Some examples are given in the fol-lowing table.

Once the field speed has been es -tab lished and checked, keep the speeduniform during the application.

Even though granular applicatorsuse a rotating agitator that varieswith ground speed, the flow of the

granules through the outlet hole isnot necessarily proportional to speed.It is not uncommon to find a 100 per-cent variation in the application ratewith a speed change of 1 mile perhour.

The factors that affect applicationrate can vary from one day to thenext or from one field to another. Forthis reason, check the application rateoften so the necessary adjustments toobtain the proper application rate canbe made.

Field Check of Application Rate

Once the applicators have been setaccording to the operator’s manual,make a field check for each hopper.This can be done in several ways.One method is to make a round ortwo in the field with the seed boxesremoved from the planter. Paper,plastic, or cloth bags can be used forcollecting the granules from eachhopper. The granules collected can beweighed or checked with a calibratedmeasure. Repeat this process until thedesired rate is obtained from eachhopper.

Another method that is less accu-rate but still acceptable is to proceedwith the planting and check the exactamount dispensed through each hop-per. The disadvantage of this methodis the possibility of not having theproper application rate on the cali-brating rows.

The table at right shows the num-ber of feet of row in 1 acre, and thepounds per acre to equal 1 ounce per1,000-foot row. The table can be usedto check calibration.

Example 1

It is desired to apply a granular in-secticide with units mounted on a 6-row 30-inch planter. The insecticidecalls for 6 to 8 ounces per 1,000 feet ofrow. Four passes were made across aquarter section and the operator re-filled all the hoppers. Refilled, theyheld a total of 20 pounds of insecti-cide. Is this within the allowablerange?

Table: Field Speed DeterminationTime requiredto drive 176 feet Speed

(seconds) (miles per hour)

60 240 330 424 520 617 7

Calibration

90

Solution:

The total row length covered is: 4passes × 6 rows × 2,640 feet = 63,360feet, so the application rate is:

20 pounds ×16 ounces/pound___________________________ =63.36 thousand feet

The application rate is too low, sothe applicator should be readjusted.

Example 2

An applicator refilled his granularhoppers after finishing a 9-acre fieldand found that he had applied 75 pounds of granules. The label callsfor 5 to 7 ounces per 1,000 feet of row.He is using 24-inch rows. Is he withinthe allowable range?

Solution:The application rate in lbs/acre is:

75 pounds__________________ =9 acres

From the table, 1 oz./l,000’ = 1.36lb./ac, so the row application ratewas:

8.33 lb/ac_________________ =1.36 lb/acThe application rate was

acceptable.

Example 3

A patch of weeds about 80 feet indiameter needs to be treated for anoxious weed. The granular herbicidebeing used should be applied at therate of 2 pounds per square rod. Howmuch should be broadcast on thisarea?

Solution:

1 rod = 16.5 feet, so one sq. rod =272 sq. ft.

The area of a circle is:A = 3.14 × r × r, where r is the ra-

dius of the circle.In this case, r = 40‘, so:A = 3.14 × 40 × 40 = 5,024 square

feet, or5,024 sq. ft.___________________________ =

272 sq. ft./sq. rodSo, the total amount applied

should be: 2 lbs./sq. rd. × 18.5 sq. rd.= 37 lbs.

Volume and AreaDeterminations

Determining Volume

Volume of a Cylinder = 3.1416 × radius × radius × length.

Volume of a Cone × 1.0472 × radius ×radius × height (i.e. round hopperbottom).

Volume of a Pyramid = length of base× width of base × 1⁄3 of the height(i.e. square hopper bottom).

How much is in the tank?

Cylindrical spray tanks are oftenmounted horizontally, but unless thetank has a capacity scale taped to it, itis hard to calculate how much liquidis left in the tank.

The first question is “What is thetotal capacity of the tank?” The vol-ume of a cylindrical tank is:

V = 3.1416 × R × R × LThis assumes the end of the tank is

flat, not oval or spherical. For example, if the tank diameter is 36 inches and the length is 48 inches,the volume is:

V = 3.1416 × 18 × 18 × 48 =48,858 cubic inches

Since one gallon contains 231 cubicinches, the tank capacity in gallons is:

48,858___________ =231

Now, if the tank is only partiallyfilled, how much does it contain? Todetermine this, with the tank level,measure the depth of the liquid, thenconsult the graph below. Consideringthe same tank (36 inch × 48 inch) asabove, assume the liquid depth is 9 inches. Then, d/D X 100 becomes9/36 × 100 or 25. Reading up from thebottom axis, then over, the graph in-dicates that the tank is 20 percent full,or 20 percent × 211.5 gallons equals42.3 gallons.

Volume Conversion Factors:

1 gallon = 231 cu. in.7.48 gallons = 1 cu. ft.62.4 pounds of water = 1 cu. ft. 8.336 pounds of water = 1 gallon1 gallon = 0.1337 cu. ft.27 cu. ft. = 1 cu. yd.

5.05 oz./l,000 ft.

8.33 lbs/acre

6.125 oz/l,000’

18.5 sq. rd.

Table: Checking Calibrationlbs/Acreto Equal1 oz. per

Row Feet of Row 1,000 ft.Spacing in 1 Acre of Row

40 13,068 .8236 14,520 .9130 17,424 1.0924 21,780 1.3620 26,136 1.63

211.5 gallons

Calibration

91

Determining Field Areas

Area of a Rectangle = length × widthArea of Right Triangle = 1⁄2 × length

× widthArea of a Circle = 3.14 × radius ×

radius

Area Conversion Factors:

Acres = sq. ft./43,560 miles = ft./5,280miles = rods/320 rods = ft./16.5

Example 1

An operator filled a 300 gallonspray tank and started spraying ahalf section. He ran out in the middle

of the second round. Swath width is30 feet. How many gallons per acreare being applied?

Solution:

First, calculate the area sprayed. Inthis case, the top and bottom stripsare 5,280 feet long, while the endstrips are 2,640 – 90 = 2,550 feet long.

Thus, the areas sprayed are:Top: 30’ × 5,280’ = 158,400Bottom: 60’ × 5,280’ = 316,800Left: 60’ × 2,550’ = 153,000Right: 30’ × 2,550’ = 76,500TOTAL 704,700 ft2

Now to convert square feet toacres:

704,700 ft2____________________ =43,560 ft2/acre

So the application rate is:300 gallons______________________ =16.18 acres

Example 2

A creek runs through an 80 acrefield, cutting a large corner off. Theeast and west boundaries are 1⁄2 mileand 1⁄8 mile long, and the south fenceis 1⁄4 mile long. The creek is nearlystraight. A 25’ wide sprayer makes 30 passes, starting at the west edge,and about 340 gallons of spray isused. What is the application rate?

Solution:

To solve the problem, first dividethe sprayed area into two regions, a rectangle and a triangle.

Rectangle (Region 1)Area = 30 passes × 25’ × 660’ =

495,000 ft2

(1⁄8 mile = 660 feet)Triangle (Region 2)Area = 1⁄2 × W × XNow, Z = 1⁄2 – 1⁄8 = 3⁄8 mile = 1,980’W = 750’Since the creek is nearly straight: X

is the same proportion of Z as W is to1⁄4 mile. Thus,

16.18 acres

18.5 gallons/acre

Depth-Volume “Graph”

LIQ

UID

 V

OLU

ME

, P

ER

CE

NT

 O

F C

AP

AC

ITY

 (

VC

) ×

100

LIQUID  DEPTH,  PERCENT  OF  DIAMETER  (  D  )  × 100

V

d100

100

80

60

40

20

080 60 40 20 0

dD

Start

Empty

2640'

5280'

Calibration

92

WX = ___________________

× Z1⁄4 mile

or

750X = ___________________

× 1,980 = 1,125’1,320

So Area = 1⁄2 × 750 × 1,125 = 421,875and the total area sprayed is:

495,000 + 421,875 = 916,875 ft2

or

916,875 ft2______________________ =43,560 ft2/acre

Since 340 gallons were used, theapplication rate is:

340 gal.________________ =21.05 acre

Example 3

A sprayer starts spraying a 1⁄4 sec-tion sized center pivot irrigated field.At the end of the third round, he hasused about 320 gallons of spray. He isusing a 30 foot boom. What is the ap-plication rate?

Solution:

A 90 feet wide strip was sprayedaround the outside of the circle, so wecan calculate the total area of the cir-cle, then subtract the area that has notyet been sprayed.

Total area of circle:

A = 3.14 × 1,320 × 1,320 = 5,471,136 ft2

or5,47l,l36 ft2__________________ =43,560 ft2/ac

Area not yet sprayed

r = 1,320 – 90 = 1,230’A = 3.14 × 1,230 × 1,230 =

4,750,506 ft2

or

4,750,506 ft2__________________ =43,560 ft2/ac

So, the area that has been sprayedis 125.6 – 109.1 = 16.5 acres, and theapplication rate is:

320 gallons_________________ =16.5 acres

Useful Conversions

MPH × ft/min/88

MPH × swath width (ft)= _____________________________________

8.25

MPH × swath width (ft)= _____________________________________

495

Example: A 20 foot sprayer traveling6 MPH covers 14.5 acres/hour. A 100 MPH airplane with a 50 footswath covers 10.1 acres/minute.

3 teaspoons = 1 tablespoon2 tablespoons = 1 fluid ounce8 fluid ounces = 1 cup2 cups = 1 pint2 pints = 1 quart4 quarts = 1 gallon1 pint = 473 milliliters1 gallon = 3,785 milliliters1 pound = .454 kilograms1 liter of water weighs 1 kilogram1,000 milliliters = 1 liter1,000 grams = 1 kilogram

2l.05 acres

16.2 gallons/acre

125.6 acres

109.1 acres

19.4 gallons/acre

Acres/Hour

Acres/Minute

Sprayed Area

Start

Stop

1/8

2

1

W

Z

X

1⁄4

1⁄2

Calibration

93

Without pesticides, we would nothave the food, fiber, and landscapeplants we need. But because pesti-cides can be dangerous, Congress haspassed laws affecting pesticide use.These laws try to balance the need forpesticides against the need to protectpeople and the environment fromtheir misuse.

Federal Insecticide,Fungicide, and RodenticideAct (FIFRA) as Amended

You are taking this training be-cause of a law passed by Congress in1972. It is often called by its initials—FIFRA. It requires you to show thatyou know the correct way to use andhandle pesticides.

Here are the parts of the law whichconcern you the most:

n It says that all pesticide usesmust be classified as either gen-eral or restricted,

n It requires you to be certified ascompetent to use any of the pes-ticides classified for restricteduse,

n It makes it a crime to use anypesticide in a manner inconsis-tent with its labeling, and

n It provides penalties (up to $1000 and 30 days in prison) forpeople who do not obey the law.

Classification of Pesticides

Manufacturers must register everypesticide with EPA. By regulation,when each pesticide is registered, allits uses must be classified. EPA mustdecide whether each use is a generalor a restricted one.

Under the law, pesticide uses thatwill damage the environment verylittle or not at all when done as thelabel directs can be classified as gen-eral uses.

Uses that could cause damage,even when done as directed on thelabel, must be classified as restricteduses. They may be carried out only:

n by someone who is certified, orn under a certified person’s

supervision.Some uses may be general under

some conditions and restricted underothers.

Prohibited Actions

The law names many things youcannot do. These two concern youmost:

n You may not use a pesticideother than as the label or labelingdirects, except when special reg-ulations allow you to—use it forother pests or at a lower ratethan the label recommends.

n You may not dispose of any pes-ticide or its container except asthe label or labeling directs.

You also should know your Stateand local laws. They may prohibitmore actions than the Federal lawdoes.

The applicator is responsible forproper pesticide use and empty con-tainer disposal.

Residues

The pesticide that stays in or onraw farm products or processedfoods is called a residue. EPA setsresidue tolerances under regulationsauthorized by the Federal Food,Drug, and Cosmetic Act. A toleranceis the concentration of a pesticide thatis judged safe for human consump-tion. Residues in processed foods areconsidered to be food additives andare regulated as such.

Tolerances are expressed in “partsper million” (ppm). One ppm equalsone part (by weight) of pesticide foreach million parts of farm or foodproduct. Using pounds as a measure,50 ppm would be 50 pounds of pesti-cide in a million pounds of the prod-uct. The same pesticide may have adifferent tolerance on different prod-ucts. It might be 50 ppm on grapesand 25 ppm on apples.

If too much residue is found on afarm or food product, the productmay be seized or condemned.

Laws andRegulations

94

The label will tell you how manydays before harvest the pesticide maybe applied. Follow the label exactly.Then you can be sure you are notbreaking the law.

Restricted Use PesticideApplication RecordkeepingRequirements

Private applicators must recordtheir restricted use pesticide (RUP)applications, as required by the Food,Agriculture, Conservation and Trade(FACT) Act of 1990. The USDA Agri -cultural Marketing Service adminis-ters this activity. However, for goodmanagement, recordkeeping isstrongly encouraged for ALL pesti-cide applications.

Each pesticide application requiresan individual record. RUP applica-tion records may be handwritten onindividual notes or forms, consist ofinvoices, be computerized, and/ormaintained in recordkeeping books.

RUP application records must bemaintained for two years from thedate of application. The certified pes-ticide applicator should retain theseRUP records, but must be able tomake them accessible for copying byauthorized representatives.

Your records must include:n Brand/product namen EPA registration numbern Total amount of RUP appliedn Location of applicationn Size of area treatedn Crop, commodity, stored prod-

uct, or site treatedn Application date (month/day/

year)n Name of certified applicatorn Certification number

Spot Treatments

RUP applications made on thesame day in a total area of less thanone-tenth of an acre require the fol-lowing information to be recorded:

n Brand/product namen EPA registration numbern Total amount applied

n Location must be designated“spot treatment”

n Date of applicationA commercial applicator must,

within 30 days of an RUP application,provide a copy of the requiredrecords to the person for whom theRUP was applied. However, certifiedcommercial applicators can holdthese RUP application records fortheir clients as long as the client hassigned a statement recognizing thecommercial applicator as the recordholder. Commercial applicatorsshould provide their clients with acopy of the signed statement, makethese records available to their clientsupon request, and maintain separaterecords for each client.

The Kansas Pesticide LawThe State of Kansas, under the Kan -

sas Pesticide Law, has been grantedprimacy by the Federal Gov ernment.This primacy says, in effect, that theState has jurisdiction over all pesticidematters. Primacy allows the state toadopt rules and regulations regardingpesticide use that must meet Federalstandards. However, the state regula-tions may be more strict than the fed-eral law. Pesticide users in Kansasshould expect firm but fair enforce-ment of the Pesticide Law.

Criminal penalties under theKansas Pesticide Law for violationsby certified private applicators shallbe expressed as a misdemeanor. Uponconviction, a violator shall be pun-ished by a fine of not less than onehundred dollars ($100) and not morethan five hundred dollars ($500).

Noncriminal penalties may also beassessed a certified private appli cator.These penalties range from an admin-istrative letter of warning to havingone’s certification denied, suspended,or revoked.

Recordkeeping Requirements forSales of Restricted Use Pesticides

Effective July 1, 1985, an amend-ment to the Kansas Pesticide Law re-quires persons selling Restricted Use

Laws and

Regulations

95

Pesticides to maintain, for a period oftwo years, records of the sales trans-action of pesticides classified asRestricted Use.

The records for sales of RestrictedUse Pesticides must contain the fol-lowing information:

1. The name and address of the res-idence or principal place of busi-ness of each person to whom therestricted use pesticide producthas been sold;

2. The name and address of the res-idence or principal place of busi-ness or the individual to whomthe restricted use pesticide prod-uct has been delivered or madeavailable if different from thepurchaser;

3. The certification number of applicator’s certificate;

4. The name of the state issuing thecertificate;

5. The expiration date of the certificate;

6. If the applicator is a certifiedcommercial applicator of pesti-cides, the categories and subcate-gories, if applicable, in which theapplicator is certified;

7. The registered name of the re-stricted use pesticide product, itsEPA registration number and thestate special local need registra-tion number, if any:

8. The quantity of the restricted usepesticide product sold; and

9. The date of the transaction.A pesticide dealer may make a re-

stricted use pesticide product avail-able to an uncertified person for use(application) by the certified applica-tor if the following additional recordsare kept by the dealer:

1. The name and address of the res-idence or principal place of busi-ness of the uncertified person towhom the restricted use pesti-cide product has been madeavailable; and

2. The name and address of the res-idence or principal place of busi-ness of the certified applicatorwho will use the restricted usepesticide product.

Laws and Regulations in Regard to WildlifeDamage Control

Because of public attitudes aboutwildlife and information about bird,rodent, and predator biology, controlactions are regulated beyond normalpesticide laws and regulations. Any -one intending to become involved ina wild animal damage problemshould first learn of the laws and reg-ulations related to the target speciesin the area of control action. Re mem -bering control actions are designed to stop the damage, not necessarily to kill the offending animals.

Some State Regulations to ConsiderAre As Follows:

A nuisance bird control permitshall be required to use any lethalmethod of control which involvespoisons or chemicals for controllingnuisance birds. When a permit is re-quired, nuisance birds killed and theplumage shall be utilized only in themanner specified in the permit. Allnuisance bird control activities shallbe subject to all federal and state lawsand rules and regulations.

A permit is required from theKansas Department of Wildlife andParks to use any burrow fumigants.Burrow fumigants are used forprairie dog control and to a lesser extent for norway rats and 13 linedground squirrels. The permit has tobe recommended by the ExtensionSpecialist, Wildlife Damage Control,at Kansas State University before thepermit will be issued.

A permit is required from theKansas Department of Wildlife andParks to use a device referred to asM-44s. This device is used occasion-ally for coyote damage control, espe-cially during the winter time. Sodiumcya nide is the chemical agent used inthe M-44. The permit has to be rec-ommended by the Extension Spe -cialist, Wildlife Damage Control, atKansas State University.

Laws and

Regulations

96

Prior to any chemical prairie dogcontrol effort, the label states that theprairie dog colony must first besearched for black-footed ferret signsand that no control can be carried outif this endangered species, the black-footed ferret, might be present as thesign indicates.

These are only a few of the relatedstate laws and regulations whichapply to wildlife damage control.Any person intending to conductdamage control involving a wildlifespecies should contact the ExtensionWildlife Damage Control Office atKansas State University or a Con -servation Officer with the KansasDepartment of Wildlife and Parks.

Federal laws that relate to wildlifedamage control include, but are notlimited to, the following.

1. Migratory Bird Treaty Act2. Fish and Wildlife Coordination

Act3. Animal Damage Control Act of

March 2, 19314. National Environmental Policy

Act5. Federal Insecticide, Fungicide

and Rodenticide Act6. Endangered Species Act7. Bald Eagle Protection Act

Laws and

Regulations

97

Some of these words have severalmean ings. Those given here are the onesthat relate to pest control.Abrasion: The process of wearing away

by rubbing.Abscission: The separation of fruit,

leaves, or stems from a plant.Absorption: The pricks by which a chem-

ical is taken into plants, animals, orminerals. Compare with adsorption.

Activator: A chemical added to a pesti-cide to increase its activity.

Adherence: Sticking to a surface.Adjuvant: Inert ingredient added to a

pesticide formulation to make it work better.

Adsorption: The process by which chemicals are held on the surface of amineral or soil particle. Compare with absorption.

Adulterated: Any pesticide whosestrength or purity falls below the quality stated on its label. Also, a food,feed, or product that contains illegalpesticide residues.

Aerobic: Living in air. The opposite ofanaerobic.

Aerosol: An extremely fine mist or fogconsisting of solid or liquid particlessuspended in air. Also, certain formu-lations used to produce a fine mist.

Agitation: The process of stirring or mix-ing in a sprayer.

Alkaloids: Chemicals present in someplants. Some are used as pesticides.

Anaerobic: Living in the absence of air.The opposite of aerobic.

Animal Sign: The evidences of an ani-mal’s presence in an area.

Antagonism: The loss of activity of achemical when exposed to anotherchemical.

Antibiotic: A substance which is used tocontrol pest microorganisms.

Antidote: A practical treatment for poi-soning, including first aid.

Aqueous: A term used to indicate thepresence of water in a solution.

Arsenicals: Pesticides containing arsenic.Aseptic: Free of disease-causing

organisms.Bait Shyness: The tendency for rodents,

birds. or other pests to avoid a poi-soned bait.

Botanical Pesticide: A pesticide madefrom plants. Also called plant-derivedpesticides.

Broadleaf Weeds: Plants with broad,rounded, or flattened leaves.

Brush Control: Control of woody plants.Carbamate: A synthetic organic pesticide

containing carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen.and sulfur.

Carcinogenic: Can cause cancer.Carrier: The inert liquid or sold material

added to an active ingredient to pre-pare a pesticide formulation.

Causal Organism: The organism(pathogen) that produces a specific disease.

Chemosterilant: A chemical that can pre-vent reproduction.

Chlorinated Hydrocarbon: A syntheticorganic pesticide that contains chlorine,carbon. and hydrogen. Same asorganochlorine.

Chlorosis: The yellowing of a plant’sgreen tissue.

Cholinesterase: A chemical catalyst (enzyme) found in animals that helpsregulate the activity of nerve impulses.

Compatible: When two or more chemi-cals can be mixed without affectingeach other’s properties, they are said tobe compatible.

Concentration: The amount of active in-gredient in a given volume or weightof formulation.

Contaminate: To make impure or to pollute.

Corrosion: The process of wearing awayby chemical means.

Crucifers: Plants belonging to the mus-tard family, such as mustard, cabbage.turnip, and radish.

Cucurbits: Plants belonging to the gourdfamily, such as pumpkin, cucumber,and squash.

Deciduous Plants: Perennial plants thatlose their leaves during the winter.

Deflocculating Agent: A material addedto a suspension to prevent settling.

Degradation: The process by which achemical is reduced to a less complexform.

Dermal: Of the skin; through or by theskin.

Dermal Toxicity: Ability of a chemical tocause injury when absorbed throughthe skin.

Diluent: Any liquid or solid ma terialused to dilute or carry an active ingredient.

Dilute: To make thinner by adding water,another liquid, or a solid.

Dispersing Agent: A material that re-duces the attraction between particles.

Dormant: Stale in which growth of seedsor other plant organs stops temporarily.

Dose, Dosage: Quantity of a pesticide applied.

Economic Injury Level: The lowest num-ber of pests that will cause an amountof injury equal to the cost of applyingcontrol practices.

Economic threshold: Also called the ac-tion threshold; the pest number or den-sity at which remedial control practicesshould be taken to prevent pests fromexceeding the economic injury level.

Terms Used InPest Control

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99

Emulsifier: A chemical which aids in sus-pending one liquid in another.

Emulsion: A mixture in which one liquidis suspended as tiny drops in anotherliquid, such as oil in water.

Fungistat: A chemical that keeps fungifrom growing.

GPA: Gallons per acre.GPM: Gallons per minute.Growth Stages of Cereal Crops:

(1) Tillering—when additional shoots are developing from the flower buds. (2) Jointing—when stem internodes be -gin elongating rapidly. (3) Boot ing—when upper leaf sheath swells due tothe growth of developing spike or pan-icle. (4) Heading—when seed head isemerging from the upper leaf sheath.

Hard (water): Water containing solublesalts of calcium and magnesium andsometimes iron.

Herbaceous Plant: A plant that does notdevelop woody tissue.

Hydrogen-Ion Concentration: A measureof acidity or alkalinity, expressed interms of the pH of the solution. For example, a pH of 7 is neutral, from 1 to7 is acid, and from 7 to 14 is alkaline.

Immune: Not susceptible to a disease orpoison.

Impermeable: Cannot be penetrated.Semi permeable means that some sub-stances can pass through and others cannot.

Lactation: The production of milk by ananimal, or the period during which ananimal is producing milk.

LC50: The concentration of an ac tive ingre-dient in air which is ex pected to causedeath in 50 percent of the test animalsso treated. A means of expressing thetoxicity of a compound present in air asdust, mist, gas, or vapor. It is generally ex pressed as micrograms per Liter as adust or mist but in the case of a gas orvapor as parts per million (ppm).

LD50: The dose of an active ingredienttaken by mouth or absorbed by theskin which is expected to cause deathin 50 percent of the test animals sotreated. If a chemical has an LD50 of 10 milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg) itis more toxic than one having an LD50

of 100 mg/kg.Leaching: Movement of a substance

downward or out of the soil as the re-sult of water movement.

Mammals: Warm-blooded animals thatnourish their young with milk. Theirskin is more or less covered with hair.

Miscible Liquids: Two or more liquidsthat can be mixed and will remainmixed under normal conditions.

MPH: Miles per hour.Mutagenic: Can produce genetic change.Necrosis: Localized death of living tissue

such as the death of a certain area of aleaf.

Necrotic: Showing varying degrees ofdead areas or spots.

Nitrophenols: Synthetic organic pesti-cides containing carbon, hydrogen, ni-trogen, and oxygen.

Noxious Weed: A plant defined as beingespecially undesirable or troublesome.

Oral: Of the mouth; through or by themouth.

Oral Toxicity: Ability of a pesticide tocause injury when taken by mouth.

Organic Compounds: Chemicals thatcontain carbon.

Organochlorine: Same as chlorinatedhydro-carbon.

Organophosphate: A synthetic organicpesticide containing carbon, hydrogen,and phosphorus; para thion andmalathion are two examples.

Ovicide: A chemical that destroys eggs.Pathogen: Any disease-producing

organism.Penetration: The act of entering or ability

to enter.Phytotoxic: Harmful to plants.Pollutant: An agent or chemical that

makes something impure or dirty.PPB: Parts per billion. A way to ex press

the concentration of chemicals in foods,plants, and animals. One part per bil-lion equals 1 pound in 500,000 tons.

PPM: Parts per million. A way to expressthe concentration of chemicals in foods,plants, and animals. One part per mil-lion equals 1 pound in 500 tons.

Predator: An animal that destroys or eatsother animals.

Propellant: Liquid in self-pressurizedpesticide products that forces the activeingredient from the container.

PSI: Pounds per square inch.Pubescent: Having hairy leaves or stems.Residual Activity: Persistence of pesti-

cide after application, usually in termsof continued effectiveness against tar-geted pests.

Residue: Quantities of a pesticide or pharmaceutical product that re-mains in or on food, feed, soil, water,or other substrate after application orcontamination.

Resistance: The ability of an individual orpopulation of plants or animals towithstand a physical or chemical chal-lenge that is lethal to others of its kind.Such resistance is genetically conveyedto descendants. 1) Crop varieties arebred for resistance to diseases, insects,herbicides, or drought. 2) Populationsof insects or weeds may become resis-tant to insecticides or herbicidesthrough continual use of the same typeof ma terial which eliminates individu-als most susceptible to that materialand leaves resistant ones to dominatethe population.RPM: Revolutions per minute.

Terms Used In

Pest Control

Safener: A chemical added to a pesticideor seed to keep the pesticide from in-juring the crop.

Seed Protectant: A chemical applied toseed before planting to protect seedsand new seedlings from disease and insects.

Soil Sterilant: A chemical that preventsthe growth of all plants and animals inthe soil. Soil sterilization may be tem-porary or permanent, de pend ing onthe chemical.

Soluble: Will dissolve in a liquid.Solution: Mixture of one or more sub-

stances in another in which all ingredi-ents are completely dissolved.

Solvent: A liquid which will dissolve asubstance to form a solution.

Spreader: A chemical which increases thearea that a given volume of liquid willcover on a solid or on another liquid.

Sticker: A material added to a pesticide toincrease its adherence.

Surfactant: A chemical which increasesthe emulsifying, dispersing, spreading,and wetting properties of a pesticideproduct.

Susceptible: Capable of being diseased orpoisoned; not immune.

Susceptible Species: A plant or animalthat is poisoned by moderate amountsof a pesticide.

Suspension: Finely divided solid parti-cles mixed in a liquid.

Synergism: The joint action of two ormore pesticides that is greater than thesum of their activity when used alone.

Target Pest: The pest at which a particu-lar pesticide or other control method isdirected.

Tolerance: (1) The ability of a living thingto withstand adverse conditions, suchas pest attacks, weather extremes, orpesticides. (2) The amount of pesticidethat may safely remain in or on rawfarm products at the time of sale.

Toxicant: A poisonous chemical.Trade Name: Same as brand name.Vapor Pressure: The property which

causes a chemical to evaporate. Thelower the vapor pressure, the more eas-ily it will evaporate.

Vector: A carrier, such as an insect, thattransmits a pathogen.

Viscosity: The property of liquids that de-termines whether they flow readily.Viscosity usually increases when tem-perature decreases.

Volatile: Evaporates at ordinary tempera-tures when exposed to air.

Wetting Agent: A chemical which causesa liquid to contact surfaces more thoroughly.

Terms Used In

Pest Control

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Frannie L. MillerPesticide Coordinator

Authors:Robert Bowden, Extension Specialist, Plant Pathology, Kansas State UniversityH. Leroy Brooks, Extension Specialist, Insecticides (Pesticide Safety), Kansas State UniversityF. Robert Henderson, Extension State Leader, Wildlife Damage Control Program, Kansas State UniversityRandall Higgins, Extension State Leader, Entomology, Kansas State UniversityDennis K. Kuhlman, Extension Agricultural Engineer, Pesticide Application, Kansas State UniversityLarry Leuthold, Extension Specialist, Turfgrass, Kansas State UniversityDonald E. Mock, Extension Specialist, Livestock Entomology, Kansas State UniversityDallas E. Peterson, Extension Specialist, Weed Science, Kansas State University

Consulting Staff: Appreciation is expressed to the following for review of the material in this manual:Jerry Dreher, Ford County Extension Agent, AgricultureDale Ladd, McPherson County Extension Agent, Agriculture and Community DevelopmentArt Johnson, Jefferson County Extension Agent, AgricultureJoe Smith, Montgomery County Extension Agent, AgricultureRick Snell, Barton County Extension Agent, Agriculture

Acknowledgments: Appreciation is expressed to the following for cooperation in the Private Pesticide Applicator Training Program:Jeanne Fox, Ecological Specialist, Pesticide Use Section, Plant Health Division, Kansas Department of AgricultureSue Ann Funk, Pesticide Use Section, Plant Health Division, Kansas Department of AgricultureGary Boutz, Administrator, Pesticide Use Section, Plant Health Division, Kansas Department of Agriculture

Brand names appearing in this publication are for product identification purposes only. No endorsement is intended, nor is criticism implied of similar products not mentioned.

Publications from Kansas State University are available at www.bookstore.ksre.ksu.edu

Date shown is that of publication or last revision. Contents of this publication may be freely reproduced for educational purposes. All other rights reserved. In each case, credit Frannie L. Miller, et al., Private Pesticide Applicator Manual, Kansas State University, February 1997.

Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service

It is the policy of Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service that all persons shall have equal opportunity and access to its educational programs, services, activities, and materials without regard to race, color, religion, national origin, sex, age or disability. Kansas State University is an equal opportunity organization. Issued in furtherance of Coop-erative Extension Work, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, as amended. Kansas State University, County Extension Councils, Extension Districts, and United States Department of Agriculture Cooperating, Marc A. Johnson, Director.

February 1997 MF531