Methods of Methods of ComparisonComparison

Direct vs. Inverse Direct vs. Inverse RelationshipsRelationships

►Direct – Direct – If one variable increases, the If one variable increases, the other variable also increasesother variable also increases

►Ex.) As education increases, literacy Ex.) As education increases, literacy rate increasesrate increases

►InverseInverse – One variable decreases as – One variable decreases as another increasesanother increases

►Ex.) As education increases, rate of Ex.) As education increases, rate of unemployment decreasesunemployment decreases

Normative vs. Empirical Normative vs. Empirical ApproachesApproaches

► EmpiricalEmpirical – describes and explains facts – describes and explains facts and factual relationshipsand factual relationships Free from value statementsFree from value statements

► Ex.) The U.S. has a higher level of Ex.) The U.S. has a higher level of economic development than Nigeria.economic development than Nigeria.

►NormativeNormative – deals with what one thinks – deals with what one thinks should beshould be or what or what ought to beought to be Usually deals with value statements such as Usually deals with value statements such as

“right” or “wrong”, or “good” or “bad”“right” or “wrong”, or “good” or “bad”► Ex.) Nigeria would be better off with more Ex.) Nigeria would be better off with more

foreign investment.foreign investment.

Correlation and CausationCorrelation and Causation► It may rain whenever I wash my car, It may rain whenever I wash my car,

but washing my car is not the cause of but washing my car is not the cause of the rain.the rain. This relationship isn’t based on This relationship isn’t based on causationcausation, ,

just simply just simply correlationcorrelation►CorrelationCorrelation – describes a relationship – describes a relationship

or an association b/w 2 (or more) or an association b/w 2 (or more) different variablesdifferent variables Does not necessarily mean that one Does not necessarily mean that one

variable variable causescauses the other the other

►To establish causality requires a To establish causality requires a stronger demonstration of a stronger demonstration of a cause-cause-and-effectand-effect relationship relationship This requires analysis and testingThis requires analysis and testing

Another Example: The Another Example: The correlation between TV viewing correlation between TV viewing

and ADHDand ADHD►Some say that excessive TV viewing Some say that excessive TV viewing

causescauses or at least contributes to the or at least contributes to the development of ADHD in very young development of ADHD in very young kidskids

►But, others say it might be that kids But, others say it might be that kids prone to ADHD are drawn to TVprone to ADHD are drawn to TV Thus, TV viewing is not the cause but Thus, TV viewing is not the cause but

just a symptom of ADHDjust a symptom of ADHD

Role of Bureaucracies in Modern Role of Bureaucracies in Modern Nation-StatesNation-States

►Bureaucracies = agencies that Bureaucracies = agencies that implement govt. policyimplement govt. policy

►Size and number greatly increased Size and number greatly increased throughout 20throughout 20thth century century Bureaucracies have assumed increasing Bureaucracies have assumed increasing

rule-making powers in most political rule-making powers in most political systemssystems