Methodology/ Research Plan - UniMAP Portalportal.unimap.edu.my/portal/page/portal30/Lecture...3.1...
Transcript of Methodology/ Research Plan - UniMAP Portalportal.unimap.edu.my/portal/page/portal30/Lecture...3.1...
PART ONE
Methodology/Research Plan
Chap 3 Method
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Research Approach
3.3 Population and Sampling Procedure
3.4 Research Instrument
3.5 Research Procedure
3.6 Data Analysis
3.7 Conclusion
3.2
Research Approach
Requires expertise
The nature of the participants
The variables studies
The kind of data to be collected
The instruments used to collect the data
The conditions for data collection
The technique used to analyze data
With respect to Data …
What are the data needed?
Where are the data located?
How will the data be secured?
How will the data be interpreted?
Data: Generic Areas
People
Things
Records
Thoughts and Ideas
Dynamics and Energy
Method
Participants
Instruments
Design
Procedure
Data Analysis
Time Schedule
Research Design/Plan
It is planning
Complete strategy of ‘attack’ upon the central research problem
Visualization of the data and the problems associated …
Detailed description of the procedures that use to investigate topic or problems
Definition
In Quantitative Research, the hypothesis will be the basis for determining the participant group, the measuring instruments, as well as the design, procedures and statistical techniques used
In Qualitative Research, the researcher’s question will be the basis for gaining entrance to the research context identifying research participants, time in the field, how to gather data, interpreting and narrating the data collected
Purpose
1. Forces to think every aspect of the study
2. Facilitates the evaluation of the study
3. To provide detailed procedures to guide conduct of the study
4. Anticipating potential problems
Considerations/Ethical
The ethics of conducting research
There are legal restrictions on who can obtain access to [respondent] records
Should know strategies for achieving and maintaining cooperation from [organisation/instiution] personnel
Anonymity and confidentiality
Research Methodology
Method, a way of accomplishing an end result.
Methodology merely an operational framework within which the facts are placed so that the meaning may be seen more clearly; for reaching a desired end.
Research Approaches
The descriptive survey method (qualitative) sometimes called the normative survey method.
The analytical survey method (quantitative)
The historical method
The experimental method
Action research
Descriptive research
The analysis of the relationships between manipulated variables, development of generalizations; extending conclusions beyond the sample observed
Descriptive studies
Assessment – describes the status of phenomena at a particular time without value judgment, explanation of reasons
Evaluation – status of element of value judgment in terms of effectiveness; suggest a course of action; no generalization.
Experimental Research
The researcher manipulates at least one independent variable, control other relevant variables, and observes the effect on one or more dependent variables
Logical and systematic way to answer RQ
The independent variable, the cause or treatment believed to make a difference
Hyphotesized cause-effect relationships
Historical Research
The application of scientific method to the description and analysis of past events.
Limitations – too broadly, inadequate primary sources of data, unskillful historians criticism, personal bias, ineffective reporting
Qualitative or Quantitative
… opposite? not the case … quantification for describing … qualitative … others form of inquiry .. Nothing to do with quality … form of presentation …[Eisner, W, 1991]
Triangulation
The nature of the data and the problem for research dictate the research methodology.
Qualitative
Strive to capture the human meanings of social life as lived and experienced by the research participants.
Rely heavily on verbal description, researchers are their own main instrument of data collection, interpretation, and written narratives; the researcher is the research method.
Rooted in the disciplines of sociology, ethnography, anthropology, philosophy, and history
The process are real-world setting Data are descriptive Inductive data analysis Strive to describe meaning as seen from the
research participants Emphasizes a holistic approach to settings &
participants Topics are more general Interpretive research
Qualitative Approaches
Focus on a characteristics of a single person or phenomena or entity (case study)
Focus in depth on a group’s cultural patterns and perspectives to understand the behaviors and their context (ethnography study)
Examine multiple cultures compared to one another (ethology)
Examines people’s understanding of their daily activities (ethomethodology)
Some drive theory using multiple steps of data collection and link actions (grounded theory); some ask what is the meaning of this experience for these participants (phenomenology); some seek what common understandings have emerged to give meanings to interaction (symbolic interaction);
Interviewing, asking questions and conversations
Some seek solutions or improvement (action research); Classroom observations
Some seek to understand the past (historical research); Documentary research
Ethnography
Concerned with a single or a small number of cases or ranges of situation. Data wide range of sources through participation, observation and documentation; principles of naturalism; and principles of understandings
Case Studies/Field Study
Concern with the rich and vivid description of events within the case or situation
Chronological narrative of events within the case; integral involvement of the researcher
Data gathered directly from individuals or social or community groups in their natural environment for studying
Temporal characteristics; geog parameters; boundaries; individual in a particular context; characteristics of the group; role of function; shaped of organizational or institutional arrangements
Case Study Triangulation – Time; Setting/’Ruang’; Observer
Categories – Intrinsic; Instrumental (Theory); Collective Case Studies (Few Instrumental Case)
Type – Exploratory; Explanation; Descriptive
Procedures/Design
- Snapshot
- Longitudinal
- Pretest-posttest
- Patchwork
- Comparative
Field Work/Study
1. Observation
Interaction observation
Program observation
Demography observation
2. Systematic Observation
Non-verbal incident
Linguistic and
Extra-linguistic incident (+ behavior)
‘Space’ incident
3. Systematic Observation Sampling Method
Continuous Time sampling
Incident sampling
4. Role of the Observer
5. Recording of Incident
6. Structural Observation
Standard Interview
Structured interview
Survey interview
Semi-structured interview
Group interview (structured or semi-structured)
Non-standard Interview
Group interview
Ethnography interview
Oral history and life history
Informal interview
Conversation
Types of Question used
Action Research*
Systematic inquiry to collect and study data that can help to understand and improve own practice.
Reflect own practices, identify areas that need improvement,
Collect data pertinent to issue of interest, analyze data and to determine whether results do in fact improve practice or understanding
Should;
Be an alternative to the experimental method
Consider words as the elements of data
Be primarily inductive approach to data analysis, and
Result in theory development as an outcome of data analysis.
Strategies
1. Narrow the time or resource of the topic2. Narrow the audience to be addressed3. Narrow the number of participants to save time
and analysis4. Examine the literature to determine the scale of
the study5. Look at potential problems6. Share with colleague7. Obtain advice of more experienced researchers
Characteristics of Qualitative Research
Variety of setting, multidisciplinary
Focus upon natural, ordinary, routine
Data collected in a number of way
Inductive way
Developing grounded theories
Emergent, creative and open-ended
QUANTITATIVE
Description and explanation oriented; trends, comparison of groups, relationships among variables
Measurable, observable data; numeric; large number of individuals
Specific and narrow Predetermined instruments Statistical analysis Standard and fixed Objective and unbiased
Survey Research
Collecting data to test hypotheses or to answer questions, some topic or issue
Descriptive in nature; education, political science, sociology, economics
Data collected through self-report, observation, questionnaires, telephone surveys, interviews.
Categorized in terms of cross-sectional, longitudinal. Public opinion pools are always sample surveys
Types of Surveys
Developmental Surveys – concerned primarily with variables that differentiate participants at different levels of age, growth, maturation
Follow-up Studies/survey - to determine the status of group after some period of time
Trend Survey – info about trend Cohort Survey – a specific population; same group but
different samples from the group over time Panel Survey – same group same sample over time Observational Research
Correlational Research
Treated as a type of descriptive research, because it does describe an existing condition.
Collecting data to determine whether and to what degree a relationship exists between two or more variables; the variables correlated should have some theoretical or experimental basis for selection
Relationships to make predictions
Types
Relationship Studies – to gain insight into the variables that are related to complex variables such as, motivation, academic achievement, and self-concept. Give direction to subsequent casual-comparative and experimental studies
Prediction studies – conducted to facilitate decision making concerning individuals; predictor [the prediction is made] and criterion [the variable predicted];
Causal-Comparative Research/ Ex-post facto
Attempts to determine reasons, or causes, for the existing condition in the behavior or status of groups.
Important difference with correlational studies is that it involve two or more groups and one independent variable while correlation studies involve two or more variables with one group;
with experimental studies, the independent variable, the alleged cause, is manipulated, whereas the c-c it has already occurred.
Variables that cannot be manipulated; should not be manipulated or simply are not manipulated
May lead to experimental studies, but only a relationship established and tentative
Lack of randomization, manipulation and control are all sources of weakness
Approaches
1. Retrospective – it starts with an effect and seeks its possible causes.
2. Prospective – starting with a cause and investigating its effect in some variable.
Experimental Research
The researcher manipulates at least one independent variable, control other relevant variables, and observes the effect on one or more dependent variables
The independent variable, the cause or treatment believed to make a difference. The dependent variable, also called the criterion variable, effect, or post-test, is the outcome of the study
Hypothesized cause-effect relationships.
Guided by at least one hypothesis
The researcher selects a group, decides what treatment, controls extraneous variables, observes or measures the effect.
The experimental group [receives new] and control group [different or usual treatment]
The cause must precede the effect in time.
The cause and effect must be correlated to each other.
The correlation between cause and effect cannot be explained by anther variable.
Cause and effect are not established by statistics. Statistical techniques can only reject the null hypothesis (necessary but not sufficient).
C and E established by the application of logical thinking to well-designed experiments.
The explanation of logical process made possible by
A good theoretical framework
Appropriate participants
Appropriate experimental design
Proper selection and control of the IV
Appropriate and selection and measurement of the DV
Correct statistical model and analysis
Correct interpretation of results.
Threats to Internal Validity
History
Maturation
Testing
Instrumentation
Statistical regression
Selection bias
Expectancy
Experimental mortality (lost of participants)
Controlling Threats to Internal Validity
Randomization
Placebos
Blind Setups
Double-blind Setups
Avis effect
Designs
1. Group Experimental Designs
The one-shot case study
One group Pretest-Posttest Design
Static-group comparison
2. Single-subject Experimental Designs
A [baseline] – B [treatment]
A-B-A design; A-B-A-B Design
3. Repeated Measures Design
Within subject design
Between subject design
(Hawthorne effects)
4. Quasi Experimental Designs
Non-equivalent groups pre-post tests design
Regression discontinuity design
Time series design
Solomon Four-group design
R Oו T O2
R O3 O4
R T O5
R O6
Reversal design
O1 02 T1 O3 04 T2 O5 O6
Mixed-method
The Research Questions determines the method undertaken.
The QUAL-Quan Model
The QUAN-Qual Model
The QUAN-QUAL Model
The QUAL-QUAN Model
Triangulation
Theoretical triangulation – use of several frames of reference or perspectives in the analysis of the same set of data.
Data triangulation – gather observations through the use of variety of sampling strategies
Investigator triangulation – multiple observers, coders, interviewers, analysts
Methodological triangulation – use two or more methods of data collection within a single study
Application of Triangulation Requires
The research question must be clearly focused
The strengths and weaknesses of each chosen method must compliment each other
The methods should be selected according to their relevance to the nature of phenomenon being studied
Continual evaluation of the methodological approach done during the course of the study