MetaRep_96 - metaphoric representation.pdf

8/15/2019 MetaRep_96 - metaphoric representation.pdf

1/32

f - , , p j

; 2 - i

E L S E V I E R

Cogni t ion 60 (1996) 173-204

O G N I T I O N

n metaphoric representat ion

G r e g o r y L . M u r p h y *

Univers i ty of I ll inois 40 5 North Ma thew s Aven ue Urbana IL 61801 US A

Rec eived 9 January 199 5, f inal vers ion accep ted 17 January 1996

A b s t r a c t

The ar t ic le d iscusses claims that conceptual s t ructure is in some par t metaphor ical , as

identified by verbal metaphors l ike LOV E IS A JOU RNEY. Tw o m ain in terpretat ions of

this view are discussed. In the f irst, a target domain is not explicitly represented but is

instead unders tood through reference to a d if ferent domain . For example, ra ther than a

detai led concep t of love per se , one could m ake reference to the concept of a journey. In the

seco nd interpretation, there is a separate representation o f love but the content of that

representat ion is inf luenced by the me taphor such that the

love

concept takes on the same

structure as

the journey

concept. It is argu ed that the first interpretation is not fully coh eren t.

Th e se cond interpretation is a possible theory of me ntal representation, but the article raises

a num ber of emp ir ical and theoret ical problems for i t. I t is con cluded that m any of the data

ci ted as evidence for metaphor ic representat ions can be accounted for by s tructural

s imilar i ty between domains .

1 I n t r o d u c t i o n

A n i n t r i g u i n g v i e w h a s r e c e n t l y a r i s e n i n c o g n i t i v e s c i e n c e c o n c e r n i n g t h e

n a t u r e o f m e n t a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . T h i s v i e w i s e x e m p l i f i e d b y t h e f o l l o w i n g

p a s s a g e s :

. . . m o s t p e o p l e t h i n k t h e y c a n g e t a l o n g p e r f e c t ly w e l l w i t h o u t m e t a p h o r .

W e h a v e f o u n d , o n t h e c o n t r a r y, t h a t m e t a p h o r i s p e r v a s i v e i n e v e r y d a y l if e ,

n o t j u s t i n l a n g u a g e b u t i n t h o u g h t a n d a c t io n . O u r o r d i n a r y c o n c e p t u a l

s y s t e m , i n t e r m s o f w h i c h w e b o t h t h i n k a n d a c t , i s f u n d a m e n t a l l y

m e t a p h o r i c a l i n n a tu r e . ( L a k o f f a n d J o h n s o n , 1 9 80 , p . 3 )

* E-mail: g mu rphy@ s.psych.uiuc.edu.

001 0-0 27 7/9 6/$ 15 .00 © 1996 Elsevier Science B.V. All r ights reserved

P I I S 0 0 1 0 - 0 2 7 7 ( 9 6 ) 0 0 7 - 1


2/32

174 G.L. Mu rphy / Cognit ion 6 0 1996) 173 -20 4

T h e b a s i c - l e v e l m e t a p h o r s a l l o w u s t o c o m p r e h e n d a n d d r a w i n f e r e n c e s

abou t t he se [ emot ion] concep t s , us ing our knowledge o f f ami l i a r , we l l -

s t ruc tured domains . (Kovecses , 1986, p . 117)

I n shor t , t he l ocus o f me taphor i s no t i n l anguage a t a l l , bu t i n t he way

we concep tua l i ze one menta l doma in in t e r ms o f ano the r . ( L akof f , 1993 ,

p . 203)

. . . h u m a n c o g n i t i o n is f u n d a m e n t a l l y s h a p e d b y v a r io u s p o e ti c o r fi g u ra t iv e

processes. (Gibbs, 1994, p. 1)

As the se quo ta t ions i nd i ca t e , some r e sea r che r s i n cogn i t i on and l anguage have

a r gued tha t m en ta l r ep r e sen ta t ion is a t l e a s t i n pa r t me tapho r i c . Ra th e r t han see ing

m e t a p h o r s a s b e i n g s o l e l y o r e v e n p r i m a r i l y a l i n g u i s t i c p h e n o m e n o n , t h e y h a v e

pr oposed i t a s a mode o f r epr e sen ta t ion and though t . T he r ea son ing beh ind th i s i s

t ha t c e r ta in a spec ts o f ou r kno wled ge a r e d i f fi cu l t f o r peop le t o r epr e sen t : T hey a r e

ove r ly abs t r ac t and complex , and the r e f o r e t hey a r e r epr e sen ted in t e r ms o f

ea s i e r -to - unde r s t and dom a ins , t ha t i s, m e tapho r i ca l ly ( Kovecse s , 1986 , p . 6 ;

L akof f , 1987, pp . 84- 85 ; L ak of f and Johnson , 1980 , p . 115). T hus , wh en we th ink

about abs t rac t ideas such as inflation the m ind o r ange r w e u s e m o r e c o n c r e t e

concep t s , a p r ocess which "a l lows us t o r e f e r t o i t [ an abs t r ac t concep t ] , quan t i f y

i t, i den t i f y a pa r t i cu l a r a spec t o f i t . . . and pe r haps even be l i eve tha t we

unde r s t and i t " ( L a ko f f and Johnso n , 1980 , p . 26) .

T he a r gument f o r me taphor i c r epr e sen ta t ion i s o f t en made a s pa r t o f an

a r g u m e n t f o r C o g n i t i v e L in g u i s ti c s, a s c h a m p i o n e d b y L a k o f f a n d h i s c o l l e ag u e s .

How eve r , I be l i eve tha t the i s sue o f m e taphor i c r epr e sen ta t ion i s an in t e r e s t ing and

r ad ica l i dea wh ich de se r ves a t t en t ion in i ts ow n r igh t. L ak of f ( 1987) and L ako f f

a n d J o h n s o n ( 1 9 8 0 ) p r e s en t th e u s e o f m e t a p h o r in t h o u g h t as j u s t o n e p a r t o f a n

ove r a r ch ing theor y o f t he na tu r e o f t he mind . Bu t t he i r a r gument s abou t

"ob jec t iv i s t me taphys i c s , " gene r a t ive appr oaches t o l i ngu i s t i c s and o the r con t r o -

ve r s i a l i dea s may have d r awn a t t en t ion away f r om th i s spec i f i c c l a im. T he r e f o r e ,

i n t h i s a r t i c l e I w i l l examine me taphor i c r epr e sen ta t ion a s a t heor y o f concep tua l

s t r uc tu r e . I w i l l no t be addr e ss ing mos t o f t he o the r v i ews o f i t s p r oponen t s . Of

those v i ews , me taphor i c r epr e sen ta t ion ha s p r obab ly had the mos t d i r ec t i n f luence

o n p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e se a rc h , t h r o u g h t h e o r ie s o f i d i o m a n d m e t a p h o r c o m p r e h e n s i o n

(see Gibbs , 1992, Gibbs , 1993; Gibbs and O 'Br ien, 1990; Glucksberg, 1993;

Keysa r and B ly , i n p r e ss ) . T ha t sa id , howeve r , i t w i l l be imposs ib l e t o avo id

m e n t i o n i n g o t h e r v ie w s e x p r e s se d b y L a k o f f a n d J o h n s o n ( 1 9 8 0 ) o r L a k o f f

( 1987) , because some of t hem a r e used to p r ov ide suppor t f o r t he no t ion o f

me taphor i c r epr e sen ta t ion .

T he nex t sec t ion o f t h i s a r t i c l e w i l l b r i e f ly r ev i ew bas i c t e r mino logy and f ac t s

abou t l i ngu i s t i c me taphor . T hen two no t ions o f me taphor i c r epr e sen ta t ion w i l l be

desc r ibed and c r i t ic i zed , in t u r n . F ina l ly , I w i l l d r aw some co nc lus ion s on h ow

pr oponen t s o f t h i s v i ew migh t addr e ss t he p r ob lems r a i sed in t h i s a r t i c l e .


3/32

G.L. Murphy / Cognit ion 60 1996) 17 3-2 04 175

2 Metaphor

On e d i s ad v an tag e in d i s cu s s in g me tap h o r ic r ep re s en ta t io n i s th a t i t i s n ece s s a ry

to d i s cu s s v e rb a l me tap h o r . An d a s i s we l l k n o wn , me tap h o r i s o n e o f th e mo s t

d i f f icu l t an d in t r an s ig en t p ro b lems in l an g u ag e . I n d eed , ev en d e f in in g m e tap h o r i s

b y n o mean s an ea s y t a s k . Fo r th e p r e s en t p u rp o s e s , t h en , a m in ima l d e s c r ip t io n

(no t rea l ly a def in i t ion) wi l l have to su f f ice .

In verba l metaphor , there a re usua l ly two exp l ic i t par ts : a topic wh ich i s th e

en t i ty b e in g t a lk ed ab o u t , an d th e vehicle wh ich i s th e me tap h o r ic ma te r i a l b e in g

pred ica ted o f the top ic . (Some au thors re fe r to these as the target and source

r e s p ec t iv e ly . ) Fo r ex amp le , in L ee is a block of ice Lee is the top ic , and block of

ice i s t h e v eh ic le . T h e imp l i c i t co n n ec t io n b e tween th e two i s o f t en r e f e r r ed to a s

the

ground.

In th is case , the g round is tha t b locks o f ice have a co ld tempera tu re ,

an d th i s i s in t e rp re ted in t e rms o f emo t io n a l u n re s p o n s iv en es s . M o re g en e ra l ly , th e

r e la t io n b e tween t emp e ra tu r e an d emo t io n p ro v id es th e g ro u n d .

In o rd e r f o r a s en ten ce to b e p e r ce iv ed a s me tap h o r ic , t h e v eh ic le c an n o t ap p ly

in a s t ra igh t fo rward way to the top ic . For example , Lee is an attorney does no t ( in

th i s co n tex t ) r eq u i r e an y s p ec ia l g ro u n d fo r i t s in t e rp r e ta t io n . T h e u s u a l , f ami l i a r

m e a n i n g o f attorney spec i f ies a person wi th a par t icu la r p ro fess ion , and s ince Lee

i s t h e n ame o f a p e r s o n , th e r e i s n o in co n s i s t en cy in ca l l in g L ee an a t to rn ey .

H o w e v e r , block of ice l i t e r a l ly mean s th e s o l id , f r o zen s t a t e o f th e s u b s tan ce H 2 0 ,

an d s in ce a p e r s o n i s ty p ica l ly n e i th e r H2 0 n o r f ro zen , th i s p red ica te c an n o t b e

ap p l i ed to L ee in a s t r a ig h t fo rward way . T h e re mu s t b e s o me k in d o f map p in g

f ro m th e u s u a l mean in g o f th i s p h ra s e to th e co n v ey ed , n o n l i t e r a l mean in g .

I t i s no t necessary tha t someth ing have no l i te ra l in te rp re ta t ion in o rder to be

in te rp re ted as a m etap hor , as has o f ten been po in ted ou t (e.g. , K eysar , t989 ;

Mo rg an , 1 9 7 9 ) . Fo r ex amp le , a ( b ad ) ro ck ' n ' r o l l s o n g in c lu d ed th e ly r i c "A g u y

co u ld g e t p n eu mo n ia s i t t i n g n ex t to y o u . " Al th o u g h th i s h a s a c l ea r l i t e r a l

in t e rp r e ta t io n (p e rh ap s th e ad d re s s ee h ad v i r a l p n eu mo n ia ) , i n th e co n tex t o f th e

s o n g th e me tap h o r ic in t e rp r e ta t io n , ag a in eq u a t in g t emp e ra tu r e wi th emo t io n a l

p ro p e r t i e s , was mu ch mo re s a l i en t . I n th a t in t e rp r e ta t io n th e r e was a map p in g

b e tween th e l i t e r a l mean in g ( ca tch in g a d i s ea s e ) an d th e in t en d ed mean in g

(emot iona l co ldness ) .

Al th o u g h th i s b r i e f d e s c r ip t io n h a s n o t g o n e v e ry f a r in d e f in in g me tap h o r ,

mu ch t e s s ex p la in in g h o w p eo p le u n d e r s t an d i t , i t i n c lu d es two p o in t s th a t wi l l b e

imp o r tan t l a t e r . F i r s t , u n d e r s t an d in g a me tap h o r r eq u i r e s o n e to g o b ey o n d th e

l i te ra l , s t ra igh t fo rward in te rp re ta t ion o f the veh ic le . In some sense , Lee i s c lear ly

n o t a b lo ck o f i c e , b i l lb o a rd s a r e n o t r e a l ly w a r ts , en cy c lo p ed ia s a r e n o t r e a l ly g o ld

min es , an d s o o n . No te th a t th i s c l a im d o es n o t a s s u me an y p a r t i cu la r p s y ch o -

l in g u i s t i c mo d e l o f h o w me tap h o r s a r e u n d e r s to o d . T h a t i s , a l th o u g h me tap h o r s

can be iden t i f ied as d i f fe ren t f rom l i te ra l sen tences , th is does no t en ta i l tha t

metaphors a re more d i f f icu l t to unders tand o r tha t l i te ra l language has p r io r i ty ( see

Gibbs , 1984 , Gibbs , 1994 ; Keysar , 1989 ; Or tony e t a l . , 1978) . My po in t i s on ly

tha t Lee is a block of ice a n d Put a block of ice in the cooler i n v o lv e r a th e r

d i f fe ren t in te rp re ta t ions o f block of ice.


4/32

176 G.L. Murphy / Cognit ion 60 1996) 173 -20 4

Seco n d , th e in t e rp r e ta t io n o f a me tap h o r r eq u i r e s co n s t ru c t in g a r e l a t io n ( th e

g ro u n d ) o r a cce s s in g a map p in g b e tween th e to p ic d o ma in an d th e v eh ic le d o ma in

(B lack , 1 9 7 9 ) . I n o rd e r to u n d e r s t an d L ee i s a b lock o f i ce and Encyc loped ias a re

go ld mines co ld n es s mu s t b e eq u a ted wi th emo t io n a l u n re s p o n s iv en es s , an d th e

f in an c ia l v a lu e o f a g o ld min e mu s t b e r e l a t ed to th e in t e l l e c tu a l v a lu e o f an

en cy c lo p ed ia . Un le s s th i s co n n ec t io n i s mad e , th e s en ten ce ap p ea r s an o ma lo u s o r

jus t fa lse .

A l th o u g h L a k o f f an d J o h n s o n (1 9 8 0 ) d o n o t p ro v id e a d e ta i l ed th eo ry o f v e rb a l

me tap h o r , t h e i r d i s cu s s io n s eems to accep t th i s k in d o f v iew. T h a t i s , i n in s i s t in g

th a t r ep re s en ta t io n s a r e me tap h o r ic o r me to n y m ic , th ey a r e co n t r a s tin g th em w i th a

mo re s t r a ig h t fo rward r e l a t io n ( ca l l ed

direct unders tanding

b y L a k o f f a n d J o h n so n ,

1980 , pp . 176 f f .) . (Hen cefo r th I sha l l re fe r to La ko f f and John son , 1980 , as

" L & J . " ) S i n c e t h e m e t a p h o r i c r e l a t i o n i s n o t d i r e c t , s o m e k i n d o f m a p p i n g i s

n eces s a ry . An d in f ac t , mu ch o f L & J an d Ko v ecs e s (1 9 8 6 ) co n s i s t s in s p e l l in g o u t

th e map p in g s b eh in d v a r io u s co n cep tu a l me tap h o r s .

3 Tw o in terpreta t ions o f metaphor ic representa t ion

As l in g u i s t an d p h i lo s o p h e r , r e s p ec t iv e ly , L ak o f f an d J o h n s o n d o n o t p ro v id e a

d e ta i l ed p s y ch o lo g ica l mo d e l o f me tap h o r ic r ep re s en ta t io n , n o r a p ro ces s mo d e l

fo r h o w s u ch r ep re s en ta t io n s w o u ld b e u s ed in u n d e r s t an d in g an d th o u g h t - a t

l e a st , mo d e l s o f th e s o r t ex p ec ted in co g n i t iv e p s y ch o lo g y . No n e th e le s s , t h ey mak e

cons tan t re fe rence to concep tua l s t ruc tu re , though t and unders tand ing (e .g . , s ee the

o p en in g q u o ta t io n ) . Mo s t o f th e l i t e r a tu r e o n me tap h o r ic co n cep t s f o cu s e s o n

rep re s en ta tio n , w i th l it t l e to s ay ab o u t p ro ces s . C o g n i t iv e p s y ch o lo g y h a s lo n g h e ld

th a t b o th r ep re s en ta t io n an d p ro ces s a r e n eces s a ry to d e f in e an y p s y ch o lo g ica l

mo d e l , b ecau s e i t i s t h e p ro ces s e s th a t t r an s fo rm th e r ep re s en ta t io n s in to o v e r t

b eh av io r (An d e r s o n , 1 97 8) . T h u s , l a ck in g an ex p l i c i t p s y ch o lo g ica l mo d e l o f

me tap h o r ic r ep re s en ta t io n , i t w i l l b e n eces s a ry fo r me to mak e ce r t a in a s s u mp t io n s

ab o u t h o w me tap h o r ic r ep re s en ta t io n s a r e co n s t ru c ted an d u s ed . I h av e mad e wh a t

I b e l i ev e to b e p lau s ib le a s s u mp t io n s ab o u t p ro ces s in g , b u t wi th o u t d e ta i l ed

d i s cu s s io n in mo s t d e s c r ip t io n s o f me tap h o r ic r ep re s en ta t io n i t i s p o s s ib le th a t I

h av e mis s ed o th e r p o s s ib i l i t i e s . I n s h o r t , t h i s a r t i c l e i s ab o u t th e p s y ch o lo g ica l

mo d e l I h av e d e r iv ed f ro m th e wr i t in g s o f L & J ( an d o th e r s ) r a th e r th an b e in g

ab o u t th e i r o wn ex p l i c i t mo d e l s . Ho wev e r , i t i s s u r e ly in cu mb en t o n th e

p ro p o n en t s th ems e lv es to mak e s u ch ma t t e r s c l ea r , an d th e l a ck o f a d e ta i l ed

p ro ces s in g mo d e l i s a p ro b lem wi th th e v iew a s a p s y ch o lo g ica l a cco u n t o f

concep tua l s t ruc tu re .

I wi l l d e s c r ib e two g en e ra l in t e rp r e ta t io n s o f th e c l a im fo r me tap h o r ic

r ep re s en ta t io n , wh ich I c a l l t h e

s t rong

a n d

w e a k

vers ions . In b r ie f , the s t rong

v e r s io n a rg u es th a t s o me co n cep t s a r e n o t u n d e r s to o d v ia th e i r o w n r ep re s en ta t io n s

b u t in s t ead b y (me tap h o r ic ) r e f e r en ce to a d i f f e r en t d o ma in . We d o n ' t r e a l ly

u n d e r s t an d emo t io n s v e ry we l l , f o r ex amp le , an d s o we th in k o f th em in t e rms o f

t emp e ra tu r e s , wh ich we d o u n d e r s t an d . T h e weak v e r s io n d o es n o t c l a im th a t we


5/32

G.L. Murphy / Cognition 60 1996) 173 -204

177

think of actual temperatures when considering emotions, but instead that we do

have a well-developed conceptual structure for emotions (or whatever). However,

the existence of systematic verbal metaphors in our culture has influenced the

structure of our concepts so that they are consistent with the metaphor. That is, the

structure of the domain of emotions has been influenced by the many metaphors

relating emotions to temperatures.

3 1 The s trong vers ion o f metaph or ic representa tion

In the strong version of metaphoric representation, some mental representation

is metaphorical in the same sense that Lee i s a b lock o f ice is metaphorical: One

thing is understood through its relation to another thing that is not truly (literally)

the same sort of entity. L&J (p. 176) acknowledge that there are some things that

are directly (nonmetaphorically) understood, via our immediate experience with

our environment. But this is not true for all concepts: many aspects of our

experience cannot be clearly delineated in terms of the naturally emergent

dimensions of our experience. This is typically the case for human emotions,

abstract concepts, mental activity .. . Though most of these can be exper ienced

directly, none of them can be fully comprehended on their own terms. Instead, we

must understand them in terms of other entities and experiences, typically other

kinds of entities and experiences (p. 177). Thus, the strong version of metaphoric

representation takes the notion of understanding one thing in terms of another

seriously. One reason for these metaphoric mappings is that an abstract concept

becomes g r o u n d e d through its relation to a more basic domain. Eventually, the

mappings may lead back to sensorimotor or other bodily bases for concepts (L&J,

Chs. 12-13).

For example, take the metaphor ARGUMENT IS WAR (L&J capitalize

conceptual metaphors). This metaphor is evidenced by a number of common

expressions (L&J, p. 4, italics in the original, indicating the metaphoric com-

ponent):

Your claims are indefens ib le

He a t t a c k e d e v er y w e a k p o i n t in my argument.

His criticisms were

r ight on target

I demol i shed his argument.

In the strong view, our direct representation of arguments is a set of connections

to another domain, which provides an interpretation of the entities in the argumen t

concept. For example, the matter under dispute in the argument corresponds to the

object (land, power) being fought over in a war. Each person is interpreted as a

combatant; the arguments are weapons used to protect one 's own view or to attack

the opponent's; arguments in favor of one's position are viewed as defenses;

arguments criticizing the other person's assumptions or position are viewed as

offensive maneuvers; and so on. On this view, when I think about arguments, I use

my knowledge of war to reason about and understand the argument.


6/32

178 G,L. Murphy / Cognit ion 6 0 1996) 173 -20 4

W h en s t a ted ex p l i c i t ly , t h e s t r o n g v iew m ay s eem to o ex t reme to d e s c r ib e

an y o n e ' s v i ew. No n e th e le s s , s o me o f th e s t r o n g es t c l a ims mad e fo r me tap h o r ic

represen ta t ion seem to requ ire th is so r t o f rep resen ta t ion . And , as I wi l l a rgue

b e lo w, s o me o f th e mo re r ecen t d i s cu s s io n s o f me tap h o r ic r ep re s en ta t io n s eem to

in c lu d e th e s t r o n g v iew a s o n e p a r t o f a mo re co mp lex th eo ry . T h u s , th i s v i ew

mer i ts fu r ther a t ten t ion .

L & J mak e i t c l e a r o n v i r tu a l ly ev e ry p ag e o f th e i r b o o k ( an d in th e t i t l e ) th a t

th ey d o n o t v i ew me tap h o r s a s s imp ly way s o f t a lk in g ab o u t th in g s : Me tap h o r s a r e

v eh ic le s o f th o u g h t . I n f ac t , L ak o f f ( 1 9 9 3 ) a rg u es th a t me tap h o r i s r e a l ly a

co n cep tu a l map p in g o f a c e r t a in k in d , an d v e rb a l me tap h o r s a r e s imp ly ex p re s -

s io n s o f th e u n d e r ly in g map p in g - th a t i s , t h e v e rb a l m e tap h o r i s s eco n d a ry . O n

the s t rong in te rp re ta t ion o f the i r v iew, there i s l i t t le s t ruc tu re to the metaphor ica l

co n cep t i t s e l f ; i n s t ead , th e s t r u c tu r e co mes f ro m th e "v eh ic le " co n cep t . Fo r

ex amp le , p eo p le d o n ' t h av e in d ep en d en t id ea s ab o u t th e p a r t s an d ev en t s in v o lv ed

in an a rg u men t . I n s t ead , w h a t th ey h a v e i s a s e t o f p o in te r s to th e i r co n cep t o f w a r .

On th e s t ro n g in te rp r e ta t io n , i t r e a l ly i s o u r co n cep t o f wa r th a t we u s e wh en

th in k in g ab o u t a rg u men ts . P e rh ap s th e r e a r e s ep a ra te u n i t s f o r th e co mp o n en t s o f

an a rgument , such as the opponen ts , the pos i t ions , o r the poss ib le reso lu t ions o f

th e a rg u men t . Ho w ev e r , i f th e co n ce p t i s r ep re s en ted m e tap h o r ica l ly , t h e s e

co mp o n en t s c an n o t b e in d ep en d en t ly d e f in ed an d r ep re s en ted . I n s t ead , th ey mu s t

m ere ly b e l in k ed to th e ap p ro p ri a t e e l em en t o f th e v eh ic le co n cep t. I n a r e a l s en se ,

th en , o n e d o es n o t re a l ly u n d e r s tan d an a rg u m en t - o n e o n ly u n d e r st an d s wa r , an d

th e u n d e r s t an d in g o f a rg u men ts i s p a r a s i t i c o n th i s co n cep t . S imi la r ly , L ak o f f an d

T u r n e r ( 1 9 8 9 , p . 6 2 ) s a y t h a t t h e L I F E I S A J O U R N E Y m e t a p h o r s h o w s t h a t t h e

"s t ru c tu r in g o f o u r u n d e r s t an d in g o f l i f e co mes f ro m th e s t ru c tu r e o f o u r

k n o w l e d g e a b o u t j o u r n e y s . " T h i s c l a i m s e e m s c o n s i st e n t w i t h th e s t r on g v i e w , a s

does the s ta tement (L&J , p . 5 ) ,

T h e e s s e n c e o f m e t a p h o r i s u n d e r s t a n d in g a n d

e x p e r i e n c i n g o n e k i n d o f th i n g i n te r m s o f a n o t h e r .

(See a lso Lakof f , 1993 , p .

206.)

3 . 2. T h e w e a k v ie w o f m e t a p h o r i c r e p r e s e n t a ti o n

A d i f f e r en t in t e rp r e ta t io n o f me tap h o r ic r ep re s en ta t io n i s th a t th e me tap h o r s

h av e s o me in f lu en ce o n th e r ep re s en ta t io n o f th e to p ic co n cep t s , b u t th e s e co n cep t s

n o n e th e le s s h av e th e i r o wn s ep a ra te r ep re s en ta t io n s . T h a t i s , t h e me tap h o r may

in f luence the s t ruc tu re o f the top ic conce p t , bu t the rep rese n ta t ion i t se l f i s no t

me tap h o r ic .

F o r e x a m p l e , c o n s i d e r t h e m e t a p h o r A R G U M E N T S A R E W A R . O n t h e w e a k

v i e w , t h e c o n c e p t o f a r g u m e n t h as i t s o wn r ep re s en ta t io n , s ep a ra te f ro m th a t o f

w a r . T h e co n cep t h a s s o me co n cep tu a l p r imi t iv e s an d r e l a t io n s th a t a r e n o t th e

s ame a s th a t o f

w a r -

i t s p a r t s a r e d e f in ed in th e i r o w n t e rms r a th e r th an in t e rms

o f th e me tap h o r . No n e th e le s s , o n e mig h t a rg u e th a t th e p r ev a len ce o f th i s

me tap h o r in l an g u ag e an d o u r th in k in g h a s r e s u l t ed in th e s t r u c tu r e o f th e

a r g u m e n t

co n cep t b e in g s imi la r to th e s t r u c tu r e o f th e

w a r

concep t . Thus , the


7/32

G.L. Murphy / Cognition 60 1996) 173-204 179

metap h o r h a s h ad s o me cau s a l e f f ec t o n th e co n cep t o f a r g u m e n t b u t th e

r ep re s en ta t io n o f th e co n cep t i s n o t i t s e l f me tap h o r ica l . T h e c r i ti c a l d i f f e ren ce

b e tween th e s t ro n g an d weak v e r s io n s , th en , h a s to d o wi th in d ep en d en ce o f

r ep re s en ta t io n . I n th e s t r o n g v e r s io n , I re a l ly d o n o t h av e a we l l -d ev e lo p ed co n cep t

o f a r g u m e n t s ep a ra te f ro m w a r - wh en I th in k ab o u t a rg u men ts , I u s e my

c o n c e p ts o f w a r s ( I ' m " u n d e r s t a n d i n g o n e k i n d o f t h i n g in t e rm s o f a n o t h e r " ) . I n

th e weak v e r s io n , I h av e a co mp le te , s ep a ra te co n cep t o f a r g u m e n t wh ich I u s e to

r ea s o n ab o u t a rg u men ts , b u t i t s co n ten t an d s t ru c tu r e h av e b een in f lu en ced b y my

k n o w l e d g e o f w a r .

3 . 3 . A n a l t e r n a t i v e v i e w

On e p ro b lem in th in k in g ab o u t me tap h o r ic r ep re s en ta t io n i s th a t a p l au s ib le

a l t e rn a t iv e h y p o th es i s i s n o t r e ad i ly fo u n d in L & J o r L ak o f f ( 1 9 8 7 ) . T h ey

p r imar i ly co n t r a s t th e i r v i ews wi th a co l l e c t io n o f c l a ims ab o u t me tap h y s ic s ,

l a n g u a g e a n d t h e m i n d t h a t t h e y c a l l " O b j e c t i v i s m . " T h i s m o n o l i t h i c v i e w i s o n e

th a t man y p s y ch o lo g i s t s wo u ld n o t wan t to co mmi t th ems e lv es to . No n e th e le s s ,

th ey may f ee l th a t L & J ' s s t r o n g v iews ab o u t me tap h o r ic r ep re s en ta t io n a r e n o t

co r r ec t . E v en w h en d i s cu s s in g m e tap h o r ic r ep re s en ta tio n m o re s p ec i f i c a lly , L a k o f f

(1 9 9 3 ) id en t i f i e s i t s o p p o n en t s ( th e " t r ad i t io n a l " v iew) a s h av in g v e ry ex t r eme

v iews , s u ch a s " ' A l l ev e ry d ay co n v en t io n a l l an g u ag e i s l i t e r a l , an d n o n e i s

me tap h o r ica l . A l l s u b jec t ma t t e r c an b e co mp reh en d ed l i t e r a l ly , w i th o u t

me tap h o r " (p . 2 0 4 ) . A l th o u g h th e r e may b e p eo p le wh o h o ld th e s e v iews , th e r e

s eems to b e co n s id e rab le g ro u n d b e tween th i s ex t r eme p o s i t io n an d th e m e tap h o r ic

r ep re s en ta t io n v iew, an d th i s m id d le g ro u n d i s n o t ad d re s s ed b y p ro p o n en t s o f

metaphor ic rep resen ta t ion .

I wi l l , there fo re , p ropose an a l te rna t ive hypo thes is tha t cou ld se rve as a bas is o f

co mp ar i s o n , t h e s t r u c t u r a l s i m i l a r i t y v i e w . O n th i s v i ew, th e re i s n o s t ro n g fo rm o f

m etaphor ic rep re sen ta t ion - a l l concep ts a re d i rec t ly rep resen ted . Fur thermo re , the

p rev a len ce o f me tap h o r ic way s o f t a lk in g ab o u t c e r t a in d o ma in s d o es n o t g en e ra l ly

re f lec t the in f luence o f the metaphor on the rep resen ta t ion (as in the weak vers ion) .

In s t ead , th e me tap h o r s a r i s e o u t o f th e s imi la r i ty o f p r e - ex i s t in g co n cep tu a l

s t ruc tu res (p lus a var ie ty o f d iscou rse fac to rs , d iscussed be low) . M etaph ors suc h as

A R G U M E N T I S W A R a r is e o u t o f t he s t r uc tu r al s i m i l a r i ty o f th e c o n ce p t s o f

a rg u men ts an d th e co n cep t s o f wa r s : T h e r e l a t io n s o f th e co mp o n en t s o f a r g u m e n t

can b e p ro jec ted o n to th e r e l a t io n s o f w a r i n a co h e ren t way ( s ee Gen tn e r an d

Cle m ent , 1988). So , i t is no t super f ic ia l s imi la r i ty tha t i s a t p lay here , bu t

s imi la r i ty o f re la t iona l s t ruc tu re . Th is s t ruc tu ra l s imi la r i ty permits peop le to

co n s t ru c t u n d e r s t an d ab le v e rb a l me tap h o r s . T h o s e th a t a r e th e mo s t in t e r e s t in g o r

r e v e a li n g " s t i c k " a n d m a y b e c o m e c o n v e n t i o n a l w a y s o f t a lk i n g . T h o s e t h a t a re

u n rev ea l in g o r p o o r co r r e s p o n d en ces d o n o t s t i ck an d s o d o n o t b eco me

co n v en t io n a l .

A cav ea t i s imp o r tan t h e r e . T h e s t ru c tu r a l s im i la r i ty v iew i s n o t a th eo ry o f

n o v e l v e rb a l me tap h o r . I am n o t s ay in g th a t L ee

i s a b l o c k o f i c e

m e a n s j u s t t h a t


8/32

180

G.L, Mu rphy / Cognit ion 6 0 1996) 173- 20 4

L ee i s s im i la r to i c e . T h e p o in t o f ee is a block of ice i s t o s ay s o me th in g ab o u t

L ee , n o t ju s t t o p o in t o u t a g lo b a l s im i la r i ty o f L ee an d i c e (Ca m ac an d

Glu ck s b e rg , 1 98 4; M an f r ed i an d G lu ck s b e rg , 1 99 4) . T h e s t ru c tu ra l s im i la r i ty v iew

s a y s o n ly t h at th e " c o n c e p t u a l m e t a p h o r s " i d e n ti f ie d b y L & J c a n b e e x p l a i n e d b y

co n cep tu a l s im i la r i ty wi th o u t r e s o r tin g to me tap h o r ic co n cep t s o r men ta l r e l a t io n s .

T h e s t ru c tu r a l s im i la r i ty v iew i s n o t o n e th a t I am g o in g to a rg u e fo r in d e ta i l .

My c la im i s th a t i t i s a p l au s ib le v iew th a t c an acco u n t f o r mu ch o f th e ev id en ce

ab o u t co n cep tu a l s t r u c tu r e th a t h a s b een u s ed to a rg u e fo r me tap h o r ic r ep re s en ta -

t io n . Becau s e i t d o es n o t mak e an y c l a ims ab o u t me tap h o r ic r ep re s en ta t io n ( a

n o t io n th a t wi l l s o o n b e c r i t ic i zed ) , an d b ecau s e i t d o es n o t c l a im a cau s a l r o le fo r

me tap h o r s o n men ta l r ep re s en ta t io n s , i t s eems to b e a s imp le r h y p o th es i s . As a

r e s u l t , i f i t c an n o t b e r e j ec ted in f av o r o f o n e o f th e me tap h o r v iews o n emp i r i c a l

g ro u n d s , th e s t r u c tu ra l s im i la r i ty v iew s h o u ld b e p r e fe r r ed. T h e re a r e n o d o u b t

o th e r n o n me tap h o r ic ex p lan a t io n s o f th i s ev id en ce th a t d e s e rv e a t t en t io n a s we l l .

4 Strong m etaphoric representation

T h e s t ro n g v iew o f me tap h o r ic r ep re s en ta t io n d o es n o t s eem ea s i ly t en ab le . L e t

u s c o n t i n u e w i t h t h e A R G U M E N T I S W A R e x a m p l e . M y k n o w l e d g e o f w a r

co n ta in s a co n s id e rab le amo u n t o f in fo rma t io n , wh ich i s wid e ly k n o wn in o u r

cu l tu r e . I k n o w ab o u t s p ec i f i c wa r s , ab o u t th e g en e ra l ev en t s an d s u b ev en t s

in v o lv ed in a wa r , ab o u t s o me o f th e cau s e s an d co n s eq u en ces o f wa r , ab o u t th e

co mb a tan t s , weap o n s an d b a t t l e s in v o lv ed in wa r s o f d i f f e r en t e r a s .

S u p p o s e t h a t m y c o n c e p t o f argument were ca r r i ed b y a s e t o f p o in te r s to my

war

co n cep t . My u n d e r s t an d in g o f a rg u men ts wo u ld b e in d i r ec t , t h ro u g h th e p a r t s

an d r e l a t io n s o f th e

war

co n cep t . Fo r ex amp le , th e p eo p le a rg u in g wo u ld h av e

p o in te r s to th e co mb a tan t s ; t h e s t a t emen t s mad e in th e a rg u men t wo u ld h av e

p o in te r s to th e p o s i t io n s t ak en d u r in g b a t t l e ; t h e re s u l t o f th e a rg u m en t wo u ld h av e

p o in te r s to th e o u tco m e o f th e w a r ( e .g . , i d en t i fy in g w in n e r s an d lo se r s) . I n th i s

w a y , w e c o u l d e x p l a i n w h y p e o p l e s a y " I u n d e r m i n e d h e r p o s i t i o n , " b e c a u s e h e r

a rg u men t wo u ld b e l ik e a s t r o n g h o ld th a t co u ld b e l i t e r a l ly u n d e rcu t in a b a t t l e ,

p h y s ica l ly w eak en in g i t. As in wa r , th i s wo u ld in d ica te a b ad tu rn fo r my o p p o n en t

in th e a rg u men t .

I f th e s e p o in te r s a r e l ik e m o s t o th e r p o in te r s d e s c r ib ed in th eo r ie s o f m en ta l

rep resen ta t ion (e.g. , An derso n and Bow er , 1973 ; Co l l ins and Qui l l ian , 1969;

Fah lman , 1 9 7 9 ) , t h en my co n cep t o f an a rg u men t wo u ld in c lu d e a lo t o f in co r r ec t

in fo rma t io n . Fo r ex amp le , I m ig h t th in k th a t wh en p eo p le a rg u e , th ey g o to h ig h

lo ca t io n s , in o rd e r to s h o o t an d k i l l t h e i r ad v e r sa r i e s. I m ig h t th in k th a t n ap a lm an d

m is s i l e s a r e ty p ica l ly u s ed in mo d em a rg u men ts , an d th a t th e p a r t ic ip an t s wea r

u n i fo rms . I m ig h t th in k th a t th e lo s e r o f th e a rg u me n t h a s to p ay r ep a ra t io n s to th e

win n e r , an d s o o n . Ho wev e r , I c an a s s u re th e r ead e r th a t I d o n o t th in k th e s e

th ings .

I t s eems c lea r th a t th e s e p o in te r s c an n o t b e th e u s u a l p o in te r s th a t a r e u s ed to

d e f in e a co n cep t . Fo r ex amp le , my co n cep t o f dog po in ts to var ious a t t r ibu tes , such


9/32

G.L. Murphy / Cognition 60 1996) 173-204

181

a s h a v i n g f u r , b a r k i n g , h a v i n g f o u r l e g s , b e i n g a m a m m a l , a n d s o o n . H o w e v e r ,

t h e s e p o i n t e r s a r e t ak en a s r ep re s en t i n g r ea l i ty - I d o b e l i ev e th a t d o g s a r e

( n o r m a l l y ) f o u r - l e g g e d , t h a t th e y b a r k , a r e m a m m a l s a n d h a v e f u r. W h a t i s i t a b o u t

t h e p o i n t e r s f r o m a r g u m e n t to w a r t h a t p r e v e n t t h e d r a w i n g o f i n c o r r e c t

i n f e r e n c e s ? I f a r g u m e n t f i t s L & J ' s q u o t a t i o n g i v e n e a r l i e r , " T h e e s s e n c e o f

m e t a p h o r i s u n d e r s t a n d in g a n d e x p e r i e n c i n g o n e k i n d o f t h i n g in t e rm s o f

a n o t h e r , " t h e n m y u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a r g u m e n t s s h o u l d b e v i a c o n n e c t i o n s t o t h e

a c t u a l c o n c e p t o f w a r . A n d y e t , m a n y t h i n g s I b e l i e v e a b o u t w a r s I d o n ' t b e l i e v e

a b o u t a r g u m e n t s . . . i n f a ct , m o s t t h i n g s I b e l i e v e a b o u t w a r s I d o n ' t b e l i e v e

a b o u t a r g u m e n t s , e v e n t h o u g h I c o n c u r w i t h m a n y o f t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e s t h a t

L & J p o i n t o u t .

O n e p o s s i b l e a n s w e r i s t h a t t h e p o i n t e r s b e t w e e n a r g u m e n t a n d w a r a r e n o t i n

f ac t t h e u s u a l s o r t o f p o i n t e r - o r p e rh ap s , ev e n t a l k i n g i n t e rm s o f p o i n t e r s i s

s o m e h o w m i s l e a d in g . T h e c o n n e c t i o n h e re i s n o t t h e s a m e a s th a t b e t w e e n d o g a n d

f u r o r m a m m a l I n s te a d , p e r h a p s t h e c o n n e c t i o n i ts e l f i s m e t a p h o r i c a l - a s i m p l e

p o i n t e r o r eq u a t i o n can n o t c ap t u re t h e r e l a t i o n .

T h e r e i s a s e r i o u s p r o b l e m w i t h a n y a c c o u n t r e q u i r i n g m e t a p h o r i c c o n n e c t i o n s ,

n a m e l y h o w a m e t a p h o r i c m e n t a l r e l a t i o n i s t o b e i n t e r p r e t e d . A s p o i n t e d o u t

e a r l ie r , a n y m e t a p h o r n e e d s t o b e i n t e r p re t e d , b e c a u s e t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e

t o p i c a n d v e h i c l e is n o t c o m p l e t e l y d e s c r i b e d i n th e m e t a p h o r i ts e lf . T h e s t a t e m e n t

t h a t E n c y c l o p e d i a s a r e g o l d m i n e s d o es n o t ex p l i c i t l y p o i n t o u t t h a t i t i s t h e

i n f o r m a t i o n i n e n c y c l o p e d i a s t h a t is b e i n g r e l a t e d t o t h e g o l d , a n d t h a t t h e v a l u e o f

g o l d i s b e i n g p r e d i c a t e d o f t h e v a l u e o f t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n . N o r d o e s t h e s t a t e m e n t

e x p l a i n w h a t i s i r r e l e v a n t a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t o p i c a n d v e h i c l e : I t d o e s n ' t

s a y t h a t t h e e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t i v i t y o f g o l d i s n o t b e i n g r e l a t e d t o e n c y c l o p e d i a s ; i t

d o e s n ' t s a y t h a t t h e f a c t t h a t m i n e s a r e u n d e r g r o u n d i s i r r e l e v a n t . N o n e t h e l e s s , i n

u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e m e t a p h o r , m o s t r e a d e r s w o u l d m a k e t h e v a l i d a t t r i b u t i o n s a n d

n o t t h e i n v a l i d o n e s .

T h i s l a c k o f e x p l i c i t n e s s in r e la t i n g t h e to p i c a n d v e h i c l e c a u s e s n o p r o b l e m f o r

a p e r s o n u n d e r s t a n d i n g a v e r b a l m e t a p h o r , a s s u m i n g t h e p e r s o n a l r e a d y k n o w s a

c o n s i d e ra b l e a m o u n t a b o u t e n c y c l o p e d i a s a n d g o l d m i n e s . It b e c o m e s p r o b l e m a t ic ,

h o w e v e r , w h e n i t i s t a k e n a s a m o d e l o f m e n t a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . T h e o b v i o u s

q u e s t i o n i s : w h o i s i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e m e t a p h o r i c l i n k ? P r e s u m a b l y t h e r e i s n o

h o m u n c u l u s w h o k n o w s e n o u g h a b o ut e n c y c l o p e d i a s a n d g o l d m i n e s to w o r k o u t

t h e c o r r e c t i n t e r p r e ta t i o n o f t h e m e t a p h o r i c l i n k. T h e l i n k is s u p p o s e d t o r e p r e s e n t

t h e c o n c e p t , s o i t c a n ' t r e q u i r e k n o w l e d g e a b o u t t h e c o n c e p t i n o r d e r t o w o r k .

A n o t h e r d i f fi c u lt y o f t h e s t ro n g v e r s i o n o f m e t a p h o r i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i s t h a t p a rt s

o f t h e m e t a p h o r w i l l t h e m s e l v e s b e m e t a p h o r i c a l l y u n d e r s t o o d i n m a n y i n s t a n c e s .

I n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e A R G U M E N T I S W A R m e t a p h o r , w e w o u l d n e e d t o a c c e s s

i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e e n t it i e s a n d e v e n t s i n v o l v e d i n w a r, a n d t h e m e t a p h o r i c

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n v i e w a r g u e s t h a t p e o p l e , o b j e c t s a n d e v e n t s a r e t h e m s e l v e s

r e p r e s e n t e d m e t a p h o r i c a l l y . F o r e x a m p l e , i f w e r e p r e s e n t e d t h a t t h e p e o p l e i n t h e

a r g u m e n t m i g h t g e t a n g r y , t h e n w e w o u l d h a v e t o d e a l w i t h m a n y d i f f e r e n t

m e t a p h o r s f o r a n g e r i d e n t i f ie d b y K o v e c s e s ( 1 9 8 6 ) a n d L a k o f f ( t 9 8 7 ) . T h u s , i n

u n d e r s t a n d i n g a r g u m e n t s , w e w o u l d h a v e t o m e t a p h o r i c a l l y r e a s o n a b o u t w a r ,


10/32

182

G.L. Murphy / Cognit ion 60 1996) 173 -20 4

wh ich wo u ld r eq u i r e u s to me tap h o r ica l ly r ea s o n ab o u t p eo p le , wh ich mig h t

r eq u i r e u s to me tap h o r ica l ly r ea s o n ab o u t th e i r emo t io n s , an d s o o n . I t i s u n c lea r

h o w man y emb ed d ed me tap h o r s i t i s r e a s o n ab le to ex p ec t p eo p le to b e ab le to

hand le .

In shor t , the idea tha t argument i s rep resen ted th rough a l ink (o r l inks ) to war

s im p ly d o es n o t s eem to wo rk . I f t h e l in k is a n o rma l o n e , a s ty p ica l ly u n d e r s to o d

in co g n i t iv e p s y ch o lo g y , th en in co r r ec t a t t r ib u te s o f wa r s wo u ld ro u t in e ly b e

a t t rib u ted to a rg u m en ts . I f t h e l in k i t s e l f i s me tap h o r ic , t h en th e th eo ry s eem s to b e

ap p ea l in g to a h o mu n cu lu s wh o in te rp r e t s th e me tap h o r . T h u s , I co n c lu d e th a t th e

s t ro n g v iew o f me tap h o r ic r ep re s en ta t io n i s n o t th eo re t i c a l ly co h e ren t an d s h o u ld

be re jec ted .

In co n c lu s io n , th i s s t r o n g v iew o f me tap h o r ic r ep re s en ta t io n d o es n o t ap p ea r to

b e s u cces s fu l . Ho wev e r , i t may b e th a t a l e s s amb i t io u s v e r s io n o f th e th eo ry

wo u ld d o b e t t e r . T h i s i s d i s cu s s ed in th e n ex t s ec t io n .

5 T h e w e a k v i e w o f m e t a p h o r i c r e p r es e n ta t io n

O n th e w eak v iew o f me tap h o r ic r ep re s en ta t io n , th e r ep re s en ta tio n i t s e l f i s

d i r ec t . T h a t i s , a rg u men ts a r e r ep re s en ted v ia s y mb o ls th a t s t an d fo r a rg u e r s ( n o t

combatan ts ) , c la ims (no t ba t t le pos i t ions ) , var ious a rgument par ts (no t ba t t les ) , and

s o o n . Ho wev e r , t h e co n ten t an d s t ru c tu r e o f th i s r ep re s en ta t io n i s s o meh o w

c a u s a l l y i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e m e t a p h o r A R G U M E N T I S W A R . I t i s n o t c l e a r f r o m

L & J h o w th i s c au s a l s t r u c tu r in g wo u ld wo rk - th a t i s , h o w

war

i s ch o s en a s th e

v eh ic le fo r in t e rp r e t in g argument an d h o w i t mo d i f i e s th e to p ic . My g u es s i s th a t

th e cau s a l f a c to r i s th e h ea r in g o f id io ms an d co l lo ca t io n s th a t emb o d y th e s e

me tap h o r s ( in p a r t , s in ce th ey p lace s o mu ch emp h as i s o n v e rb a l ex p re s s io n s in

th e i r wr i t in g ) . Fo r ex amp le , Ba r s a lo u e t a l . ( 1 9 9 3 , p . 5 6 ) s u g g es t th a t h ea r in g

id io ms can h av e lo n g e r - t e rm co n cep tu a l e f f ec t s : "Fo r ex amp le , th e ex p lo d in g

co n ta in e r me tap h o r [ fo r an g e r ] may l e ad s p eak e r s to b e l i ev e th a t emo t io n s r e f l e c t

p s y ch ic en e rg ie s in " r eg io n s o f th e m in d , " b r eak in g fo rth f ro m t im e to t ime to

p ro d u ce b eh av io ra l o u tb u r s t s . I n th i s way , th e me tap h o r ica l l ev e l may p ro v id e

in tu i t iv e th eo r i e s ab o u t a s p ec t s o f d i r ec t ex p e r i en ce th a t r ema in u n o b s e rv ab le . "

T h e q u es t io n a t i s s u e , th en , i s wh e th e r s u ch v e rb a l me tap h o r s c au s e o r in f lu en ce

concep tua l s t ruc tu re , as the weak v iew sugges ts , o r ins tead re f lec t p re -ex is t ing

con cep tu a l s t ruc tu re , as the s t ruc tu ra l s imi la r i ty v iew c la im s .

Un l ik e th e s t r o n g in te rp r e ta t io n o f me tap h o r ic r ep re s en ta t io n , th e weak o n e

s t r ik e s me a s a r e a s o n ab le emp i r i c a l c l a im . T h a t i s , a l th o u g h th e s p ec i f i c c au s a l

l in k i s n o t g en e ra l ly s p e l l ed o u t b y p ro p o n en t s o f me tap h o r ic r ep re s en ta t io n , i t i s

p o s s ib le to co n s t ru c t a p s y ch o lo g ica l a cco u n t o f th i s s o rt t h a t i s n o t th eo re t i c a l ly

incoheren t , as I a rgued tha t the s t rong v iew was . Thus , in th is sec t ion , I wi l l be

co n s id e r in g th e emp i r i c a l ev id en ce fo r th e weak v iew, a s we l l a s s p ec i f i c

a rg u men ts fo r an d ag a in s t i t . I w i l l a rg u e th a t th e ev id en ce d o es n o t y e t s u p p o r t

th i s v i ew v e ry w e l l , e s p ec ia l ly in r e l a t io n to th e s imp le r s t ru c tu ra l s im i la r i ty th eo ry

descr ibed ear l ie r .


11/32

G.L, Murphy / Cogni tion 60 1996) 17 3-2 04

183

5 . I . Prob l em s o f c ir cu lar it y o f ev idence

As readers on th is top ic know , a la rge por t ion , perhaps the majo r i ty o f the tex t

o f th is l i te ra tu re (e .g ., K ovecses , 1986 ; Lako f f , 1987 , Lakof f , 1993 ; L& J) i s taken

u p wi th ex amp le s o f me tap h o r s in ev e ry d ay u s e . T h i s i s th e p r imary s o u rce o f

ev id en ce th a t th e p ro p o n en t s p ro v id e fo r th e i r p o s i t io n . T h e re i s a p ro b lem wi th

th i s ev id en ce , wh ich can b e ex p la in ed b y an a lo g y to th e Sap i r -Wh o r f h y p o th es i s .

As i s we l l k n o wn , th e Wh o r f i an h y p o th es i s i s th a t l an g u ag e in f lu en ces th o u g h t b y

d e te rmin in g wh a t c a teg o r i e s an d d i s t in c t io n s we mak e . Ho wev e r , c r i t i c s o f th e

Wh o r f i an h y p o th es i s h av e p o in ted o u t th a t mu ch o f th e ev id en ce g iv en fo r i t h a s

been c i rcu la r (e .g . , Au , 1988) . A parody o f tha t ev idence goes as fo l lows .

Wh o r f i an : E s k imo s a r e g r ea t ly in f lu en ced b y th e i r l an g u ag e in th e i r p e r cep t io n

o f s n o w. Fo r ex amp le , th ey h av e N wo rd s fo r sn o w [N v a r i e s wid e ly - s ee

Pu l lum , 1991], w hereas En g l ish on ly has one , snow. Ha v in g a l l th e s e d i f f e r en t

wo rd s mak es th em th in k o f s n o w v e ry d i f f e r en t ly th an , s ay Amer ican s d o .

Sk ep t i c : Ho w d o y o u k n o w th ey th in k o f s n o w s o d i f f e r en t ly ?

W h o r f i an : L o o k a t a l l t h e wo rd s th ey h av e fo r i t N o f th em T h e y mu s t mak e a

lo t o f d i s t in c t io n s b e tween k in d s o f s n o w th a t we d o n ' t , s in ce we ju s t c a l l i t a ll

SNOW.

In th i s a rg u men t , t h e c l a im i s mad e th a t l an g u ag e in f lu en ces th o u g h t o r

p e rcep t io n . Bu t th e o n ly ev id en ce g iv e n fo r th e c l a im s ab o u t co g n i t iv e d i f f e r en ces

i s l in g u i s t i c , i n th i s c a s e th e ex ac t s ame ev id en ce a s was g iv en fo r l in g u i s t i c

d i f f e ren ces . So , th e a l l eg ed N wo rd s E s k im o s h av e fo r s n o w i s b o th th e p r ed ic to r

(a l ingu is t ic d i f fe rence) and the p red ic ted da ta ( the cogn i t ive d i f fe rence) . In the

ca s e o f th e Wh o r f i an h y p o th es i s , wh en p e rcep tu a l o r co g n i t iv e d i f f e r en ces we re

te s t ed mo re s y s tem a t i ca l ly , t h ey s e ld o m s h o w ed th e c l ea r d i ff e r en ces th a t

Whorf ians had hoped for (e .g . , Au, 1983; Heider , 1972; see Lucy, 1992, for a

mu ch mo re s y mp a th e t i c v iew o f th e h y p o th es i s ) .

T h e s ame k in d o f c r i t i c i s m co u ld b e mad e o f th e ev id en ce fo r th e weak

me tap h o r ic v iew, in my o p in io n . I n L & J , a cu l tu r a l me tap h o r i s id en t i f i ed o n th e

b as i s o f v a r io u s id io ms an d co l lo ca t io n s , s u ch a s

I des t royed her a rgumen t ; he

lambas t ed me i n c la s s ; she undermined my pos i t i on .

T h en a me tap h o r ic r ep re -

s en ta t io n i s p ro p o s ed o n th e b a s is o f th e s e d a ta , s u ch a s AR G U M E N T IS WA R.

Wh a t p r ed ic t io n s o r co n s eq u en ces a r e d e r iv ed f ro m th i s me tap h o r ic r ep re s en ta -

t ion? In L&J , i t i s fu r ther id ioms and co l loca t ions : He can t de f end aga ins t t ha t

argumen t , e tc . T h e re i s an ab s en ce o f o th e r p s y ch o lo g ica l d a ta g iv en in s u p p o r t o f

th is v iew. Lakof f (1993 , pp . 205 , 246) iden t i f ies f ive types o f ev idence fo r the

me tap h o r ic r ep re s en ta t io n v iew: Fo u r o f th em a re l in g u i s t i c ) an d o n e o f th em i s

On e ty p e o f ev id en ce L ak o f f p r o v id es i n v o lv es r ea so n in g o r " in f e r en ce p a t t e r n s . " Bu t t h e ev id en ce

for th is is apparen t ly s imi lar i ty o f verba l metaph ors across dom ains - aga in , lingu is t ic ev idence .


12/32

184 G.L. Murphy / Cognition 60 1996) 173-204

p s y ch o l in g u i s t i c ex p e r imen t s . No tab ly , n o n e o f th em p ro v id es a n o n l in g u i s t i c

meas u re o f co n cep tu a l s t r u c tu r e . S tan d a rd th eo r i e s o f co n cep t s h av e h ad imp l i ca -

t io n s fo r f in d in g s in in d u c t io n , p ro b lem-s o lv in g , o b jec t r e co g n i t io n , co n cep tu a l

d ev e lo p men t an d memo ry , amo n g o th e r a r ea s . I t wo u ld b e u s e fu l to s ee ev id en ce

fo r me tap h o r ica l co n cep t s f ro m th e s e d o ma in s , i n o rd e r to e s cap e th e l in g u i s t i c

c i rcu la r i ty .

T h e r e l i an ce o n l in g u i s t i c ex p re s s io n s r a i s e s a p ro b lem o f in t e rp r e ta tio n , a s w e l l.

I n r ecen t wo rk , Key s a r an d B ly (1 9 9 5 ) h av e a rg u ed th a t o n ce o n e u n d e r s t an d s an

id io m, i t i s ex t r eme ly d i f f i cu lt t o in t e rp r e t i t i n a d i f f e ren t w ay . T h ey d em o n s t r a t ed

th i s b y in tro d u c in g "n e w " id io ms to s u b jec ts - a c tu a l ly , a r ch a ic id io ms wh o s e

mean in g s we re n o t k n o wn to th e i r s u b jec t s . T h ey u s ed s u ch id io ms a s the goose

hangs high t o mean o p p o s i t e th in g s to d i f f e r en t s u b jec t s , i n th i s c a s e , " th in g s a r e

g o i n g w e l l " o r " t h i n g s a r e g o i n g b a d l y . " T h e n t h e y a s k e d s u b je c t s to e v a lu a t e t he

l ik e l ih o o d th a t th e id io m co u ld h av e th e o th e r mean in g .

On ce s u b jec t s h ad l e a rn ed a g iv en mean in g fo r an id io m, th ey we re l e s s ab le to

accep t th e p o s s ib i l i ty th a t i t co u ld h av e h ad th e o th e r mean in g , r eg a rd le s s o f

wh e th e r th a t mean in g w as h i s to r i c a l ly co r rec t . K ey s a r an d B ly a rg u ed th a t th i s

d emo n s t r a t e s th a t p a r t o f o u r u n d e r s t an d in g o f an id io m i s a b ack ward s -wo rk in g

ra t io n a le th a t a t t emp ts to mak e th e id io m co mp reh en s ib le . T h u s , o n ce y o u b e l i ev e

tha t the goose hangs high m e a n s " t h i n g s a r e g o i n g w e l l , " y o u c a n a r r i v e a t a

ju s t i f i c a t io n su ch a s " th e r e i s a f r e s h ly -k i l l ed g o o s e h a n g in g in th e l a rd e r, an d s o

th e re wi l l b e p len ty o f f o o d . " T h i s ju s t i f i c a t io n i s in co mp a t ib le wi th th e o p p o s i t e

mean in g , wh ich th en ap p ea r s to b e an u n l ik e ly in t e rp r e ta t io n .

Key s a r an d B ly ( in p r e s s ) p o in t o u t th a t th e me tap h o r ic r ep re s en ta t io n v iew o f

id io ms a s s u mes th a t o u r in tu i t io n s ab o u t id io ms an d co l lo ca t io n s co r r ec t ly

r ep re s en t th e co g n i t iv e an a ly s i s o f th e s e p h ra s e s . Fo r ex amp le , wh en we h ea r A t

that point I blew up w e c a n c o n v i n c i n g l y a n a l y z e t h i s a s a n e x a m p l e o f A N G E R

I S P R E S S U R E I N A H E A T E D C O N T A I N E R . B u t K e y s a r a n d B l y a r g u e t h a t t h e

me tap h o r m ay n o t in f ac t r ev ea l th e id io m ' s u n d e r ly in g rep re s en ta tio n . I n s t ead , i t

may a l s o b e a b ack ward s -wo rk in g r a t io n a le , mu ch l ik e th a t d ev i s ed b y th e i r

sub jec ts fo r

the goose hangs high.

I f th is i s the case , then the concep tua l

me tap h o r s th a t L & J id en t i fy may n o t b e th e u n d e r ly in g r ep re s en ta t io n s o f th e

v e rb a l ex p re s s io n s p r e s en ted a s ev id en ce , b u t in s t ead may b e a p o s t h o c an a ly s i s

th a t i s r e ad i ly accep ted , g iv en o u r k n o wled g e o f th e mean in g s o f th e t e rms .

T h i s a rg u men t i s n o t a c tu a l ly ev id en ce ag a in s t th e me tap h o r ic r ep re s en ta t io n

v iew ( an d s ee Gib b s , 1 99 4, f o r an o p p o s in g v iew ) , b u t i t d o es p o s e a p ro b lem fo r

ev id en ce g iv en in f av o r o f th e v iew. T h a t i s , Key s a r an d B ly ' s d a ta s u g g es t th a t a

me tap h o r ic an a ly s i s o f an id io m o r o th e r ex p re s s io n may b e co n v in c in g ev en i f i t

i s n o t th e u n d e r ly in g r ep re s en ta t io n o f i t s mean in g .

T h e n ex t s ec t io n s o f th e a r t ic l e r a is e s o me th eo re t ic a l an d em p i r i c a l p ro b lems o f

me tap h o r ic r ep re s en ta t io n , f o cu s in g o n th e weak in te rp r e ta t io n .

5.2. Problem of multiple metaphors

On e o f th e mo s t in t e r e s t in g a s p ec t s o f th e l i t e r a tu r e o n me tap h o r ic r ep re s en ta -

t io n i s th a t i t p o in t s o u t th e d iv e r s e me tap h o r s th a t we u s e in d e s c r ib in g ev e ry d ay


13/32


ac t iv i t i e s , w i th o u t co n s c io u s ly r ea l i z in g th a t a me tap h o r i s in v o lv ed . Mu ch o f th e

co n ten t o f L & J i s a li s t in g o f l a rg e n u m b er s o f me tap h o r s fo r a d o m a in . T h es e

co l l ec t io n s o f me tap h o r s a r e in d eed imp re s s iv e , b u t th ey a l s o r a i s e a p ro b lem fo r

th e me tap h o r ic r ep re s en ta t io n v iew. In man y ca s e s , t h e r e a r e mu l t ip l e me tap h o r s

fo r a g iv en d o m a in . H e re a r e ju s t s o me o f th e me tap h o r s Ko v ecs e s (1 9 8 6 )

p ro v id es fo r love:

L O V E I S

L O V E I S

L O V E I S

L O V E I S

L O V E I S

(p. 95)

L O V E I S

A J O U R N E Y ( p . 6 )

A N O P P O N E N T ( p . 9 8 )

A U N I T Y ( O F T W O C O M P L E M E N T A R Y P A R T S ) (p . 6 2)

A H I D D E N O B J E C T ( p . 9 7 )

A V A L U A B L E C O M M O D I T Y (IN A N E C O N O M I C E X C H A N G E )

I N S A N I T Y ( p . 9 1 )

L & J a l s o ex p l i c i t ly p o in t o u t th a t th e re a r e o f t en d i f f e r en t me tap h o r s ab o u t th e

s ame d o ma in (p . 9 7 ) . T h ey g iv e a s ex amp le s :

A R G U M E N T I S A C O N T A I N E R

A R G U M E N T IS A B U I L D IN G

A R G U M E N T I S A J O U R N E Y

A R G U M E N T I S W A R

A l t h o u g h L & J h a v e m e n t i o n e d t h i s p h e n o m e n o n o f m u l t i p l e m e t a p h o r s a n d

inc luded i t in the i r accoun t , i t does no t seem to ac tua l ly be p red ic ted by the

u n d e r ly in g th eo ry . Fo r ex amp le , o n ce o n e h a s u n d e r s to o d love b y co n cep tu a l i z in g

i t a s a jo u rn ey , i t i s n o t c l ea r a p r io ri w h y o n e wo u ld n eed to fu r th e r co n cep tu a l i ze

i t a s a b a t t l e o r u n io n o r wh a tev e r .

L & J (p . 1 0 5 ) s u g g es t th a t mu l t ip l e me tap h o r s " to g e th e r s e rv e th e co mp lex

p u rp o s e o f ch a rac te r i z in g th e co n cep t o f an a rg u men t in a l l o f i t s a s p ec t s , a s we

co n ce iv e th e m " ( see a l s o p. 2 2 1 ) . Ho w ev e r , t h i s ex p lan a t io n ap p ea r s to b e d i r ec t ly

co n t r a ry to th e s p i r i t o f th e me tap h o r ic r ep re s en ta t io n v iew. T h e ex p lan a t io n

as s u mes th a t th e r e i s an in d ep en d en t co n cep tu a l i za t io n o f

argumen t

an d mu l t ip l e

m etapho rs a re ne eded to charac te r ize a l l o f it s aspec ts . I f co r rec t , then , metap hors

a r e n o t s e rv in g a s c au s a l o rg an ize r s o f th e d o ma in b u t a r e o p e ra t in g a f t e r th e f ac t

to d e s c r ib e o r ch a rac te r i ze th e d i r ec t ly - r ep re s en ted d o ma in . (T h i s i s s u e wi l l b e

d i s cu s s ed fu r th e r in r eg a rd to th e In v a r i an ce P r in c ip le b e lo w. )

T h e re a r e o th e r p ro b lems o f mu l t ip l e me tap h o r s fo r a s in g le d o ma in . Su p p o s e

t h a t t h e m e t a p h o r L O V E I S A J O U R N E Y h a s h a d a c a u sa l i n fl u e n ce o n o u r

co n cep t s o f

love.

So , the lovers a re conce ived o f as peop le tak ing a t r ip toge ther

to ward a co mmo n d es t in a t io n , s t a r t in g a s s t r an g e r s , h av in g man y ex p e r i en ces , an d

then end ing the t r ip (perhaps l iv ing happ i ly ever a f te r ) . I f th is i s a v iab le metaphor

fo r love t h e n i t i s h a r d t o se e h o w t h er e i s al so r o o m f o r L O V E I S A V A L U A B L E

CO M M O DIT Y . O n th is m e tap h o r (Ko v ecs e s , 1 98 6, p . 9 5 ) , " a l a rg e p a r t o f th e

c o n c e p t o f L O V E i s v i e w e d a s a n d c o m p r e h e n d e d i n t e r m s o f c o m m e r c i a l


14/32

186 G.L. Murphy / Cognition 60 1996) 173-204

transactions. Here, lovers are seen as merchants exchanging goods, which are

of equal value. But in a commercial transaction, the goal is to maximize profit, so

the participants have opposing goals. This is contrary to the journey metaphor, in

which lovers begin with the same goal and work in concert (i.e., they are going to

the same place). There are other notable differences between these metaphors (e.g.,

the amount of time involved, the notions of progress and adventure in a journey

but not in a commercial exchange). In short, it is difficult to see how these two

metaphors could be simultaneously structuring the same concept. That is, hearing

expressions like We 've come a long way would tend to create one structure for

love

whereas I gave you my heart would tend to create another. Since there are

numerous metaphors for

l ov e

in our culture (e.g., LOVE IS INSANITY, LOVE IS

A SICKNESS), the confusion must be even worse than that described here. It may

be that hearing a metaphor does have some effect on concepts like love but it is

difficult to see how multiple metaphors can result in a coherent conceptual

structure.

One possible reply to this objection is that there are different concepts for the

same thing - for example, one

l ov e

concept for the journey version, another for

the insanity version, another for the commercial transaction version, and so on.

Lakoff's (1987) notion of

r ad i a l c a t e gor i e s

might be an example of this. The

challenge for this view would be to explain how these concepts are coordinated

and used in thought and behavior. For example, how do people know which

concept to use when no verbal metaphor is given in the situation? Or are all the

metaphors used? If the metaphors are very different, how are conflicting inferences

handled? Although one can imagine an account in which abstract concepts had

multiple conflicting versions, clearly such an account would need to be explained

in some detail.

Another possible way out of the multiple metaphor problem is to propose that

the different metaphors address different parts of the topic concept. For example,

LOVE IS A JOURNEY could influence the structure of the entire love relation-

ship, whereas LOVE IS INSANITY could influence the representation of the

lovers' mental states during one part of that journey (the initial, infatuation stage).

Although this move might help reduce the problem of conflicting metaphors, it is

still not clear that the metaphors don't conflict. If the participants in love are

insane, then how can they enter into a commercial transaction? If they are sick,

then how do they carry out a lengthy journey? Also, some metaphors seem clearly

to be describing some of the same aspects of the concept (e.g., LOVE IS A

JOURNEY and COMMERCIAL TRANSACTION both seem to cover the

temporal events in a love relationship). A detailed analysis of such potentially

conflicting cases would be helpful.

Perhaps as a result of considerations of this sort, later descriptions of the

metaphoric representation view have attempted to constrain the metaphoric

mapping in a way that might lessen the problem of multiple metaphors. Lakoff

(1993, p. 215) proposes an Invariance Principle : Metaphorical mappings

preserve the cognitive topology (that is, the image-schema structure) of the source

domain [vehicle], in a way consistent with the inherent structure of the target

domain [topic] (see also Lakoff, 1990). That is, the nature of the metaphoric


15/32


m a p p i n g f r o m a r g u m e n t s t o w a r i s c o n s t r a i n e d b y t h e " i n h e r e n t s t r u c t u r e " o f

a r g u m e n t s . O n e w a y t o i n t e r p r e t t h i s p r i n c i p l e i s i n t e r m s o f a s k e l e t o n a n a l o g y

( G e o r g e L a k o f f h a s s u g g e s t e d t h i s i n a p e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n , t h o u g h t h e

f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s a r e m y o w n ) . E a c h d o m a i n h a s a f r a m e w o r k o r s k e l e t o n t h a t i s

d i r e c t l y r e p r e s e n t e d - t h e i n h e r e n t s t ru c t u re o f t h e d o m a i n . T h i s f r a m e w o r k

i d en t i f i e s t h e g en e ra l s t ru c t u re o f t h e co n cep t ( t h o u g h i n s o m e ca s e s , t h i s i s q u i t e

f r ag m en t a ry ) , b u t i t l e av es m an y o f t h e d e t a i l s b l an k , b eca u s e t h ey a r e d i f f i cu l t t o

d i r e c t l y c o n c e p t u a l i z e . T h e f r a m e w o r k , t h e n , i s t h e d i r e c t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , a n d t h e

m e t a p h o r s a d d t h e " f l e s h " t o t h e s k e l e t o n b y f i l l i n g i n i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t i s n o t

d i r e c t ly r e p r e s e n t e d - i n m a n y c a s e s , t h e b u lk o f t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e c o n c e p t .

P e r h a p s t h e s k e l e t o n o f

rgument

i n c l u d es t h e i n fo rm a t i o n t h a t i t i s a v e rb a l

i n t e rc h a n g e b e t w e e n t w o p e o p l e w h o a r e o p p o s e d i n s o m e w a y . T h i s i n f o r m a t io n

i s r a t h e r v a g u e , a n d t h e m e t a p h o r A R G U M E N T I S W A R s u p p l i e s f u r t h e r

s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f i t . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e i d e a t h a t p e o p l e t a k e " p o s i t i o n s " i n t h e i r

a r g u m e n t w o u l d b e i n f e r r e d f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t p o s i t i o n s a r e t a k e n i n b a t t l e . O t h e r

m e t a p h o r s w o u l d p r o v i d e d i f f e r e n t i n f e r e n c e s . D i f f e r e n t m e t a p h o r s w o u l d b e

c o n s i s t e n t t o t h e d e g r e e t h a t t h e y w o u l d a l l b e w o r k i n g f r o m t h e s a m e g e n e r a l

f r a m e w o r k ( s k e l e t o n ) , b u t t h e y c o u l d d i f f e r c o n s i d e r a b l y i n s o m e o f t h e i r

i m p l i ca t i o n s ( t h e f l e s h ad d ed t o t h e s k e l e t o n ) .

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e I n v a r i a n c e P r i n c i p l e c a n n o t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y p r e s e r v e

m e t a p h o r i c r e p r e s e n ta t i o n a n d s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m o f m u l t i p l e m e t a p h o r s - t w o

i n co m p a t i b l e p ro p e r t i e s m u s t b e a t t r i b u t ed t o it in o rd e r fo r it to d o b o t h jo b s . T h e

s k e l e t o n i s a d i r ec t r ep re s en t a t i o n , an d s o t o t h e d eg ree t h a t i t i s i n v o l v ed i n

c o n c e p t u a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , t h e c o n c e p t i s n o t o r g a n i z e d m e t a p h o r i c a l l y ( w h i c h i s

w h y i t i s s a i d t o o f t e n b e m i n i m a l ) . T h e " f l e s h " a d d e d t o t h e s k e l e t o n i s a n

e x a m p l e o f t h e s t r o n g v i e w o f m e t a p h o r i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n : T h e m e t a p h o r i s f i l l i n g

t h e g ap s i n th e f r a m e w o r k b y t r a n s f e r ri n g i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e m e t a p h o r i c d o m a i n

t o t h e t o p i c d o m a i n . T h u s , t h e r e i s n o d i r e c t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h i s m e t a p h o r i c

m a t e r i a l, w h i c h r e s u lt s i n th e s a m e p r o b l e m s a s w e r e r a i se d f o r t h e s tr o n g v i e w o f

m e t a p h o r i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . I n p a r t i c u l a r , w h a t i s t o s t o p p e o p l e f r o m m a k i n g

i n f e r e n c e s t h a t a re e m p i r i c a l l y i n c o r r e c t a b o u t t h e t a rg e t d o m a i n ? T h a t i s, w i t h o u t

m o r e c o n t e n t i n t h e rgument c o n ce p t, t he A R G U M E N T IS W A R m e t a p h o r w o u l d

a l l o w p eo p l e t o i n fe r t h a t g u n s a r e u s ed , e t c . I n o rd e r t o p rev en t t h i s , t h e s k e l e t o n

m u s t b e d e t a i l e d e n o u g h t o s p e c i f y w h i c h i n f e r e n c e s a re p e r m i s s i b l e a n d w h i c h a r e

n o t : N o o n e i n f e r s t h a t g u n s a r e u s e d i n a r g u m e n t s , b e c a u s e o n e a l r e a d y k n o w s

t h a t t h ey a r e n o t . H o wev e r , t h i s t u rn s o u t t o b e s i m p l y a fo rm o f d i r ec t

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a f t e r al l, s i n c e t h e i n h e r e n t s tr u c tu r e o f t h e d o m a i n m u s t b e d e t a i l e d

e n o u g h t o d e t e r m i n e w h a t c a n a n d c a n n o t b e s a i d a b o u t th e c o n c e p t . T h a t i s, i f t h e

s k e l e t o n ( o r o t h e r l i t e r a l i n f o r m a t i o n i n m e m o r y ) t r u l y p r e v e n t s t h e i n c o r r e c t

i n f e r e n c e s , t h e n t h e c o n c e p t s e e m s t o b e d i r e c t l y r e p r e s e n t e d ; i f i t c a n n o t p r e v e n t

t h e m , t h e n i t i s e m p i r i c a l l y in c o r r e c t. T h u s , t h e s k e l e t o n n e e d s t o b e b o t h e x t e n s i v e

( t o p r e v e n t i n c o r r e c t i n f e r e n c e s ) a n d m i n i m a l ( t o a l l o w m e t a p h o r i c m a p p i n g s ) . I f

o n e d o e s n o t a s s u m e t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n i s r e p r e s e n t e d m e t a p h o r i c a l l y , t h e n t h i s

p a rad o x d o es n o t a r i s e .

I n s u m m a r y , i f a c o n c e p t i s s t ru c t u re d m e t a p h o r i c a l l y , th e p r e s e n c e o f m u l t i p l e ,

c o n f l i c t i n g m e t a p h o r s i s a s e r io u s p r o b l e m . R e f e r e n c e s to " i n h e r e n t s t r u c t u r e " o f


16/32

188

G.L. Murphy / Cogni tion 60 1996) 173- 204

t h e t a rg e t d o ma in ap p ea r to r eq u i r e th a t i t a l r e ad y b e n o n me tap h o r ica l ly r ep re -

s en ted . I f t h e n o t io n th a t me tap h o r s in f lu en ce co n cep t s i s to b e r e t a in ed , th en , a

mu ch mo re co mp le te ex p lan a t io n wi l l b e n eed ed fo r h o w co n f l i c t in g me tap h o r s a r e

reso lved .

5 . 3 . P o l y s e m y

L & J in c lu d e a v a s t n u mb er o f ex amp le s o f me tap h o r s in th e i r d i s cu s s io n .

H o w e v e r , a n u m b e r o f t h e m m a y s tr i ke th e r e a d e r a s n o t b e i n g m e t a p h o r ic a l a t a l l

( i ta l ics in the o r ig ina ls ) :

In f la t ion has gone up .

G e t up. W a k e up.

Y o u ' r e w a s t i n g my t ime .

H e r e g o i s f r a g i l e .

T h e s h ip i s c o m i n g i n t o v iew.

W e ' l l j u s t h a v e t o g o o u r s e p a r a t e w a y s . [abou t a re la t ionsh ip ]

H e

r a n o u t

of ideas .

H e ' s s e e k i n g h is fo r tune .

(T h e re a r e ev en mo re ex amp le s in Ko v ecs e s , 1 9 8 6 , th a t a r e s a id to b e

me tap h o r ica l o r me to n y mic , wh ich a r e n o t s o o n my r ead in g , s u ch a s : Sh e co u ld n ' t

co n ta in h e r j o y ; H e f l u s h e d wi th p r id e ; Af te r win n in g th e r ace , h e wa lk ed to th e

ro s t ru m w i t h h i s h e a d h e l d h i g h ; H e w a s s m i l i n g p ro u d ly a f t e r th e r ace ; H is

c r i t i c i s m h u r t her p r ide . )

T h es e ex amp le s a r e mean t to i l l u s t r a t e co n cep tu a l me tap h o r s s u ch a s INFL A-

T I O N S I S A T H I N G a nd P E O P L E A R E C O N T A I N E R S . W h y is

In f la t ion is r is ing

a me tap h o r? ( i ' v e s l ig h t ly ch an g ed th e i r In f l a t i o n h a s g o n e u p ex amp le , s imp ly to

be ab le to re fe r to the verb r i se r a th e r th an th e co mp o u n d v e rb go up . ) L & J (p .

1 71 ) p ro v id e th e fo l lo win g an a ly s i s : "a . W e v iew in f l a t io n a s a SU BS T A N CE (v ia

a n o n t o l o g ic a l m e t a p h o r) , b . W e v i e w M O R E a s b e i n g o r i e n te d U P ( v i a a n

o r i en ta t io n a l me tap h o r ) . We u n d e r s t an d th e s e n t e n c e i n t e rms o f th e s ame two

m e tap h o r s . " P re s u m ab ly , th i s m e tap h o r ex i s t s b ecau s e in f l a t io n i s an ab s t r ac t

co n cep t , wh ich can mo re ea s i ly b e th o u g h t o f a s a p h y s ica l o b jec t c a r ry in g o u t

f ami l i a r p h y s ica l a c t iv i t i e s , l i k e r i s in g . I n th i s an a ly s i s , L & J d o n o t co n s id e r th e

a l t e rn a t iv e v iew th a t th i s s en ten ce i s n o t me tap h o r ic an d i s u n d e r s to o d v ia th e

l i t e r a l mean in g s o f th e wo rd s .

I t s h o u ld b e n o ted , th o u g h , th a t th e s ame k in d o f ev id en ce i s n o rma l ly t ak en b y

l in g u i s t s a s ev id en ce o f p o ly s emy , th e f ac t th a t wo rd s h av e a n u mb er o f r e l a t ed

mean in g s . Ru h l ( 1 9 8 9 ) , f o r ex amp le , co n s id e r s n u mero u s ex amp le s o f u s e s o f th e

v e rb hit. He f in d s b o th p h y s ica l an d n o n p h y s ica l u s e s o f th e v e rb th a t s eem

semant ica l ly re la ted (e .g . , 1 d i d n ' t m e a n t o h i t y o u ; T h e b i r d h it th e w i n d o w ; I ' m

rea l ly h i t t ing the bo ok s no w ; W hen the t ru th h i t me , I cou ldn t be l iev e i t.) . T h e r e

are two s t ra teg ies tha t one cou ld take to dea l wi th such da ta (Cruse , 1986 ;


17/32


Sw eetser , 1986). O ne (R uh l ' s cho ice) is to a rgue tha t hi t i s s imp ly u n s p ec i f i ed a s

to p h y s ica l o r n o n p h y s ica l co n tac t ; t h e wo rd mean in g i s ab s t r ac t en o u g h to

en co mp as s b o th u s e s . T h e o th e r s t r a t eg y i s to a l lo w hi t t o h av e two r e l a t ed

s eman t i c en t r i e s , o n e p h y s ica l an d o n e n o n p h y s ica l . On e co u ld t ak e e i th e r

ap p ro ach in ex p la in in g th e

Inflation b r is ing

ex amp le . P e rh ap s th e mean in g o f

rise

i s g en e ra l en o u g h to en co mp as s p h y s ica l in c r ea s e s in th e v e r t i c a l d imen s io n a s

we l l a s o th e r in c r ea s e s . Or p e rh ap s rise h as two (o r mo re ) en t r i e s d i s t in g u i s h in g

th es e two k in d s o f in c r ea s e s . T h es e ex p lan a t io n s a r e n o t ad h o c acco u n t s d e s ig n ed

ju s t f o r th e s e p u ta t iv e me tap h o r s , a s th ey a r e n eces s a ry to ex p la in man y o th e r

ex amp le s o f p o ly s emy , s u ch a s chicken u s ed to r e f e r to an an ima l an d s o me mea t ,

a n d b o o k used to re fe r to an ob jec t and a tex t .

L & J a s s u m e ( r a th e r th an ex p l i c i t ly a rg u e ) th a t th e r ea l mea n in g o f rise is

p h y s ica l r i s in g , an d an y o th e r k in d o f in c r ea s e i s a me tap h o r ica l mean in g . T h i s

a s s u mp t io n tu rn s o u t to b e mu ch th e s ame a s th e i r th eo ry o f co n cep t s ap p l i ed to

lan g u ag e ; n ame ly , i t s ay s th a t o n ly s imp le p h y s ica l ex p e r i en ces can b e d i r ec t ly

en co d ed in l in g u i s t i c mean in g , an d n o n p h y s ica l o r ab s t r ac t r e l a t io n s mu s t b e

ex p re s s ed v ia me tap h o r . T h u s , th e i r c l a im th a t Inflation is rising i s metaphor ic i s

b a s ica l ly an a s s u mp t io n o f th e i r th eo ry , r a th e r th an ev id en ce fo r i t .

L & J ap p ea r to r eco g n ize th e d an g e r o f th i s a rg u men t , b ecau s e th ey s p en d

cons iderab le space ( in Chs . 18 and 27) address ing i t . They f i r s t cons ider an

a l t e rn a t iv e th ey ca l l t h e Ho mo n y my Arg u men t , wh ich s ay s th a t th e i r ex amp le s d o

no t cons t i tu te metaphors bu t ins tead re f lec t the fac t tha t words can have d i f fe ren t ,

u n re la t ed mean in g s ( l ik e b a n k o r cal f . L & J r ig h t fu l ly d i s mis s th i s v i ew o f th e i r

ex amp le s , b ecau s e i t d o es n o t p r ed ic t wh y i t i s t h a t th e wo rd s h av e th e mean in g s

th ey d o . Al th o u g h i t i s p l au s ib le th a t b a n k i s a h o mo n y m, i t i s n o t p l au s ib le th a t

des troy s imp ly h ap p en s to in c lu d e mean in g s th a t ap p ly to b a t t l e s an d a rg u men ts ,

o r tha t

rise

b y c o i n c i d e n c e c a n a p p l y to p h y s i c a l a n d n o n p h y s i c a l m o v e m e n t s . T h e

two mean in g s ap p ea r c lo s e ly r e l a t ed .

Ho wev e r , t h i s a rg u men t d o es n o t ad d re s s th e p o s s ib i l i ty th a t wo rd s l ik e rise are

p o ly s emo u s , an d th a t th e d i f f e r en t mean in g s a r e r e l a t ed b y s imi la r i ty . T h u s ,

Inflation is r is ing

may n o t b e me tap h o r ic . L & J a rg u e th a t th i s i s u n l ik e ly , b ecau s e

s u ch w o rd s d o n o t h av e in h e ren t s t ru c tu re th a t co u ld b e r e l a t ed b y s imi la r i ty . T h e y

co n s id e r th e co n cep t love: "Here th e o b jec t iv i s t mu s t n o t o n ly b ea r th e b u rd en o f

c la imin g th a t lo v e h a s in h e ren t p ro p e r t i e s s im i la r to th e in h e ren t p ro p e r t i e s o f

jo u rn ey s , e l e c t ro mag n e t i c p h en o men a , an d s i ck p eo p le ; h e mu s t a l s o c l a im th a t

love i s su f f ic ien t ly c lea r ly def ined in te rm s o f these inhe ren t p roper t ies so tha t

th o s e s imi la r i t i e s wi l l ex i s t " ( p. 2 1 5 ) . T h e a rg u men t th a t love does no t have i t s

own s t ruc tu re i s no t qu i te fa i r , s ince i t c r i t ic izes a pos i t ion tha t L&J (p . 105)

t h e m s e l v e s e m b r a c e d w h e n e x p l a i n in g w h y i t i s t h at t he s a m e d o m a i n h a s s o m a n y

metaphors ( see p rev ious sec t ion) . There they sa id tha t the reason tha t there a re so

m a n y m e t a p h o r s f o r

love

i s t h a t th ey we re n eed ed to acco u n t f o r a l l t h e way s th a t

we th in k o f lo v e . T h u s , i t is i n co n s i s t en t f o r th em to a rg u e th a t p o ly s em y can n o t b e

e x p l a i n e d b y s i m i l a r i t y o f t h e m e a n i n g o f love to som e aspec t o f jour ney s , e tc.

In fac t , the use o f rise t o r e f e r to b o th p h y s ica l an d n o n p h y s ica l in c r ea s e s can b e

e x p l a i n e d b y t h e s i m i l a r it y o f t h e t w o m e a n i n g s , c o m b i n e d w i t h w e l l -k n o w n r u l es


18/32

190 G . L . M u r p h y / C o g n i ti o n 6 0 1 9 9 6 ) 1 7 3 - 2 0 4

ab o u t p o ly s emy . Nu n b e rg (1 9 7 8 , Nu n b e rg (1 9 7 9 ) a rg u es th a t th e s ame wo rd can

h av e mu l t ip l e mean in g s i f s p eak e r s c an r e ly o n l i s t en e r s b e in g ab le to r eco v e r th e

in ten d ed m ean in g , g iv e n th e u s u a l u s e o f th e wo rd . ( I am s im p l i fy in g co n s id e rab ly

here ; see a lso Clark , 1991 . ) Tha t i s , g iven one sense o f rise t o in d ica te p h y s ica l

mo v emen t , c an I in f e r th e u s e th a t mean s a n o n p h y s ica l in c r ea s e , g iv en th e

s en ten ce an d d i s co u r s e co n tex t? In th i s c a s e , s in ce I k n o w th a t in f l a t io n can n o t

p h y s ica l ly ri s e b u t th a t i t c an ce r t a in ly in c r ea s e , i t is p o s s ib le to d e r iv e th e in t en d e d

n o n p h y s ica l mean in g . Me tap h o r d o es n o t s eem n eces s a ry to ex p la in th i s ex amp le .

O f co u r se , t h e s imi la r i ty h e r e i s n o t o f s u p e r f ic i a l f ea tu r e s b u t o f u n d e r ly in g

re la t io n s ( i . e , , an en t i ty u n d e rg o es a ch an g e s u ch th a t i t s v a lu e o n a d imen s io n

in c rea s e s ) . I f we n eed ed to ca r e fu l ly d i s t in g u i s h p h y s ica l an d n o n p h y s ica l r i s in g ,

we co u ld h av e s ep a ra te wo rd s in E n g l i s h to en co d e th i s d i s t in c t io n . Ho wev e r , i t i s

g en e ra l ly q u it e o b v io u s in co n tex t w h ich k in d o f r i s in g i s in t en d ed , an d s o th e co s t

in ad d in g v o cab u la ry i s ap p a ren t ly g r ea te r th an th e n eed fo r g r ea te r a ccu racy in

this case.

I n su m m a r y , a n u m b e r o f th e " m e t a p h o r s " t h a t L & J a n d o th e rs i d e n t i fy m a y

w e l l n o t b e m e t a p h o r s a t a l l . O n e m i g h t c l a i m t h i s a b o u t t h e A R G U M E N T I S

WAR cas e , f o r ex amp le . I t may we l l b e th a t attack i s s imp ly u n s p ec i f i ed fo r

p h y s ica l o r v e rb a l a t t a ck , an d s o i t s mean in g ap p l i e s eq u a l ly we l l t o b o th (Ru h l ,

1 98 9) . P e rh ap s th e v e rb a l a t t a ck i s ju s t a l e ss ty p ica l ex amp le o f th e s ame c o n cep t

(Co le m an an d K ay , 1 9 8 1 ). O r i t co u ld b e th a t b o th m ean in g s a r e r ep re sen ted in th e

lex ico n . I f an y o f th e s e a r e t r u e , th en mu ch o f th e ev id en ce th a t L & J ad d u ce may

n o t in f ac t p ro v id e ev id en ce fo r me tap h o r ic r ep re s en ta t io n . Of co u r s e , t h i s k in d o f

p o ly s em y i s an imp o r tan t an d in te r e s t in g to p ic in i t s o w n r ig h t , an d o n e m ig h t we l l

wan t to in v es t ig a te h o w i t i s r ep re s en ted an d p ro ces s ed in l an g u ag e u s e . Ho wev e r ,

tha t i s a d i f fe ren t top ic f rom metaphor ic rep resen ta t ion , and i t does no t seem

o b v io u s th a t me tap h o r wi l l b e n eces s a ry to acco u n t f o r i t .

5 4 Motivation fo r metaphoric representation

T h e p r imary mo t iv a t io n th a t L & J an d Ko v ecs e s (1 9 8 6 ) g iv e fo r th e n eces s i ty o f

metaphor ic rep resen ta t ion is tha t the source domain is too d i f f icu l t o r abs t rac t fo r

p eo p le to g r a s p d i r ec t ly 2 As a l r ead y n o ted , L ak o f f ( 1 9 9 3 , p . 2 4 4 ) a rg u es th a t

me tap h o r i s th e ma in way in wh ich p eo p le u n d e r s t an d ab s t r ac t co n cep t

MetaRep_96 - metaphoric representation.pdf

Documents

Transcript of MetaRep_96 - metaphoric representation.pdf