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Civics 101: The National Self Governing Will In-

Home TrainingCourse 1: Introduction to American Civics

The National Self Governing Will 1: Introduction to American Civics


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Table of Contents

I. Introduction to American Civics.............................................................................. 3

History of the United States of America ..................................................... 4

Join or Die.................................................................................................... 4

More on Franklin’s Albany Plan................................................................. 7

II. The American Revolution...................................................................................... 10

The Stamp Act ........................................................................................... 12

The Tea Act................................................................................................ 14

Continental Congress................................................................................. 14

The Second Continental Congress ............................................................ 16

III. Independence ........................................................................................................ 17

IV. The Declaration of Independence......................................................................... 21

Recap on the Declaration........................................................................... 27

V. The Constitution..................................................................................................... 28

Article I. ..................................................................................................... 30

Article II..................................................................................................... 35

Article III. .................................................................................................. 37

Article IV.................................................................................................... 38

Article V. .................................................................................................... 38

Article VI.................................................................................................... 39

Article VII. ................................................................................................. 39

VI. The Bill of Rights .................................................................................................. 41

The Preamble to The Bill of Rights........................................................... 42

VII. The End of the Revolution .................................................................................. 51

VIII. Timeline of Events.............................................................................................. 52


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I. Introduction to American Civics“Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.”

- George Santayana

"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they areendowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness."

- The Declaration of Independence

The path to the current state of America is a long one. It is a path that has developed outof the dreams and inspirations of men and women defined by the ambition andimagination of freedom, and the liberty to develop a personal destiny. It is a path from thestate of a colony, developed into a beacon of hope in the free world, and of democracy tothe rest.

To fully understand how the path of history has led us to the current state of America, wemust first travel back to the very roots of it. Certainly we could tie back the developmentof America earlier to Spanish exploration, to development of trade routes, to earlyconquest of the globe. We could go back further to Norse in the 8th century, who predatedColumbus by several hundred years. These were all developments that led up to the mosttumultuous and incubative period in American history: The American Revolution.

One cannot truly understand the gift of independence without first appreciating the detailsand struggle of the American Revolution. The revolution was a desperate time. Thecolonists at the time understood that nothing less than success would suffice. Indeed,

anything less than success would mean extinction of the very American principles. This principle at its core is very simple and at the same time very sublime.

The core American principle is self governing will.

This initial course of the American Civics subject of In-Home Training will develop fromone of the key moments of the American Revolution - the path to American SelfGoverning Will. In this course, you will learn more about the key motivators or protagonists of the Revolution. This course is framed on the American Will in terms ofgovernance by the will of the people as a collective of the dominant shared perceptionunited in a colony of like minded people. In other terms, the defining American will ofself governance in the nation is a reflection on the individual. Young patriots of the earlyAmerican Revolution understood this. They saw the need for people to be able to “maketheir way” in the world by defining their own path, rather than being told the path by parliament. The second course will dive into the current government system, and how wecontinue with an American Self Governing Will today. In the third course, we will bringthe tie of American Self Governing Will to the case of business and job security. Finallyin the fourth course, we will provide an introduction and launch pad into action - whatsteps can you take as an American patriot to protect your liberties and securities.


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History of the United States of AmericaA history of the United States could hardly be said to have begun with the inception ofthe states as a united land. In the earliest time of the colonies, few really perceived thecommon notion - the common sense - of unification. Few understood the common goals.One must understand that this was a different time. The colonies had forever been a

subset of British rule. Most saw themselves as British subjects. Many had deep loyalties.As generations went forth, and new younger men and women were born to only know thecolonies, these ties slowly decomposed. The colonialists began to feel that they wereruled by a distant cousin. The early colonists found it difficult, understandably so, to put a‘face’ to this British rule. What they could put a face to was their daily life, what theyknew.

What they knew was family and struggle. These were times of struggle where survivalwas not a given but had to be worked for. There was a constant toil to preserve anexistence. There was hope too, and there were newspapers to spread that hope and keep people informed. These newspapers also became a reforming event helping to shape the

moral construct of American thought and - most importantly - American identity. Enoughcannot be stated as to the importance of American identity. It was this identity that wasshared in the streets, at tables, in churches, in committees. American identity was aunifying force. Being ‘American’ became important. It helped you to recognize yourneighbor, to empathize with his or her struggles, and to share an endurance to strain forthe dream of independence.

Join or DieThe first political cartoon to appear in an American Newspaper was created by BenFranklin in 1754. The cartoon sought to emphasize the importance of his Albany plan.The Albany plan was evidence that Franklin highly appreciated the usefulness of inter-

colonial cooperation. The Albany plan was a call for colonial union. It would call intoaction and create a “grand council” made of elected delegates from the various colonies.This council would oversee matters of defense, western expansion, and Indian affairs. To preside over this council, there would be a President General, as appointed by the king ofEngland. In his Albany plan, Franklin suggested that the council be authorized to collecttaxes for use with military expenditures.

On the next page is the infamous Join or Die cartoon by Franklin. This cartoon waswidely - very, very widely - dispersed and recognized throughout the colonies, thanks inmuch to Franklin’s expertise in printing. Of any colonist, Franklin was the mostidentifiable with an American Self Governing will. So much so, that today Franklin is an

icon for the thrifty. Children learn of his exploits, his rags to riches mythology, hisexperiments with lighting and the whatnot. Historians rightly see that Franklin’s greatestgift and one that really defines him as a measure of early American will is hisunderstanding and construction of his own history. Franklin was a man of the people. Heknew his exploits would go initiatory (again, recall his printing experience) and heworked very deftly to correct the manner and light in which he would be defined to latergenerations.


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This is not to discredit Franklin in the least, but rather to showcase his perception ofhimself, because this was a perception he shared - as did many others - for the comingunification of the states.

The cartoon was first published in Franklin’s Pennsylvania Gazette on May 9, 1754. Theoriginal publication by the Gazette is the earliest known pictorial representation ofcolonial union produced by a British colonist in America. In other words, this was thefirst time a colonist had so publicly stated a case for independence.

The cartoon is a woodcut showing a snake severed into eighths, each segment labeled

with the initials of a British American colony or region. New England was represented asone segment, rather than the four colonies it was at that time. In addition, Delaware andGeorgia were omitted completely. Thus, it has eight segments of snake rather than thetraditional 13 colonies. The cartoon appeared along with Franklin's editorial about the"disunited state" of the colonies, and helped make his point about the importance ofcolonial unity. During that era, there was a superstition that a snake which had been cutinto pieces would come back to life if the pieces were put together before sunset.

The colonists were divided on whether to fight the French and their Indian allies forcontrol of the land west of the Appalachian Mountains, in what became to be known asthe French and Indian War. It became a symbol for the need of organized action againstan outside threat posed by the French and Indians in the mid-18th century. Franklin had proposed the Albany Plan and his cartoon suggested that such a union was necessary toavoid destruction. As Franklin wrote, "The Confidence of the French in this Undertakingseems well-grounded on the present disunited State of the British Colonies, and theextreme Difficulty of bringing so many different Governments and Assemblies to agreein any speedy and effectual Measures for our common defense and Security; while ourEnemies have the very great Advantage of being under one Direction, with one Council,and one Purse...."


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Franklin was of course correct. What he saw was that the colonies had a commonstruggle; however, they were not working together. They needed some solidification,

some governing force, to keep them from being essentially bulldozed by British rule.

Franklin's political cartoon took on a different meaning during the lead up to theAmerican Revolution, especially around 1765-1766, during the Stamp Act Congress.British colonists in America protesting British rule used the cartoon in the ConstitutionalCourant to help persuade the colonists. However, the Patriots, who associated the imagewith eternity, vigilance, and prudence, were not the only ones who saw a newinterpretation of the cartoon.

The difference between the use of "Join or Die" in 1754 and 1765 is that Franklin haddesigned it to unite the colonies for 'management of Indian relations' and defense againstFrance, but in 1765 American colonists used it to urge colonial unity against the British.Also during this time the phrase "join, or die" changed to "unite, or die," in some statessuch as New York and Pennsylvania.

Soon after the publication of the cartoon during the Stamp Act Congress, variations were printed in New York, Massachusetts, and a couple of months later it had spread toVirginia and South Carolina. In some states, such as New York and Pennsylvania, thecartoon continued to be published week after week for over a year. On July 7, 1774 PaulRevere altered the cartoon to fit the masthead of the Massachusetts Spy.

Why do much on a cartoon? Because it was published and shared iconoclastic symbolssuch as this that helped to unify the states, and has helped to spread and sustain thehistory of democracy. Indeed, the cartoon became a banner used in marches in Boston byearly patriots, and later used by both sides during the Civil War.


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On August 14, 1765, a crowd gathered in Boston under a large elm tree at the corner ofEssex Street and Washington Street, originally called Orange Street, to protest the hatedStamp Act. Patriots who later called themselves the Sons of Liberty had hung in effigyAndrew Oliver, the colonist chosen by King George III to impose the Stamp Act, in the branches of the tree. Up in the tree with the effigy hung a British cavalry jackboot.Grinning from inside the boot was a devil-like doll holding a scroll marked “Stamp Act.”It was the first public show of defiance against the Crown and spawned the resistance thatled to the American Revolutionary War 10 years later. On Sept. 10, a sign saying "Treeof Liberty" was nailed to the trunk of the tree.

In the years leading up to the war, the British made the Liberty Tree an object of ridicule.British soldiers tarred and feathered a man named Thomas Ditson, and forced him tomarch in front of the tree. During the siege of Boston, a party of Loyalists led by JobWilliams defiantly cut the tree down in an act of spite, knowing what it represented to thecolonists, and used the tree for firewood. This act only further enraged the colonists. Asresistance to the British grew, flags bearing a representation of the Liberty Tree wereflown to symbolize the unwavering spirit of liberty. These flags were later a commonsight during the battles of the American Revolution.

More on Franklin’s Albany Plan

The Albany Plan of Union was proposed by Benjamin Franklin at the Albany Congress in1754 in Albany, New York. It was an early attempt at forming a union of the colonies"under one government as far as might be necessary for defense and other generalimportant purposes" during the French and Indian War. Franklin's plan of union was oneof several put forth by various delegates of the Albany Congress.

The Sons of Liberty tarring and featheringa tax collector underneath the Liberty Tree


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A committee, formed to consider the different plans, settled on Franklin's plan—makingonly small modifications. Chief Justice Benjamin Chew, Richard Peters, and Isaac Norriswere also members of this committee. The Plan called for the general government to beadministered by a President General appointed and supported by the Crown, and a GrandCouncil to be chosen by the representatives of the colonial assemblies. Many objectionsand difficulties were debated, addressed, and resolved whereupon the plan wasunanimously adopted by the delegates of the Albany Congress. Copies were then sent tothe Colonial Assemblies and the British Board of Trade in London.

The plan did not receive approval from all of the colonial assemblies, and very muchrejected by the English Parliament. Naturally, so the English recognized that the Albany plan undermined the power of the crown over the young, eager colonies.

Up to the time of the Albany plan, the French and the British all but declared all out war.The conflict between France and the British instead fell to small skirmishes between the

two, vying to overstake parcels of the expanding western front before the other. However,it was not necessarily the British fending off the French, instead it was the colonies. Thecolonies were forced into the work of defense of the Eastern British rule. Instead of building a nation, young colonialist found themselves fighting the French in the name ofBritish imperialism. One such example was Fort Necessity. The Fort was set forth as ameans to expand British rule into the Ohio territory.

To take up this cause, the Virginians enforced the Fort against the incoming attack fromthe French and Indians troops. Under the command of a very young George Washington,the Fort was lost by the Virginians on July 3rd 1754. The loss of the fort showed the newworld a few things. A single colony could not hope to defeat the French by itself.

Secondly, the British, while playing the absent leader, were beginning to disenfranchiseand anger the colonies due to the ungrateful disregard for the colonies toll in battles.


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The battle at Fort Necessity in the summer of 1754 was the opening action of the Frenchand Indian War. This war was a clash of British, French and American Indian cultures. Itended with the removal of French power from North America. The stage was set for theAmerican Revolution.

It was not until May 18th 1756 that the British officially declared war on the French. Thiswar came to be known as the French and American War in America, and in Europe it wasknow as the Seven Years War (1756 - 1763). The war racked up tremendous nationaldebt for the British but eventually in the fall of 1760 the French surrendered after a brutal battle in Quebec. The Peace of Paris signed in 1763 essentially gave what is now NorthAmerica back to the British in full. As you can see from the map, the British gained alllands up to the Mississippi river. Of course, this is well before the Louisiana Purchase.


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Instead, the land west of the Mississippi regained control by the Spanish claims.

The victory of the Seven Years War had a dramatic effect on the colonies. AlthoughFranklin’s Albany Plan had not been accepted in the years past, the war and the effects ofthe treaty showed the colonists what they could do when united. In other colonists, the

victory inspired in them a greater reverence for the British Empire and making some tofeel that themselves may now be seen as worthy subjects. It is important to keep in mindthat common British thought of the colonies at the time, both by the general public and by the Parliament, was that the colonies were little more than a bunch of rag-tag,frontiersmen. The colonies were not respected amongst the British as anything close to being British - as members of the empire - and certainly not as a united force or threat tothe empire.

The Seven Years War also had the affect of training many young colonialist in the way ofwar and military strategy, namely on the plains of the east coast. The colonies also cameto understand that the British were not invincible. The British on the other hand, felt the

colonies to be ungrateful for the protection offered to fend off the French. The Britishthen used this as justification for the taxation of the colonies by the British parliament.

The colonies, having fought the empire’s wars of expansion, having purchased theempire’s goods, and having sought to further British rule, saw themselves as brothers ofthe crown. For the British, “American” was another word for “not quite British.”

II. The American RevolutionColonists in the 1760s did not anticipate the coming national independence. Many felt

strong and more loyalist ties to England and believed that any plan for independencewould be an exercise in extinction of their colonies. Revolution was most spoken of, atthe outset, in hushed tones and amongst friends, as people were almost afraid thatoutright show and display of any thought of independence would find them struck down. Naturally, in the most basic terms – independence from England amounted to treason inthe mind of the English and English loyalists.

It is only in retrospect today that we can see how the events of the period led to


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independence. At the time though, the colonists thought of themselves in a post war erahaving just ended the Seven Years War. It was a time of optimism for many. By 1776,approximately 2.5 million people living within the 13 colonies. Nearly 60% of thecolonists were under the age of 21. This is of significance as these were the people whowould drive the revolution, having grown up with the idea of the growing cause for

independence.

In 1760, George III became the king of England at the age of 22. His public hadreservations about their new king and his socialization and general experience. Heimmediately took a more assertive role in government than his predecessor, which wasnot kindly taken amongst officials who thought him (like his own Grandfather George II)as being a dim-wit. For decades, a powerful though unorganized group of men who calledthemselves whigs had set policy and controlled patronage. George II had accepted this, aslong as the Whigs in parliament did not interject in the army. During George II’s time,the Whigs essentially ran the empire. George III did not play along with this, which drewinto scope – for many – his intentions for the crown. There is significance in this, as

history can not attest, in that with the turmoil in his own house, George III did notinitially have much interest in the colonies.

From across “the pond” colonists did not see it in their interest to maintain the“supremacy of Parliament.” As the news of the debates ongoing between George III andthe English Parliament reached the shores of the colonies, the colonists had to begin withtheir own debate – both personally and publicly – as to their own feelings on the rule ofParliament from afar. By 1763, certain ‘American’ beliefs started to become clear. Overthe course of the previous century, American assemblies - drawing on their own growinglegislative ideals – had steadily defined their own systems of taxation and expenditures.At first, these assemblies looked and worked like copies of the English Parliament. Dueto our own existing and working system of rule, the theme of representation came tolight. How should the colonies be represented to the English parliament might be theearly thought of the colonist.

George III

General Cornwallis


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The colonists had over-emphasized their own importance in the mind of the BritishEmpire. To the British, the colonies were no more than curious subjects, without classand culture and very possibly and rabble-rousing group of felons. The concept from theBritish rule was that as a part of the Empire, the colonists were represented in politicaldecisions, without their vote or any necessary input. The colonists referred to this as

‘virtual representation’. Said John Adams of a representative (and now do please take thisterm to mind in our own contemporary American government), “(He) should think, feel,reason, and act like them (the represented)”. None of the English Parliament had ever been to the colonies, less even met an American.

So the idea that Americans could be represented without our input, our voice and vote,was ridiculous. As we were not represented by this Parliament, their taxation was unjust.So, in 1764 the Connecticut Assembly declared with large bold letters, “NO LAW CANBE MADE OR ABROGATED WITHOUT THE CONSENT OF THE PEOPLE BYTHEIR REPRESENTATIVES.” Yes, you are right. Here we begin with the concept oftaxation without representation.

The Stamp ActThe Seven Years War had created a large national debt for Great Britain, so much so thathalf of the annual national budget went to paying on interest of that debt. Sound familiar?The greatest sum of this came with George III decision to maintain the largest peacetimearmy in British history. To pay for the debt, the king’s minister implemented the SugarAct of 1764. This act redefined the relationship between the colonies and Britain. The parliament now expected the colonies to produce revenue for them. Colonists understoodat once that they were being unjustly taxed. If they were to be considered British subjects,this additional American tax would be inconsistent with their rights.

The Stamp Act in 1765 turned what had been a debate into a more political movement.The Stamp Act placed a tax on documents and printed materials (newspapers, marriagelicenses, wills, etc. - even playing cards). The stamps varied in denomination.

Colonists reacted with the above mock stamp expecting the demise of Journalism(newspapers) due to the effects of the stamp act tax on newspapers. The patriots

Example Stamps of the time – circa 1765


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understood that the British rule was trying to silence the American voice of its willthrough this taxation of papers.

Protests began to break out against the Stamp Act. By November 1st 1765, stampdistributors in almost every American port had publicly resigned. Without distributors,

the revenue stamps could not be sold. Afraid that the turmoil in the colonies would leadthem to bankruptcy, the House of Commons repealed the Stamp Act in March of 1768. Inthe colonies, the Act created a deeper rift between the colonists and British officials whowere posted in the colonies.

In Boston on March 5th 1770, the tension between the colonists – angry about taxationand the growing troops of British – and patrolling British officers resulted in Britishtroops firing upon a gathering of colonists. Five colonists were killed. Pamphleteerslabeled the incident the Boston Massacre. Below is an engraving of the incident created by Paul Revere.

The British soldiers were to be tried. A young lawyer by the name of John Adams electedto take the case of defending the British soldiers. The case was a pivotal moment for theyoung Adam’s career and for the young nation. The case, the hearing, and the verdictcarried with it undertones of the very republic. Blood was boiling in the Boston town.Colonists saw this as an attack on the American principles. Adams impassionedly usedthe trial to frame what America stood for: the right of every man to a fair trial, to be judged on the same level. The trial was incredible proof of American Self Governing

Will. Adams proved that the States could govern for themselves - fairly, to the law.Adams showed compassion to the right of the law and the equality of men to be judgedon a level plain of that law. He showed British soldiers on a level with the colonists underthe same law, meaning that the colony governed under its own equal rule, just as the parliament might in England.

This trial was a symbolic manifestation of American right to rule. The soldiers wereacquitted of the charges in acting in self defense. What Adams did in the trial

When Paul Revere first began selling his color prints of"The Bloody Massacre perpetrated in King Street" inBoston, he was doing what any like-minded patriot withhis talents in 1770 would have done. Only, Paul Reveredid it faster and more expeditiously than anyone else,including two other artist-engravers who also issued

prints of the Massacre that year.

Twenty-one days before — on the night of March 5, 1770 — five men had been shot to death in Boston town byBritish soldiers. Precipitating the event known as theBoston Massacre was a mob of men and boys taunting asentry standing guard at the city's customs house. When

other British soldiers came to the sentry's support, a free-for-all ensued and shots were fired into the crowd.


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reverberated across the colonies to show the courage and direction of the United States. Itwould be a civil union. A union built on the laws and inherent rights of man. Further, asAdams became renown in the colonies as a man of justice and governance, his comingrebuttal of the parliamentarian acts as being unjust would add integrity to the cause ofstatehood.

The Tea ActIn May of 1773, Parliament passed the Tea Act. The act was meant to save the East IndiaCompany from bankruptcy by cutting out the tea smugglers from Holland that colonistsdid business with. What it was taken as was a measure to in fact show case for taxationwithout representation. Colonists would not allow the ships to unload the East India tea,and British officials would not let them return to England with the tea, so the ships sat inthe Boston harbor awaiting one side or the other to back down. On the night of December16th 1773, a group of men disguised as Mohawk boarded the ship and sent all the tea overthe starboard. These men were a group known as the Sons of Liberty.

In reaction, Parliament passed what was termed the Coercive Acts, or as they were calledin the colonies, the Intolerable Acts. The acts would close the ports of Boston until theywould accept tea from the East India Company, created a new government inMassachusetts with appointed officials, and authorized British troops to quarter whereverthey needed. Looking back, one can see the faulty logic of the British in these acts as they just further infuriated the colonies and helped to solidify them/us into statehood. A uni ted

states.

Continental CongressIn the summer of 1774, colonial committees endorsed a call for a Continental Congress –a gathering of 55 elected representatives from 12 colonies. That is 12 because Georgiadid not send a representative, but did support the Congress. The First ContinentalCongress met in Philadelphia on September 5th and included John Adams, SamuelAdams, and George Washington.

The First Continental Congress was held on September 5, 1774, and lasted until October

The Tea Party was the culmination of a resistancemovement throughout British America against theTea Act, which had been passed by the BritishParliament in 1773. Colonists objected to the TeaAct for a variety of reasons, especially becausethey believed that it violated their right to be taxedonly by their own elected representatives.Protesters had successfully prevented theunloading of taxed tea in three other colonies, butin Boston, embattled Royal Governor ThomasHutchinson refused to allow the tea to be returnedto Britain. He apparently did not expect that the

protestors would choose to destroy the tea ratherthan concede the authority of a legislature inwhich they were not directly represented.


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26, 1774. It was held because the colonists were very upset about the Intolerable Acts andthe taxes. The Congress met in secret. The meeting was held to discuss unfair treatmentfrom Britain, what relationship the colonies should have with Britain, and what colonists'rights should be.

The meetings were held in Philadelphia. Each state but Georgia sent a representative tothe Congress. The Royal Governor in Georgia had stopped the delegates from being a part of the Congress. Patrick Randolph from Virginia was selected as the President of theFirst Continental Congress.

The First Continental Congress agreed to boycott British goods. They also agreed to meetagain if Great Britain did not change its policies. They did not outwardly state a plan to become independent yet at this time, though they spoke of the concept of freedom. Manyof the colonists still wanted to be Englishmen, and were called loyalists. The firstContinental Congress signed a petition and sent it to England, demanding that theIntolerable Acts that the British had imposed should be repealed. They wrote that"Americans cannot submit…to these grievous acts and measures..." and that they wanted both countries to return to "happiness and prosperity."

John Adams saw the First ContinentalCongress like a school for colonial leaders.

Shortly after the meeting of the firstContinental Congress, attacks betweenMinutemen and British soldiers at Lexingtonand Concord became the ‘shot heard aroundthe world.’


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The Second Continental CongressWhen the Second Continental Congress met in May 1775, they found themselves at a pivotal moment. The colonies were without a centralized control of their efforts. Withthat, the Congress took control of the war and created the Continental Army and GeorgeWashington was appointed its commander. When in December of 1775 the English

Parliament passed the Prohibitory Act, they essentially declared war on colonycommerce, as it stated that the colonies could only trade with the rest of the world. TheBritish Navy blocked colony ports. The British further hired German mercenaries to quellrebellions in the colonies.

The second Congress managed the colonial war effort, and moved incrementally towardsindependence, adopting the United States Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776.By raising armies, directing strategy, appointing diplomats, and making formal treaties,the Congress acted as the de facto national government of what became the United States.With the ratification of the Articles of Confederation, the Congress became known as theCongress of the Confederation.

Notable new arrivals to the Second Continental Congress included Benjamin Franklin ofPennsylvania and John Hancock of Massachusetts. Within two weeks, Payton Randolphwas summoned back to Virginia to preside over the House of Burgesses; he was replacedin the Virginia delegation by Thomas Jefferson, who arrived several weeks later. HenryMiddleton was elected as president to replace Randolph, but he declined, and Hancockwas elected president on May 24.

Delegates from twelve of the Thirteen Colonies were present when the SecondContinental Congress convened. Georgia had not participated in the First Continental

Congress and did not initially send delegates to the Second Continental Congress. OnMay 13, 1775, Lyman Hall was admitted as a delegate from the Parish of St. John's in theColony of Georgia, not as a delegate from the colony itself. On July 4, 1775,revolutionary Georgians held a Provincial Congress to decide how to respond to theAmerican Revolution, and that congress decided on July 8 to send delegates to theContinental Congress. They arrived on July 20.


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III. IndependenceBy the time the Second Continental Congress met, the American Revolutionary War hadalready started with the Battles of Lexington and Concord. The Congress was to takecharge of the war effort. For the first few months of the struggle, the Patriots had carriedon their struggle in an ad-hoc and uncoordinated manner. They had seized arsenals,

driven out royal officials, and besieged the British army in the city of Boston. On June14, 1775, the Congress voted to create the Continental Army out of the militia unitsaround Boston and quickly appointed Congressman George Washington of Virginia ascommanding general of the Continental Army.

On July 6, 1775 Congress approved a Declaration of Causes outlining the rationale andnecessity for taking up arms in the Thirteen Colonies." On July 8, Congress extended theOlive Branch Petition to the British Crown as a final attempt at reconciliation. However,it was received too late to do any good. Silas Deane was sent to France as a minister(ambassador) of the Congress. American ports were reopened in defiance of the British Navigation Acts.

Although it had no explicit legal authority to govern, the Congress assumed all thefunctions of a national government, such as appointing ambassadors, signing treaties,raising armies, appointing generals, obtaining loans from Europe, issuing paper money(called "Continentals"), and disbursing funds. The Congress had no authority to levytaxes, and was required to request money, supplies, and troops from the states to supportthe war effort. Individual states frequently ignored these requests.

Congress was moving towards declaring independence from the British Empire in 1776, but many delegates lacked the authority from their home governments to take such anaction. Advocates of independence in Congress moved to have reluctant colonial

governments revise instructions to their delegations, or even replace those governmentswhich would not authorize independence. On May 10, 1776, Congress passed aresolution recommending that any colony lacking a proper (i.e. a revolutionary)government should form such a government. On May 15, Congress adopted a moreradical preamble to this resolution, drafted by John Adams, in which it advised throwingoff oaths of allegiance and suppressing the authority of the Crown in any colonialgovernment that still derived its authority from the Crown. That same day the VirginiaConvention instructed its delegation in Philadelphia to propose a resolution that called fora declaration of independence, the formation of foreign alliances, and a confederation ofthe states. The resolution of independence was delayed for several weeks asrevolutionaries consolidated support for independence in their home governments.

On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee tabled a resolution before the Continental Congressdeclaring the colonies independent, he also urged Congress to resolve “to take the mosteffectual measures for forming foreign Alliances” and to prepare a plan of confederationfor the newly independent states. France was a favorite ally of the colonies at the time,and very intrigued by the cause of independence. Ben Franklin was something of a culthero in France.


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Richard Henry Lee argued that independence was the only way to ensure a foreignalliance, since no European monarchs would deal with America if they remained Britain'scolonists. American leaders had rejected the divine right of kings in the New World, butrecognized the necessity of proving their credibility in the Old World. Congress wouldformally adopt the resolution of independence, but only after creating three overlapping

committees to draft the Declaration, a Model Treaty, and the Articles of Confederation.The Declaration announced the states' entry into the international system; the modeltreaty was designed to establish amity and commerce with other states; and the Articlesof Confederation, which established “a firm league” among the thirteen free andindependent states; together these constituted an international agreement to set up centralinstitutions for the conduct of vital domestic and foreign affairs.

Congress finally approved the resolution of independence on July 2, 1776. Congress nextturned its attention to a formal explanation of this decision, the United States Declarationof Independence, which was approved on July 4 and published soon thereafter.

Thomas Jefferson was appointed to draft the declaration. As a lawyer, Jefferson stated thecase for independence, listing out the grievances against George III. The fight forindependence, all knew, was against insurmountable odds. The British thought of it as a police force, and thought through intimidation, the revolution could be put down.However, the colonies had the edge. First, the British had to transport troops, while thecolonists were defending their homes. Secondly, America was too vast a land to conquerwith the British sense of militia – marching redcoats. As colonists knew, America couldnot be defeated as “America – the independence –“ was a growing concept. Lastly, whileBritish soldiers were fighting as a vocation, the colonists were fighting for their freedomsand homes.

Here is a short timeline of the events leading up to the Declaration The following is a brief chronicle of events leading up to the official adoption of theDeclaration of Independence on July 4, 1776.

May 1775 - The Second Continental Congress convenes in Philadelphia. A "petition forredress of grievances," sent to King George III of England by the First ContinentalCongress in 1774, remains unanswered.

June - July 1775 - Congress establishes the Continental Army, a first national monetarycurrency and a post office to serve the "United Colonies."

August 1775 - King George declares his American subjects to be "engaged in open andavowed rebellion" against the Crown. The English Parliament passes the AmericanProhibitory Act, declaring all American sea-going vessels and their cargo the property ofEngland.

January 1776 - Colonists by the thousands buy copies of Thomas Paine's "CommonSense," stating the cause of American independence.


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March 1776 - Congress passes the Privateering Resolution, allowing colonists to armvessels in order to "cruize [sic] on the enemies of these United Colonies."

April 6, 1776 - American seaports were opened to trade and cargo from other nations forthe first time.

May 1776 - Germany, through a treaty negotiated with King George, agrees to hiremercenary soldiers to help put down any potential uprising by American colonists.

May 10, 1776 - Congress passes the "Resolution for the Formation of LocalGovernments," allowing colonists to establish their own local governments. Eightcolonies agreed to support American independence.

May 15, 1776 - The Virginia Convention passes a resolution that "the delegatesappointed to represent this colony in General Congress be instructed to propose to thatrespectable body to declare the United Colonies free and independent states."

June 7, 1776 - Richard Henry Lee, Virginia's delegate to the Continental Congress, presents the Lee Resolution reading in part: "Resolved: That these United Colonies are,and of right ought to be, free and independent States, that they are absolved from allallegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and theState of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved."

June 11, 1776 - Congress postpones consideration of the Lee Resolution and appoints the"Committee of Five" to draft a final statement declaring the case for America'sindependence. The Committee of Five was composed of John Adams of Massachusetts,Roger Sherman of Connecticut, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Robert R.Livingston of New York and Thomas Jefferson of Virginia.

July 2, 1776 - By the votes of 12 of the 13 colonies, with New York not voting, Congressadopts the Lee Resolution and begins consideration of the Declaration of Independence,written by the Committee of Five.

July 4, 1776 - Late in the afternoon, church bells ring out over Philadelphia heralding thefinal adoption of the Declaration of Independence.

August 2, 1776 - The delegates of the Continental Congress sign the clearly printed or"engrossed" version of the Declaration.

Today - Faded but still legible, the Declaration of Independence, along with theConstitution and Bill of Rights, is enshrined for public display in the rotunda of the National Archives and Records Building in Washington, D.C. The priceless documentsare stored in an underground vault at night and are constantly monitored for anydegradation in their condition.


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John Adams and Benjamin Franklin proofing Jefferson’s Declaration.

The painting features 42 of the 56 signers. If you look closely you will see that Jeffersonis standing on Adams’ foot. This might have been a nod by the artist of the tension of will between the two men. The same scene is found on the back of the US $2 bill, withJefferson’s foot moved to the side. You can see Jefferson presenting the document toJohn Hancock, the president of the Continental Congress at the time.

The defining documents of our nation detail independence, law and statehood. Thesedocuments include: the Declaration of Independence, Constitution of the United States,and the Bill of Rights. Also known as the Charter of Freedom. These documents arehoused on display at the National Archives in Washington DC - the IndependenceRotunda. If you have the opportunity to visit Washington DC, be sure to make a stop atthe Archives.

Jefferson’s initial version of the Declaration was studied over, edited, rewritten, andrevised. Upon the counsel to advise Jefferson of the language of the declaration includedJohn Adams and Benjamin Franklin. One rather extensive proportion of the preamble thatwas taken out of Jefferson’s text damned the British - as a people in whole - for allowingtheir parliament to essentially invade the colony with all due recourse to indenture thecolonists to taxation and rule from afar, without representation in parliament, or betteryet, the will of the people of colonies unto a fate of their own. “Taxation withoutrepresentation” as the common term would be.

Into the original text of the Declaration, Jefferson had itemized a scathing list of damagesthat King George had caused onto the colonies. One point of the original text Jeffersonhad exposed on the idea that Britain and the colonies could have both ventured into theidea of liberty and freedom together. This was a most honest and desperate injury asJefferson saw it. In his text, Jefferson referred to the British as the colonists’ brethren.

One must take into full consideration the momentous event that the signing of theDeclaration surmised to the young colonists. It was in full scale, an act of treason. Upon


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the signing of the Declaration, there would be no backing down from the course theContinental Congress had enacted. Their parts would be played in full, either to the birthof a new nation, or to the utter destruction of the noble ideas of freedom and union hood.Remember it cannot be said to this point anything of a nation or of “America.” Thecolony still at this point was the collection - in proximity at least - of the 13 colonies.

Proximity must be noted in this text, as not all of the colonies agreed. Indeed, there weredissenting views as to what path should be taken. Loyalists - who bid their loyalty to thecrown and King George, felt that Adams, Franklin, Paine and the rest were driving thecolonies into certain destruction. New York’s leadership in particular felt that thedecision to independence was the wrong one and abstained from the votes leading up tothe event.

With the signing there seemed to be a general elation that came across most of thecolonies. In the days following there were public readings of the Declaration inPhiladelphia. The colonists also provided a mock funeral of King George. A statue of theBritish king seated on a horse was torn to the ground by the colonists. There were

candles in windows, jubilation in the streets, eruptions of celebratory gunfire in the air -excitement over the extraordinary events.

The colonists’ celebration - they knew - was to come with a price to be paid, and that price was soon to be paid with the coming conflict with the spited British crown. In hisletter to his wife Abigail, John Adams wrote excitedly of the declaration, marking that the2

nd of July (actual in acting of the declaration) would forever be celebrated by the union

with celebrations and lights in the sky. But Adams noted in the same line to his wife thatthe union would soon be tested.

John Hancock’s part in history is a bit of a curiosity. While he was one of the signers ofthe Declaration, he was most certainly not one of the most central figures. The name hascome down through the ages in the vernacular to mean, in venereal, your signature. Inlooking at the signatures, you will most certainly recognize his at once as being the biggest and most central. Rumor had it at the time that Hancock did this with theintention that the British King could read the name without his reading glasses. This wasa thumbing of the nose at the magistrate by a colonist who understood that his neck -literally - was on the line in signing the document.

IV. The Declaration of IndependenceOne cannot appreciate the stakes that early patriots took to ensure our independence orthe incredible responsibility that protecting these freedoms is a matter of self governing

will of every American citizen without reading the declaration. Please see a more recentcopy of the declaration image as follows, followed by the actual transcript. Please pay particular attention to Jefferson’s precise use of language and context as well as his use ofcapitalization.


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IN CONGRESS, July 4, 1776.

The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America,

When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that theyshould declare the causes which impel them to the separation.

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are


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endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life,Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.--That to secure these rights, Governments areinstituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, --That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is theRight of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its

foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shallseem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate thatGovernments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; andaccordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, whileevils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they areaccustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably thesame Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, itis their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their futuresecurity.--Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now thenecessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. Thehistory of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and

usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny overthese States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.

He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the publicgood.He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance,unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when sosuspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people,unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, aright inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distantfrom the depository of their public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them intocompliance with his measures.He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmnesshis invasions on the rights of the people.He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected;whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People atlarge for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers ofinvasion from without, and convulsions within.He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purposeobstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others toencourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations ofLands.He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws forestablishing Judiciary powers.He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and theamount and payment of their salaries.He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harrassour people, and eat out their substance.


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He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of ourlegislatures.He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil power.He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution,and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended

Legislation:For Quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from punishment for any Murders which theyshould commit on the Inhabitants of these States:For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury:For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offencesFor abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishingtherein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at oncean example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies:

For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and alteringfundamentally the Forms of our Governments:For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power tolegislate for us in all cases whatsoever.He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging Waragainst us.He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the livesof our people.He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the worksof death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidyscarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of acivilized nation.He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Armsagainst their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fallthemselves by their Hands.He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on theinhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare,is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.

In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humbleterms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Princewhose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be theruler of a free people.

Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our Brittish brethren. We have warned themfrom time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdictionover us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlementhere. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjuredthem by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, wouldinevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the


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voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity,which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemiesin War, in Peace Friends.

We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress,

Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of ourintentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies,solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to beFree and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the BritishCrown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, isand ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have fullPower to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to doall other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the supportof this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, wemutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.

The 56 signatures on the Declaration appear in the positions indicated:

Column 1Georgia:

Button GwinnettLyman HallGeorge Walton

Column 2 North Carolina:

William HooperJoseph HewesJohn Penn

South Carolina:Edward RutledgeThomas Heyward, Jr.Thomas Lynch, Jr.Arthur Middleton

Column 3

Massachusetts:John Hancock

Maryland:Samuel ChaseWilliam PacaThomas StoneCharles Carroll of Carrollton

Virginia:George WytheRichard Henry Lee


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Thomas JeffersonBenjamin HarrisonThomas Nelson, Jr.Francis Lightfoot LeeCarter Braxton

Column 4Pennsylvania:

Robert MorrisBenjamin RushBenjamin FranklinJohn MortonGeorge ClymerJames SmithGeorge TaylorJames Wilson

George RossDelaware:Caesar RodneyGeorge ReadThomas McKean

Column 5 New York:

William FloydPhilip LivingstonFrancis LewisLewis Morris

New Jersey:Richard StocktonJohn WitherspoonFrancis HopkinsonJohn HartAbraham Clark

Column 6

New Hampshire:Josiah BartlettWilliam Whipple

Massachusetts:Samuel AdamsJohn AdamsRobert Treat PaineElbridge Gerry

Rhode Island:Stephen Hopkins


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William ElleryConnecticut:

Roger ShermanSamuel HuntingtonWilliam Williams

Oliver Wolcott New Hampshire:Matthew Thornton

Recap on the DeclarationJefferson selected and labored over very specific language in the Declaration. Forexample, “To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world. He has refused hisAssent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.” What Jeffersondid in the Declaration was to lay out the crimes that George II had committed on the people of the colonies, forcing their hands to freedom. Just as John Adams had fought forthe equal treatment of the British soldiers of the Boston Massacre, Jefferson here uses the

same language to draw out the inalienable rights on men in the colonies to rulethemselves - due to the tyranny committed by the monarch. The monarch, in Jefferson’slist of offenses, is not fit to rule the colonies with any equal authority, and therefore isthrown off.

The words of the Declaration are both moving and inspiring and have been referenced asthe most important words of American will. Words and examples have been borrowedsince they were penned and echoed by Abraham Lincoln during the civil war, by MartinLuther King in his address at the steps of the Lincoln Memorial, Emerson and legionsmore.

The oldest written constitution still in use in the world today is the Constitution of theCommonwealth of Massachusetts, drafted by John Adams in 1778, just two years afterthe Declaration of Independence and full a decade before our national Constitution. Inmany respects it is a rough draft of our national Constitution. But it also contains a paragraph on education that was without precedent. Though Adams worried that it would be rejected as too radical, it was passed unanimously. Listen, please, to what it says:

Wisdom and knowledge, as well as virtue, diffused generally among the body of the people being necessary for the preservation of their rights and liberties. [Which is tosay that there must be wisdom, knowledge, and virtue or all aspirations for the goodsociety will come to nothing.] And as these depend on spreading the opportunities andadvantages of education in various parts of the country, and among the differentorders of the people [that is, everyone], it shall be the duty [not something they mightconsider, but the duty] of legislatures and magistrates in all future periods of this

commonwealth to cherish the interests and literature and the sciences, and allseminaries of them ... public schools, and grammar schools in the towns.

The Revolution was one of the darkest, most uncertain of times and the longest war inAmerican history, until the Vietnam War. It lasted eight and a half years, and Adams, because of his unstinting service to his country, was separated from his family nearly allthat time, much to his and their distress. In a letter from France he tried to explain to themthe reason for such commitment.


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I must study politics and war [he wrote] that my sons may have liberty to studymathematics and philosophy. My sons ought to study mathematics and philosophy,geography, natural history, naval architecture, navigation, commerce, and agriculturein order to give their children a right to study paintings, poetry, music, architecture,statuary, tapestry, and porcelain.

That was the upward climb envisioned for the good society in the burgeoning newAmerican republic. And Adams was himself vivid proof of the transforming miracle ofeducation. His father was a farmer, his mother almost certainly illiterate. But with thehelp of a scholarship, he was able to attend Harvard, where, as he said, he discovered books and "read forever."

Stephen Hopkins of Rhode Island, who suffered from palsy, is said to have remarked ashe signed his name, "My hand trembles, but my heart does not." Hopkins was a grand oldfigure who had seen a lot of life. You cannot miss him in the Trumbull painting. He is atthe back with his broad-brimmed Quaker hat on. In after-hours, he loved to drink rumand expound on his favorite writers. "He read Greek, Roman, and British history, and

was familiar with English poetry," John Adams wrote. "And the flow of his soul made hisreading our own, and seemed to bring recollection in all we had ever read."

V. The Constitution The Federal Convention convened in the State House (Independence Hall) inPhiladelphia on May 14, 1787, to revise the Articles of Confederation. Because thedelegations from only two states were at first present, the members adjourned from day today until a quorum of seven states was obtained on May 25. Through discussion anddebate it became clear by mid-June that, rather than amend the existing Articles, theConvention would draft an entirely new frame of government. All through the summer,in closed sessions, the delegates debated, and redrafted the articles of the new

Constitution. Among the chief points at issue were how much power to allow the centralgovernment to have, how many representatives in Congress to allow from each state, andhow these representatives should be elected--directly by the people or by the statelegislators. The work of many minds, the Constitution stands as a model of cooperativestatesmanship and the art of compromise.

The following is an image of the current version. Current because over time the parchment has faded a bit, like with the Declaration. However, the very recognizable,“We the people” statement still easily identifies the document at first glance. Below theimage there is the actual transcript of the Constitution.


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The Constitution of the United States: A Transcription

Note: The following text is a transcription of the Constitution in its original form.

We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establishJustice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote thegeneral Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, doordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.


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Article. I.Section. 1.

All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States,which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives.

Section. 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have theQualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the StateLegislature.

No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty fiveYears, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, whenelected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen.

Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which

may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers, which shall bedetermined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound toService for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all otherPersons. The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years after the first Meetingof the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, insuch Manner as they shall by Law direct. The Number of Representatives shall notexceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least oneRepresentative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshireshall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode-Island and ProvidencePlantations one, Connecticut five, New-York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight,Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and

Georgia three.

When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the Executive Authoritythereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacancies.

The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other Officers; and shallhave the sole Power of Impeachment.

Section. 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State,chosen by the Legislature thereof for six Years; and each Senator shall have one Vote.

Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the firstClass shall be vacated at the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at theExpiration of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the sixth Year, sothat one third may be chosen every second Year; and if Vacancies happen byResignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, theExecutive thereof may make temporary Appointments until the next Meeting of the


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Legislature, which shall then fill such Vacancies.

No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be anInhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen.

The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have noVote, unless they be equally divided.

The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a President pro tempore, in theAbsence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the Office of President of theUnited States.

The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. When sitting for thatPurpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When the President of the United States istried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And no Person shall be convicted without the

Concurrence of two thirds of the Members present.

Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from Office,and disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honor, Trust or Profit under theUnited States: but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject toIndictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law.

Section. 4. The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives,shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at anytime by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of chusing Senators.

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall be onthe first Monday in December, unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day.

Section. 5. Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its ownMembers, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; but a smaller Number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendanceof absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penalties as each House may provide.

Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Members fordisorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of two thirds, expel a Member.

Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish thesame, excepting such Parts as may in their Judgment require Secrecy; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any question shall, at the Desire of one fifth ofthose Present, be entered on the Journal.


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States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;

To borrow Money on the credit of the United States;

To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the

Indian Tribes;

To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject ofBankruptcies throughout the United States;

To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard ofWeights and Measures;

To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and current Coin of theUnited States;

To establish Post Offices and post Roads;

To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times toAuthors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries;

To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court;

To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offencesagainst the Law of Nations;

To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerningCaptures on Land and Water;

To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use shall be for alonger Term than two Years;

To provide and maintain a Navy;

To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces;

To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppressInsurrections and repel Invasions;

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing suchPart of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to theStates respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and the Authority of training theMilitia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;

To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (notexceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particular States, and the Acceptance


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of Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United States, and to exerciselike Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State inwhich the Same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, dock-Yards, andother needful Buildings;--And

To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution theforegoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government ofthe United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof.

Section. 9. The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shallthink proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year onethousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on suchImportation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person.

The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases

of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it.

No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed.

No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census orenumeration herein before directed to be taken.

No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State.

No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports ofone State over those of another; nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obligedto enter, clear, or pay Duties in another.

No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriationsmade by Law; and a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures ofall public Money shall be published from time to time.

No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no Person holding anyOffice of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the Consent of the Congress, accept ofany present, Emolument, Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince,or foreign State.

Section. 10. No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marqueand Reprisal; coin Money; emit Bills of Credit; make any Thing but gold and silver Coina Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Lawimpairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility.

No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts or Duties onImports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing it's inspection


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expedient; he may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them,and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the Time of Adjournment,he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper; he shall receive Ambassadorsand other public Ministers; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, andshall Commission all the Officers of the United States.

Section. 4. The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States, shall be removedfrom Office on Impeachment for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other highCrimes and Misdemeanors.

Article III.

Section. 1. The judicial Power of the United States shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in suchinferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges,

both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behaviour,and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services a Compensation, which shall not bediminished during their Continuance in Office.

Section. 2. The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under thisConstitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made,under their Authority;--to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers andConsuls;--to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction;--to Controversies to whichthe United States shall be a Party;--to Controversies between two or more States;-- between a State and Citizens of another State,--between Citizens of different States,--

between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects.

In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those inwhich a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all theother Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, bothas to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congressshall make.

The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by Jury; and such Trialshall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed; but when not

committed within any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congressmay by Law have directed.

Section. 3. Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or inadhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted ofTreason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or onConfession in open Court.


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The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder ofTreason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of thePerson attainted.

Article. IV.

Section. 1. Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, Records, and judicialProceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe theManner in which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effectthereof.

Section. 2. The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens inthe several States.

A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, who shall flee fromJustice, and be found in another State, shall on Demand of the executive Authority of theState from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdictionof the Crime.

No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof, escaping intoanother, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regulation therein, be discharged fromsuch Service or Labour, but shall be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom suchService or Labour may be due.

Section. 3. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall beformed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed bythe Junction of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of theLegislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress.

The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulationsrespecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States; and nothing inthis Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, orof any particular State.

Section. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form ofGovernment, and shall protect each of them against Invasion; and on Application of theLegislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened), againstdomestic Violence.

Article. V.


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The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall proposeAmendments to this Constitution, or, on the Application of the Legislatures of two thirdsof the several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in eitherCase, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes, as Part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by Conventions in three

fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by theCongress; Provided that no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year Onethousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth Clausesin the Ninth Section of the first Article; and that no State, without its Consent, shall bedeprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate.

Article. VI.

All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adoption of thisConstitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as underthe Confederation.

This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuancethereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the UnitedStates, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrarynotwithstanding.

The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Members of the severalState Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Officers, both of the United States andof the several States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public

Trust under the United States.

Article. VII.

The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for theEstablishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same.

The Word, "the," being interlined between the seventh and eighth Lines of the first Page,the Word "Thirty" being partly written on an Erazure in the fifteenth Line of the firstPage, The Words "is tried" being interlined between the thirty second and thirty thirdLines of the first Page and the Word "the" being interlined between the forty third and

forty fourth Lines of the second Page.

Attest William Jackson Secretary

done in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the States present the Seventeenth Dayof September in the Year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and Eighty seven andof the Independance of the United States of America the Twelfth In witness whereof Wehave hereunto subscribed our Names,


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G°. Washington

Presidt and deputy from Virginia

Delaware

Geo: ReadGunning Bedford junJohn DickinsonRichard BassettJaco: Broom

MarylandJames McHenryDan of St Thos. JeniferDanl. Carroll

VirginiaJohn BlairJames Madison Jr.

North CarolinaWm. BlountRichd. Dobbs SpaightHu Williamson

South CarolinaJ. RutledgeCharles Cotesworth PinckneyCharles PinckneyPierce Butler

GeorgiaWilliam FewAbr Baldwin

New HampshireJohn Langdon Nicholas Gilman

Massachusetts Nathaniel GorhamRufus King

ConnecticutWm. Saml. JohnsonRoger Sherman


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New YorkAlexander Hamilton

New Jersey

Wil: LivingstonDavid BrearleyWm. PatersonJona: Dayton

PennsylvaniaB FranklinThomas MifflinRobt. MorrisGeo. ClymerThos. FitzSimons

Jared IngersollJames WilsonGouv Morris

VI. The Bill of Rights During the debates on the adoption of the Constitution, its opponents repeatedly chargedthat the Constitution as drafted would open the way to tyranny by the central government.Fresh in their minds was the memory of the British violation of civil rights before andduring the Revolution. They demanded a "bill of rights" that would spell out theimmunities of individual citizens. Several state conventions in their formal ratification ofthe Constitution asked for such amendments; others ratified the Constitution with the

understanding that the amendments would be offered.

On September 25, 1789, the First Congress of the United States therefore proposed to thestate legislatures 12 amendments to the Constitution that met arguments most frequentlyadvanced against it. The first two proposed amendments, which concerned the number ofconstituents for each Representative and the compensation of Congressmen, were notratified. Amendments 3 to 12, however, ratified by three-fourths of the state legislatures,constitute the first 10 amendments of the Constitution, known as the Bill of Rights.


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fourths of the said Legislatures, to be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of the saidConstitution; viz.

ARTICLES in addition to, and Amendment of the Constitution of the United States ofAmerica, proposed by Congress, and ratified by the Legislatures of the several States,

pursuant to the fifth Article of the original Constitution.

Note: The following text is a transcription of the first ten amendments to the Constitutionin their original form. These amendments were ratified December 15, 1791, and formwhat is known as the "Bill of Rights."

Amendment I Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting thefree exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right ofthe people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress ofgrievances.

Amendment II A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.

Amendment III

No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of theOwner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.

Amendment IV

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, againstunreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, butupon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

Amendment V

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or navalforces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shallany person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; norshall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprivedof life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property betaken for public use, without just compensation.

Amendment VIIn all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have beencommitted, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to beinformed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnessesagainst him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have


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the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.

Amendment VIIIn Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollar

Menards Training 3

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