MEMORY
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MEMORY
description
MEMORY. WHAT’S IN THIS CHAPTER?. (Objectives for this unit) Essential Questions to be asked: How do we remember things? Why do we forget things? Where do we store memories? Are there different types of memories? Are there memories that last longer than others? Why? - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
Transcript of MEMORY
MEMORY
WHAT’S IN THIS CHAPTER?• (Objectives for this unit)• Essential Questions to be asked:• How do we remember things?• Why do we forget things?• Where do we store memories?• Are there different types of memories?• Are there memories that last longer than others?
Why?• Can we have false memories?• Can our imagination play tricks on us?• How can we improve our memory?
Memory Memory
persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
Flashbulb Memory a clear memory of an emotionally significant
moment or event Based in long-term memory Ex. JFK assassination; 9/11 attack
Memory Memory as Information Processing
similar to a computer
write to file: putting info in (encoding) save to disk: save file as: (storage) read from disk: retrieval: (open file)
ENCODING the processing of information into the memory
system or getting information into memory• Typing on a computer keyboard the information
you need to keep.
STORAGE
STORAGE
• Storage:– The retention of coded information over time
• Saving information: where?
• Do I need it temporarily: over a few minutes, days, months?
• Do I need it for years or the rest of my life?
• Where do I put the information when I save it?
RETRIEVAL
• Retrieval:– The process of getting information out of
memory storage
• When I save information, how do I get it back out when I need it?
• Do I remember where I put it?
• What if it is large pieces of information or just a single word?
Getting Information In
Encoding
Effortful Automatic
Automatic processing allows us to process two or more complex coding tasks simultaneously & is done without conscious awareness
Encoding
Effortful Processing requires attention conscious effort
Rehearsal repetition of information
to maintain it in consciousness to encode it for storage
Encoding
Automatic Processing unconscious encoding of incidental information
Space: aware of size of room or distance from something Time: how much time has passed; how long something
occurred Frequency: how often something happens
well-learned information word meanings
YET, we can learn automatic processing reading backwards
Storage: Memory System
Sensory memory• Sensory Register• acts as a buffer for stimuli received through the
senses. I see everything in the room, but I don’t need to pay attention to everything in the room.
• exists for each sensory channel:• iconic memory for visual stimuli, • echoic memory for auditory stimuli • haptic memory for touch. • Info only passes from sensory memory to short-
term memory if it catches our attention.• the rest is filtered out • which is of no interest at a given time.
Sensory Memory Store
• Capacity - large– holds many items at
once• Duration - very brief
– .3 sec for visual info– .2 sec for auditory info
• Function - holds info long enough for basic physical characteristics
• Receiving room of the memory system
Sensory Input Sensory Sensory
MemoryMemory
Sperling’s Experiment1960
• Presented matrix of letters for 1/20 seconds
• Report as many letters as possible
• Subjects recall only half of the letters
• Was this because subjects didn’t have enough time to view entire matrix? No
• How did Sperling know this?
Sperling’s Experiment
• Sperling showed people can see and recall ALL the letters momentarily
• Sounded low, medium or high tone immediately after matrix disappeared
– tone signaled 1 row to report
– recall was almost perfect
High
Medium
Low
Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment
Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment
Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment
Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment
ICONIC MEMORY
• Photographic memory
• Eyes register an exact representation of a scene
• Can recall any part of it but only for a few tenths of a second
• You remember an entire dream; but it fades as you begin to tell it.
Sensory Memory Store
• forms automatically, doesn’t need your attention or interpretation
Sensory
InputSensory Sensory MemoryMemory
Short-term MemoryWorking Memory Store
• Function - conscious processing• Needs your attention!
– where information is actively worked on• Capacity - limited (holds 7 +/- 2 items) • Duration - brief storage (about 30 seconds)
Working orWorking orShort-termShort-term
MemoryMemory
Sensory
Input
Sensory Memory
Attention
Short-term memory Working Memory briefly stored information• scratch-pad for temporary recall
• Ex: In order to understand this sentence, you need to hold in your mind the beginning of the sentence as you read the rest.
• Short-term memory decays rapidly
• Small: limited capacity 7-10 items• Keeps essential info like a change purse• Different sized pieces of info.• Chunking of information increases short-term
memory capacity and is the organization of info into meaningful units
• a hyphenated phone number is easier to remember than a single long number.
• formation of a chunk: known as closure. • Diff. size chunks• Interference: can cause disturbance in S-T-M
retention. • accounts for desire to complete tasks held in short-
term memory as soon as possible.
Change purse theory (Miller 1976)
SCHOOL
Chunking
• Grouping small bits of information into larger units of information– expands working memory load
• Which is easier to remember?– 4 8 3 7 9 2 5 1 6
– 483 792 516
Working Memory Store
• What happens if you need to keep information in working memory longer than 30 seconds?
• To demonstrate, memorize the following phone number (presented one digit at a time)...
8 361975
Working Memory Store
• What is the number? 857-9163The number lasted in your working memory longer than 30 secondsSo, how were you able to remember the number?
Rehearsal
Working orWorking orShort-termShort-term
MemoryMemory
Sensory
Input
Sensory Memory
Attention
• Mental or verbal repetition of information: • aka• REPETITION• ROTE REHEARSAL
Allows information to remain in working memory longer than the usual 30 seconds
Maintenance rehearsal
Maintenance Rehearsal
• What happens if you can’t use maintenance rehearsal?
• Memory decays quickly
• To demonstrate, again memorize a phone number (presented one digit at a time)
– BUT, have to count backwards from 1,000 by twos (i.e., 1000, 998, 996 … etc.)
6 490582
Working Memory Store
What is the number?628-5094
Without rehearsal, memory fades
Short-Term Memory Test
• http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/stm0.html
Peterson’s STM Task
• Test of memory for 3-letter nonsense syllables
• Participants count backwards for a few seconds, then recall
• Without rehearsal, memory fades
STORAGE SHORT TERMsummary
• Encoding in STM is called?
• How do we make room for other info and still keep needed info in STM?
• Info comes in to STM through which two ways?
Long Term Memory Bank
Long-term memory
• intended for storage of information over a long time; basically unlimited capacity
• Information from the working memory is transferred to it after a few seconds. Unlike in working memory, there is little decay.
Getting Information In to long-term memory!
Encoding
Externalevents
Sensorymemory
Short-termmemory
Long-termmemory
Sensory inputAttention to importantor novel information
Encoding
Encoding
Retrieving
What Do We Encode?
Semantic Encoding encoding of meaning including meaning of words
Acoustic Encoding encoding of sound especially sound of words
Visual Encoding encoding of picture images
Encoding
Encoding Ebbinghaus used nonsense
syllables TUV ZOF GEK WAV the more times practiced on Day 1, the
fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2
Spacing Effect distributed practice yields better long-
term retention than massed practice
SERIAL POSITION EFFECT
Tendency to recall best the first or last items in a list
• TWO TYPES• PRIMACY EFFECT: better recall of first few
items (right after learning)• RECENCY EFFECT: better recall of last few
items (later after learning)
Encoding: Serial Position Effect
12
Percentage of words
recalled
0
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Position of word in list
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Serial Position Effect-tendency to recall best the last items in a list
Encoding
Imagery mental pictures a powerful aid to effortful processing,
especially when combined with semantic encoding
Page 351 Mnemonics aka. Mnemonic device
memory aids especially those techniques that use vivid
imagery and organizational devices
Memory Aids“Peg Words”
1. Nun
2. Shoe
3. Tree
4. Door
5. Beehive
6. Sick
7. Heaven
8. Gate
9. Wine
10. Lion’s Den
Encoding
Chunking organizing items into familiar, manageable
units like horizontal organization--1776149218121941
often occurs automatically use of acronyms
HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior ARITHMETIC--A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat
Tom’s Ice Cream
Encoding We also use Hierarchies to encode
complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories
Encoding(automatic or effortful)
Imagery(visualEncoding)
Meaning(semanticEncoding)
Organization
Chunks Hierarchies
Non-declarative
Explicit Implicit
EpisodicMem ory
Sem anticMem ory
E xp lic it M em ory
P roceduralMem ory
C lassicalConditioning
Prim ing
Im p lic it M em ory
Long-term M em ory
Long-term Memory Systems
Explicit Memory
Explicit Memory: memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.” also called declarative memory
Subtypes of Explicit Memory
Episod ic M em ory Sem antic M em ory
Explic it M em ory
2 Types of Long-Term Explicit memory:
• Episodic memory of events and experiences from this memory we can reconstruct the actual events that took place at a given point in our lives.
• Semantic memory: record of facts, concepts and skills that we have acquired.
• is derived from episodic memory: we can learn new facts or concepts from our experiences.
Explicit Memory
• describe the picture below using the two describe the picture below using the two sub-types:sub-types: semantic and episodic semantic and episodic
Episodic Memory
• Memory tied to your own personal experiencespersonal experiences
• Examples:– what did you have for dinner?– do you like to eat caramel apples?
• Why are these explicit memories? • Because you can actively declare your answers to
these questions
Semantic Memory
• Memory not tied to personal events• General facts and definitions about the world• Examples:
– who was George Washington?– what is a cloud?– what is the climate at the north pole?
• These are explicit memories because you can describe what you know about them.
• Unlike episodic memories, your knowledge does NOT include your personal experience– i.e., You may never have been to the north pole but do know
about it.
Implicit Memory
C lassica lC ond ition ing
Procedura lM em ory
Prim ing
Im p lic it M em ory
Implicit
• Also known as non-declarative; retention
independent of conscious recollection aka. procedural memory
• Three subtypes
• Classical/operant
• Procedural
• Priming
Implicit Memory
• Influences your thoughts or behavior, but does not enter consciousness
Classical Conditioning
• Studied earlier• Ch. 8 learning• Implicit
because it is automatically retrieved
Implicit/Procedural Memory
• Memory that enables you to perform specific learned skills or habitual responses
• Examples:– Riding a bike– How to speak grammatically– Tying your shoe laces
• Why are these procedural memories implicit?– Can’t readily describe their contents
• try describing how to tie your shoes
– They are automatically retrieved when appropriate
Priming
• Priming is influence of one memory on another
• priming is implicit because it does not depend on awareness and is automatic
• Here is a demonstration
Priming Demonstration
• Unscramble the following words:
• O R S E
• L T E P A
• K T A L S
• TSME
• L O B S O M S
• ELAF
• ROSE
• PETAL
• STALK
• STEM
• BLOSSOM
Priming Demonstration
• ELAF = ?
• Why not respond FLEA?
• Because flower parts were primed (flower power)
Priming
• Activation of one or more existing memories by a stimulus
• Activation not a conscious decision• BUT, can effect subsequent thoughts and
actions
Two Types of Priming
C onceptua l Perceptua l
Prim ing
Conceptual Priming
• The semantic meaning of priming stimulus influences your encoding or retrieval
• Thought to involve activation of concepts stored in semantic memory
• Example: Flower power priming demonstration• Does not depend on sense modality: pictures
can conceptually prime sounds AS THE NEXT SLIDE SHOWS
Priming across modalities
• Look at the picture .
• When I say a word, write it down.
When I say a word, write it down
Perceptual Priming
• Prime enhances ability to identify a test stimulus based on its physical features
• Making meaning out of a given stimulus
Perceptual Priming
• Can you identify the fragmented stimulus to the right?
Perceptual Priming
• What if you were shown the following slide earlier in the lecture?
Perceptual Priming
• Can you identify the fragmented stimulus to the right?
Perceptual Priming
Perceptual Priming
Long-term Memory Processes
• There are three main activities related to long-term memory:
• Storage: the retention of encoded information over time
• Retrieval: process of getting information out of memory
• Deletion: forgetting information
STORAGE
Keeping information in!
Long-Term Memory Store
• Once information passes from sensory to working memory, it can be encoded into long-term memory
Long-term Long-term memorymemory
Working orShort-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory Memory
Attention Encoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal
Long-Term Memory Store
• EncodingEncoding – Elaborate constructive rehearsal: passing info from short term to long-term memory store
• RetrievalRetrieval - controls flow of information from long-term to short term memory store
Long-term Long-term memorymemory
Working orShort-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory Memory
Attention Encoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal
Long-Term MemoryPhysical Storage
Explicit Memory hippocampus--neural center in
limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage
Explicit Memories Hippocampus
Implicit Memory retention independent of conscious
recollection also called procedural memory Brain stem and cerebellum
Amygdala: emotional memoriesDamage to amygdala would
mean you couldn’t learn and remember fear
Storage: Long-Term Memory How does storage work?
Karl Lashley (1950) rats learn maze Lesioned their cortex Cut sections of their brain out Re-test memory of maze Rats could still run portions of the maze Memory not located in just one spot or area of brain
Synaptic changes Long-term Potentiation
increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; more learning, more synaptic growth
Strong emotions make for stronger memories some stress hormones boost learning and retention
Evidence for Separate Implicit/Explicit Systems
• Neurophysiological evidence• Patient H.M.
– life-threatening seizures originating in temporal lobe– surgically removed portions of temporal lobe – Temporal lobe includes:
• - hippocampus
– amygdala
Patient H.M.
• Surgery was effective in reducing seizures• BUT, had other side effects• Can remember explicit memories acquired before the surgery
– e.g., old addresses, normal vocabulary • Cannot form NEW explicit memories
– e.g., remembering the name of someone he met 30 minutes prior
– cannot name new world leaders or performers– can recognize a picture of himself from before his surgery
but not from after and doesn’t recognize himself in a mirror
Patient H.M.
• H.M. is almost normal on procedural or implicit memory tasks including priming, classical conditioning, and learning motor skills
• This shows that explicit memory This shows that explicit memory depends upon the temporal lobes and depends upon the temporal lobes and implicit does notimplicit does not
Hippocampal Damage
• Deficits in forming new explicit memories
Storing memories in the brain
• Ralph Gerard 1953• Trained hamsters to turn right or left to get food• Lowered their body temperature until brain’s
electrical activity ceased• Hamsters revived, brains became active again• Would they remember which way to turn?• Yes.• Long term memories survived the electrical
blackout.
Storage to long termElaboration
• Focus on the meaning of information to encode it into LTM– don’t simply repeat items over and over– tie item to other info in memorytie item to other info in memory– called elaborate constructive rehearsal
Long term storageWhich Level is More Effective?
• Elaboration leads to better recall than shallow processing
Typ
e of
P
roce
ssin
g
Shallow -Acoustic
Deep
Shallow - Visual
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1000Percent of words recalled
Hierarchical OrganizationRelated items form categories
Remember list better if presented in categoriespoorer recall if presented randomly
Mammals
Dogs Cats
German Shepherds
ScottishTerriers
Siamese Calico
Types of Mental Associations
• Association by contiguity
– concepts are associated because they occur together in a person’s previous experience
• Association by similarity– concepts with shared properties are
associated
Red
Fire
House
CherryAppleRose
Pear
Ambulance
Fire Engine
TruckBusCar
FlowerViolet
Hot
Pot
Stove
Pan
Pie
Network Model
• Attempt to depict structure of memory as concepts linked by associations
Network Models
• Links between concepts– common properties provide basis for mental link
• Shorter path between two concepts = stronger association in memory
• Activation of a concept starts decremental spread of activity to nearby concepts
• Also known as the spreading-activation model
Neural Network
prom
April
Are Memories Organized?Let’s put it to the test!
• Demonstration:– recite the days of the week– recite the days of the week in alphabetical order– demonstrates that long-term memory is organized
• not just a random jumble of information
• How are memories organized?
Getting Information Out!
»Retrieval
Retrieval• Types of information retrieval:• Recall in recall, the information is reproduced
from memory & needs the fewest retrieval cues– Serial Recall: perfect sequential order– Random Recall: all info but not in order
• Recognition presentation of the information provides the knowledge that the information has been seen before.
• lesser complexity of memory, as information is provided as a cue. – M.C. test
Retrieval
Relearning (savings) memory measure that assesses the
amount of time saved when learning material a second time
Priming activation, often unconsciously, of
particular associations in memory brings info to conscious when prompted
Context-Dependent Memory
• Improved ability to remember if tested in the same environment as the initial learning environment– better recall if tested in classroom where you initially
learned info than if moved to a new classroom– if learning room smells of chocolate or mothballs,
people will recall more info if tested in room with the same smell compared to different smell or no smell at all
Context-Dependent Effects• Compare words learned underwater vs on land• Words heard underwater are best recalled underwater• Words heard on land are best recalled on land
Retrieval Cues
0
10
20
30
40
Water/land
Land/water
Water/water
Different contexts for hearing and recall
Same contexts for hearing and recall
Land/land
Percentage ofwords recalled
Context Dependent Effects
• Time of day is also important
9
6
12
3
Learn at 3 pm Perform better at 3 pm
9
6
12
3 9
6
12
3
Than 9 pm
Retrieval Cues
State-dependent Memory what is learned in one state (while one is
high, drunk, or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state
• Recall improved if internal physiological or emotional state is the same during testing and initial encoding
State-Dependent Memory
• Context vs State dependent– Context-dependent - external, environmental
factors
– State-dependent - internal, physiological factors
State-Dependent Effects
Mood-Congruent Memory-Mood or emotions also a factor
tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood
memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues
– Bipolar depressives • information learned in manic state, recall more
if testing done during manic state• information learned in depressed state, recall
more if testing done during depressed state
State Dependent Effects
If drink during learning
May recall better with drink
Than without
But not as well as sober all the way!
Context Dependent State
Deja Vu (French)--already seen cues from the current situation may
subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience
The eerie feeling that "I've experienced this before."
Deletionalso calledForgetting
Forgetting Theories
• Encoding failure• Role of time• Trace decay• Isolated facts• Negative information• Completed tasks• Interference theories• Retrieval failure• Motivated forgetting• False memories
Forgetting
Forgetting can occur at any memory stage
As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it
Forgetting as Encoding Failure
• Information never encoded into LTM
X
Encoding Failure Demonstrations
• What letters accompany the number 5 on your telephone?
• Where is the number 0 on your calculator?
• Lincoln penny page 366
• According to this theory, objects seen frequently, but information is never encoded into LTM
Forgetting as Retrieval Failure
• Not all forgetting is due to encoding failures• Sometimes information IS encoded into LTM, but we can’t retrieve it• Don’t know path to retrieve• Don’t access information regularly
Retrieval failure Forgetting can result from failure to retrieve
information from long-term memory
Externalevents
Attention
Encoding
Encoding
Retrieval failureleads to forgetting
Retrieval
Sensorymemory
Short-termmemory
Long-termmemory
Role of Time : Decay Theory
• Memories fade away or decay gradually if unused
• Time plays critical role
• Ability to retrieve info declines with time after original encoding
• Problem: Many things change with time. Something else may change and actually cause forgetting: Interference
Trace Decay Theory
• “use it or lose it”
forgetting
Ebbinghaus forgetting curve over 30 days-- initially rapid, then levels off with time
12345 10 15 20 25 30
10
20
30
40
50
60
0
Time in days since learning list
Percentage oflist retainedwhen relearning
Isolated Facts
• Most common form of forgetting
• Grocery lists
• Locker combinations
• Dr. appointments
• Not tied to significant/emotional material
• Tid-bit information
• Witness stand
Negative information
• Information contrary to our internal belief structure
• Nonsense information “Jabberwocky”
• Conflicting information
BLUE
GREEN
PINK
The Stroop Effect
• http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/words.html
Completed Tasks
• The “Zeigarnik effect”
• Completed tasks more likely to be forgotten than incomplete tasks
• Completing task takes the information off of the front burner
• Loses meaning and attention
• Completed tasks; waiter in restaurant,
Math problems
Interference Theories
• “Memories interfering with memories”
• Forgetting NOT caused by mere passage of time
• Caused by one memory competing with or replacing another memory
• Two types of interference
Two Types of Interference
R etroac tiveIn te rfe ren ce
P roac tiveIn te rfe ren ce
Typ es o f in te rfe ren ce
Retroactive Interference
• When a NEW memory interferes with remembering OLD information
• Example: When new phone number interferes with ability to remember old phone number
Retroactive Interference
• Example: Learning a new language interferes with ability to remember old language
F-
Proactive Interference
• Opposite of retroactive interference
• When an OLD memory interferes with remembering NEW information
• Example: Memories of where you parked your car on campus the past week interferes with ability find car today
Proactive Interference
• Example: Previously learned language interferes with ability to remember newly learned language
F-
Review of Interference Theory
• Retroactive Interference– Learn A Learn B Recall A, B
interferes
• Proactive Interference– Learn A Learn B Recall B, A interferes
• Interference reflects competition between responses.
Forgetting
Retroactive Interference
Without interferingevents, recall isbetter
After sleep
After remaining awake
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Hours elapsed after learning syllables
90%
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Percentageof syllables
recalled
Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon• Serial scanning• Wrong prompt….• Info similar found but not right info needed• Scanning information near or around needed
information• Will continue to scan for info until found
Motivated Forgetting people unknowingly revise memories
Repression defense mechanism that banishes
from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
Unable to store memories
• Amnesia--the loss of memory
• Physiological: brain damage; unable to form new memories
1. Oliver Sacks 1985: patient named Jimmy
page 358-359 Describe Jimmy’s case
2. How does amnesia effect explicit and implicit memory?
Hippocampus Damage
• Left damage: can’t remember verbal info
• Right damage: can’t remember visual designs and locations
• Location of oldest memories
• Sights, sounds, smells, feels
MEMORYCONSTRUCTION
Memory Construction We filter information and fill in missing
pieces
Misinformation Effect incorporating misleading information into
one's memory of an event; sometimes happens with the questions asked by police
Source Amnesia attributing to the wrong source an event that
we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)
Memory Construction• Recall not an exact replica of original events• Recall a construction built and rebuilt from
various sources• Often fit memories into existing beliefs • Eyewitnesses usually see something complex
just once then have to remember it
Loftus Experiment
• Subjects shown video of an accident between two cars
• Some subjects asked: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?
• Others asked: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?
Loftus’s Results
• Speed estimates depended on how the question was phrased
• Subjects memory for broken glass also depended on the phrasing of the speed question.– But this was a false
memory: there was no broken glass
Memory Construction
False Memory Syndrome condition in which a person’s identity and
relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience
sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists
• A false memory is a memory which is a distortion of an actual experience, or a confabulation of an imagined one.
• confusing or mixing fragments of memory events, some may have happened at different times but are remembered as occurring together.
• can involve an error in source memory. • treating dreams as if they were playbacks of real
experiences. • Can be the result of the prodding, leading, and
suggestions of therapists and counselors.
• 1986 Nadean Cool, a nurse's aide in Wisconsin, sought therapy from a psychiatrist to help her cope with her reaction to a traumatic event experienced by her daughter.
• During therapy, the psychiatrist used hypnosis and other suggestive techniques to dig out buried memories of abuse that Cool had allegedly experienced.
• Cool became convinced that she had repressed memories of having been in a satanic cult, of eating babies, of being raped, of having sex with animals and of being forced to watch the murder of her eight-year-old friend. She came to believe that she had more than 120 personalities-children, adults, angels and even a duck.
• -all because Cool was told she had experienced severe childhood sexual and physical abuse.
• The psychiatrist also performed exorcisms on her, one of which lasted for five hours and included the sprinkling of holy water and screams for Satan to leave Cool's body.
• Cool finally realized that false memories had been planted, she sued the psychiatrist for malpractice. In March 1997 after five weeks of trial, her case was settled out of court for $2.4 million.
Schema Theories• Schema - mental representation of an object, scene or
event– example: schema of a countryside may include green grass,
hills, farms, a barn, cows, etc.
• Scripts - type of schema• I could say “I was in class the other day”
– You would have a mental organization of a classroom script: come into class, sit down, talk to friends, bell rings, instructor begins to speak, take notes, bell rings again, leave class, etc.
• Schemas & scripts provide framework for new information
What’s in “Store” for Memory in the Future
• More of human memory will move online. • Rely more on digital storehouses full of video
and audio files of our lives. • It'll happen because digital storage is cheap – • we also realize how unreliable human memory
can be. • storehouses will be portable, like today's music
for joggers, will provide you with help in remembering people and places.
• Memory Extraction: criminal cases, eye witness, Government use
• Memory Implants: sensual experiences, travel experiences, languages, top secret information
• Virtual memories: Rachel is given a first-person memory of a childhood she never had. Can create conflicts between real and virtual childhood if real is not deleted. Interference will occur
• Quasi-memories: one person's experiential memories are recorded and then implanted into a different person's head. Living an autobiography; Zorro, Jesus
• Body Switching: our memories in another body/ vise versa
• Virtual Identity: A facsimile of a human personality could be preserved within a computer program and purchased.
1. The tendency for prior learning to inhibit recall of later learning is called
a. encoding failure.
b. repression.
c. retroactive interference.
d. proactive interference.
2.
Things that are heard are held as a brief __________ in the sensory register.
a. echo.
b. icon.
c. image.
d. tactile.
3. Twenty years after graduating, a subject is able to correctly identify photographs of students she attended high school with from a larger group of strangers. To do so she has useda. recall.b. recognition.c. eidetic imagery.d. reminiscence. 4. Memories outside of conscious awareness are calleda. proactive memories.b. reactive memories.c. explicit memories.d. implicit memories.
5. The image that persists for about one-half second after being seen is a(n)a. sensation.b. echo.c. icon.d. illusion. 6. Cue-dependent (or context dependent) theories of memory suggest that you would do best on your chemistry test if you could be testeda. in the room where you studied.b. in a chemistry laboratory.c. with a large group of chemistry majors.d. with students who share your interests.
7. Memories of historical facts are to __________ memory, as memories of your breakfast this morning are to __________ memory.a. episodic; proceduralb. procedural; semanticc. semantic; episodicd. long-term; short-term
8. The fact that a bodily state that exists during learning can be a strong cue for later memory is known asa. eidetic imagery.b. integration.c. state-dependent learning.d. the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon.
9. Helen has a six-month "gap" in her memories of grade school. Her "gap" corresponds to the period immediately after her father's death. Helen's memory loss is most likely accounted for by
a. cue-dependent forgetting.
b. repression.
c. retroactive inhibition.
d. decay of memory traces
10. Memories of historical facts are to __________ memory, as memories of your breakfast this morning are to __________ memory.
a. episodic; procedural
b. procedural; semantic
c. semantic; episodic
d. long-term; short-term
QUESTIONS?
• These are the same questions I asked at the beginning of the chapter: Can you answer them better now?
• How do we remember things?• Why do we forget things?• Where do we store memories?• Are there different types of memories?• Are there memories that last longer than others?
Why?• Can we have false memories?• Can our imagination play tricks on us?• How can we improve our memory?
Cognition
• Cognition– The thinking capacities associated with
thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
In order to think about things in our world we simplify them by creating
• Concepts• Prototypes
Simplifying our Thinking
• Concept– A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas,
or people– Ex.Chair:– Ex. Flower:
The development of concepts are assisted by
the development of prototypes
• Prototype– Mental image or best example of a category; helps
to make quick and easy assessment of items– Ex: Birds….which fits better, a robin or a penguin?
Problem Solving
• Algorithm– a logical rule or procedure that guarantees
solving a particular problem in a step-by-step manner; slower than what is known as heuistics
• Heuristic– A simple strategy that allows us to make
judgments and solve problems efficiently; faster than algorithm but causes more errors
Problems to Problem Solving
• Confirmation Bias– A tendency to search for information that
confirms one’s preconceptions
• Fixation– the inability to see a problem from a new
perspective; an impediment to problem-solving
• Ex. Mental set• Ex. Functional fixedness
Problems to Problem Solving
• Representative Heuristic– Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well
they represent or match a prototype; may cause to ignore other relevant information
– Ex. The Stranger: professor or truck driver
• Availability Heuristic– Estimating likelihood of things based upon they
availability in our memory or that quickly come to mind so we deem them common
Problems to Problem Solving
• Overconfidence– The tendency to be more confident than correct; over-
estimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs & judgments
• Framing– The way an issue is posed or presented can
significantly affect decisions & judgments– Ex. Success rate for surgery; Drop-off prices
Problems to Problem Solving
• Belief Bias– The tendency of ones’ pre-existing beliefs to distort
logical reasoning, sometime by making invalid conclusions seem valid and valid conclusions seems invalid
• Belief Perseverance– Clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on
which they were formed has been discredited• Ex. Capital punishment research; firefighter study
Language
The most tangible or hard evidence of our thinking power is language
• Language– Our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways
we combine them to communicate meaning
• Lot of research completed by Chomsky
Language Development
• This development is gradual and moves from simple to complex; however by 4 months infants can read lips and discriminate speech sounds– they prefer to look at faces in which the sounds match
• First stage: Babbling Stage– At 3-4 mths infants spontaneously utter various
sounds that are at first unrelated to household language
Language Development
• Over time infants begin to lost their ability to discriminate sound they never hear…
-which is why it is easier to learn a second language at a young age, because we lose the ability to discriminate the unique sounds not used in our native language but in the language of others’
• One-word Stage:– At 1-2 years, a child begins to speak mostly in single
words– Usually only contain one syllable like ma or da but
gradually conforms to family language
Language Development
• Two-Word Stage:– Begins about 2 years and is when children speak in
mainly 2-word phrase– Stage also known for telegraphic speech: speaking
like a telegram “ go car” and using mostly nouns and verbs
– Use the chart on page 404 to help you remember the stages!
With a Partner…
• Analyze the different theories as to how language develops….– Skinner– Chomsky– Cognitive neuorscientists
Impact of Language
• Linguistic Determinism– Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines
the way that we think• English have a lot of vocabulary words that focus
on the self; Japanese have more about societal emotional terms in comparison to the West
• Do we refer to females as “girls” or “woman”• Yet there is plenty of thinking that happens without
language, aka….mental pictures, spatial thinking, visualization, etc…..
Intelligence
• What is it?
• How do we measure it?
• How did intelligence testing begin?
• How does it impact how we view those around us?
Intelligence Tests
• Intelligence tests– A method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes
and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores
- Binet & Simon wanted to test mental age, which is the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance; average 8 year-old has a mental age of 8.
- Only intended to identify school children who needed help NOT to measure intelligence and label children
- Tracking or grouping children according to their intellectual aptitude leads to decreased self-esteem & academic achievement
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test
• Re-normed the test and derived what we know as the term IQ
• Intelligence Quotient (IQ)– Mental age/ chronological age x 100 = IQ• Intelligence tests no longer derive an IQ but a mental
ability score that compares someone’s performance on the test to the average performance of other the same age
• Ultimately test scores do not just test innate ability, but their education and the culture influences within the test
What is Intelligence?
• Intelligence: the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
• General intelligence (g): a general intelligence factor that Spearman and others believed underlies special mental abilities and is measured by every task on an intelligence test
• Factor Analysis: a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one’s total score– Ex. Verbal and Nonverbal factors
What is Intelligence?
• Highly debated topic!!!• Several theories of intelligence have developed
over time
• Basically, intelligence is an man-made construct and thus intelligence is defined by how it is measured via the components on the test that is used
• EX. The importance of thinking and language fits in here!!
Theories of Intelligence
• Multiple Intelligences– Howard Gardner– Each intelligence is relatively independent of
the other– 7 types of intelligence
• Linguistic intelligence involves sensitivity to spoken and written language, the ability to learn languages, and the capacity to use language to accomplish certain goals. This intelligence includes the ability to effectively use language to express oneself rhetorically or poetically; and language as a means to remember information. Writers, poets, lawyers and speakers are among those that Howard Gardner sees as having high linguistic intelligence.
Multiple Intelligences
• Logical-mathematical intelligence consists of the capacity to analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically. In Howard Gardner's words, it entails the ability to detect patterns, reason deductively and think logically. This intelligence is most often associated with scientific and mathematical thinking.
• Musical intelligence involves skill in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns. It encompasses the capacity to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. According to Howard Gardner musical intelligence runs in an almost structural parallel to linguistic intelligence.
• Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence entails the potential of using one's whole body or parts of the body to solve problems. It is the ability to use mental abilities to coordinate bodily movements. Howard Gardner sees mental and physical activity as related.
Multiple Intelligences
• Spatial intelligence involves the potential to recognize and use the patterns of wide space and more confined areas.
• Interpersonal intelligence is concerned with the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations and desires of other people. It allows people to work effectively with others. Educators, salespeople, religious and political leaders and counsellors all need a well-developed interpersonal intelligence.
• Intrapersonal intelligence entails the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one's feelings, fears and motivations. In Howard Gardner's view it involves having an effective working model of ourselves, and to be able to use such information to regulate our lives.
• Sternberg agreed with Gardner..but stated only 3 intelligences: Analytical, Creative, & Practical
Multiple Intelligences
• Savant Syndrome– a condition in which a person otherwise
limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as computation or drawing
– Ex. Rain Man
This whole concept suggests that intelligence is a diverse set of distinct abilities
Emotional Intelligence
• This was first called social intelligence or the know-how to comprehend and manage social situations well
• Emotional Intelligence– The ability to perceive, express, understand, and
regulate emotional– People are self-aware and not overwhelmed by
depression, anxiety, or anger– Delay gratification for long-term goals and are not
impulsive
Assessing Intelligence
• Aptitude Tests– A test designed to predict a person’s future performance;
aptitude; future performance
*ex. career assessment, SAT, ACT, GRE
• Achievement Tests– A test designed to assess what a person had learned;
current competence
* ex. school tests
• Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale– The WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test;
contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtest
Test Construction
• Standardization:
– Defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested “standardization group”
– These scores typically create a normal distribution that form a normal curve which is the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average and fewer and fewer lie near the extremes; bell-shaped pattern
– Ex. Bell-shaped pattern is generally seen for intelligence
Normal Distribution
Test Construction• Reliability
– The extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of score on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting
• Test-retest: determining reliability by retesting people with the same test or merely a different form of the test
• Split-half test: split the test in half and determine if the scores agree
Test Construction
• Validity– The extent to which a test measures or predicts what
it is supposed to.• Content validity- the extent to which a test samples the
behavior that is of interest (ex. Driver’s test- specific tasks)• Predictive validity- success which test predicts behavior it
is designed to predict; correlation btwn test scores the criterion
• Criterion: behavior that a test is designed to predict
Mental Retardation
• Mental Retardation (intellectual disability ID)– A condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an
intelligence score below 70 and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound
– About 1% of people meet the criteria– More males than females
MILD
MODERATE
SEVERE
PROFOUND
Genetic & Environmental Influences on Intelligence
• p. 441-445
Group Differences in Intelligence
• P. 446-452
