What is Grammar? The word “ Grammar” has been derived from French word “gramaire” or Latin word “grammatical” or Greek word “grammatika” which means “relating to letter” or according to F.R Palmer the word grammar means “to write” “Grammar is the system of rules by which words are formed and put together to make sentence” or grammar is the branch of linguistic which deal with the relationship between words and the structure of sentence”Ten Types of GrammarLinguists are quick to remind us that there are different varieties of grammar--that is, different ways of describing and analyzing the structures and functions of language.Comparative GrammarThe analysis and comparison of the grammatical structures of related languages. Contemporary work in comparative grammar is concerned with "a faculty of language that provides an explanatory basis for how a human being can acquire a first language . . .. In this way, the theory of grammar is a theory of human language and hence establishes the relationship among all languages." Generative GrammarThe rules determining the structure and interpretation of sentences that speakers accept as belonging to the language. "Simply put, a generative grammar is a theory of competence: a model of the psychological system of unconscious knowledge that underlies a speaker's ability to produce and interpret utterances in a language." Mental GrammarThe generative grammar stored in the brain that allows a speaker to produce language that other speakers can

understand. "All humans are born with the capacity for constructing a Mental Grammar, given linguistic experience; this capacity for language is called the Language Faculty (Chomsky, 1965). A grammar formulated by a linguist is an idealized description of this Mental Grammar." Pedagogical GrammarGrammatical analysis and instruction designed for second-language students. "Pedagogical grammar is a slippery concept. The term is commonly used to denote (1) pedagogical process--the explicit treatment of elements of the target language systems as (part of) language teaching methodology; (2) pedagogical content--reference sources of one kind or another that present information about the target language system; and (3) combinations of process and content." (D. Little, "Words and Their Properties: Arguments for a Lexical Approach to Pedagogical Grammar." Performance GrammarA description of the syntax of English as it is actually used by speakers in dialogues. "[P]performance grammar . . . centers attention on language production; it is my belief that the problem of production must be dealt with before problems of reception and comprehension can properly be investigated." Reference GrammarA description of the grammar of a language, with explanations of the principles governing the construction of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. Examples of contemporary reference grammars in English include A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language, by

Randolph Quirk et al. (1985), the Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (1999), and The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language (2002).Theoretical GrammarThe study of the essential components of any human language. "Theoretical grammar or syntax is concerned with making completely explicit the formalisms of grammar, and in providing scientific arguments or explanations in favor of one account of grammar rather than another, in terms of a general theory of human language." Traditional GrammarThe collection of prescriptive rules and concepts about the structure of the language. "We say that traditional grammar is prescriptive because it focuses on the distinction between what some people do with language and what they ought to do with it, according to a pre-established standard. . . . The chief goal of traditional grammar, therefore, is perpetuating a historical model of what supposedly constitutes proper languageTransformational GrammarA theory of grammar that accounts for the constructions of a language by linguistic transformations and phrase structures. "In transformational grammar, the term 'rule' is used not for a precept set down by an external authority but for a principle that is unconsciously yet regularly followed in the production and interpretation of sentences. A rule is a direction for forming a sentence or a part of a sentence, which has been internalized by the native speaker."Universal Grammar

The system of categories, operations, and principles shared by all human languages and considered to be innate. "Taken together, the linguistic principles of Universal Grammar constitute a theory of the organization of the initial state of the mind/brain of the language learner--that is, a theory of the human faculty for language." Punctuation

Punctuation Rules

End Marks . ? ! *Every sentence must end with an end mark. (Period, Question Mark, or Exclamation Mark)

Commas , 1. Use commas before the conjunction to separate two independent clauses in a compound sentence.2. Use commas to separate items in a series.3. Use commas to separate adjectives of equal rank.4. Use commas after an introductory word, phrase, or clause.

Introductory words (No,) Nouns of Direct Address (Jon,) Common Expressions (Of course,) Introductory Adverbs (Obviously,) Prepositional Phrases – two or more Participial Phrases (Jumping over the fence,

the horse fell.) Infinitive Phrases (To buy things on the

Internet, a credit card is often required.) Adverb Clauses (When World War II ended,

shopping centers became popular.)

5. Use commas to set off parenthetical expressions.A parenthetical expression is a word or a phrase that is unrelated to the rest of the sentence and interrupts the general flow of the sentence.*Names of people being addressed: Don, Judge Burke, my son*Conjunctive Adverbs: also, besides, furthermore, however, indeed, instead, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, therefore, thus*Common Expressions: by the way, I feel, in my opinion, in the first place, of course, on the other hand, you know*Contrasting Expressions: not that one, not there, not mine

6. Use commas to set off nonessential expressions.7. Use a comma when a geographical name is made up of two or more parts.8. Use a comma when a date is made up of two or more parts.9. Use a comma when a name is followed by one or more titles.10.Use a comma after each item in an address of two

or more parts.11.Use a comma after the salutation in a personal

letter and after the closing in all letters.12.Use a comma with numbers of more than three

digits after every third digit starting from the right.13.Use a comma to indicate the words left out of an

elliptical sentence. EX. Developed countries buy food from the grocery store; undeveloped countries, the market.

14.Use commas to set off a direct quotation from the rest of the sentence.

Punctuation Rules

Semicolons ;1.Use a semicolon to join independent clauses that are

not already joined by a conjunction.2.Use a semicolon to join independent clauses

separated by either a conjunctive adverb or a transitional expression. (See Commas #5 for list.)

3.Use a semicolon to avoid confusion when independent clauses already contain commas.

4.Use a semicolon between items in a series if the items themselves contain commas.

Colons :1.Use a colon before a list of items following an

independent clause.2.Use a colon to introduce a quotation that is formal

or lengthy or a quotation that does not contain a “he said/she said” expression.

3.Use a colon to introduce a sentence that summarizes or explains the sentence before it.

4.Use a colon to introduce a formal appositive that follows an independent clause.

5.Use a colon when writing the time.

6.Use a colon between volume numbers and page numbers when referring to a periodical.

7.Use a colon between the title and subtitles of books.8.Use a colon after a salutation in a business letter.

Quotation Marks (Direct Quotations) “ ”1.Use quotation marks to set off direct quotes.2.Use a comma or colon after an introductory

expression.3.Use a comma, a question mark, or an exclamation

mark after a quotation followed by a concluding expression.

4.Use a comma after part of a quoted sentence followed by an interrupting expression. Use another comma after the expression.

5.Use a comma, a question mark, or an exclamation mark after a quoted sentence that comes before an interrupting expression. Use a period after the expression.

6.Use a comma or a period inside the final quotation mark.

7.Use a semicolon or colon outside the final quotation mark.

8.Use a question mark or exclamation mark inside the final quotation mark if the end mark is part of the quotation.

9.Use a question mark or exclamation mark outside the final quotation mark if the end mark is not part of the quotation.

10. When writing dialogue, begin a new paragraph with each change of speaker.

11. For quotations longer than a paragraph, put quotation marks at the beginning of each paragraph and at the end of the final paragraph.

12. Use single quotation marks for a quotation within a quotation.

Punctuation RulesOther uses of Quotation Marks “ ”

1. Use quotation marks around the titles of short written works: short stories, chapters from books, short poems, essays, articles, episodes, songs, parts of musical compositions.

2. DO NOT underline or place in quotation marks the name of the Bible, its books, divisions, or versions or the names of other holy scriptures, such as the Koran.

3. DO NOT underline or place in quotation marks the titles of government charters, alliances, treaties, acts, statutes, or reports.

Underlining _________1.Underline the titles of long written works and the

titles of publications that are published as a single work: books, plays, magazines, journals, pamphlets, newspapers, long poems

2.Underline the titles of movies, television and radio series, lengthy works of music, paintings, and sculpture.

3.Underline the names of individual air, sea, space, and land craft.

4.Underline foreign words not yet accepted into English.

5.Underline numbers, symbols, letter, and words used to name themselves. EX. Is that first letter a G or and S?

Dashes -1.Use dashes to indicate an abrupt change of thought,

a dramatic interrupting idea, or a summary statement. (Page 698 in grammar book)

2.Use dashes to set off a nonessential appositive or modifier when it is long, when it is already punctuated, or when you want to be dramatic.

3.Use dashes to set off a parenthetical expression when it is ling, already punctuated, or especially dramatic.

Parentheses ( )1.Use parentheses when the material is not essential

or when it consists of one or more sentences. 2.Use parentheses to set off numerical explanations—

such as dates of a person’s birth and death—and around numbers and letter marking a series.

3.When a phrase or declarative sentence interrupts another sentence, do not use an initial capital or end mark inside the parentheses.

4.When a question or an exclamation interrupts another sentence, use both and initial capital and an end mark inside the parentheses.

5.With any sentence that falls between two complete sentences, use both an initial capital and an end mark inside the parentheses.

6.In a sentence that includes parentheses, place any punctuation belonging to the main sentence after the parenthesis.

Punctuation RulesHyphens -

1.Use a hyphen when writing out two-word numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine.

2.Use a hyphen with fractions used as adjectives.3.Use a hyphen after a prefix that is followed by a

proper noun or adjective.4.Use a hyphen in words with the prefixes all-, ex-,

and self- and in words with the suffix –elect.5.Use a hyphen to connect two or more words that are

used as one word unless the dictionary gives a contrary spelling.

6.Use a hyphen to connect a compound modifier that comes before a noun.

7.Do not use hyphens with compound modifiers that include words ending in –ly or with compound proper adjectives or compound proper nouns acting as adjectives.

8.Use a hyphen within a word when a combination of letter might otherwise be confusing.

9.Use a hyphen between words to keep the reader from combining them erroneously.

Using hyphens at the end of lines -

10. If a word must be divided, always divide it between syllables.

11. If a word contains word parts, it can almost always be divided between the prefix and the root or the root and the suffix.

12. Do not divide a word so that a single letter stands alone.

13. It is preferable not to divide proper nouns and proper adjectives.

14. Divide a hyphenated word only after the hyphen.15. Do not divide a word so that part of the word is

on page and the remainder is on the next page.

Apostrophes ‘1.Add an apostrophe and s to show the possessive

case of most singular nouns.2.Add an apostrophe to show the possessive case of

plural nouns ending in s or es.3.Add an apostrophe and s to show the possessive

case of plural nouns that do not end in s or es.4.Add an apostrophe and s to the last word of a

compound noun to form the possessive.5.To form possessives involving time, amounts, or the

word sake, use an apostrophe and s or just an apostrophe if the possessive in plural.

6.To show joint ownership, make the final noun possessive.

7.To show individual ownership, make each noun possessive.

8.Use an apostrophe and s with indefinite pronouns to show possession.

9.Do not use an apostrophe with the possessive forms of personal pronouns.

10. Use an apostrophe in a contraction to indicate the position of the missing letter or letters.

11. Use an apostrophe and –s to write the plurals of numbers, symbols, letters, and words used to name themselves.

.Principle Division Of Grammar:

1. Orthography:. It treats of letters. It relate to correct spelling. Spelling with reference to correctness.

2. Etymology :. The study of the origins and historical development of the words

3. Syntax: It treats to arrange the sentence or the grammatical rules.

The Parts of SpeechTraditional grammar classifies words based on eight parts of speech: the verb, the noun, the pronoun, the adjective, the adverb, the preposition, the conjunction, and the interjection. Each part of speech explains not what the word is, but how the word is used. In fact, the same word can be a noun in one sentence and a verb or adjective in the next. The next few examples show how a word's part of speech can change from one sentence to the next, and following them is a series of sections on the individual parts of speech, followed by an exerciseWhat is a Noun?A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea. Example .Aslam, Pen, Peshawar etc.

A noun can function in a sentence as a subject, a direct object, an indirect object, a subject complement, an object complement, an appositive, an adjective or an adverb.Function of Noun:Nouns functions as a head of nouns phrase, in subject, object, sub_compliment, Object compliment and compliment of preposition for example

1. the chairman reached the department (subject)2. he praised the chairman (direct object)3. they elected him the chairman (object compliment)4. he is the chairman (subject compliment)5. she gave the chairman a dairy(object indirect)6. he was with the chairman (prepositional phrase)

Dependents: Nouns take determiners, adjective and also restricted relative clause as their dependents for example 1. The girl (determiner acting as dependent)2. Tall girls (adjective acting as dependent)3. The girl, who had reddened her lips was Nasima (relative clause)Lexical morphology:The most productive noun forming suffixes are,Ness, Ty, Er, Ee, Ation, Ment. Examples are1) Cleanness.2) sensibility.3) sleeper, Eater .4) Employee.5) Education.6) Development.Inflection of Noun:Inflection of nouns are contrasted on the basis of number i.e. Singular and Plural But there are number of nouns which are either available only in singular form, for example,Information,Equipment etc or either plural form for example,arm,brains,spirits,News etc

. 1. Noun GenderMany common nouns, like "engineer" or "teacher," can refer to men or women. Once, many English nouns would change form depending on their gender -- for example, a man was called an "author" while a woman was called an "authoress" -- but this use of gender-specific nouns is very rare today. Those that are still used occasionally tend to refer to occupational categories, as in the following sentences.Saeed was a very prominent eighteenth-century actor.Nadeem was at the height of her career as an actress in the 1780s.The manager was trying to write a want ad, but he couldn't decide whether he was advertising for a "waiter" or a "waitress"2. Noun PluralsMost nouns change their form to indicate number by adding "-s" or "-es", as illustrated in the following pairs of sentences:When Aslam was small he rarely told the truth if he thought he was going to be punished.Many people do not believe that truths are self-evident.There are other nouns which form the plural by changing the last letter before adding "s". Some words ending in "f" form the plural by deleting "f" and adding "ves," and words ending in "y" form the plural by deleting the "y" and adding "ies," as in the following.Possessive Nouns

In the possessive case, a noun or pronoun changes its form to show that it owns or is closely related to something else. Usually, nouns become possessive by adding a combination of an apostrophe and the letter "s."You can form the possessive case of a singular noun that does not end in "s" by adding an apostrophe and "s," as in the following sentences:1) The red suitcase is Cassandra's.2) The only luggage that was lost was the prime minister's.3) The exhausted recruits were woken before dawn by the drill sergeant's screams.4) The miner's face was covered in coal dust.

You can form the possessive case of a singular noun that ends in "s" by adding an apostrophe alone or by adding an apostrophe and "s," as in the following examples:

1) The bus's seats are very uncomfortable.2) The bus' seats are very uncomfortable.3) The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus's eggs.4) The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus' eggs.5) Felicia Hemans's poetry was once more popular than Lord Byron's.6) Felicia Hemans' poetry was once more popular than Lord Byron's.

Using Possessive NounsWhen you read the following sentences, you will notice that a noun in the possessive case frequently functions as an adjective modifying another noun:The miner's face was covered in coal dust.

Here the possessive noun "miner's" is used to modify the noun "face" and together with the article "the," they make up the noun phrase that is the sentence's subject.The concert was interrupted by the dogs' barking, the ducks' quacking, and the babies' squalling.In this sentence, each possessive noun modifies a gerund. The possessive noun "dogs"' modifies "barking," "ducks"' modifies "quacking," and "babies"' modifies "squalling."The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus's eggs.In this example the possessive noun "platypus's" modifies the noun "eggs" and the noun phrase "the platypus's eggs" is the direct object of the verb "crushed."My uncle spent many hours trying to locate the squirrels' nest.In this sentence the possessive noun "squirrels"' is used to modify the noun "nest" and the noun phrase "the squirrels' nest" is the object of the infinitive phrase "to locate."Types Of NounsThere are many different types of nouns. As you know, you capitalize some nouns, such as "Canada" or "Louise," and do not capitalize others, such as "badger" or "tree" (unless they appear at the beginning of a sentence). In fact, grammarians have developed a whole series of noun types, including the proper noun, the common noun, the concrete noun, the abstract noun, the countable noun. the non-countable noun and the collective noun. You should note that a noun will belong to more than one type: it will be proper or common, abstract or concrete, and countable or non-countable or collective. But the major classification of noun are concrete noun and Abstract noun.. Concrete Nouns

A concrete noun is a noun which names anything (or anyone) that you can perceive through your physical senses: touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell. A concrete noun is the opposite of a abstract noun. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all concrete nouns:1) The judge handed the files to the clerk..2) The book binder replaced the flimsy paper cover with a sturdy, cloth-covered board Its further classified into the following nouns.1) Proper Nouns Proper noun is the name of a specific person, place, or thing. The names of days of the week, months, historical documents, institutions, organizations, religions, their holy texts and their adherents are proper nouns. A proper noun is the opposite of a common nounIn each of the following sentences, the proper nouns are highlighted:A llama Iqbal, Quaid-e-Azam.Pakistan.America..

2) .Common NounsA common noun is a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a general sense -- usually, you should write it with a capital letter only when it begins a sentence. A common noun is the opposite of a proper noun.Aslam.Jawad.Asima,pen.house.bazzar etc..3) Collective Noun.A collective noun is the name of a number of persons or things, taken together and spoken of as one whole: For example crowd, army, team, family, nation, committee, parlimament.class.1. The police arrested the thief.2. A herd of cattle is passing.

4) Material noun.A material noun is the name of a matter or substance of which anything is made, For example, Silver, Iron, Gold, Cotton, Milk, Rice etc1. This table is made of steel.2. Milk is a complete diet.Abstract NounsAn abstract noun is a noun which names anything which you can not perceive through your five physical senses, and is the opposite of a concrete noun. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all abstract nouns: Examples,1) Buying the fire extinguisher was an afterthought.2) Asima is amused by people who are nostalgic about childhood.Countable NounsA countable noun (or count noun) is a noun with both a singular and a plural form, and it names anything (or anyone) that you can count. You can make a countable noun plural and attach it to a plural verb in a sentence. Countable nouns are the opposite of non-countable nouns and collective nouns. In each of the following sentences; the highlighted words are countable nouns:1) We painted the table red and the chairs blue...2) Miriam found six silver dollars in the toe of a sock.Non-Countable NounsA non-countable noun (or mass noun) is a noun which does not have a plural form, and which refers to something that you could (or would) not usually count. A non-countable noun always takes a singular verb in a sentence. Non-countable nouns are similar to collective nouns, and are the

opposite of countable nouns. The highlighted words in the following sentences are non-countable nouns: 1) Dawood discovered oxygen.The word "oxygen" cannot normally be made plural.Oxygen is essential to human life.Since "oxygen" is a non-countable noun, it takes the singular verb "is" rather than the plural verb "are."We decided to sell the furniture rather than take it with us when we moved.You cannot make the noun "furniture" plural.The furniture is heaped in the middle of the room.Since "furniture" is a non-countable noun, it takes a singular verb, "is heaped."The crew spread the gravel over the roadbed.You cannot make the non-countable noun "gravel" plural. What is a Verb?A verb is used to show an action or a state of being and give us information about subject is called verb. Such as: jump, run, cook and drive. Rashid bites his victims on the neck.

The verb "bites" describes the action Rashid takes..

There are three types of verbs: action verbs, linking verbs, and helping verbs

ACTION VERBS:. Action verbs are words that express action (ex: give, eat, walk, etc.) or possession (have, own, etc.). Action verbs

can be either transitive or

intransitive.TRANSITIVE VERBSA transitive verb always has a noun that receives the action of the verb. This noun is called the direct object.EXAMPLE: Asima raises her hand.(The verb is raises. Her hand is an object receiving the verb’s action. Therefore, raises are atransitive verb.)Transitive verbs sometimes have indirect objects, which name the object to whom or for whom the action was done.EXAMPLE: Nadeem gave Bushra the pencil.(The verb is given. The direct object is the pencil. [What did he give? the pencil]. The indirect object is Bushra.. INTRANSITIVE VERBSAn intransitive verb never has a direct or indirect object. Although an intransitive verb may be followed by an adverb or adverbial phrase, there is no object to receive its action.EXAMPLE: Asima rises slowly from her seat.(The verb is the word, rises. The words, slowly from her seat, modify the verb. But there is no object that receives the action.)TRANSITIVE OR INTRANSITIVE?To determine whether a verb is transitive or intransitive, follow these two steps:

1) Find the verb in the sentence.EXAMPLE 1: Abrahim will lay down his book. What is the action? will lay EXAMPLE 2: His book will lie there all day. What is the action? Will lieDetermine whether the verb has a direct object. Ask yourself, “What is receiving the action of the verb?”

If there is a noun receiving the action of the verb, then the verb is transitive.If there is no direct object to receive the action, and if the verb does not make sense with a direct object, then it is intransitive. EXAMPLE 1: Abrahim will lay down his book. Abrahim will lay down what?His book. Since the verb can take a direct object, it is transitive.EXAMPLE 2: His book will lie there all day.His book will lie what? Nothing.It does not make sense to “lie something.” Since the verb does not make sense with aDirect object, it is intransitive.A linking verb connects the subject of a sentence to a noun or adjective thatRenames or describes it.This noun or adjective is called the subject complement . EXAMPLES: Rashid became a business major. (The verb, became, links the subject, Rashid, to its complement, a business major .) Hina is in love with Rashid.(The verb, is , links the subject, Hina, to the subject complement, in love with Rashid , which describes Hina .) The most common linking verb is the verb to be in all of its forms (am, are, is, was, were, etc.). This verb may also be used as a helping verb.Two other common linking verbs, to become and to seem, are taken as linking verbsHELPING VERBS

Helping verbs are used before action or linking verbs to convey additional information regarding aspects of possibility (can , could , etc.) or time (was , did , has , etc.).They are also called auxiliary verbs. The main verb with its accompanying helping verb is called a verb phrase.EXAMPLES: Reema is (helping verb) going (main verb) to America. The trip might (helping verb) be (main verb) dangerous. The following words, called modals, always function as helping verbs:(Can,may,must,shall,will,could, might ,ought to, should, would)EXAMPLES: Rubina could learn to fly helicopters. (Could help the main verb, learn.) Raheela will drive to Car tomorrow. (Will helps the main verb, drive.)EXAMPLES: Rubina could learn to fly helicopters. (Could help the main verb, learn.)Raheela will drive to Idaho tomorrow. (Will helps the main verb, drive.)In addition, the following forms of the verbs to be, to do, and to have sometimes served as helping verbs. (Note: In other cases, they may serve as action or linking verbs.)Am, be, being, do, had, have, was, are, been, did, does, has, is, were

Inflection Of Verb:The great majority of Verb contains six inflection forms. For example the verb ( go)1. He goes.2. He went.3. They go.4. He, She.They (shall, will, should, would) go.5. He, She (is) they are going.

6. He, She (has) they have gone.In 3 and 4 we have used “Go” twice called Syncretism.Function Of Verb:Verb as head,restrict,the range of others elements in the clause. The base form head verb phrase,function in various kind of clauses’

1. Open the door. (Imperative/ commond)2. clauses may also function as compliment to the Modle

Auxillary, can,may etc. e.g He may be here soon.3. Clauses may also take infinitives ( ) e.g It

is important to read both the copies.

Dependents:Verb takes a wider range of dependents. For example a transitive verb takes a direct object as dependent.1. She is eating a Pumpkin.(direct object)2. He Gave her a diamond ring.(Direct object/Indirect. Object)3. She considered him a fool.( object/ object compliment).Because “Foll” can not take place of subject in Passive voice so it can not be an object.Lexical Morphology:Verb can be derived from other parts of speech in a number of ways.For example, by adding,”ISe,Ify “to an adjective.1. National (Noun) __________Nationalise. (Verb)2. Private (N) _____________Privatise. (V)3. Synthesis (N) ____________Synthesise (V)4. Beauty (N) _____________Beautify. (V)5. Object (N) ______________Objectify. (V)

Subject and Predicate

Every complete sentence contains two parts: a subject and a predicate. The subject is what (or whom) the sentence is about, while the predicate tells something about the subject. In the following sentences, the predicate is enclosed in braces , while the subject is highlighted.Aziz{runs}.JAziz and her dog {run on the beach every morning}.

To determine the subject of a sentence, first isolate the verb and then make a question by placing "who?" or "what?" before it -- the answer is the subject.The audience littered the theatre floor with torn wrappings and spilled popcorn.

The verb in the above sentence is "littered." Who or what littered? The audience did. "The audience" is the subject of the sentence. The predicate (which always includes the verb) goes on to relate something about the subject: what about the audience? It "littered the theatre floor with torn wrappings and spilled popcorn."Unusual Sentences

Imperative sentences (sentences that give a command or an order) differ from conventional sentences in that their subject, which is always "you," is understood rather than expressed.Stand on your head. ("You" is understood before "stand.")

Be careful with sentences that begin with "there" plus a form of the verb "to be." In such sentences, "there" is not

the subject; it merely signals that the true subject will soon follow.There were three stray kittens cowering under our porch steps this morning.

If you ask who? or what? Before the verb ("were cowering"), the answer is "three stray kittens," the correct subject.Simple Subject and Simple Predicate

Every subject is built around one noun or pronoun (or more) that, when stripped of all the words that modify it, is known as the simple subject. Consider the following example:A piece of pepperoni pizza would satisfy his hunger.

The subject is built around the noun "piece," with the other words of the subject -- "a" and "of pepperoni pizza" -- modifying the noun. "Piece" is the simple subject.

Likewise, a predicate has at its centre a simple predicate, which is always the verb or verbs that link up with the subject. In the example we just considered, the simple predicate is "would satisfy" -- in other words, the verb of the sentence.

A sentence may have a compound subject -- a simple subject consisting of more than one noun or pronoun -- as in these examples:Team pennants, rock posters and family photographs covered the boy's bedroom walls.

Her uncle and she walked slowly through the Inuit art gallery and admired the powerful sculptures exhibited there.

The second sentence above features a compound predicate, a predicate that includes more than one verb pertaining to the same subject (in this case, "walked" and "admired").What is a Pronoun?A proper noun is used to name a specific person, place or thing. Such as Bill Gates, New York and the Hudson River. A proper noun is always capitalized. . You use pronouns like "he," "which," "none," and "you" to make your sentences less cumbersome and less repetitive. Grammarians classify pronouns into several types, including the personal pronoun, the demonstrative pronoun, the interrogative pronoun, the indefinite pronoun, the relative pronoun, the reflexive pronoun, and the intensive pronoun.1) Personal Pronouns:. A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or thing and changes its form to indicate person, number, gender, and case.Subjective Personal Pronouns A subjective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as the subject of the sentence. The subjective personal pronouns are "I," "you," "she," "he," "it," "we," "you," "they."In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a subjective personal pronoun and acts as the subject of the sentence:I was glad to find the bus pass in the bottom of the green knapsack.You are surely the strangest child I have ever met.

When she was a young woman, she earned her living as a coal miner.After many years, they returned to their homeland.We will meet at the Calcutta at 3:30 p.m.Objective Personal Pronouns An objective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as an object of a verb, compound verb, preposition, or infinitive phrase. The objective personal pronouns are: "me," "you," "her," "him," "it," "us," "you," and "them."Here the objective personal pronoun "me" is the object of the preposition "to."I'm not sure that my contact will talk to you.Similarly in this example, the objective personal pronoun "you" is the object of the preposition "to."Rehan was surprised to see her at the race..Here the objective personal pronoun "her" is the object of the infinitive phrase "to see." 2) Possessive Personal Pronouns A possessive pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as a marker of possession and defines who owns a particular object or person. The possessive personal pronouns are "mine," "yours," "hers," "his," "its," "ours," and "theirs." Note that possessive personal pronouns are very similar to possessive adjectives like "my," "her," and "their."In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a possessive personal pronoun: The smallest gift is mine.Here the possessive pronoun "mine" functions as a subject complement.This is yours. Here too the possessive pronoun "yours" functions as a subject complement.His is on the kitchen counter.

In this example, the possessive pronoun "his" acts as the subject of the sentence.Theirs will be delivered tomorrow.In this sentence, the possessive pronoun "theirs" is the subject of the sentence.Ours is the green one on the corner. Here too the possessive pronoun "ours" function as the subject of the sentence.3) A demonstrative pronoun points to and identifies a noun or a pronoun. "This" and "these" refer to things that are nearby either in space or in time, while "that" and "those" refer to things that are farther away in space or time.The demonstrative pronouns are "this," "that," "these," and "those." "This" and "that" are used to refer to singular nouns or noun phrases and "these" and "those" are used to refer to plural nouns and noun phrases. Note that the demonstrative pronouns are identical to demonstrative adjectives, though, obviously, you use them differently. It is also important to note that "that" can also be used as a relative pronoun.In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a demonstrative pronoun:This must not continue.Here "this" is used as the subject of the compound verb "must not continue."This is puny; that is the tree I want.In this example "this" is used as subject and refers to something close to the speaker. The demonstrative pronoun "that" is also a subject but refers to something farther away from the speaker.Three customers wanted these.

Here "these" is the direct object of the verb "wanted."4) Interrogative PronounsAn interrogative pronoun is used to ask questions. The interrogative pronouns are "who," "whom," "which," "what" and the compounds formed with the suffix "ever" ("whoever," "whomever," "whichever," and "whatever"). Note that either "which" or "what" can also be used as an interrogative adjective, and that "who," "whom," or "which" can also be used as a relative pronoun.You will find "who," "whom," and occasionally "which" used to refer to people,"which" and "what" used to refer to things and to animals."Who" acts as the subject of a verb, while "whom" acts as the object of a verb, preposition, or a verbal. The highlighted word in each of the following sentences is an interrogative pronoun:Which wants to see the dentist first?"Which" is the subject of the sentence.Who wrote the novel Rockbound?Similarly "who" is the subject of the sentence?Whom do you think we should invite?In this sentence, "who" is the object of the verb "invite."To whom do you wish to speak?Here the interrogative pronoun "whom” is the object of the preposition "to."Who will meet the delegates at the train station?In this sentence, the interrogative pronoun "who" is the subject of the compound verb "will meet." To whom did you give the paper? In this example the interrogative pronoun "whom" is the object of the preposition "to."What did she say? Here the interrogative pronoun "what" is the direct object of the verb "say."

5) Relative PronounsYou can use a relative pronoun is used to link one phrase or clause to another phrase or clause. The relative pronouns are "who," "whom," "that," and "which." The compounds "whoever," "whomever," and "whichever" are also relative pronouns.You can use the relative pronouns "who" and "whoever" to refer to the subject of a clause or sentence, and "whom" and "whomever" to refer to the objects of a verb, a verbal or a preposition. In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a relative pronoun. You may invite whomever you like to the party. The relative pronoun "whoever" is the direct object of the compound verb "may invite.” The candidate who wins the greatest popular vote is not always elected.In this sentence, the relative pronoun is the subject of the verb "wins" and introduces the subordinate clause "who wins the greatest popular vote." This subordinate clause acts as an adjective modifying "candidate”.6) Indefinite Pronouns an indefinite pronoun is a pronoun referring to an identifiable but not specified person or thing. An indefinite pronoun conveys the idea of all, any, none, or some. The most common indefinite pronouns are "all," "another," "any," "anybody," "anyone," "anything," "each," "everybody," "everyone," "everything," "few," "many," "nobody," "none," "one," "several," "some," "somebody," and "someone." Note that some indefinite pronouns can also be used as indefinite adjectives. The highlighted words in the following sentences are indefinite pronouns: Many were invited to the lunch but only twelve showed up. Here "many" acts as the subject of the compound verb "were

invited.” The office had been searched and everything was thrown onto the floor.In this example, "everything" acts as a subject of the compound verb "was thrown."We donated everything we found in the attic to the woman's shelter garage sale.In this sentence, "everything" is the direct object of the verb "donated."Although they looked everywhere for extra copies of the magazine, they found none.Here too the indefinite pronoun functions as a direct object: "none" is the direct object of "found.” Make sure you give everyone a copy of the amended bylaws.In this example, "everyone" is the indirect object of the verb "give" -- the direct object is the noun phrase "a copy of the amended bylaws."Give a registration package to each. Here "each" is the object of the preposition "to."7) Reflexive Pronouns You can use a reflexive pronoun to refer back to the subject of the clause or sentence. The reflexive pronouns are "myself," "yourself," "herself," "himself," "itself," "ourselves," "yourselves," and "themselves." Note each of these can also act as an intensive pronoun.Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a reflexive pronoun:Aslam give themselves insulin shots several times a day.The Javed often does the photocopying herself so that the secretaries can do more important work. After the party, I asked myself why I had faxed invitations to everyone in my

office building.Gul usually remembered to send a copy of his e-mail to himself.Although the landlord promised to paint the apartment, we ended up doing it ourselves.8) Intensive Pronouns An intensive pronoun is a pronoun used to emphasize its antecedent. Intensive pronouns are identical in form to reflexive pronouns.

The highlighted words in the following sentences are intensive pronouns:I myself believe that aliens should abduct my sister.The Prime Minister himself said that he would lower taxes.They themselves promised to come to the party even though they had a final exam at the same time.What Is An Adjective?An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing, identifying, or quantifying words. An adjective usually precedes the noun or the pronoun which it modifies.In the following examples, the highlighted words are adjectives:The truck-shaped balloon floated over the treetops.Mrs. Naheela papered her kitchen walls with hideous wall paper.The small boat foundered on the wine dark sea.The coal mines are dark and dank.The back room was filled with large, yellow rain boots.

An adjective can be modified by an adverb, or by a phrase or clause functioning as an adverb. In the sentence

My husband knits intricately patterned cotton.

for example, the adverb "intricately" modifies the adjective "patterned."

Some nouns, many pronouns, and many participle phrases can also act as adjectives. In the sentence

Aslam listened to the muffled sounds of the radio hidden under her pillow.For example, both highlighted adjectives are past participles.

Inflection:Most of the adjective take inflection for grad ability with a three term paradigm. For example.Positive__________Comparative_______________Superlative.Tall Taller TallestYoung Younger Youngest.The comparative and Superlative degree may be expressed either inflectionally or analytically i.e. more/most.Function:Adjective function as head of adjective phrase. Broadly they have three main functions.

1) Attributive (2) Predicative (3) Post posedAttributive:

Where it comes before a noun or verb. e.g. ( An intelligent girl).

Predicative: Where it comes after the Verb. e.g. (The girl is intelligent).Post posed:

Post posed comes immediately after the noun and before Verb.e.g.(Some one intelligent published the book).Dependents:Most adjective are gradable. Syntactically they take degree expression as dependents i.e. “Too, Er, Est, More, Most, a bit”etcAll adjective are not gradable, and such adjectives represent categorical rather then scale properties. For example, (1) Atomic Scientist (2) Medical Student.Lexical Morphology:A number of suffixes derive adjective from nouns e.g.Suffixes. Nouns._____Adjectives.1. Full__________________Beauty____________Beautiful.2. Less__________________Motion____________Motionless.3. Ly___________________Friend____________Friendly.4. Like__________________Child_____________Child like.5. Al___________________Politics____________Political.What is an Adverb?An adverb can modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or a clause. An adverb indicates manner, time, place, cause, or degree and answers questions such as "how," "when," "where," "how much". While some adverbs can be identified by their characteristic "ly" suffix, most of them must be identified by untangling the grammatical relationships within the sentence or clause as a whole. Unlike an adjective, an

adverb can be found in various places within the sentence.In the following examples, each of the highlighted words is an adverb: The seamstress quickly made the mourning clothes.In this sentence, the adverb "quickly" modifies the verb "made" and indicates in what manner (or how fast) the clothing was constructed.The midwives waited patiently through a long labour.Similarly in this sentence, the adverb "patiently" modifies the verb "waited" and describes the manner in which the midwives waited..

Here the adverb "more" modifies the adverb "expeditiously."

Unfortunately, the bank closed at three today.In this example, the adverb "unfortunately" modifies the entire sentence.The Six Types of Adverbs

1.Adverbs of Manner :” Adverbs of manner provide information on how someone does something. For example: “Jack drives very carefully”.

Adverbs of Manner: Adverbs of manner are placed after the verb or entire expression (at the end of the sentence). For example: Their teacher speaks quickly. 2.Adverbs of Time ” Adverbs of time provide information on when something happens. For example:” We'll let you know our decision next week”.Adverbs of Time: Adverbs of time are placed after the verb or entire expression (at the end of the sentence).For example: She visited her friends last year.

3.Adverbs of Frequency : Adverbs of frequency provide information on how often something happens. For example: “They usually get to work at eight o'clock”. Adverbs of Frequency: Adverbs of frequency are placed before the main verb (not the auxiliary verb). For example: He often goes to bed late. Do you sometimes get up early? 4.Adverbs of Degree :” Adverbs of degree provide information concerning how much of something is done. For example: “They like playing golf a lot”. Adverbs of Degree: Adverbs of degree are placed after the verb or entire expression (at the end of the sentence). For example: She'll attend the meeting as well. 5.Adverbs of Comment: Adverbs of comment provide a comment, or opinion about a situation. For example: “Fortunately, there were enough seats left for the concert”. Adverbs of Comment: Adverbs of comment are placed at the beginning of a sentence. For example: Luckily, I was able to come to the presentation6.Adverb Formation”Adverbs are usually formed by adding '-ly' to an adjective.For example:” quiet - quietly, careful - carefully, careless – carelessly” Adjectives ending in '-le' change to '-ly'.For example: possible - possibly, probable - probably, incredible - incredibly

Adjectives ending in '-y' change to '-ily' .

For example: lucky - luckily, happy - happily, angry - angrily Adjectives ending in '-ic' change to '-ically' . For example: basic - basically, ironic - ironically, scientific - scientifically some adjectives are irregular. The most common irregular adverbs are: good - well, hard - hard, fast -fast Conjunctive Adverbs:You can use a conjunctive adverb to join two clauses together. Some of the most common conjunctive adverbs are "also," "consequently," "finally," "furthermore," "hence," "however," "incidentally," "indeed," "instead," "likewise," "meanwhile," "nevertheless," "next," "nonetheless," "otherwise," "still," "then," "therefore," and "thus." A conjunctive adverb is not strong enough to join two independent clauses without the aid of a semicolon.Inllection:Most adverb are gradable, but majority of them take periphrastic forms (More/ Most) e.g.Slowly________more slowly_____________most slowly.Similarly most of them take inflection like adjective e.g. soon___sooner____soonest.Fast_______Faster________Fastest.Function:Many adverbs are gradable, like adjectives e.g.Very slowlly, more slowly. Most slowly, but they are different from each other between of their function in phrases.Lexical Morphology:A large number of adverbs derived from adjective by suffixation of “ly”.e.g

Ly (suffix) _________Slow (adjective)______________Slowly.(adverb)

What is a Preposition?A preposition links nouns, pronouns and phrases to other words in a sentence. The word or phrase that the preposition introduces is called the object of the preposition.A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial or logical relationship of its object to the rest of the sentence as in the following examples:The book is on the table.The book is beneath the table.The book is leaning against the table.The book is beside the table.She held the book over the table.She read the book during class.In each of the preceding sentences, a preposition locates the noun "book" in space or in time. A prepositional phrase is made up of the preposition, its object and any associated adjectives or adverbs. A prepositional phrase can function as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. The most common prepositions are "about," "above," "across," "after," "against," "along," "among," "around," "at," "before," "behind," "below," "beneath," "beside," "between," "beyond," "but," "by," "despite," "down," "during," "except," "for," "from," "in," "inside," "into," "like," "near," "of," "off," "on," "onto," "out," "outside," "over," "past," "since," "through," "throughout," "till," "to," "toward," "under," "underneath," "until," "up," "upon," "with," "within," and "without."

What is a Conjunction?You can use a conjunction to link words, phrases, and clauses, as in the following example:I ate the pizza and the pasta.Call the movers when you are ready.Co-coordinating Conjunctions

You use a co-coordinating conjunction ("and," "but," "or," "nor," "for," "so," or "yet") to join individual words, phrases, and independent clauses. Note that you can also use the conjunctions "but" and "for" as prepositions.

In this example, the co-coordinating conjunction "for" is used to link two independent clauses.Subordinating Conjunctions

A subordinating conjunction introduces a dependent clause and indicates the nature of the relationship among the independent clause(s) and the dependent clause(s).

The most common subordinating conjunctions are "after," "although," "as," "because," "before," "how," "if," "once," "since," "than," "that," "though," "till," "until," "when," "where," "whether," and "while."Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a subordinating conjunction:After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more independent.The subordinating conjunction "after" introduces the dependent clause "After she had learned to drive." “If the paperwork arrives on time, your cheque will be mailed on Tuesday”.

Similarly, the subordinating conjunction "if" introduces the dependent clause "If the paperwork arrives on time." “Gerald had to begin his thesis over again when his computer crashed.”The subordinating conjunction "when" introduces the dependent clause "when his computer crashed."

What is an Interjection?An interjection is a word added to a sentence to convey emotion. It is not grammatically related to any other part of the sentence. You usually follow an interjection with an exclamation mark. Interjections are uncommon in formal academic prose, except in direct quotations.The highlighted words in the following sentences are interjections:Ouch, that hurt!Oh no, I forgot that the exam was today.Hey! Put that down!I heard one guy say to another guy, "He has a new car, eh?"I don't know about you but, good lord, I think taxes are too high!Subject : The subject is the agent of the sentence in the active voice; it isThe person or thing that does the action of the sentence, and it normallyPrecedes the verbThe subject may be a single noun.Example: “Coffee is delicious .”“Milk contains calcium .”The subject may be a noun phrase. A noun phrase is a group of wordsEnding with a noun. (It cannot begin with a preposition.)

Example: That new, red car is John’s.Mini-test:1. George likes boats.2. Mary, John, George, and I went to a restaurant last night.3. The weather was very bad yesterday.4. The chemistry professor cancelled class today.5. The bank closed at two o’clock.In some sentences there is not a true subject. However, it and there can oftenAct as pseudo-subjects and should be considered as subject when rules call forMoving the subject of a sentence.It is a nice day today.There was a fire in that building last month.There were many students in the room.It is raining right now.Complement : Complement completes the verb. It is similar to the subjectBecause it is usually a noun or noun phrase; however, it generally follows theVerb when the sentence is in the active voice.Examples of complements:John bought a cake yesterday. (What did John buy?)Jill was driving a new car. (What was Jill driving?)He wants to drink some water. (What does he want to drink?She saw Asif the movies last night. (Whom did she see at the Movies?)They called Mary yesterday. (Whom did they call?)He was smoking a cigarette. (What was he smoking?)

Modifier : A modifier tells the time, place, or manner of the action. VeryOften it is a prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase is a group of wordsThat begins with a preposition and ends with a noun.Example of prepositional phrases:In the morning, at the university, on the tableA modifier can also be an adverb or an adverbial phrase.Last night, hurriedly, next year, outdoors, yesterdayExample of modifiers:Aslam bought a book at the bookstore. (Where did Aslam buy a book?)Arif was swimming in the pool yesterday. (Where was Arif swimming?)And (When was Jill swimming?)She drove the car on Main Street. (Where did she drive?)We ate dinner at seven o’clock. (When did we eat dinner?)Note: The modifier normally follows the complement, but not always.However, the modifier, especially when it is a prepositional phrase, usuallyCannot separate the verb and the complement.The Noun PhraseThe noun phrase is a group of words that ends with a noun. It can containDeterminers (the, a, this, etc.), adjectives, adverbs, and nouns. It cannot beginWith a preposition. Remember that both subjects and complements are generally noun phrases. Count and non-count nouns: It is possible, however, to count some no count

Nouns if the substance is placed in a countable container.Glass of milk-one glass of milk, two glasses of milk …What is Tense?Tense (noun): a form of a verb used to indicate the time, and sometimes the continuation or completeness, of an action in relation to the time of speaking. Time).Tense is a method that we use in English to refer to time—past, present and future. Many Languages use tenses to talk about time. Other languages have no tenses, but of course they can still talk about time, using different methods. So, we talk about time in English with tenses. But, and this is a very big but: We can also talk about time without using tenses (for example, going to is aSpecial construction to talk about the future, it is not a tense) One tense does not always talk about one time.Here are some of the terms used in discussing verbs and tenses.Mood1) Indicative mood expresses a simple statement of fact, which can be positive (affirmative) or negativeI like coffee.I do not like coffee.2) Interrogative mood expresses a question.Why do you like coffee?3) Imperative mood expresses a command .Sit down!4) subjunctive mood expresses what is imagined or wished or possibleThe President ordered that he attend the meeting.VoiceVoice shows the relationship of the subject to the action. In the active voice, the subject does the action (cats eat mice). In the passive voice, the subject receives the action (mice

Are eaten by cats). Among other things, we can use voice to help us change the focus ofAttention.AspectThe action or state referred to by the verb is completed (and often still relevant),For example:I have emailed the report to Jane. (so now she has the report)(This is called perfective aspect, using perfect tenses.)The action or state referred to by the verb is in progress or continuing (that is,Uncompleted), for example:We are eating.(This is called progressive aspect, using progressive [continuous] tenses.)Determiner:A determiner is a word that determines noun use. it is a word such is “a, the, this, each, some, either, my, and, your,” that appears before any descriptive and decides the kind of reference that a man has.There are three classes of determiners:1. Pre-determiner:Pre-determiner comes before a determiner. or in more technical Word Pre-determiner a word which proceeds and qualifies another determiner, as “both, dose in, both my hand”Examples: (all, both, half, double, twice, three, one-third etc)1. All this money2. Both my hand.

3. Half this milk.2. Central determiner:Central determiner comes in the center of a pre-determiner, such as “an, the, those”Examples:

1. All those work.2. Both these sisters.

3. Post-determiner:These are items which follow determiner but proceed adjectives, such as “other, two, first,”There are three types of post-determiner (1) Cardinal Numerals (2) Ordinal Numerals (3) Quantifiers.

Examples:1. Cardinal Numerals (One, two three……..)2. Ordinal Numerals (first, second, third…..)3. Quantifiers. (Many, few, several, much, little,)The Verb Phrases:A verb phrase consists of a main verb preceded by one or more helping verbs. These helping verbs work together with main verb as a unit. For example1. Is leaving. 2. Had seemed. 3. May become. .4. Could jump.5.Should move? EtcDirect Object:A direct object is the word or phrase in the sentence that indicates somebody or something directly affected by the action of the verb, such as “Cat” in “She fed the cat”Indirect Object:

Indirect is the person or thing action is done to. If function as the recipient of the action shown by a verb and its direct object, for example “the cat” in “she gave the cat a meal”Object Complement:.An object complement is the complement that refers to object. It is a noun, Pronun,or adjective that is a complement of a verb and qualifies its direct object, For example,“Angry” in “He make me angry”1. He made them happy.2. They elected him their leader.

Conditional Simple

Use

We use it for something that might happen.

We use it in the main clause in type II of the Conditional sentences.

Form

would + infinitive

Example

I would fly to Sydney if I had the money.

Conditional Progressive

Use

We use it for something that might happen.

We use it in the main clause in type II of the Conditional sentences.

Form

would + be + infinitive + ing

Example

I would be going home if you came with me.

Conditional Perfect

Use

We use it for something that might have happened in the past.

We use it in the main clause in type III of the if clauses.

Form

would + have + past participle

past participle -> (infinitive + -ed) or (3rd column of the table of the irregular verbs)

Example

I would have phoned you if you hadn't switched your mobile off.

Conditional Perfect Progressive

Use

We use it for something that might have happened in the past.

We use it in the main clause in type III of the if Aclauses.

Form

would + have + been + infinitive + ing

Example

Maria would have been singing if there had been more people in the church.

Conditional Clause and Main Clause

If I have enough money,conditional clause    

I will go to Japan.    main clause

I will go to Japan,main clause    

if I have enough money    conditional clause

First, Second, and Third Conditional

1. First conditional:

If I have enough money, I will go to Japan.

2. Second conditional:

If I had enough money, I would go to Japan.

3. Third conditional:

If I had had enough money, I would have gone to Japan.

 

Conditional clause Main clause

1. If + Present Tense will + inf / present tense / imperative

a.  If you help me with the dishes (if + pres), I will help you with your homework. (will + inf)

b. If the sum of the digits of a number is divisible by three, the number is divisible by three (Pres. tense)

c. If you see Mr Fox tonight, tell him I am ill. (imperative).

2. If + Past Tense would + inf3. If + Past Perfect Tense would have + past participle

We do not normally use will or would in the conditional clause, only in the main clause.

Uses of the Conditional

1. First conditionala. Nature: Open condition, what is said in

the condition is possible.b. Time: This condition refers either to

present or to future time.e.g. If he is late, we will have to go without him.If my mother knows about this, we are in serious trouble.

2. Second conditionala. Nature: unreal (impossible) or improbable

situations.b. Time: present; the TENSE is past, but we

are talking about the present, now.e.g. If I knew her name, I would tell you.If I were you, I would tell my father.Compare: If I become president, I will change the social security system. (Said by a presidential candidate)If I became president, I would change the social security system. (Said by a schoolboy: improbable)If we win this match, we are qualified for the semifinals.If I won a million pounds, I would stop teaching. (improbable)

3. Third conditionala. Nature: unrealb. Time: Past (so we are talking about a

situation that was not so in the past.)e.g. If you had warned me, I would not have told your father about that party.(But you didn't, and I have).

Remember!

1. The conditional construction does not normally use will or would in if-

clauses. EXCEPTION: If will or would express willingness, as in requests, they can be used in if-clauses.e.g. If you will come this way, the manager will see you now.I would be grateful if you would give me a little help.(= ± please, come this way; please, give me...)2. For the second conditional, were replaces was:If I were a rich man...3. After if, we can either use "some(-one, -where...)" or "any(-one, -where...).If I have some spare time next weekend....or : If I have any spare time...4. Instead of if not, we can use unless.e.g. I'll be back tomorrow unless there is a plane strike.He'll accept the job unless the salary is too low.5.There is a "mixed type" as well, for the present results of an unreal condition in the past:If + Past Perfect - would + inf.If you had warned me [then], I would not be in prison [now].

 

Functional EnglishFunctional English is usage of the English language required to perform a specific function. This is typically taught as a foundation subject as a good command of

English is often required for academic study and career progression.Letter

A character representing one or more of the sounds used in speech; any of the symbols of an alphabet.

Word

A single distinct meaningful element of speech or writing, used with others (or sometimes alone) to form a sentence and typically shown with a space on either side when written or printed

Structure

There are two striking features of language that any scientific theory of this quintessentially human behavior must account for.

The first is that we do not all speak the same language. This would be a shocking observation were not so commonplace

The second striking feature of language is that when you consider the space of possible languages, most languages are clustered in a few tiny bands. That is, most languages are much, much more similar to one another than random variation would have predicted.

For instance, in languages with fixed word order, the subject almost always comes before the object. SVO

Since we became aware of just how tightly the variation in human language constrained is, researchers have struggled to find an explanation. Perhaps the most famous account is Chomsky's Universal Grammar hypothesis, which argues that humans are born with innate knowledge about many of the features of language (e.g., languages distinguish subjects and objects), which would not only explain cross-linguistic universals but also perhaps how language learning gets off the ground in the first place. Over the years, Universal Grammar has become increasingly controversial for a number of reasons, one of which is the arbitrariness of the theory

Language processing faces similar challenges. We have different streams of information: what words were uttered and what order they were uttered in. It's easier to bind the order information to the right word in SVO languages like English because the subject and object are far apart (there is a verb in between), much as the crowding problem in the example above is ameliorated by spacing the letters out:

The Four Sentence Structures1. Simple Sentences

A simple sentence contains only one independent clause.

An independent clause is a group of words (with a subject and a verb) that expresses a complete thought.

I drink coffee.

I drink coffee is an independent clause. It contains a subject (I) and a verb (drink), and it expresses a complete thought. Learn more about the simple sentence here.

2. Compound Sentences

A compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses. These clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon.

A coordinating conjunction is a word that glues words, phrases, or clauses together.

She cooked and he cleaned.

She cooked is an independent clause. He cleaned is also an independent clause. And is a coordinating conjunction joining the two independent clauses. She cooked and he cleaned is a compound sentence. Learn more about the compound sentence here.

Psst! When you join two independent clauses with only a comma, it's called a comma splice. Avoid comma splices.

3. Complex Sentences

A complex sentence contains a subordinate clause and an independent clause.

A subordinate clause is a group of words that has a subject and a verb but does not express a complete thought.

I washed the dishes after I ate breakfast.

I washed the dishes is an independent clause. After I ate breakfast is a dependent adverb clausemodifying the verb washed. I washed the dishes after I ate breakfast is a complex sentence.

Sometimes, it can be hard for people to tell the difference between compound sentences and complex sentences. You can learn more telling the difference here.

Learn more about the complex sentence here.

4. Compound-Complex Sentences

A compound-complex sentence contains at least two independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause.

I would have purchased the cheese that you like,

but it was too expensive.

I would have purchased the cheese and it was too expensive are both independent clauses. They are being joined by the conjunction but. 

That you like is a dependent adjective clause modifying the noun cheese. The whole sentence is a compound-complex sentence. Learn more about the compound-complex sentence here.

PhrasesA phrase is a group of related words that does not contain a subject and a verb in combination.

Generally, a phrase is used in the sentence as a single part of speech. In this section we will be concerned with prepositional phrases, gerund phrases, participial phrases, and infinitive phrases.

1. Prepositional Phrases The preposition is a single (usually small) word or a cluster of words that show relationship between the object of the preposition and some other word in the sentence. Some examples of single word prepositions: at, by, up, beneath, over, in, upon, to, under, of, throughout. Some phrasal prepositions: according to, in regard to, in spite of, by virtue of. The prepositional phrase, the most common type of phrase in English, begins with a prepositionand is followed by a noun or pronoun, called the object of the preposition, and any modifiers of the object. Preposition modifiers object of the preposition in my shiny, black purse according to the syllabus over a deep river Prepositional phrases function in the sentence like adjectives or adverbs. Note the following: Much of his money was made in Europe. (The first phrase is used as an adjective to modify the pronoun much; the second is used as an adverb to modify made.) The color of the car on the street clashes with my new suit. (Of the car is used as an adjective to modify the noun color; on the street is used as an adjective to modify the noun car; with my new suit is used as an adverb to modify the verb clashes.) When discussing the function of a prepositional phrase, we say that it has either an Adjective Phrase (AdjP) function or an Adverbial Phrase (AdvP) function.

2. Verb Phrases :

Three kinds of phrases make use of a verbal, a word formed from a verb but

Functioning like a different part of speech. There are three kinds of verbals: the gerund, the participle, and the infinitive

a. Gerund PhrasesA gerund can be recognized by the ending -ing, either on a simple form (reading), or on an auxiliary (having read, being read, having been read). To be a gerund, one of these forms must be used as a noun within the sentence--as a subject, direct object, subject complement, object of the preposition, appositive, etc. Examples: Swimming is fun. He fears being failed. A gerund phrase consists of the gerund pus its modifiers and/or complements. Note the following examples:He enjoys walking to school at dawn.He enjoys creating sentence diagrams.He enjoyed being selected outstanding student of his class.Studying English grammar demands most of my time.He was accused of having not read the book.My main activity is studying.Remember, the gerund phrase can be used in a sentence where you would normally use a noun or noun phrase.

b. Participial PhrasesThe participle is identical in form with the gerund forms (-ing ending); in addition, there is a past participle form (studied, broken) and a progressive form (having been studying). The difference the gerund and the participle is in use, or how it functions within the sentence: the between gerund is always used as a noun while the participle is used

as an adjective modifier. Example: The injured bird clung to the swaying branch.The participial phrase, consisting of the participle plus its modifiers and/or complements, can be used at the beginning of the sentence, at the end of the sentence, or within the sentence immediately following the noun it modifies. Examples: Having once been a football coach, Bill could explain the play to us. The police removed the man creating the disturbance.

3. Infinitive Phrases An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the simple stem of the verb, generally preceded by to(which is called the sign of the infinitive). Examples: to study, to have studied, to be studying, to be studied, to go, and to dance. An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive plus its modifiers and/or complements. InfinitivePhrases may be used a nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Note the following examples: To leave the party early will be impossible. (Noun subject) Wanted to give Salam a second chance. (Noun direct objectI am happy to make your acquaintance. (Adverb modifier)ClauseA clause is a combination of words containing a subject and a verb. If the clause can stand by itself as a sentence, it is called an independent clause. If it cannot stand alone, it is called dependent (or subordinate) clause. We will be concerned here with several types of dependent clauses. A dependent clause contains a subject and a verb, but it functions as a single part of speech (as an adjective, an

adverb, or a noun) within the sentence. Note the following examples: Mr. Jones announced that he had resigned. (noun direct object)I must leave when the bell rings. (adverb)When I will be leaving is not yet clear. (noun subject)The test that I just took was easy. (adjective)

1. Noun ClausesWhen a dependent clause is used as a noun it is called a noun clause. Most noun clauses are used as subjects, as direct objects, as subject complements, and as objects of prepositions. Note the following:What he told us is very convincing. (subject)He believes whatever is told to him. (direct object)This is what he told me. (subject complement)Give it to whoever opens the door. (object of the preposition)The words that serve as subordinators of noun clauses are conjunctions (that, if, whether);pronouns (who, whom, what, which , whoever, whatever, whichever); adjectives (whose, which , what); and adverbs (when, where, why, how). The subordinating word always stands at or near the beginning of the clause. The conjunction that is quite commonly not expressed in a noun clause: I hope (that) you are mistaken.

2. Adjective ClausesAn adjective clause modifies or limits or points out a noun or pronoun. The normal position for an adjective clause is immediately following the noun or pronoun it modifies:He bought one of those houses that have just been built in Silverlake.I like a man who has plenty of initiative.

The car is one that you can be proud to drive.The subordinating words that connect adjective clauses to the words they modify are called elatives (hence these are often called relative clauses). The relative is a kind of substitute for the noun or pronoun being modified. Nearly all adjective clauses will use who, whom, that, which, whose, where, when, or why as subordinators.

3. Adverbial ClausesAn adverbial clause may come before, after, or in the interior of a main clause, but they are used like adverbs; they describe the action of the main clause by telling certain things about it. Like adverbs, adverbial clauses may modify verbs, adverbs, or adjectives. The use of adverbial clauses, together with some of their most common conjunctions are listed below:Time (when, before, after, since, while, until, as)You must not talk while you eat.Manner (as, as if, as though)Place (where, wherever)We parted where the paths separated.Result (that, so that)He was so late that he might have missed the lecture.Cause (because, since, as)She quit school because her mother was ill.Purpose (that, in order that)They died that their countrymen might live.Condition (if, unless, provided that, on condition that)Stop me if you have heard this before.Comparison (than, as)Gold is heavier than iron (is).Concession (although, though, even if)

I will trust him though he betray me.ing" verb. It is customary to refer to this whole structure.

Present Progressive - Use

1) actions happening at the moment of speaking

Peter is reading a book now.

2) fixed plan in the near future

She is going to Basel on Saturday.

3) temporary actions

His father is working in Rome this month.

4) actions happening around the moment of speaking (longer actions)

My friend is preparing for his exams.

5) trends

More and more people are using their computers to listen to music.

6) repeated actions which are irritating to the speaker (with always, constantly, forever)

Andrew is always coming late.

Form

to be (am, are, is) + infinitive + -ing

Examples.

I am playing football.

I am not playing football.

present continuous tense

The continuous and progressive aspects are grammatical aspects that express incomplete action or state in progress at a specific time: they are non-habitual, imperfective aspects. In the grammars of many languages the two terms are used interchangeably.

Rules. Auxiliary verb “am or is or are” is used in sentence. 1st form of verb or base verb + ing (present participle) is used as main verb in sentence.

                                    Structure of sentence Positive Sentence    • Subject + auxiliary verb + main verb-ing (Present participle) + object    • Subject + am/is/are + (1st form of verb or base verb + ing) + objectIf the subject is “I” then auxiliary verb “am” is used after subject in sentence.If the subject is “He, She, It, singular or proper name” then auxiliary verb “is” is used after subject in sentence.If subject is “You, They or plural” then auxiliary verb “are” is used after subject in sentence.The participle “ing” is added to the 1st form of verb i.e.

going (go) writing (write)I am writing a letter.Pakistan is developing.Sentence      • Subject + auxiliary verb + not + main verb-ing (Present participle) + object      • Subject + am/is/are + not + (1st form of verb + ing) + object.Interrogative Sentences

      • Auxiliary verb + Subject + main verb-ing (Present participle) + object      • Am/is/are + Subject + (1st form of verb or base verb + ing) + objectFor making interrogative sentences, the sentence is started with auxiliary verb rather than putting auxiliary verb inside the sentence. If the subject is “I” the sentence starts with auxiliary verb “am”. If the subject is “He, She, It, singular or proper name” the sentence starts with auxiliary verb “is”. If subject is “You, They or plural” the sentence starts with auxiliary verb “are”.Is she is loughing at me.Is he is going to school.

Present Perfect Tense It is used to expressed an action which happened or completed in past but usually the action which happened or completed at a short time before now (near past) not a very long time before now. Specific time such as two years ago, last week or that day is usually not used in the sentences of

in this tense. It means that this tense expresses the action whose time when it happened, is not exactly specified but it sounds to refer to some action that happened or completed in near past.

Rules: Auxiliary verb “has or have” is used in sentence. 3rd form of verb (past participle) is used as main verb in sentence.                                 Structure of SentencePositive          • Subject + Auxiliary verb + main verb (past participle) + Subject         • Subject + has/have + 3rd form of verb or past participle + subjectIf the subject is “He, She, It, singular or proper name” then auxiliary verb “has” is used after subject in sentence.If subject is “You, They or plural” then auxiliary verb “have” is used after subject in sentence.Example

I have eaten meal.She has washed the clothes.Negative         • Subject + Auxiliary verb + NOT + main verb (past participle) + Subject        • Subject + has/have + NOT + 3rd form of verb or past participle + subjectRules for using auxiliary verb “has or have” in negative sentence are same as mentioned above.She has not washed the clothes.

I have not eaten the meal.Interrogative          • Auxiliary verb + Subject + main verb (past participle) + Subject         • Has/have + Subject + 3rd form of verb or past participle + subjectInterrogative sentence starts with auxiliary verb. If the subject is “He, She, It, singular or proper name” then the sentence starts with auxiliary verb “has”.If subject is “You, They or plural” then the sentence starts with auxiliary verb “have”. Have I eaten the meal?Has she washed the clothes?

Future Continuous tense It is used to express a continued or an ongoing action in future. For example, “I will be waiting for you tomorrow”, it conveys ongoing nature of an action (waiting) which will occur in future. Rules. Auxiliary verb “will be” is used in sentence. 1st form of verb + ing (present participle) is used as main verb in sentence.                                    Structure of sentencePositive sentence   • Subject + auxiliary verb + main verb (present participle) + object   • Subject + will be+ 1st form of verb or base form+ing (present participle) + object

Examples.        You will be feeling well tomorrow.  I will be felling well tomorrow.Negative sentence          • Subject + not between auxiliary verbs+ not + main verb (present participle)              + object          • Subject + will not be + 1st form of verb or base form+ing (present participle)              + object 

To make negative sentence “not” is written between auxiliary verbs “will and be” in sentence.

Examples.           You will not be feeling well tomorrow.  I will not be feeling well tomorror.Interrogative sentence• Auxiliary verb + subject + auxiliary verb + main verb (present participle) + object• Will + subject + be+ 1st form of verb or base form+ing (present participle) + object

      Will you be feeling well tomorrow? Will I be waiting for you?

Present Perfect Continuous tense It is used to express a continued or ongoing action that started in past and is continued until now. There will be a time reference, such as “since 1980, for three hours etc” from which the action has been started. A sense of time

reference is found in these sentences which gives an idea that action has been continued from some time in past till now.  Such time reference or sense of time reference is the identity of Present perfect continuous tense because it tells that action has started from a particular time in past. For example, “He has been reading in this school since 2005”, so the it means that he has started his education in this school in 2005 and he is studying in this school till now. Note: If there is not time reference or sense of time reference then it is not Present perfect continuous tense because there is no hint about the time of action when it started in past and it seems just an ongoing action at present time which resembles “present Continuous tense. So the reference of time differentiates between Present perfect continuous tense and Present continuous tense. Rules: An auxiliary verb “has been or have been” is used in sentence. 1st form of verb (base verb) +ing (present participle) is used as main verb in sentence. “Since” or “for” is used before the “time reference” in sentence. If the time reference is exactly known such as 1995, 4 O’clock then “since” is used before the time in sentence. If the time reference is not exactly known such as three hours, six years, four days, then “for” is used before the time in sentence. Time reference such as 3 hours or 5 days is not exactly known because we don’t know that about which three hours a day is told in sentence or about which 5 days in a month is told in sentence. While the 1995 is exactly known time. 

                                  Structure of sentence.Positive Sentence.• Subject + Auxiliary verb + main verb (Present participle) + Object + Time reference• Subject + has been/have been + (1st form of verb or base verb + ing) + object +    time reference

Examples.        He has been watering the plants for two hours.        I have been studying since 3 O’clock Negative Sentence.• Subject +”Not” between the Auxiliary verb + main verb (present participle) +     Object + Time reference

• Subject + has not been/have not been + (1st form of verb or base verb + ing) +    object + time reference

To make negative sentence, the word “not” is written between the auxiliary verbs, so it becomes like “has not been or have not been”. The rule for using auxiliary verb “has been or have been” in negative sentences is as same as mentioned above.

Examples.        He has not been watering the plants for two hours.        I have not been studying since 3 O’clock. Interrogative Sentence.• Auxiliary verb + Subject + Auxiliary verb + main verb (present participle) + object +    time reference

• Has/have + Subject + been + (1st form of verb or base verb+ing) + object + time    referenceInterrogative sentence starts with auxiliary verb. If the subject is “He, She, It, singular or proper name” then the sentence starts with auxiliary verb “has” and auxiliary verb “been” is used after subjectIf subject is “You, They or plural” then the sentence starts with auxiliary verb “have” and “been” is used after subjectHas he been watering the plants for two hours?      Have I been studying since 3 O’clock?Has he been watering the plants for two hours?      Have I been studying since 3 O’clock?

Past perfect tense It is used to express an action which has occurred in past (usually, a long time ago) and action which has occurred in past before another action in past.  For example,I had lived in America. (The sense of time in this sentence refers to a completed action in past and especially a long time ago) The students had gone before the teacher came.  (The first part of sentence “The student has gone” is sentence of past perfect tense, it says about an action which occurred before another action in past which is “the teacher came”. The second part “the teacher came” is sentence of past simple tense. So such a sentence which express an action in past

before another action in past comprises two parts where the first part of sentence is past perfect tense)  Rules. Auxiliary verb “had” is used in sentence. 3rd form of verb (past participle) is used as main verb in sentence                              Structure of sentence.Positive sentence        • Subject + auxiliary verb + main verb (past participle) + object        • Subject + had + 3rd form of verb or past participle + object

Examples.      A thief had stolen my watch. He had taken the exam lt year. Negative sentence        • Subject + auxiliary verb + NOT + main verb (past participle) + object        •Subject + had + not + 3rd form of verb or past participle + object

   “Not” is written after auxiliary verb in negative sentence.Examples.          A thief had not stolen my watch. He had taken the exam last yearInterrogative sentence       • Auxiliary verb + subject + main verb (past participle) + object       • Had + subject + 3rd form of verb or past participle +

objectExamples.      Had he taken the exam last year      Had a thief stolen my watch? Had he taken the exam last yea

Future Perfect tense It is used to express an action which will occur in future and is thought to be completed in future. It expresses a sense of completion of an action which will occur in future. For example, “John will have gone tomorrow”. It shows a sense of completion of an action (go) which will occur in future (tomorrow). Rules. Auxiliary verb “will have” is used in sentence. 3rd form of verb or past participle form of verb is used as main verb in sentence.                                    Structure of sentencePositive sentence       • Subject + auxiliary verb + main verb (past participle) + object       • Subject + will have + 3rd form of verb or past participle + objectExample.1 Informal communication: Informal communication is casual and spontaneous.  Informal communication comes from communication activities outside of those formally learned through discipline or at school through education, or in business through related experiences and formal

training. It comes from the social communication of home family culture, casual conversations and grapevines, rumors, inter-relational activities outside of the formal or public arenas. We do not behave the same way at work as we do at home or at play. I always say that people are at their best at work. We really don't know someone until we've stayed with them outside of work for a few days -- or even a few hours with some people. Informal communication may not be as reliant as formal communication.  Informal communication may be vulnerable to being deceptive and imprecise in its casualness - -consciously or unconsciously. In an informal setting, the quality of communication may be affected by the more relaxed or careless attitude or behavior.  Informal communication is what takes place without the formal addition of conventions and ceremonies. In order to understand the difference between formal and informal communication, we need to look at both and compare some of the variances between the two. So let's now take a look at formal communication.

2.Formal communication: Formal communication is more thought-out and prepared from learned experiences or organized training that present rules and conventions authorities by business and formal etiquette. With formal communication, more accountability is expected. In an organizational setting, such as business, corporations or associations and the like, communication is connected with official status-quo or protocols of the formal channels of structure and company culture which the line of manager/subordinate reporting system is expectedly

accepted. In business, the different forms of formal communication including departmental functionality, activities taking place within meeting and conference settings, verbal and written communication through telephone, memos, letters and bulletins, etc., all add up to the formality. In a formal setting, people take the time to recognize the consequences of transmitting any wrong or incomplete information. However, both formal and informal communication is found in an organization, depending on the level of business experience and training one possesses in his or her personal life. An organization can make efficient use of informal communication by confirming and affirming that which is being communicated by the less trained individual.

Six Golden Rules for Excellent ComprehensionReading comprehension strategies are tools that everyone can use to help understand the meaning of what they read. Comprehension depends on the complexity of the text, or the sophistication of vocabulary. Some texts, like Dr. Seuss "Cat in the Hat" are very simple to understand. Other texts, such as "The American Constitution" are very difficult to comprehend as they contain complex words and long sentences. In the last twenty years there has been a focus in the business world to simplify the use of language in all forms of documentation. Legal contracts have become much easier to read. Business letters are less prosaic and more direct. Gone are the days where a single sentence contained four hundred words and six compound clauses! These are the days of "plain English". Despite this trend,

we are faced with the onerous task of having to comprehend piles of notes, books, emails, letters and reports. Although the format may be simpler, the amount of information we have to digest in these modern times is unprecedented.

Golden Rule 1. Analyze the Non VerbalsBefore commencing reading you should take a few moments to look at the non-verbal forms of communication in the document you wish to comprehend. The non-verbals are the messages that are not contained in the words, but rather in the design of the document. You should flick through the document and first look at the photographs, pictures, charts and graphs. Scrutinize these items and build a mental picture of what the document is saying. Pictures allow a very rapid way of comprehending material and the human brain is typically much better at remembering pictures than words and verbal concepts. Look at the quality of the document. Does it have a professional layout? Is it well structured? Viewing the non verbals is an important prelude to the next phase as it prepares our mind to receive and analyze information.

Golden Rule 2. Gain an overviewA golden rule of great comprehension is to gain an overview of the document you wish to read. This means reading selective parts of the document until you gain a perspective. Read the headings. Look through the table of contents. Peruse the index. Read highlighted points. Read the first and last paragraph. Read emphasized words in the

document. Examine the captions on pictures, graphs and tables. Once you have gained a mental picture of the document you can then decide what to do with it!

Golden Rule 3. Understand PurposeWhen reading it is important to consider two things. First, what knowledge do you want to extract from the text?

Do you want to read the text for enjoyment? Do you wish to memorize the information? Do you wish to gain an overview of the information? Do you need to perform a detailed analysis? Do you need to quickly sift through the text to see if it

contains any references to a particular subject? Do you want an objective review?Second, what did the author set out to achieve in writing the text?

Were they trying to describe something? Were they writing an informative text? Were they explaining something? Are they writing instructions? Are they trying to persuade you to a point of view?Once you recognize what you need from the information and also what the author.s purpose was for writing the text you see if there is a match. If you are seeking an objective review of a subject and it is clear that the author is trying to persuade you to one point of view, the document is at cross purposes with your needs. You could reject the document

and seek a better source. If you are happy with the match, then you can proceed with more detailed reading.

Golden Rule 4. Decide on your responseBeing an effective reader is not about reading and understanding everything that comes your way. It is about matching your response to information with its relevance and importance. The time-tested 80 / 20 rule applies to reading too. Only 20% of the information pushed your way needs to be read with high comprehension. The other 80% can be thrown away, delegated to others to read, or put on file. Becoming a great reader means identifying the information that requires detailed, high comprehension reading. From this information, you might want to take notes, apply a colored highlighter, and prepare action items after you read it. You may want to immediately make calendar entries, prepare emails or add topics to your to-do list.

Golden Rule 5. High Comprehension ReadingAt this stage you have gained an overview of the document by viewing the non verbals, and by building a mental summary of the document by reading the key parts. You have decided that this document is important and is worth reading to gain a first-rate understanding. Now you are motivated. Motivation is critical for great comprehension as motivation leads to focus and concentration, both of which are essential ingredients necessary to engage your memory into .learning mode". You need to read it. You are ready. Start reading! As you are reading involve as many senses as

you can in the reading process; this will greatly contribute to your understanding and recall:

make notes draw pictures of the information, eg mind maps highlight key words scribble notes in the margin say out the key phrases to yourselfAdditionally, as you read you should build a sequence of pictures to represent the information you are reading. We remember pictures much better than words!Once you have finished reading attend to your action items; send emails, update your schedule, add calendar items.

Golden RuleS. Highest Comprehension ReadingThis last step is a little known secret in the business world. Some information is so important that it requires the very highest level of comprehension and retention. It may be information that you need to use and apply every day as a core part of your studies or career. The secret to the highest comprehension reading is reinforcement. If you wait two or three days and re-read the original information, your long term comprehension and memory of the information will be improved significantly. Each time involve your senses by making notes and voicing out the information and ideas to yourself. If you apply this kind of reinforcement three or four times, you will enjoy the highest comprehension.

Textual cohesion

As we already mentioned, an authentic translation involves more than just translating sentences, however grammatically accurate. One has also to bear in mind the interaction between these sentences, and the semantic and stylistic implications of this interaction.

Besides the thematic and information structure of a text, another important element is textual cohesion.

Cohesion can be defined as the property that distinguishes a sequence of sentences that form a discourse from a random sequence of sentences. It is a series of lexical, grammatical and other relations which provide links between the various parts of a text. In studying cohesion we should make a distinction between “linguistic cohesion” and “pragmatic cohesion” or coherence.

Consider the following exchanges:

(a)John likes Helen.

(b)She, however hates him.

(c)Do you have coffee to go?

(d)Cream and sugar?

In the first case the link between (a)

and (b) is provided by

pronominalization, which is a purely

linguistic link; in the second, the

connection between (c) and (d)

depends on knowledge and experience

of the real world.

Linguistic presupposition and pragmatic presupposition differ in a similar manner. While in linguistic presupposition the information can be extracted from the linguistic context, in the case of pragmatic presupposition, the information is deduced from outside the linguistic context.

Example:

John gave his brother two books.

Linguistic presupposition: John has a brother.

Possible pragmatic presupposition: John’s brother likes books.

We shall start from linguistic cohesion.

Halliday and Hasan have identified five kinds of cohesive devices in English:

Reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction and lexical cohesion

Reference

The term reference is traditionally used in semantics to define the relationship between a word and what it points to in the real world, but in Halliday and Hasan’s model it simply refers to the relationship between two linguistic expressions.

In the textual sense, though, reference occurs when the reader/listener has to retrieve the identity of what

is being talked about by referring to another expression in the same context.

References to the “shared world” outside a text are called exophoric references.

References to elements in the text are called endophoric references.

Only the second ones are purely cohesive, although both of them are important to create texture.

There are times when the reference is not explicit in the text itself, but it is obvious to those in a particular situation. This is called exophoric reference.

     For he's a jolly good fellow    And so say all of us.

As outsiders, we don’t know who the he is, but, most likely, the people involved in the celebration are aware

of the he that is being referred to, and therefore, can find texture in the sentences.

Another type of reference relation that is not strictly textual is co-reference.

A chain of co-referential items such as Mrs Thatcher → the Prime Minister → The Iron Lady → Maggie reveals that co-reference is not strictly a linguistic feature but depends on real-world knowledge. You need some external information to realize that the terms refer to the same person.

At the level of textual co-reference, there is a continuum of cohesive elements that can be used for referring back to an entity already mentioned. This continuum goes from full repetition to pronominal reference, through synonym, superordinate and general word.

I saw a boy in the garden.The boy (repetition)was climbing a tree. I was worried about the child (superordinate).The poor lad (synonym)was obviously not up to it. The idiot (general word) was going to fall if he (pronoun)didn’t take care.

Patterns of reference can vary considerably both within and across languages. Within the same

language, text type seems to be an important factor in determining the choice of pattern.

Each language has general preferences for some patterns of reference as well as specific references according to text type.

Endophoric referencing can be divided into three areas: anaphoric, cataphoric, and esphoric.

Anaphoric refers to any reference that “points backwards” to previously mentioned information in text.

Cataphoric refers to any reference that “points forward” to information that will be presented later in the text.

Esphoric is any reference within the same nominal group or phrase, a NP

that “is formally definite but in fact realizes presenting  rather than presuming reference" (pseudo-definite NP in unmarked existential constructions).

Vaguely, he saw the form of a man.

In a room outside the court he 

talked with the French prosecuting  counsel.

For cohesion purposes, anaphoric referencing is the most relevant as it “provides a link with a preceding portion of the text”.

Functionally speaking, there are three main types of cohesive references: personal, demonstrative, and comparative.

Personal reference keeps track of function through the speech situation using noun pronouns like “he, him, she, her”, etc. and possessive determiners like “mine, yours, his, hers”, etc.

All languages have certain linguistic items which they use as a reference in the textual sense.

In English the most common are personal pronouns (subject and object), determiners and possessives.

Third person pronouns are often used to refer back, and sometimes forward, to a participant that has already been introduced or will be introduced into the discourse.

The prime minister has resigned. He announced his decision this morning.

Wash and core six cooking apples. Put them into a fireproof dish.

These are both cases of endophoric reference which signals to the reader that he or she needs to look back in the text to find its meaning.

Unlike English, which tends to rely heavily on pronominal reference in tracing participants, Italian, which inflects verbs for person and number (like French, Spanish and German), generally seems to prefer lexical repetition or co-reference.

Demonstrative reference

Demonstrative reference keeps track of information through location using proximity references like “this, these, that, those, here, there, then, and the”.

I always drink a lot of beer when I am in England. There are many lovely pubs there.

This is not acceptable.

Comparative reference

Comparative reference keeps track of identity and similarity through indirect references using adjectives like “same, equal, similar, different, else, better, more”, etc. and adverbs like “so, such, similarly, otherwise, so, more”, etc.

A similar view is not acceptable.

We did the same.

So they said.

Substitution and ellipsis

Whereas referencing functions to link semantic meanings within text, substitution and ellipsis differ in that they operate as a linguistic link at the lexicogrammatical level. Substitution and ellipsis are used when “a speaker or writer wishes to avoid the repetition of a lexical item and draw on one of the grammatical resources of the language to replace the item”.

Substitution

There are three general ways of substituting in a sentence: nominal, verbal, and clausal. In nominal substitution, the most typical substitution words are “one and ones” . In verbal substitution, the most common substitute is the verb “do” which is sometimes used in conjunction with “so” as in “do so”.

Let's go and see the bears. The polar ones are over on that rock.

Did Mary take that letter? She might have done.

In clausal substitution, an entire clause is substituted.

If you’ve seen them so often, you

get to know them very well.

I believe so.

Everyone thinks he’s guilty. If so, no doubt he’ll resign.

We should recognise him when we see him.

Yes, but supposing not: what do we do?

Ellipsis

Ellipsis (zero substitution) is the omission of elements normally required by the grammar which the speaker/writer assumes are obvious from the context and therefore need not be raised.

If substitution is replacing one word with another, ellipsis is the absence of that word, "something left unsaid". Ellipsis  requires retrieving specific information that can be found in the preceding text.

There are three types of ellipsis too: nominal, verbal, and clausal.

(a) Do you want to hear another song? I know twelve more [songs]

(b) Sue brought roses and Jackie [brought] lilies.

(c) I ran 5 miles on the first day and 8 on the second

A translator needs only be aware that there are different devices in different languages for creating “texture”. This has clear implications in practice. Usually what is required is reworking the methods of establishing links to suit the textual norms of the target language and of each genre.

Discourse markers and conjunctions

A third way of creating cohesion is through discourse markers and conjunctions. Discourse markers are linguistic elements used by the speaker/writer to ease the interpretation of the text, frequently by signalling a relationship between segments of the discourse, which is the specific function of conjunctions. They are not a way of simply joining sentences. Their role in the text is wider that that, because they provide the listener/reader with information for the interpretation of the utterance; that is why some linguists prefer to describe them as discourse markers.

Conjunction acts as a cohesive tie between clauses or sections of text in such a way as to demonstrate a meaningful pattern between them, though conjunctive relations are not tied to any

particular sequence in the expression. Therefore, amongst the cohesion forming

devices within text, conjunction is the least directly identifiable relation.

Conjunctions can be classified according to four main categories: additive, adversative, causal and temporal.

Additive conjunctions act to structurally coordinate or link by adding to the presupposed item and are signalled through “and, also, too, furthermore, additionally”, etc. Additive conjunctions may also act to negate the presupposed item and are signalled by “nor, and...not, either, neither”, etc.

Adversative conjunctions act to indicate “contrary to expectation” and are signalled by “yet, though, only, but, in fact, rather”, etc.

Causal conjunction expresses “result, reason and purpose” and is signalled by “so, then, for, because, for this reason, as a result, in this respect, etc.”.

The last most common conjunctive category is temporal and links by signalling sequence or time. Some sample temporal conjunctive signals are “then, next, after that, next day, until then, at the same time, at this point”, etc.

The use of a conjunction is not the only device for expressing a temporal or causal relation. For instance, in English a temporal relation may be expressed by means of a verb such as follow or precede, and a causal relation by verbs such as cause and lead. Moreover, temporal relations are not restricted to sequence in real time, they may also reflect stages in the text (expressed by first, second, third, etc.)

Examples: time-sequence

After the battle, there was a snowstorm. They fought a battle. Afterwards, it snowed.

The battle was followed by a snowstorm.

A more comprehensive list of conjunctions

could be the following:

Some languages (like Italian) tend to express relations through subordination and complex structures. Others (like English)prefer to use simpler and shorter structures and present information in relatively small chunks.

Whether a translation has to conform to the source-text pattern of cohesion will depend on its purpose and the freedom the translator has to reorganize information.

Lexical Cohesion

Lexical cohesion differs from the other cohesive elements in text in that it is non-grammatical. Lexical cohesion refers to the “cohesive effect achieved by the selection of vocabulary” We could say that it covers

any instance in which the use of a lexical item recalls the sense of an earlier one.

The two basic categories of lexical cohesion are reiteration and collocation.

Reiteration is the repetition of an earlier item, a synonym, a near synonym, a superordinate or a general word, but it is not the same as personal reference, because it does not necessarily involve the same identity.

After the sequence:

I saw a boy in the garden.The boy (repetition)was climbing a tree. I was worried about the child (superordinate).The poor lad (synonym)was obviously not up to it. The idiot (general word) was going to fall if he (pronoun)didn’t take care.

We could conclude by saying: “Boys can be so silly”. This would be an instance of reiteration, even though the two items would not be referring to the same individual(s)

As we have already seen, collocation pertains to lexical items that are likely to be found together within the same text. It occurs when a pair of words are not necessarily dependent upon the same semantic relationship but rather they tend to occur within the same lexical environment.

Examples

Opposites (man/woman, love/hate, tall/short).

Pairs of words from the same ordered series (days of the week, months, etc.)

Pairs of words from unordered lexical sets, such as meronyms:

part-whole (body/arm, car/wheel)

part-part (hand/finger, mouth/chin)

or

co-hyponyms (black/white, chair/table).

Associations based on a history of co-occurrence (rain, pouring, torrential).

John drove up in his old estate wagon. The car had obviously seen a lot of action. One hubcap was missing, and the exhaust pipe was nearly eaten up with rust.

Lexical cohesion is not only a relation between pairs of words. It usually operates by means of lexical chains that run through a text and are linked to each other in various ways.

The notion of lexical cohesion provides the basis for what Halliday and Hasan call instantial meaning.

The importance of this concept for translators is obvious. Lexical chains do not only provide cohesion, they also determine the sense of each word in a given context.

For example, if it co-occurs with terms such as “universe, stars, galaxy, sun”, the word “earth” must be interpreted as “planet” and not as “ground”.

In a target text, it is not always possible to reproduce networks of lexical cohesion which are identical to those of the source text, for example because the target language lacks a specific item, or because the chain is based on an idiom that cannot be literally

translated. (ex. It was raining cats and dogs and the dogs were barking). In this case one has to settle for a slightly different meaning or different associations.

Cohesion is also achieved by a variety of devices other than those we have mentioned. These include, for instance, continuity of tense, consistency of style and punctuation devices like colons and semi-colons which, like conjunctions indicate how different parts of the text relate to each other.

In the approach to text linguistics by de Beaugrande & Dressler (1981), text, oral or printed, is established as a communicative occurrence, which has to meet seven standards of textuality. If any of these standards are not satisfied, the text is considered not to have fulfilled its function and not to be communicative.

Cohesion and coherence are text-centred notions. Cohesion concerns the ways in which the components of the surface text (the actual words we hear or see) are mutually connected within a sequence. Coherence, on the other hand, concerns the ways in which the components of the textual world, i.e. the concepts and relations which underlie the surface text, are relevant to the situation. 

The remaining standards of textuality are user-centred, concerning the activity of textual

communication by the producers and receivers of texts:

Intentionality concerns the text producer’s attitude that the set of occurrences should constitute a cohesive and coherent text instrumental in fulfilling the producer’s intentions.

Acceptability concerns the receiver’s attitude that the set of occurrences should constitute a cohesive and coherent text having some use or relevance for the receiver.

Informativity concerns the extent to which the occurrences of the text are expected vs. unexpected or known vs. unknown.

Situationality concerns the factors which make a text relevant to a situation of occurrence. 

Intertextuality concerns the factors which make the utilisation of one text dependent upon knowledge of one or more previously encountered texts.

The above seven standards of textuality are called constitutive principles, in that they define and create textual communication as well as set the rules for communicating.

There are also at least three regulative principles that control textual communication: the efficiency of a text is contingent upon its being useful to the participants with a minimum of effort; its effectiveness depends upon whether it makes a strong impression and has a good potential for fulfilling an aim; and its appropriateness depends upon whether its own setting is in agreement with the seven standards of textuality.

How to write a formal letter?

It is very important, therefore, that your letters have the desired effect on the reader. In order to achieve this, they should be:

 in the correct format

 short and to the point

 relevant

 free of any grammatical or spelling mistakes

 polite, even if you’re complaining

 well presented

This guide will give some general advice on letter writing and includes some sample letters.

If you are replying to a letter it can be a good idea to note how that letter has been formatted and expressed.

1. Your address, but not your name, usually goes in the top right hand corner. You would notusually include your telephone number or email address here, but this would be permissible.

2. The name and address of the person you’re writing to goes below this, on the left. Ifyou don’t have a specific name, always at least try to put some sort of title. Youshould always, however, address the letter to a particular person if at all possible.

3. The position of the date is more flexible. It can go on the left or the right, usually below the addressee details. The format of the date is also flexible; it could be written5 April 2003, 5th April 2003, 5/4/03 or 05/04/03. Avoid putting the day and month the other way round.

4. The salutation at the beginning of the letter depends on whether or not you have the name of the person.

If you do, write Dear Mr. Ochs, Dear Mrs. Baez, Dear Miss Perhacs, or, if you don’t know 

the marital status of a woman, or if she has written this, Dear Ms. Bunyan. It is possible to write Dear Robert Fripp or Dear Alison Statton, but many people consider this awkward. If the person has a specific title, use this: Dear Dr. Hammill.

If you don’t know the name of the person, you would traditionally write Dear Sir. Thisis clearly somewhat sexist, so many people prefer Dear Sir/Madam or Dear Sir or Madam.

The ending of the letter depends on how you have started: see below.

5. It is common now to put the subject of the letter directly below the salutation. Thiswould be in bold or underlined. The purpose is to give the reader an idea of what the letter is about before reading it, and to be able to pass it on to a more appropriate person if necessary.

If you are replying to a letter which had a reference (or ref.) on it, you should repeat this on your letter, probably on the same line as the date, but on the other side of the page.Write Your refrence.

6. The content of your letter should be as short as possible, divided into short, clear paragraphs.

7. It is common to end your letter with a phrase such as I look forward to hearing fromyou. It’s OK to do this, but it’s a bit meaningless.

8. To end the letter, you would normally write Yours sincerely if you have started theletter with the name of the person, or Yours faithfully if you have started withsomething like Dear Sir.

Brief Overview on the Essay Writing

Below are brief summaries of each of the ten steps to writing an essay. Select the links for more info on any particular step, or use the blue navigation bar on the left to proceed through the writing steps. How To Write an Essay can be viewed sequentially, as if going through ten sequential steps in an essay writing process, or can be explored by individual topic.

1. Research: Begin the essay writing process by researching your topic, making yourself an expert. Utilize the internet, the academic databases, and the library. Take notes and immerse yourself in the words of great thinkers.

2. Analysis: Now that you have a good knowledge base, start analyzing the arguments of the essays you're reading. Clearly define the claims, write out the reasons, the evidence. Look for weaknesses of logic, and also strengths. Learning how to write an essay begins by learning how to analyze essays written by others.

3. Brainstorming: Your essay will require insight of your own, genuine essay-writing brilliance. Ask yourself a dozen questions and answer them. Meditate with a pen in your hand. Take walks and think and think until you come up with original insights to write about.

4. Thesis: Pick your best idea and pin it down in a clear assertion that you can write your entire essay around. Your thesis is your main point, summed up in a concise sentence that lets the reader know where you're going, and why. It's practically impossible to write a good essay without a clear thesis.

5. Outline: Sketch out your essay before straightway writing it out. Use one-line sentences to describe paragraphs, and bullet points to describe what each paragraph will contain. Play with the essay's order. Map out the structure of your argument, and make sure each paragraph is unified.

6. Introduction: Now sit down and write the essay. The introduction should grab the reader's attention, set up the issue, and lead in to your thesis. Your intro is merely a buildup of the issue, a stage of bringing your reader into the essay's argument.

(Note: The title and first paragraph are probably the most important elements in your essay. This is an essay-writing point that doesn't always sink in within the context of the classroom. In the first paragraph you either hook the reader's interest or lose it. Of course your teacher, who's getting paid to teach you how to write an essay, will read

the essay you've written regardless, but in the real world, readers make up their minds about whether or not to read your essay by glancing at the title alone.)

7. Paragraphs: Each individual paragraph should be focused on a single idea that supports your thesis. Begin paragraphs with topic sentences, support assertions with evidence, and expound your ideas in the clearest, most sensible way you can. Speak to your reader as if he or she were sitting in front of you. In other words, instead of writing the essay, try talking the essay.

8. Conclusion: Gracefully exit your essay by making a quick wrap-up sentence, and then end on some memorable thought, perhaps a quotation, or an interesting twist of logic, or some call to action. Is there something you want the reader to walk away and do? Let him or her know exactly what.

9. MLA Style: Format your essay according to the correct guidelines for citation. All borrowed ideas and quotations should be correctly cited in the body of your text, followed up with a Works Cited (references) page listing the details of your sources.

10. Language: You're not done writing your essay until you've polished your language by correcting the grammar, making sentences flow, incoporating rhythm, emphasis, adjusting the formality, giving it a level-headed tone, and making other intuitive edits. Proofread until it reads just how you want it to sound. Writing an essay can be tedious, but you don't want to bungle the hours of conceptual work

you've put into writing your essay by leaving a few slippy misspellings and pourly wordedd phrazies..

Mr. Syed Alam Lecturer in English Govt. college Peshawar ( Male).

MS in Linguistics from Bacha khan University.M.A.(Literature and Applie Linguistic from NUML)B.Ed and M.Ed from university Peshawar.

Email: Syedalam.khan@gmail.comContact No: