Medieval Weapons

8/13/2019 Medieval Weapons

1/198

MEDIEVAL WEAPONSAN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF THEIRIMPACT

Kelly DeVries Robert D. Sit!ABCiCLIOSanta Barbara, California Denver, Colorado Oxford, EnglandCopyright 200 by ABC!CLIO, In"#

All right$ re$erved# %o part of thi$ p&bli"ation 'ay be reprod&"ed, $tored

in a retrieval $y$te', or tran$'itted, in any for' or by any 'ean$, ele"troni",

'e"hani"al, photo"opying, re"ording, or other(i$e, ex"ept for the in"l&$ion of brief

)&otation$ in a revie(, (itho&t prior per'i$$ion in (riting fro' the p&bli$her$#

Library of Congre$$ Cataloging!in!*&bli"ation Data

De+rie$, elly, -./1

edieval (eapon$ 3 an ill&$trated hi$tory of their i'pa"t 4

elly De+rie$ and 5obert D# S'ith#

p# "'# ! 67eapon$ and (arfare $erie$8

In"l&de$ bibliographi"al referen"e$ and index#

ISB%!-03 -!9/-0.!/2!9 6hard "opy 3 al:# paper8

ISB%!-03 -!9/-0.!/;-!< 6eboo:8

ISB%!-;3 .9!-!9/-0.!/2!- 6hard "opy 3 al:# paper8

ISB%!-;3 .9!-!9/-0.!/;-!/ 6eboo:8-# ilitary (eapon$ ! E&rope ! =i$tory ! >o -/00#

2# ilitary art and $"ien"e ! E&rope ! =i$tory ! edieval, /00!-/00#

I# S'ith, 5obert D# 65obert Do&gla$8, -./itle#

?9-0#DE5O%E>he Early iddle Age$, ;1/0 -
http://abc-clio.com/http://abc-clio.com/http://abc-clio.com/http://abc-clio.com/


2/198

C=A*>E5>7O>he Carolingian Era, /01-0/0 E5>=5EE>he Cr&$ade$, -0/01-;00 9.

C=A*>E5O?5>he Late iddle Age$, -;001-//0 -5A>IO%S 2-

LOSSA5 2.-BIBLIO5A*= ;0;

I%DE ;-;

ABO?>>=EA?>=O5S ;;/

INTRODUCTION TO WEAPONS AND WARFARE SERIES7EA*O%SBO>=ASCI%A>EA%D5E*EL# >hey are &$ed to :ill and 'ai' individ&al$ and to de$troy $tate$ and$o"ietie$, and o""a$ionally (hole "iviliFation$, and (ith the$e the greate$t of 'anG$ "&lt&ral and arti$ti"a""o'pli$h'ent$# >hro&gho&t hi$tory tool$ of (ar have been the in$tr&'ent$ of "on)&e$t, inva$ion, anden$lave'ent, b&t they have al$o been &$ed to "he": evil and to 'aintain pea"e#

7eapon$ have evolved over ti'e to be"o'e both 'ore lethal and 'ore "o'plex# or the greater part ofh&'an exi$ten"e, "o'bat (a$ fo&ght at the length of an ar' or at $&"h $hort range a$ to repre$ent no realdifferen"eH battle (a$ fo&ght (ithin line of $ight and $eldo' la$ted 'ore than the ho&r$ of daylight of a$ingle day# >h&$ individ&al (eapon$ that began (ith the ro": and the "l&b pro"eeded thro&gh the $ling andboo'erang, bo( and arro(, $(ord and axe, to g&npo(der (eapon$ of the rifle and 'a"hine g&n of the latenineteenth "ent&ry# St&dy of the evol&tion of the$e (eapon$ tell$ &$ '&"h abo&t h&'an ingen&ity, thete"hnology of the ti'e, and the $o"ietie$ that prod&"ed the'# >he greater part of te"hnologi"al develop'entof (eaponry ha$ ta:en part in the la$t t(o "ent&rie$, e$pe"ially the t(entieth "ent&ry# In thi$ pro"e$$,plo($hare$ have been beaten into $(ord$H the tan:, for exa'ple, evolved fro' the agri"&lt&ral "aterpillartra"tor# O""a$ionally, the pro"e$$ i$ rever$ed and 'ilitary te"hnology ha$ i'pa"ted $o"iety in a po$itive (ay#>h&$ 'odern "ivilian 'edi"ine ha$ greatly benefited fro' advan"e$ to $ave $oldier$G live$, and (eapon$

te"hnology ha$ i'pa"ted $&"h area$ a$ "ivilian tran$portation or ato'i" po(er#7eapon$ "an have a profo&nd i'pa"t on $o"iety# &npo(der (eapon$, for exa'ple, (ere an i'portantfa"tor in ending the era of the ar'ed :night and the e&dal Age# >hey in$talled a :ind of ro&ghde'o"ra"yon the battlefield, 'a:ing all 'en ali:e tall#J 7e "an only (onder (hat effe"t (eapon$ of 'a$$ de$tr&"tion67D8 'ight have on o&r o(n ti'e and "iviliFation#

>hi$ $erie$ (ill tra"e the evol&tion of a variety of :ey (eapon$ $y$te'$, de$"ribe the 'aKor "hange$ thato""&rred in ea"h, and ill&$trate and identify the :ey type$# Ea"h vol&'e begin$ (ith a de$"ription of theparti"&lar (eapon$ $y$te' and tra"e$ it$ evol&tion, (hile di$"&$$ing it$ hi$tori"al, $o"ial, and politi"al"ontext$# >hi$ i$ follo(ed by a heavily ill&$trated $e"tion that i$ arranged 'ore or le$$ along "hronologi"alline$ that provide$ 'ore pre"i$e infor'ation on at lea$t eighty :ey variant$ of that parti"&lar (eapon$ $y$te'#Ea"h vol&'e "ontain$ a glo$$ary of ter'$, a bibliography of leading boo:$ on that parti"&lar $&bKe"t, and an

index#Individ&al vol&'e$ in the $erie$, ea"h (ritten by a $pe"iali$t in that parti"&lar area of experti$e, are a$follo($3

Air"raft Carrier$

An"ient 7eapon$

Artillery

Balli$ti" i$$ile$

Battle$hip$

Cr&i$er$ and Battle Cr&i$er$

De$troyer$

=eli"opter$a"hine &n$

edieval 7eapon$

ilitary Air"raft, Origin$ to -.-9

ilitary Air"raft, -.-.1-.


3/198

Spencer C. Tucker Serie$ Editor

INTRODUCTION TOMEDIEVAL WEAPONS7=A>E+E5O%EGS*OLI>ICALO5*E5SO%ALEELI%S, it i$ &ndeniable that (arfare i$ ende'i" in the "&lt&re$of the (orld ! people have al(ay$ fo&ght one another for po(er, pre$tige, property, and4or infl&en"e# Into thepa$t, one "an tra"e the develop'ent of (arfare fro' individ&al "o'bat, (arrior to (arrior, to "onfli"t$fo&ght at greater and greater di$tan"e$# lint arro(head$ and :nive$ be"a'e bronFe $pearhead$ and axe$,(hi"h be"a'e iron $(ord$ and "ro$$bo( bolt$, (hi"h be"a'e pi:e$ and g&n$, (hi"h be"a'e todayG$advan"ed (eapon $y$te'$ de$igned to hit target$ at long di$tan"e ! atta":ing fro' ten$ of 'ile$ a(ay or,(ith inter"ontinental 'i$$ile$, fro' a"ro$$ the globe# >hi$ boo: (ill o&tline the (eapon$ &$ed fro' the fallof the 5o'an E'pire to the 5enai$$an"e ! fro' the $pear and $(ord to the handg&n and fro' the 'ail $hirtto the f&lly ar'ored :night#

It i$ $o'eti'e$ $aid that (arfare i$ the for"e that drive$ te"hnology a$ 'anG$ de$ire to "on$tantly i'prove(eapon$ and prote"tion fro' atta": i$ the pri'ary i'pet&$ for "hange# 7hile thi$ need to "on$tantly findbetter for'$ of atta":ing oneG$ ene'y and prote"ting one$elf ha$ been a 'aKor $p&r to "hange, it (o&ld be(rong to believe there i$ a dire"t and deter'ini$ti" lin:# Advan"e$ in te"hnology (ere, of "o&r$e, exploitedby the 'ilitary and &$ed (herever po$$ible, b&t it i$ in"orre"t to believe the t(o (ere inextri"ably lin:ed#

Only o""a$ionally, for exa'ple the develop'ent of "a$t!iron "annon in England in the -/


4/198

"ent&rie$ intera"tion$ bet(een 'igrating people$ too: the for' of (arfare, initially (ith the inva$ion$ oflarge barbarian for"e$ and their fa'ilie$ fro' over the 5hine and Dan&be 5iver$ and a"ro$$ the %orth Sea,and then (ith the $ettle'ent raid$ of +i:ing$, =&ngarian$, and &$li'$# By the t&rn of the fir$t 'illenni&',the border$ of E&rope had been redra(n, and the earlier 'igrating people$ had be"o'e E&ropean$#JConfident in their "iviliFation and religion, the$e E&ropean$ "onvin"ed the'$elve$ to "o'bine their'ilitarie$ in p&rpo$e and leader$hip to atte'pt to reta:e the =oly Land and Spain fro' the &$li'$ (ho hado""&pied the' for "lo$e to /00 year$# In Spain, the "r&$ade$ event&ally re'oved &$li'$ fro' "ontrol,

altho&gh not before -O5

>he relation$hip bet(een tho$e living (ithin the border$ of the 5o'an E'pire and tho$e living (itho&t (a$never pea"ef&l# Even (hen 5o'an politi"al and 'ilitary leader$ did not $end ar'ie$ into the$e neighboringland$ (ith the intent to extend the E'pire, it$ border$ (ere never entirely $e"&re# >he (ealth of the 5o'anE'pire (a$ "oveted by tho$e &nable to ta:e dire"t advantage of it# >hi$ led to fre)&ent border raid$, for"ingthe 5o'an$ to b&ild an exten$ive $erie$ of fortifi"ation$ along '&"h of their border$ and $tation a large'ilitary pre$en"e along the'# Even (hen nat&ral hindran"e$ to 'ilitary a"tivity (ere pre$ent, $&"h a$ the5hine and Dan&be river$, the Saharan and A$ia inor de$ert$, and the %orth Sea, fortifi"ation$ (ere b&iltand garri$oned#

At the be$t of ti'e$, a fragile pea"e (a$ 'aintained# So'eti'e$ barbarian people$ (ere even allo(ed in$idethe border$ of the 5o'an E'pire, to $ettle in le$$ pop&lated area$ or on le$$ habitable terrain and to $erve inthe 'ilitary a$ 'er"enarie$# >hey (ere :no(n a$foederati or "onfederate$, b&t it $ee'$ that their pre$en"e

(a$ never entirely (el"o'ed, and they (ere al'o$t al(ay$ treated (ith $&$pi"ion by the 5o'an$the'$elve$# A$ early a$ the fir$t "ent&ry, the re$pe"ted (riter >a"it&$ reported on tho$e (ho lived a"ro$$ the5hine and Dan&be# er'an$, a$ he "alled the' in hi$ (or: !erma"nia (ere hard!(or:ing, fa'ily!orientedpeople (ho$e la": of"iviliFation (a$ 'ore than 'ade &p for by their loyalty and 'ilitary "apabilitie$# >hey(ere to be feared, he (arned in an al'o$t propheti" voi"e, be"a&$e they (o&ld be a for'idable foe $ho&ld5o'e "ontin&e to de"line#

>a"it&$ did not identify the$e er'an$ by the na'e$ they (o&ld event&ally be"o'e :no(n to the 5o'an$#%or did he :no( of the exi$ten"e of the non!er'an people$ (ho invaded their land$, p&$hing the er'an$in a do'ino!li:e fa$hion, farther (e$t and $o&th# By the third "ent&ry, ho(ever, 'o$t 5o'an$ :ne( abo&tthe' a$ their raid$ be"a'e ever 'ore fre)&ent, and fro' 2;/ to 29 AD they penetrated deeper into on"e!$e"&re 5o'an territory than ever before# 7ith the death of E'peror Alexander Sever&$ in 2;/ AD, $tablegovern'ent (a$ repla"ed by 'ilitary anar"hy and ad'ini$trative "hao$# E'peror$ did not la$t long, 'eeting

nat&ral or &nnat&ral death$ in )&i": $&""e$$ion# re)&ently, one ar'y and it$ "andidate for e'peror (o&ld'ar"h to Italy only to be oppo$ed by another ar'y (ith it$ "ontender "andidate for e'peror# >he previo&$lyal'o$t i'pervio&$ defen$e$ of the E'pire (ere (ea:ened and left open to raiding ar'ie$ of barbarian$


5/198


6/198

the fo&rth!"ent&ry (riter A''ian&$ ar"ellin&$, it i$ often a$$&'ed that thi$ (a$ tr&e of the other barbariantribe$, too# In addition, the infa'y of the =&n$, $o often te$tified to by "onte'porary a&thor$, ha$ di$tortedthe i'age of all barbarian tribe$# =o(ever, altho&gh the =&n$ fo&ght pri'arily on hor$eba":, the er'ani"tribe$ (ho overran the 5hine and Dan&be border$ of the E'pire fro' the fo&rth "ent&ry on fo&ght 'ainly onfoot and had only $'all "avalry for"e$# In the 5o'an ar'y the "avalry (a$ filled 'o$tly by non!5o'an$(ho $erved a$ a&xiliarie$, (hile the infantry, filled 'o$tly by 5o'an "itiFen$, &ndertoo: the pri'arybattlefield fighting# In "ontra$t, the 'o&nted troop$ of barbarian ar'ie$ perfor'ed the prin"ipal 'ane&ver$

on the battlefield#It i$ evident that hor$e$ provided barbarian troop$ not only (ith their pri'ary 'ean$ of fighting, b&t they(ere al$o a 'ar: of $o"ial di$tin"tion and "la$$# or 'o$t barbarian tribe$, tho$e (ho "o&ld afford hor$e$ and(ere trained in &$ing the' provided the 'ilitary and politi"al leader$hip# In t(o of the earlie$t of their battle$(ith the 5o'an$, +i$igothi" "avalry, altho&gh fe( in n&'ber 6=o( "o&ld the ar'y have a")&ired a largen&'ber of hor$e$ (hen $tarvation (a$ for"ing the 'ilitary "onfli"tM8 'ay even have been in$tr&'ental inde"iding the o&t"o'e# In ;9 at Dibalt&', a "avalry for"e deliveredthe de"i$ive blo( on a for"e of 5o'an$(ho before then had been $&""e$$f&l at (ith$tanding infantry a$$a&lt$# Even 'ore i'pre$$ive, in the 'id$t ofthe battle of Adrianople, the +i$igothi" "avalry $tr&": the rear of a (ea:ened 5o'an left flan:, "r&$hing itand folding it onto the re$t of the line, thereby greatly fa"ilitating their vi"tory#

=o(ever, before the end of the fifth "ent&ry, the n&'ber of infantry in relation to "avalry had in"rea$ed#

>hree theorie$ for thi$ are $&gge$ted# ir$t, of "o&r$e, "avalry re)&ired hor$e$, and $o'eti'e$ 'ore than a$ingle 'o&nt per $oldier# >he$e hor$e$ needed lot$ of pa$t&re$ for graFing, land$ that (ere readily availableon the plain$ of the $teppe$, b&t not in 7e$tern E&rope# Se"ond, (hen not fighting again$t ea"h other oragain$t the 5o'an$, barbarian $oldier$ often gained e'ploy'ent a$ 'er"enarie$, in ar'ie$ that (ereinfantry!do'inant, in"l&ding tho$e of the E'pire# =o(ever, to 'a:e the'$elve$ 'ore e'ployable, they, too,had to learn to fight on foot# A final, perhap$ 'ore $i'ple explanation of the tran$for'ation fro' "avalry toinfantry 'ay be that (hile the barbarian$ event&ally "on)&ered the E'pire, it (a$ a very lengthy "a'paign,(ith only a fe( 'ilitary vi"torie$ $pa"ed o&t over 'ore than t(o "ent&rie$ of al'o$t "on$tant (arfare# Intr&th, the 5o'an$ (on 'ore individ&al "onfli"t$ than they lo$t ! altho&gh they lo$t the 7e$tern E'pire, theyheld onto the E'pire in the Ea$t ! and the$e vi"torie$, (hi"h (ere bro&ght abo&t by infantry ta"ti"$, probablyinfl&en"ed barbarian 'ilitary organiFation# All three of the$e explanation$ are probably "orre"t in part, andall had the effe"t of de"rea$ing the n&'ber of "avalry and in"rea$ing the n&'ber of infantry in early

'edieval barbarian ar'ie$#>here i$ al$o no do&bt that 5o'an ar'ie$ (ere infl&en"ed by tho$e of the barbarian$, and vi"e ver$a# >hi$"an be $een no(here 'ore "learly than in the general$hip of the 5o'an ar'y by Stili"ho, hi'$elf a +andal,or Aeti&$, (ho had $pent hi$ yo&th a'ong the O$trogoth$ and =&n$# Both "learly priFed their 5o'an'ilitary po$i!tion$ ! and both al$o vied for politi"al po(er in the E'pire ! b&t they al$o re"ogniFed thei'portan"e and, often, the $&periority of barbarian $trategy and ta"ti"$# >he vi"tory Aeti&$ (on over the=&n$ at the battle of Chalon$ in


7/198

and Alpine a&l and (hat (o&ld be"o'e S(itFerlandH the ran:$ had $ettled in a&l, ex"ept for the part"ontrolled by the +i$igoth$, Ale'anni, and B&rg&n!dian$H and the Angle$ and Saxon$ had $ettled in Britain#A$ barbarian people$ $ettled in ne( area$, they needed fe(er hor$e$ for day!to!day life, and thi$ had a"on$e)&ent effe"t on the n&'ber$ of their "avalry troop$#

>he $a'e )&e$tion of the tran$for'ation fro' 5o'an to barbarian affe"t$ the politi"al and e"ono'i" hi$toryof the early iddle Age$ a$ (ell# =i$torian$ often d(ell on the (ea:ne$$e$ of 5o'an 'ilitary po(er in the7e$tern E'pire, (hen in fa"t it 'ay have been the ero$ion of politi"al and e"ono'i" po(er that (a$ 'orede"i$ive in the &lti'ate fall of 5o'e# A$ the er'ani" inva$ion$ in"rea$ed in inten$ity d&ring the late fo&rth"ent&ry and early fifth "ent&ry, 5o'an politi"ian$ (ere &nable to p&t their petty politi"al $)&abble$ behindthe'# >hi$ politi"al infighting al$o affe"ted 'ilitary leader$ and general$, (ho (ere fre)&ently $een a$ athreat to their politi"al 'a$ter$# It (a$ not &n"o''on for the' to have to ret&rn to 5o'e orCon$tantinople,often at the 'o$t inopport&ne ti'e, to prote"t their po$ition$# Even Aeti&$, fre$h fro' hi$ defeat of the =&n$,did not e$"ape E'peror +alentinian IIIG$ Kealo&$ (rath or dagger#

Of "o&r$e, politi"al in$tability had o""&rred in the earlier hi$tory of the E'pire, altho&gh (itho&t the $a'edire "on$e)&en"e$ a$ later, d&e in large part to the $trength of the 5o'an I'perial e"ono'y# It $ee'$ that a$long a$ the (ealth of the E'pire and it$ "itiFen$ (a$ pre$erved, it did not 'atter (hat the $'all 'inority ofpoliti"al leader$ and offi"ial$ did# Altho&gh inva$ion$ and raid$ nat&rally di$r&pted the e"ono'y, thro&gho&tthe 'ilitary proble'$ of the third "ent&ry, it re'ained $trong# >he E'pire (a$ even able to pay for the

in"rea$ed n&'ber of fortifi"ation$ and troop$ e'ployed at the end of the "ent&ry#>hi$ e"ono'i" $trength and $tability "hanged in the (a:e of the "on$tant inva$ion$ of the barbarian$ over thenext t(o "ent&rie$# >he $a": of 5o'e in he an$(er lay in b&yinghi$ $ervi"e$ by re(arding hi' (ith land, title$, and a(ard$, and th&$ "reating an obligation to $erve# In thi$(ay, a leader "o&ld en$&re that a di$ting&i$hed (arrior and hi$ per$onal retin&e (o&ld be available to $ervein hi$ ar'y (henever he (a$ needed# Sho&ld that $ervi"e not be provided, tho$e land$ and title$, all of (hi"h


8/198

had originated fro' the leaderG$ o(n holding$, (o&ld be forfeited ba": to hi'# In addition, be"a&$e the$eland$ "a'e (ith laborer$ and pea$ant$ to (or: the', it (a$ re"ogniFed that the landholder 6or lord8 (o&ldnot be for"ed to do 'ore than prepare for hi$ re)&ired 'ilitary $ervi"e, in parti"&lar training hi'$elf and hi$retin&e in the &$e of ar'$ and in other 'ilitary $:ill$# Before the eighth "ent&ry, variation$ of thi$ tradition of'ilitary obligation "o&ld be fo&nd thro&gho&t the barbarian :ingdo'$ of the 7e$tern 5o'an E'pire, and,event&ally, the fa'ilie$ (ho held the land$ and title$ gained "ontrol of the', (hi"h led to the develop'ent ofthe 'edieval nobility#

D&ring the inva$ion and o""&pation of the 7e$tern 5o'an E'pire, the Ea$tern part, (hi"h later be"a'e:no(n a$ the ByFantine E'pire, re'ained 'ilitarily ina"tive# >hi$ "a'e to an end, ho(ever, d&ring the reignof E'peror &$tinian, (ho r&led in Con$tantinople fro' /2 to //# In /;;, after $e"&ring hi$ ri$e to and"ontrol of the ByFantine e'peror$hip, &$tinian de"ided to try to rea")&ire the land$ of the 7e$tern 5o'anE'pire# =i$ fir$t target (a$ +andal!"ontrolled Egypt and %orth Afri"a# =e $ent an ar'y of -0,000 infantryand /,000 "avalry, 'o$tly 'er"enarie$, &nder the very "apable general$hip of Beli$ari&$, and by ar"h /;he $o"iologi"al paradig' :no(n a$fe&dali$' ha$ lo$t favor a'ong 'odern hi$torian$, largely be"a&$e it (a$ a general de$"ription for all of'edieval $o"ietyG$ obligation$, 'ilitary and non'ilitary, bet(een all level$ of the nobility and va$$al$ ofevery ran:# >he K&$tifiable reKe"tion of thi$ paradig' for early 'edieval $o"iety at large ha$ re$&lted in it$di$'i$$al a$ an explanation for ho( ar'ie$ at the ti'e (ere rai$ed and organiFed# 7hile fe&dali$' i$probably not the "orre"t definition for the re"r&it'ent "o''it'ent$ of early 'edieval $oldier$, nonethele$$

there doe$ $ee' to have been an obligation to $erve bet(een $oldier$ and their leader$, (hether ba$ed onland holding$ ! (hi"h be"a'e the nor' ! or $o'e other $o"ioe"ono'i" 'edi&'# >hi$ (a$ a ti'e, after all,(hen the (arrior (a$ dee'ed to be legally the top of the $o"ietal hierar"hy, expre$$ed in hi$ extre'ely high(ergild, literally 'an!pri"e, 'eaning that it (o&ld "o$t the a$$ailant of $&"h a 'an an extre'ely largea'o&nt of 'oney if he :illed hi'# Being a (arrior, or $triving to be"o'e one, nat&rally drove a "ertain$eg'ent of the 'ale pop&lation to 'ilitary $ervi"e#

7hen thi$ failed to provide eno&gh $oldier$, other$ (ere "alled &pon to fill the ran:$# any $&rviving legal"ode$ indi"ate a general obligation of all freeJ able!bodied 'en to be prepared for 'ilitary $ervi"e to their:ing, $ho&ld he $&''on the', to provide their o(n ar'$ and ar'or, and to $erve hi' thro&gho&t the entiretyof an expedition or "a'paign# Ignoring $&"h $ervi"e in"&rred $evere p&ni$h'ent$, and, in fa"t, it appear$ that'o$t 'ilitary leader$ had no proble' finding 'en to $erve in ti'e of "onfli"t# Sho&ld a leader experien"e

$&"h diffi"&lty, he (a$ generally not a leader for long# In reality it (a$ rare, if ever, that the lo(er "la$$e$ orpea$ant$ (ere ever"alled &pon to $erve# >hey (ere, after all, needed to 'aintain agri"&lt&re and thee"ono'y on (hi"h it (a$ ba$ed# A$ they had little "han"e to train, they did not 'a:e good (arrior$# So, 'o$toften they $erved a$ the 'ilitia, (ho$e $ervi"e (a$ re$tri"ted to defending their ho'e$ and the land$ of theirlord$#

>he re$&lt of thi$ (a$ that, in e$$en"e, by the $eventh "ent&ry, the profe$$ional 'edieval $oldier had "o'einto exi$ten"e ! finan"ially able to p&r"ha$e ar'$ and ar'or, if not al$o hor$e$, and to have the ti'e to train#A 'ilitary hierar"hy or nobility developed that (a$ different fro' that of the 5o'an$ or even fro' that ofthe earlier barbarian$# At lea$t initially, ethni" de$ignation$ $till held $(ay, (ith $oldier$ fighting in the"o'pany of other tribal 'e'ber$, b&t a$ lang&age, "&$to'$, and loyaltie$ be"a'e 'ore &nified, even thi$di$tin"tion di$appeared# Soon a (ealthy elite "la$$, trained to fight (ar$ for their $o"ial better$, provided theb&l: of the ar'ie$# 7ith the' "a'e their retin&e$, 'en "onne"ted to the' by $i'ilar obligation$# ore

profe$$ional,J to &$e a 'odern ter', they (o&ld "a'paign (henever their leader$ re)&ired, and (hen they(ere not involved in offen$ive 'ilitary operation$ they (o&ld defend their o(n and their leader$G land$#Altho&gh not :night$ by later 'edieval "hivalri" definition$ ! tho$e re)&ired a "ere'onial d&bbing,Jheraldry, and other tradition$ ! their $:ill in ar'$ and ar'or and their profe$$ionali$' in ta"ti"$ and $trategy$et the' on a path to(ard that 'edieval hi$tori"al reality#

>he ri$e of a 'ilitary nobility )&i":ly led to the develop'ent of fortifi"ation$, e$pe"ially along the oft!di$p&ted and fre)&ently "hanging border$ and frontier$# ortifi"ation$ b&ilt in $tone (ere far in the f&t&re, b&tan earth!and!(ood castrum or castellum $till provided prote"tion to tho$e (ho (ere or "o&ld get in$ide a$(ell a$ an offen$ive i'pedi'ent to any invading for"e not able to "on)&er it# Siege 'a"hine$ (ere available,altho&gh there i$ a )&e$tion a$ to (hether they (ere the $a'e a$ tho$e &$ed by the 5o'an$# ore often,be$ieger$ had to rely on for"ing the inhabitant$ of $&"h fortifi"ation$ to $&rrender by $tarvation or trea"hery#

Both re)&ired ti'e, $o'eti'e$ longer than a year, and often an invading ar'y (o&ld de"ide that $&"h anexpendit&re of ti'e (a$ not (orth the effort#

Anglo!Saxon England in thi$, a$ in $o 'any early 'edieval 'ilitary 'atter$, (a$ different# Obligation$ to


11/198

$erve in the 'ilitary differed fro' tho$e of "ontinental E&rope, a$ did the n&'ber, experien"e, and pro(e$$of profe$$ional 'ilitary $oldier$# %o do&bt part of the rea$on for thi$ lie$ in the develop'ent of a differentpoliti"al and e"ono'i" $tr&"t&re in Anglo!Saxon $o"iety# So'e have al$o $&gge$ted that the pea"ef&l"ondition$ prevalent in England after the "on)&e$t by the Anglo!Saxon$ did not fo$ter the ri$e of a 'ilitaryelite or the develop'ent of a "la$$ of $o"iety (ho had obligation$ to $erve# *erhap$ thi$, 'ore than anything,explain$ (hy the na'e$a:e hero of$eowulf the greate$t Old Engli$h poeti" epi", i$ a eat, fro' $o&thernS(eden, and not fro' Anglo!Saxon England# =o(ever, the idea that England (a$ pea"ef&l at that ti'e 'ay

$i'ply be attrib&table to o&r la": of "onte'porary $o&r"e$#Of "o&r$e, there (ere 'ilitary "onfli"t$ in Anglo!Saxon England# Before the +i:ing inva$ion$ at the veryend of the eighth "ent&ry and the atta":$ on it$ $ea"oa$t$ and riverban:$, raid$ by 7el$h and S"otti$h(arrior$ $ee' to have been the bigge$t threat to England# B&t the$e (ere fre)&ently $'all affair$, for thetheft of "attle and other good$ rather than any 'ilitary expedition# >ho$e (ho "ontin&ed to live in the path of$&"h raider$, $i'ilar to tho$e (ho (o&ld later on fa"e the +i:ing$, &$&ally had to defend their land$ (itho&to&t$ide $&pportH altho&gh, (hen $&"h $&pport (a$ offered, it (a$ gratef&lly re"eived# Again the $i'ilarity to

$eowulf $ho&ld be noted3 Beo(&lf and hi$ ar'y helped =ygela" and hi$ people again$t their $ee'inglyper$i$tent, overpo(ering ene'ie$# 7hat for'ed (a$ a 'ilitia, an ar'y '&$tered $olely for defen$ive(arfare, one that had only a fe( o&tdated ar'$ and ar'or, if any, and fe( experien"ed $oldier$ or leader$, ifany# Soon tho$e frontier area$ that had been $o (ell g&arded by 5o'an $oldier$ and, in the "a$e of the

Anglo!S"otti$h border, by =adrianG$ 7all, (ere den&ded of pop&lation, inevitably for"ing the raid$ that (ereit$ "a&$e to extend farther and farther into the "enter and $o&thern portion$ of the i$land#

>here (ere al$o (ar$ bet(een the vario&$ Anglo!Saxon :ingdo'$, altho&gh their fre)&en"y 'ay have beenexaggerated in later narrative$ that (i$hed to e'pha$iFe the Chri$tianiFation of England# >he$e "onfli"t$involved 'ore $:illed and profe$$ional troop$, in"l&ding 'er"enarie$ fro' E&rope and, e$pe"ially,S"andinavia# B&t one gain$ the i'pre$$ion fro' (ritten and ar"haeologi"al $o&r"e$ that $oldier$ (ere never alarge part of the pop&lation#

>he early iddle Age$ (a$ a period of ende'i" (arfare, and no region and fe( people e$"aped the violen"eof ar'ed "onfli"t or the "on$tant re"r&iting, '&$tering, and 'oving of large for"e$ thro&gho&t E&rope# >heeffe"t of thi$ on traditional agri"&lt&ral $o"ietie$ and e"ono'ie$ (a$, a$ expe"ted, )&ite deva$tating# Indeed,(arfare defined all a$pe"t$ of life for all "la$$e$ of people# any e""le$ia$ti"$ (o&ld even begin to find aK&$tifi"ation of $&"h "onfli"t$ (ithin a Chri$tianity that follo(ed a leader (ho had prea"hed pea"e# 7arfareal$o "ontin&ed to define the hero,J a definition that had "hanged little $in"e the 'o$t an"ient of ti'e$, and$torie$ ! epi"$, $aga$, and narrative$ ! all heralded the 'an (ho &$ed hi$ pro(e$$ and "&nning to defeat hi$ene'y on the battlefield and in individ&al 'artial "onte$t$#

S>5A>E A%D >AC>ICS

Strategy and ta"ti"$ in (arfare after the barbarian inva$ion$ and &p to the Carolingian age are diffi"&lt, if noti'po$$ible, to deter'ine (ith any a""&ra"y# >he O$trogoth$ in Italy and the +i$igoth$ in $o&thern ran"eand Spain have the rep&tation that they (ere (ea: 'ilitary po(er$ in the "ent&rie$ follo(ing their initial(ar$ again$t the 5o'an$ and the =&n$# Conte'porarie$ have left the i'pre$$ion that the n&'ber$ ofprofe$$ional $oldier$ (ere $'all ! only a fe( leader$ and their 'o&nted retin&e$ ! altho&gh the$e "o&ld be$&pple'ented by levie$ ta:en fro' the general pop&la"e in ti'e$ of $tr&ggle# =o(ever, the$e $oldier$ (ererarely "alled &p, $ee'ingly both be"a&$e of the la": of ene'y threat$ and perhap$ o&t of fear of ar'ing and

training individ&al$ (ho 'ight potentially t&rn tho$e (eapon$ and training again$t their leader$# Of "o&r$e,thi$ 'eant that, (hen there (a$ a ne"e$$ity for 'ilitary a"tion, the ar'y that re$ponded to the levy (a$generally di$organiFed, di$orderly, and &ndi$"iplined and had little de$ire to fight for people they did not:no( and "a&$e$ they often $a( no val&e in# >hi$ no do&bt ha$tened the arrival of the profe$$ional 'edieval$oldier, b&t by that ti'e both the O$trogoth$ and the +i$igoth$ had been de$troyed, the for'er by theByFantine$ and the latter by Arab &$li'$#

>he Lo'bard$ ran into little oppo$ition (hile filling the va"&&' of politi"al and 'ilitary r&le in Italy left(hen the ByFantine$ ret&rned to the ea$tern editerranean in the $ixth "ent&ry# Still, they $ee' to have beeneffe"tive (arrior$, altho&gh $o'e 'odern "o''entator$ $&gge$t that thi$ effe"tivene$$ ha$ been exaggeratedby their &$e of violen"e and terror to pa"ify tho$e (ho' they $o&ght to "ontrol# Before o""&pying Italy,Lo'bardi" "avalry had $erved (ith 5o'an and ByFantine ar'ie$# And their "onte'porary hi$torian, a fan,

*a&l the Dea"on, re"ord$ that the Lo'bard$ re'ained largely a "avalry!do'inant for"e thro&gho&t their"on)&e$t of Italy and later# =o(ever, it i$ "lear that the Lo'bardi" "avalry (a$ $&pported by an e)&allylarge, or po$$ibly larger, for"e of infantry, b&t the$e n&'ber$ $ee' not to have i'pre$$ed "onte'porarynarrative or hagiographi"al (riter$# At ti'e$, the "avalry al$o di$'o&nted, b&t only (hen there (a$ no other


12/198

'ilitary alternative for their $&rvival# >he Lo'bard$ al$o had a provi$ion for the general levy of troop$, b&t,li:e their othi" prede"e$$or$, they rarely &$ed it#

*a&l the Dea"on al$o portray$ the Lo'bard$ a$ having (hat one 'ight de$"ribe a$ a per'anent or $tandingar'y, better led, better e)&ipped, and better trained than other early 'edieval for"e$# >hi$ (o&ld point totheir being 'ore &nified and $&re of their 'ilitary goal$# If thi$ (a$ the "a$e, then it (a$ the fir$t $&"h ar'yin 'edieval E&rope a$ the ran:$ did not a")&ire a $tanding ar'y &ntil the reign of *ippin III in the 'id!eighth "ent&ry# On the other hand, later Lo'bard$ $&ffered fro' politi"al in$&rre"tion$, 'o$t often be"a&$eof di$p&ted politi"al inheritan"e, a $it&ation that Charle'agne (o&ld &$e to hi$ advantage (hen he advan"edinto Italy, atta":ed, and defeated the' in he O$trogoth$, +i$igoth$, and Lo'bard$ (ere all, event&ally, overr&n by other 'ilitary po(er$, and theyleft no la$ting E&ropean real'# =o(ever, the ran:$ $&""eeded (here their other barbarian "o&nterpart$failed, for'ing a 'edieval politi"al entity o&t of (hi"h 'edieval 6and even 'odern8 E&rope (a$ "reated#Initially, the ran:$ fo&ght $olely a$ infantry, b&t by the beginning of the $ixth "ent&ry, they too had "avalry,altho&gh the "avalry (a$ &$ed al'o$t (holly in $&pport of their infantry# or exa'ple, 'o$t of the fightingdone by Clovi$G$ troop$ (a$ on foot, again$t infantry ene'ie$# >he ran:i$h "avalry traveled to thebattlefield on hor$e$ and then di$'o&nted to fight (ith the infantry# B&t it i$ al$o "lear fro' the eviden"e thatthe early erovingian "avalry "o&ld 'a:e "harge$ on hor$eba":# regory of >o&r$, the "hief hi$torian of theearly ran:$, tell$ the $tory of t(o $oldier$, Dragolen and &ntra', (ho fo&ght again$t ea"h other on

hor$eba":3RDragolen $tr&": $p&r$ to hi$ hor$e and "harged &ntr&' at f&ll $peed# B&t hi$ blo( failed, for hi$ $pearbro:e, and hi$ $(ord fell to the gro&nd# &ntra' # # # then, rai$ing hi$ lan"e $tr&": Dragolen in the throat and&n$eated hi'# And a$ Dragolen (a$ hanging fro' hi$ hor$e, one of &ntra'G$ friend$ thr&$t a lan"e into hi$$ide and gave hi' the fini$hing blo( 6regory of >o&r$, T%e &istor# of t%e 'ranks tran$# Le(i$ >horpeR=ar'ond$(orth, England3 *eng&in Boo:$, -.he 'o$t fa'o&$ battle d&ring thi$ period (a$ &ndo&btedly that fo&ght $o'e(here bet(een >o&r$ and*oitier$ 6and "alled by bothna'e$8 in ;2# >he ran:$ fa"ed a deter'ined and, before thi$ date, a rarelydefeated &$li' ar'y, &nder the leader$hip of Abd ar 5ah'an al!hafi)i, that had "ro$$ed over the*yrenee$ o&ntain$ fro' the Iberian penin$&la# e( original $o&r"e$ exi$t for thi$ battleH tho$e that do !fro' both the &$li' and ran:i$h $ide$ ! $&gge$t that the &$li' ar'y, "ontaining Spani$h, Berber,

oro""an, and Arab $oldier$, fo&ght on hor$eba": and on foot a$ they (ere a""&$to'ed to, (hile theerovingian$, led by Charle$ artel, fo&ght $olely on foot# Charle$G$ ran:i$h $oldier$ (ere )&iteexperien"ed, and thi$ 'ay have been the rea$on behind hi$ vi"tory# It appear$ that the &$li'$ "hargedrepeatedly, both on hor$e and on foot, b&t the tightly pa":ed ran:i$h line$ re'ained $olid# Event&ally, the&$li' atta":$ petered o&t, po$$ibly be"a&$e of fatig&e or the terrain, and the ran:$ (ere able to atta": anddefeat the &$li'$# Abd ar 5ah'an al!hafi)i (a$ :illed and, a$ night fell, hi$ ar'y left the field, altho&gha b&rial party i$ $aid to have ret&rned later to b&ry their leader (here he fell# >he ta"ti" of $tanding $olidly inan infantry line (hile being atta":ed re)&ired an enor'o&$ a'o&nt of bravery, di$"ipline, and leader$hip,and fe( ar'ie$ po$$e$$ed $&"h )&alitie$, altho&gh on thi$ o""a$ion it i$ "lear that the ran:$ did# Charle$ar!telG$ leader$hip at >o&r$ (a$ a "ontrib&ting fa"tor in the a$$&'ption of the erovingian throne by hi$$on, *ippin, (ho then de"lared the beginning of a ne( dyna$ty, the Carolingian, fittingly na'ed after the'an (ho had ended the &$li' threat again$t the ran:$#

LA>E 5OA% A5S A%D A5O5Spear$ and avelin$

In di$"&$$ing the ar'$ and ar'or of the early iddle Age$, it i$ e$$ential to loo: fir$t at tho$e of the 5o'an$oldier# >hro&gho&t 'o$t of the hi$tory of the E'pire, 5o'an infantry $oldier$ (ere "hara"teriFed by the &$eof a $ingle (eapon, thepilum. >hepilum (a$ a heavy $pear, &$ed for thr&$ting or thro(ing#ila had a leaf!$haped iron head, 21; feet 601.0 "enti'eter$8 long, e'bedded in or $o":eted onto a (ooden $haft (ith a$hort iron $pi:e at the rear# So'eti'e$, e$pe"ially in the later 5o'an period, one or t(o (eight$ (o&ld beatta"hed topila. >he$e tended to in"rea$e their po(er b&t de"rea$e their range, indi"ating perhap$ a $oldierG$preferen"e at tho$e ti'e$ for a thr&$ting rather than a thro(ing (eapon# >helength ofpila $ee'$ to havebeen aro&nd / feet < in"he$ 6-; "enti'eter$8, altho&gh exa'ple$ a$ long a$ . feet 62< "enti'eter$8 (erefo&nd in the ex"avation of a bog $ite in Iller&p, Den'ar:#

5o'an ar'ie$ (ere the only one$ (ho &$ed thepilum (hi"h 'ay 'ean there (ere $tri"t reg&lation$ on it$'an&fa"t&re and trade, altho&gh there i$ no (ritten eviden"e $&pporting thi$ a$$&'ption# D&ring the $e"ond"ent&ry AD there (a$ a de"line in the &$e of thepilumb&t in the third and fo&rth "ent&rie$ it regained it$


13/198


14/198

Bo($ and $ling$ (ere al$o &$ed by 5o'an $:ir'i$hing troop$# ?nfort&nately, there are no ar"haeologi"alre'ain$ of the$e (eapon$, a$ they (ere 'ade of (ood and "loth, re$pe"tively, b&t they are often portrayed inart and are fre)&ently 'entioned in hi$tori"al $o&r"e$# lavi&$ +egeti&$ 5enat&$, perhap$ the 'o$t fa'o&$late 5o'an 'ilitary (riter, 'ention$ $elf!bo($, tho&ght to be plain (ooden bo($, a$ training (eapon$ andre"o''end$ an exaggerated pra"ti"e range of ;00 yard$ 62< 'eter$8# odern te$t$ have $ho(n the effe"tiverange of the$e bo($ to be //1-/ yard$ 6/01-/0 'eter$8, (ith a 'axi'&' range of -9012/0 yard$ 6-/12;0'eter$8# %at&rally, a$ (ith all 'i$$ile (eapon$, effe"tivene$$ (a$ deter'ined a$ '&"h by the $:ill of the

ar"her$ a$ by the te"hnology of the bo(#+egeti&$ doe$ not de$"ribe the (ar bo(# any $"holar$ believe the$e (ere not $elf!bo($ b&t "o'po$itebo($, "on$tr&"ted fro' (ood, $ine(, and horn# >hey arrive at thi$ "on"l&$ion ba$ed on the later &$e of"o'po$ite bo($, for (hi"h there i$ no :no(n origin, and be"a&$e of the ar"haeologi"al find$ of ear! andgrip!lath$ that are tho&ght to be fro' "o'po$ite bo($# Several arti$ti" portrayal$ al$o $ee' to depi"t"o'po$ite bo($, ba$ed on the (ay they are bent (hen $tr&ng# >he$e de'on$trate that the bo($tring "o&ld bedra(n both by the finger$ ! the $o!"alled editerranean relea$e ! or the th&'b ! the ongolian relea$e#Bra"er$ on the left (ri$t and $tall$ or ring$ for the finger$ or th&'b are al$o depi"ted, a$ are )&iver$# inally,d&ring the period of barbarian inva$ion$, the 5o'an$ &$ed hor$e ar"her$ (ho "o&ld fire at f&ll gallop (hen$:ir'i$hing again$t an opponent, b&t (ho "o&ld al$o &$e a $(ord or $pear (hen dire"tly atta":ing anopponentG$ troop$#

>(o type$ of arro(head$ have been identified fro' ar"haeologi"al ex"avation$# >he long, thin bod:inarro(head i$ tho&ght to have been &$ed a$ an ar'or pier"er, (ith the $&gge$tion that the triple! or )&adr&ple!vaned trilobate arro(head (a$ 'ore effe"tive again$t &nar'ored target$# Both "o&ld be tanged or $o":etedand, a$ $&"h, either bo&nd or gl&ed to a reed or "ane $haft, (hi"h (a$ :ept fro' $plitting on i'pa"t by theaddition of a $olid (ooden pie"e in the 'iddle# 5are ar"haeologi"al exa'ple$ of the$e arro($ fo&nd at D&raE&ropo$ in Syria have al$o $ho(n that part of the $&rfa"e of the 5o'an arro( (a$ ro&ghened and theflet"hing (a$ atta"hed by gl&e#

Sling$, long a (eapon &$ed in an"ient (arfare, "ontin&ed to be &$ed into the late 5o'an period# In fa"t,+egeti&$ dee'ed the' to be 'ore effe"tive than the bo(# >he ex"avation of one po$$ible $ling po&"h $ho($the' to have been 'ade of thi": and ro&gh "attle hide de"orated (ith geo'etri" pattern$# Both $tone andlead $ling$hot$ have al$o been ex"avated, b&t none "an be "on"l&$ively dated# Arti$ti" depi"tion$ $ho( thatthe $ling (a$ $(&ng over the head or at the $ide of the body, and a$ (ith the bo($tring grip, there $ee'$ tohave been no $tandard 'ethod for 5o'an $oldier$# odern experi'ent$ have deter'ined that the $ling had arange bet(een -/1he hel'et andbrea$tplate (ere 'ade of bronFe beaten to $hape, (hile the $hield (a$ "on$tr&"ted fro' layer$ of (ood,&$&ally three, gl&ed together# Ea"h layer (a$ 'ade of $trip$ 2#he bronFe hel'et of earlier 5o'an $oldier$ al$o "hanged d&ring the $e"ond and third "ent&rie$H it (a$repla"ed by a 'ore "aref&lly de$igned hel'et, 'ade fro' an iron or bronFe $:&ll!plate or "ap (ith eitherbronFe or iron reinfor"ing bar$ "ri$$"ro$$ed or ribbed over it# >hi$ $:&ll!plate or "ap "ontin&ed do(n over theba": of the ne":, ending in a ne":!g&ard that angled o&t $everal in"he$ over the $oldierG$ ba":# >he front ofthe $:&ll "ap ended in a pea: for'ed by t&rning o&t the 'etal of the $:&ll "ap or adding a $eparate bronFe oriron bar to the front of the hel'et# >he $ide$ of the fa"e (ere "overed by ear! and "hee:!pie"e$ 'ade of

$ingle bronFe plate$ and atta"hed to the hel'et by a hinge at their &pper edge and fa$tened together at the"hin# rave$tone "arving$ and other ill&$tration$ $ho( that thi$ (a$ a parti"&larly favored hel'et $tylethro&gho&t the third and fo&rth "ent&rie$, altho&gh fro' the $a'e $o&r"e$ it appear$ that older 'odel$ did


15/198

"ontin&e to be (orn# So'e hel'et$ (ere al$o fitted (ith a 'ail aventail to f&rther prote"t the ne":, and 'ail"oif$ (ere :no(n, altho&gh eviden"e of both i$ rare# 5o'an $oldier$ (o&ld al$o have (orn a padded or)&ilted ar'ing "apJ 'ade of leather or (ool &nder their hel'et$#

Shield$

Altho&gh $o'e late 5o'an $hield$ (ere $till the $a'e length and (idth a$ previo&$ one$, they (ere no('ore re"tang&lar and "&rved to fit the body# A 'id!third!"ent&ry re"tang&lar $hield ex"avated at D&ra

E&ropo$ 'ea$&re$ he lori"a$eg'entata (a$ $till in fa$hion at the ti'e the Ar"h of Sever&$ (a$ b&ilt in 5o'eH the ar"h depi"t$ $oldier$(earing it in 20; and it $ee'$ to have been &$ed at lea$t thro&gh the 'iddle of the third "ent&ry# >here i$little eviden"e, ho(ever, that it (a$ (orn by $oldier$ d&ring the barbarian inva$ion$ of the fo&rth and fifth"ent&rie$, perhap$ be"a&$e of it$ te"hnologi"al "o'plexity and the "o$t of it$ 'an&fa"t&re#

>he Ar"h of Sever&$ portray$ not only $oldier$ (earing te"hnologi"ally "o'plex, expen$ive lori"a$eg'entata "&ira$$e$ b&t al$o the 'ore ea$ily "on$tr&"ted and "heaper lori"a $)&a'ata and lori"a ha'ata

ar'orH eviden"e al$o $&gge$t$ that the$e had "o'pletely repla"ed the earlier ar'or by the end of the third andthe beginning of the fo&rth "ent&rie$# >he lori"a $)&a'ata (a$ 'ade of a large n&'ber of 'etalli" $"ale$atta"hed to ea"h other by leather la"e$ and affixed to a linen &ndergar'ent by linen thread# 7hile not a$fre)&ently depi"ted in arti$ti" rendering$ a$ the other 5o'an ar'or$, $everal find$ of thi$ ar'or havee$tabli$hed that the $"ale$ (ere 'ade either of bronFe or, 'ore fre)&ently, iron# >he$e 'ea$&re abo&t 0#in"he$ 6-#/ "enti'eter$8 long and 0#/ in"he$ 6-#; "enti'eter$8 (ide and are pier"ed by $ix hole$, t(o in the"enter top and t(o ea"h on the right and left edge$# It i$ not :no(n ho( a $oldier p&t on thi$ $"ale ar'or, andit i$ not believed that $leeve$ (ere atta"hed to the tor$o!"overing "&ira$$#

>he lori"a ha'ata (a$ "on$tr&"ted of 'etal ring$# Arti$ti" depi"tion$ and ar"haeologi"al ex"avation$ of thi$'ail ar'or indi"ate thatit (a$ 'ade of alternating ro($ of ring$ ! 'ea$&ring 0#; in"he$ 60# "enti'eter$8 india'eter and 0#0< in"he$ 60#- "enti'eter8 thi": ! p&n"hed o&t of $heet 'etal or 'ade of (ire, (ith a"onne"ting ro( of 'etal (ire ring$ in bet(een# >he lori"a ha'ata had the ring end$ of ea"h ro( rivetedtogether or a ro( of riveted ring$ alternating (ith a ro( of (elded ring$# Ea"h of the ring$ (a$ interlo":ed(ith fo&r other$, t(o in the ro( above and t(o in the ro( belo(H ;/,000 to he lori"aha'ata (a$ extre'ely flexible and d&rable, and it (a$ p&lled on over the head#

Both the $"ale ar'or 6lori"a $)&a'ata8 and 'ail ar'or 6lori"a ha'ata8 "overed the tor$o fro' the $ho&lder toat lea$t the 'iddle of the thigh, and $o'e $ee' to have $tret"hed a$ far do(n a$ the :nee# >hey (ere (orn bythe infantry and "avalry# And (hile they (ere lighter than the earlier lori"a $eg'entata ar'or, they (ere al$ole$$ prote"tive, $a"rifi"ing defen$e for expen$e and "o'fort# reave$ $ee' to have been reg&larly (orn (ithboth type$ of ar'or$#

?nderneath all late 5o'an ar'or$ a gar'ent :no(n a$ a t%oraco"mac%us in ree:, orsuarmalis in Latin,(a$ (orn# An anony'o&$ late!fo&rth! or early!fifth!"ent&ry 'ilitary 'an&al, the*e +eus $el"licis

identifie$ the t%oracomac%us a$ a thi": "loth gar'ent that added prote"tion to the ar'or, b&t at the $a'e ti'eal$o helped $pread the (eight, "&t do(n fri"tion and r&bbing, and red&"e the heat of (earing it# >here are noarti$ti" depi"tion$ of thi$ gar'ent, and, not $&rpri$ingly, none have $&rvived, b&t it i$ tho&ght that they (ere


16/198


17/198

>heir $(ord$ h&ng fro' their $ho&lder$ on baldri"$, and ro&nd their (ai$t$ they (ore a belt of f&r adorned(ith bo$$e$ # # # In their right hand$ they held barbed lan"e$ and thro(ing!axe$, and in their left $hield$, on(hi"h the light $hone, (hite on the "ir"&it and red on the bo$$, di$playing both op&len"e and "raft$'an$hip6a$ )&oted in5#=#C# Davi$,A &istor# of Medieval ,urope from Constantine to Saint /ouis RLondon3Long'an, -.0, -091-0.8#

And Agathia$, (riting a "ent&ry later, re"ord$ a $i'ilar i'pre$$ion of the ran:$3

>he 'ilitary e)&ip'ent of thi$ people i$ very $i'ple # # # >hey do not :no( the &$e of the "oat of 'ail orgreave$ and the head the 'aKority leave &n"overed, only a fe( (ear the hel'et# >hey have their "he$t$ bareand ba":$ na:ed to the loin$H they "over their thigh$ (ith either leather or linen# # # # ighting on foot i$ bothhabit&al and a national "&$to' and they are profi"ient in thi$# At the hip they (ear a $(ord and on the left$ide their $hield i$ atta"hed# >hey have neither bo($ nor $ling$, no 'i$$ile (eapon$ ex"ept the do&ble edgedaxe and the angon (hi"h they &$e 'o$t often 6a$ )&oted in Bernard S# Ba"hra"h, *ro"opi&$, Agathia$ andthe ran:i$h ilitary,J Speculum hey e$pe"ially intere$ted >a"it&$, (riting abo&t theer'an$ in the fir$t "ent&ry AD3

Only a fe( of the' &$e $(ord$ or large lan"e$3 they "arry $pear$ "alled frameae in their lang&age ! (ith$hort and narro( blade$, b&t $o $harp and ea$y to handle that they "an be &$ed, a$ re)&ired, either at "lo$e)&arter$ or in long!range fighting# >heir hor$e'en are "ontent (ith a $hield and $pearH b&t the foot!$oldier$al$o rain Kavelin$ on their foe$3 ea"h of the' "arrie$ $everal, and they h&rl the' to i''en$e di$tan"e$6>a"it&$, T%e Agricola and t%e !ermania tran$# =# attingly R=ar'ond$(orth, England3 *eng&in Boo:$,-.0, -0/1-08#

Already it $ee'$ that the$e barbarian$ &nder$tood the three &$e$ of the $pear even before they invaded theE'pire ! a$ a lan"e, a$ a thr&$ting (eapon, and a$ a Kavelin ! an a$$e$$'ent that (a$ "onfir'ed by later(itne$$e$#

=o(ever, (hat ha$ not been "onfir'ed, by ar"haeologi"al find$, arti$ti" rendering$, or other literary $o&r"e$,i$ >a"it&$G de$"ription ofthe barbarian $pear$# >here i$ little do&bt that the $pear (a$ i'portant, a$ he$&gge$t$, b&t, a$ (ith other (eapon$ &$ed by both barbarian$ and 5o'an$ at the ti'e, it $ee'$ there (a$ notthe $tandardiFation in the$e (eapon$ that >a"it&$ i'plie$, even a'ong, let alone bet(een, the barbariantribe$# A$ 'any a$ t(elve different type$ of $pearhead$ have been fo&nd in Anglo!Saxon ar"haeologi"alex"avation$, and the$e have been f&rther gro&ped into fo&r 'ain "ategorie$3 derivative for'$ of er'ani"$pear!type$ before the Anglo!Saxon $ettle'ent in England, leaf!$haped blade$, ang&lar blade$, and"orr&gated blade$# It i$ li:ely that "hronologi"al and regional differen"e$ '&$t a""o&nt for $o'e of thevariation$ in $pearhead type$# =o(ever, on the (hole it '&$t be "on"l&ded that the Anglo!Saxon$ $a( noneed for $tandardiFation or even "on$i$ten"y# Ar"haeologi"al ex"avation$ of $pearhead$ fro' "ontinentalE&rope $ho( a $i'ilar diver$ity# >he$e $pearhead$ are larger and thi":er "o'pared (ith 5o'an exa'ple$#

Of $pe"ial and $pe"ifi" intere$t i$ the ran:i$h $pear :no(n a$ the angon. Agathia$ de$"ribe$ the (eapon3

>he angons are $pear$ (hi"h are neither $hort nor longH they "an be &$ed, if ne"e$$ary for thro(ing li:e aKavelin, and al$o, in hand to hand "o'bat# >he greater part of the angon i$ "overed (ith iron and very little

(ood i$ expo$ed# Above, at the top of the $pear, on ea"h $ide fro' the $o":et it$elf (here the $taff i$ fixed,$o'e point$ are t&rned ba":, bent li:e hoo:$, and t&rned to(ard the handle# In battle, the ran: thro($ theangon and if it hit$ an ene'y the $pear i$ "a&ght in the 'an and neither the (o&nded 'an nor anyone el$e"an dra( it o&t# >he barb$ hold in$ide the fle$h "a&$ing great pain and in thi$ (ay a 'an (ho$e (o&nd 'aynot be in a vital $pot $till die$# If the angon $tri:e$ a $hield, it i$ fixed there, hanging do(n (ith the b&tt onthe gro&nd# >he angon "annot be p&lled o&t be"a&$e the barb$ have penetrated the $hield, nor "an it be "&toff (ith a $(ord be"a&$e the (ood of the $haft i$ "overed (ith iron# 7hen the ran: $ee$ the $it&ation, he)&i":ly p&t$ hi$ foot on the b&tt of the $pear, p&lling do(n and the 'an holding it fall$, the head and "he$tare left &nprote"ted# >he &nprote"ted (arrior i$ then :illed either by a $tro:e of the axe or a thr&$t (ithanother $pear 6a$ )&oted in Bernard S# Ba"hra"h, *ro"opi&$, Agathia$ and the ran:i$h ilitary,J Speculum


18/198

to p&ll on the$e "ord$ i$ not $tated# ro' the$e de$"ription$, $o'e believe the angon (a$ a de$"endant of the5o'anpilum0 ho(ever, $&"h a lin: i$ not $&pported by (ritten, arti$ti", or ar"haeologi"al eviden"e#

S(ord$

>he $pear 'ay have been the 'o$t (idely &$ed (eapon of the early iddle Age$, b&t the $(ord (a$"ertainly the 'o$t "elebrated and (a$ the (eapon of "hoi"e for the elite of barbarian $o"iety# ro' veryearly, the $(ord be"a'e a part of every "avalry'anG$ ar$enal, it$ o(ner$hip generally pre"eding even that of

a (arhor$e# B&t they (ere al$o &$ed by large n&'ber$ of infantryH the +i$igothi" Code of Ervig 690198even 'ade o(ner$hip of a $(ord 'andatory for all 'en Koining the ar'y, +i$igoth or 5o'an, infantry or"avalry# Of "o&r$e, altho&gh the $(ord (a$ &$&ally p&r"ha$ed, it 'ight al$o be given to a parti"&larly valianta"olyte by hi$ 'a$ter or a")&ired by ta:ing it fro' a fallen or "apt&red opponent, and it i$ )&ite early in theiddle Age$ that $&"h a")&i$ition$ be"o'e part of al'o$t all heroi" literat&re#

Altho&gh it ha$ been proven that barbarian $oldier$ &$ed $hort $(ord$, (ith ar"haeologi"al exa'ple$averaging -/ ;4< in"he$ 6he 'o$t (ealthy ofbarbarian leader$ o(ned extre'ely de"orated $(ord$H that of Childeri", the fifth!"ent&ry erovingian "hief(ho$e extre'ely ri"h to'b (a$ ex"avated at >o&rnai in -/;, had both gold inlay and "loi$onnN de"orationon both the hilt$ and $"abbard$ of t(o $(ord$ fo&nd in hi$ grave ! aspat%a and a $"ra'a$ax ! the only part$of the (eapon$ re'aining#

Dagger$ (ere al$o &$ed by 'any barbarian $oldier$, (ith arti$ti" and ar"haeologi"al re'ain$ "onfir'ing their$tyli$ti" and te"hnologi"al "onne"tion to earlier 5o'an one$#

Axe$

%o eviden"e $&gge$t$ that 5o'an $oldier$ &$ed axe$ a$ (eapon$, altho&gh they "ertainly &$ed the' a$ tool$#Barbarian$ &$ed the' both a$ tool$ and (eapon$# >he latter $ee'ed to have been )&ite novel in the late5o'an period, a$ they (ere parti"&larly "o''ented on by "onte'porary "hroni"ler$# >he$e (riter$ report


19/198


20/198

+i$igoth$ or +andal$, let alone the =&n$# >he ran:$ (ere $aid to have preferred the thro(ing axe a$ a'i$$ile (eapon, altho&gh the large n&'ber of arro(head$ fo&nd in ran:i$h grave $ite$ 'ay "a&$e area$$e$$'ent of that vie(# >he O$trogoth$ $ee'ed to have held the bo( in $&"h lo( e$tee' that >otila, the:ing of the O$trogoth$ d&ring the $ixth!"ent&ry ByFantine inva$ion of Italy, ref&$ed to allo( hi$ ar'y to &$ebo($ again$t the event&ally vi"torio&$ invader$ ! ho(ever, thi$ "annot be $aid to have "a&$ed their defeat#

rave $ite$ in England have $ho(n that the Angle$ and Saxon$ al$o &$ed the bo(H yet the very $'all n&'berof arro(head$ fo&nd in the$e grave$ ! abo&t - per"ent of Anglo!Saxon (arrior$G grave$ "ontain arro(head$ !$&gge$t$ that the (eapon (a$ not val&ed a$ '&"h a$ other (eapon$# An Old Engli$h riddle on the bo(indi"ate$ that the Anglo!Saxon$ :ne( and &$ed the$e (eapon$H ho(ever, the fir$t (ord of the riddle, (henread ba":(ard$, give$ an earlier for' of the Anglo!Saxon (ord for bo(, oga! the only riddle to give $&"han internal "l&e ! (hi"h 'ay indi"ate that it (a$ not a$ pop&lar a$ $o'e other (eapon$3

Agob is m# name one must work it out0

I am a fair creature fas%ioned for attle.

W%en I end and s%oot a deadl# s%aft

from m# stomac% I desire onl# to send

t%at poison as far awa# as possile.

W%en m# lord w%o devised t%is torment for me

releases m# lims I ecome longerand ent upon slaug%ter spit out

t%at deadl# poison I swallowed efore.

1o man2s parted easil# from t%e o3ect

I descrie0 if %e is struck # w%at flies

from m# stomac% %e pa#s for its poison

wit% %is strengt% " speed# atonement for %is life.

I will serve no master w%en unstrung onl# w%en

I am cunningl# notc%ed. 1ow guess m# name

6in evin Cro$$ley!=olland, ed# and tran$#,T%e ,eter $ook +iddles R=ar'ond$(orth, England3

*eng&in Boo:$, -.., %o# 2;8#

Of "o&r$e, a $i'pler an$(er 'ay be that the bo( (a$ $een 'ore a$ a lo(er!"la$$ (eapon than tho$e thatappear 'ore fre)&ently in (hat are li:ely to be grave$ of (ealthier $oldier$#

Cavalry Ar'$

In an"ient 'ilitary $trategy and ta"ti"$, "avalry played a $e"ondary role to infantryH on the battlefield, it$ role(a$ to $:ir'i$h (ith ene'y "avalry, to "ha$e off their 'i$$ile troop$, or to provide 'obile 'i$$ile fire tohara$$ their infantry# At $iege$, "avalry be"a'e re$pon$ible pri'arily for re"onnai$$an"e and foraging#>herefore, "avalry $oldier$ needed to be (ell trained a$ hor$e'en, b&t not parti"&larly a$ fighter$H theirhor$e$ needed to be fa$t, b&t not parti"&larly (ell trained or even (ell bred# >he 5o'an$ &$ed fe( "avalry,

preferring to fight on foot# Before the end of the third "ent&ry, they (ere rarely &$ed a$ a frontline for"e,$erving pri'arily a$ a 'ean$ of tran$portation and hara$$'ent#

E'peror Dio"letian, (ho r&led the E'pire fro' 29< to ;0/, (a$ a for'er 5o'an general deter'ined torefor' 5o'eG$ 'ilitary &nit$, a'ong other thing$ 'a:ing the' 'ore 'obile $o they "o&ld re$pond 'ore)&i":ly to foreign threat$# =i$ "hange$ in"l&ded :eeping "entraliFed garri$on$ of troop$ a$ rapid re$pon$e&nit$ in fort$ a fe( 'ile$ fro' the borderH thi$ ne"e$$itated a "hange in "avalry $trategy, altho&gh not inta"ti"$, and re$&lted in an in"rea$e in the n&'ber and $tat&$ of 'o&nted troop$# >hi$ $trategi" "hange (a$realiFed by the ti'e of the "a'paign$ again$t the barbarian invader$ of thefo&rth and fifth "ent&rie$,altho&gh the 5o'an$ rarely $&""eeded again$t $i'ilar "avalry for"e$ of the +i$igoth$, +andal$, and =&n$#Early ran:$, Angle$, and Saxon$ $ee'ed to have preferred to &$e "avalry $i'ply a$ a royal or "hieftainbodyg&ard, (itho&t involving the' dire"tly in "o'bat# et, a$ "an be $een by the $tory of the t(o

erovingian d&eler$, Dragolen and &ntra', the ran:$ "o&ld fight on hor$eba": if $o de$iredH on the otherhand, the Anglo!Saxon$ $ee' never to have adopted the (ide &$e of "avalry#

By the end of the fifth "ent&ry +i$igothi" and +andal "avalry had be"o'e far better ar'ed and ar'ored,


21/198


22/198

After the fo&rth "ent&ry, all type$ of ar'or began to be 'ore available to all barbarian $oldier$# D&ring thi$period the &$e of ar'or definitely in"rea$ed, and the barbarian$ began to e$tabli$h and develop ar'$ind&$trie$# So'e of the ar'or prod&"ed (a$ )&ite l&x&rio&$ and elaborate ! for exa'ple, >otila, a $ixth!"ent&ry O$trogothi" :ing of Italy, i$ $aid to have (orn golden ar'or ! b&t thi$ (a$ obvio&$ly 'ade 'ore for$tat&$ than 'ilitary &$e# Ba$i" ar'or (a$ far 'ore "o''on, e$pe"ially 'ail "&ira$$e$, fa$hioned after the5o'an lori"a ha'ata, and $"ale ar'or, li:e the 5o'an lori"a $)&a'ata# ?nfort&nately, none of the$e have$&rvived, altho&gh they are fre)&ently portrayed in vario&$ arti$ti" 'edia# >h&$, the a"t&al te"hnology of

early 'edieval ar'or$ '&$t re'ain $pe"&lative, (ith 'o$t hi$torian$ relying on a "onne"tion that lin:$ the'to $i'ilar 5o'an ar'or$# It i$ al$o a$$&'ed that early 'edieval $oldier$ (ore a gar'ent, li:e the 5o'ant%oracomac%us &nder their ar'or#

ran:i$h and Anglo!Saxon ar'or did not differ '&"h fro' that (orn by the barbarian$ in the $o&th ofE&rope# In fa"t, the ran:$ probably initially had 'ore ar'or than the +i$igoth$, O$trogoth$, and +andal$,be"a&$e of the large n&'ber$ (ho $erved in 5o'an ar'ie$ along the 5hineH ho(ever, there i$ al$o little fir'eviden"e to $&pport $&"h "lai'$# Event&ally, the ran:$ adopted 'ail ar'or, altho&gh that doe$ not $ee' tohave o""&rred before the ri$e of the Carolingian$# On the "ontrary, Anglo!Saxon ar'or (a$ not plentif&l, andit (a$ $aid to have been al'o$t ex"l&$ively (orn by elite $oldier$ and "hief$, altho&gh that 'ay only bebe"a&$e they are the one$ (ho are (ritten abo&t or portrayed in art# 7hat the$e fe( early Engli$h $oldier$(ore (a$ a $hort!$leeved 'ail $hirt, rea"hing to the 'id!thigh or to the :nee# In the Exeter riddle$ it i$ "alled

an ex"ellent gar'entJH to Beo(&lf it (a$ a tangled (ar!netJH and Aldhel', another a&thor of riddle$,de$"ribe$ it a$ not fearing arro($ dra(n fro' a long )&iver#J inally, in the Anglo!Saxon poe', >heBattle of aldon,J a 'ail $hirt i$ $o val&able that Byrhtnoth, the 'ilitaryTHE EARLY MIDDLE A"ES& '()*(+, '

leader defeated in the poe', (a$ $tripped of it by a "on)&ering ene'y, (ho then pre$&'ably re&$ed ithi'$elf or gave it to another $oldier# It (o&ld appear that 'ail ar'or (a$ ab$ol&tely e$$ential for theprote"tion of a noble (arrior#

In all early 'edieval $o"ietie$ the &$e of ar'or in"rea$ed 'ar:edly by the end of the $ixth "ent&ry# Eviden"efor thi$ "o'e$ not only in the in"rea$ed portrayal of it in literat&re and art b&t al$o in it$ greater o""&rren"e inex"avated grave$ of $oldier$# It "an al$o be $een in the atte'pt$ to reg&late ar'or beginning in the late$eventh "ent&ry# >he fir$t to do $o (a$ Ervig, a +i$igothi" :ing, (ho $o'e ti'e bet(een 90 and 9 i$$&eda legal "ode de'anding a'ong other thing$ that $o'eJ of hi$ $oldier$ $hall (ear ar'or#J >he$e la($ (erefollo(ed in /0 by a $i'ilar edi"t ordered by Ai$t&lf, a :ing of the Lo'bard$, (hi"h re)&ired the ri"he$t and'o$t po(erf&l of hi$ (arrior$ to be o&tfitted (ith ar'or, a$ (ell a$ a $hield and (eapon$#

=el'et$

After the fir$t barbarian inva$ion$, hel'et$ be"a'e '&"h 'ore plentif&l# >ho$e bro&ght into the E'pire bythe barbarian$ (ere often only $i'ple iron $:&ll "ap$ or 'etal fra'e(or:$ "overed (ith leather or anotherfabri"# Of "o&r$e, "o'pared (ith tho$e &$ed by the 5o'an$, the$e provided negligible prote"tion, $o very)&i":ly barbarian $oldier$ di$"arded the$e and &$ed or i'itated 5o'an type$ of hel'et$#

=o(ever, even 5o'an hel'et$ (ere event&ally reKe"ted for a ne( type of hel'et, the $o!"alled$pangenhel'# *erhap$ the 'o$t original of all barbarian ar'a'ent$, ex"avated exa'ple$ fro' England and"ontinental E&rope generally "on$i$t of fo&r part$3 the "ap, t(o hinged "hee:!pie"e$, and a $e"tion of 'ailprote"ting the ba": and $ide$ of the ne":# >he "ap (a$ 'ade of a (ide 'etal band en"ir"ling the head, (ith anarro(er $e"ond 'etal band atta"hed to the fir$t by rivet$ and r&nning fro' ba": to front# >hi$ $e"ond band(a$ f&rther lin:ed to the (ide "ir"&lar band by t(o $hort band$ r&nning do(n to(ard the ear$# >he $pa"e$left open by thi$ fra'e(or: (ere filled by plate$ of 'etal or horn atta"hed to the band$ by rivet$# In $o'e,$e'i"ir"&lar hole$ (ere "&t into the front of the hel'et for the eye$, and a long, thin pie"e of iron de$"endedbet(een the' to $erve a$ a no$e g&ard# In other$, 'o$t notably the +endel!$tyle hel'et$, the/, MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

eye$ and &pper no$e (ere prote"ted by a 'etal $heet, (ith a $'aller no$e g&ard de$"ending do(n fro' it, or,a$ in the S&tton =oo hel'et, the eye$, no$e, and '&"h of the "hin are "overed by a larger 'etal $heet# >he'etal "hee:!pie"e$, hinged onto the (ide bro(!band, "overed both the ear$ and "hee:$ and (ere atta"hedtogether &nder the "hin by a leather or "loth $trap# A 'ail ne": g&ard, 'ade in a 'anner $i'ilar to ar'or,(a$ atta"hed to the ba": of the bro(!band# >hey (ere fre)&ently de"orated by inlaying, engraving, or

overlaying, the latter in"l&ding "opper!alloy eyebro($ added above the eyehole$, or by other 'ean$, $&"h a$adding the fig&re of a boar on the "ro(n#

Altho&gh it &$ed to be believed that early 'edieval hel'et$ (ere rare and only fo&nd in the grave$ of


23/198


24/198

pla"ed for la&n"hing# >he trigger (a$ a pie"e of rope &$ed to an"hor the ar' ready for loading, (hi"h (a$'o&nted on t(o large and heavy horiFontal bea'$ held apart by a n&'ber of "ro$$bea'$# >e"hnologi"ally$i'pler than the balli$tae or c%eiroallistae onagers 'ay have been 'ore po(erf&lH apparently, they al$oappeared only d&ring the barbarian inva$ion$ and are 'entioned by only one "onte'porary a&thor,A''ian&$ ar"ellin&$#

At thi$ ti'e, the 5o'an$ $ee' to have had a large a'o&nt of artillery# Indeed, they 'ight have had "atap&lt$defending nearly every one of their fortifi"ation$, and it i$ reported that $everal ar'$ fa"torie$ "ontin&ed to$&pply artillery for &$e d&ring the early inva$ion$# It i$ $i'ilarly re"orded that in $o'e 'ilitary engage'ent$the$e "atap&lt$ th(arted barbarian atta":$ again$t 5o'an fortifi"ation$# or exa'ple, A''ian&$ explain$ho( one othi" atta": (a$ halted (hen a $ingle large $tone fired fro' an onager, de$pite hitting no one,"a&$ed $&"h 'a$$ "onf&$ion that it event&ally ro&ted the atta":er$# >hi$ artillery, (ho$e adoption (a$ not&lti'ately $&""e$$f&l in defeating the barbarian$, "a&$ed $&"h heavy death and de$tr&"tion a'ong the' thatit po$tponed the final o&t"o'e# *ro"opi&$, (riting abo&t the defen$e of 5o'e in /;1/;9, provide$ $&"h a(itne$$3

RAat the Salerian ate a oth of goodly $tat&re and a "apable (arrior, (earing ar'or and having a hel'eton hi$ head, a 'an (ho (a$ of no 'ean $tation in the othi" nation # # # (a$ hit by a 'i$$ile fro' a "atap&lt(hi"h (a$ on a to(er at hi$ left# *a$$ing thro&gh the ar'or and the body of the 'an, the 'i$$ile $an: 'orethan half it$ length into a tree, and pinning hi' to the $pot (here it entered the tree, it $&$pended hi' there a$

a "orp$e 6Barton C# =a":er, ree: Catap&lt$ and Catap&lt >e"hnology3 S"ien"e, >e"hnology, and 7ar inthe An"ient 7orld,J Tec%nolog# and Culture . 6-.983 hey arg&e that there i$ $o'e eviden"e of early barbarian &$e ofartillery, for exa'ple at the $iege of >he$$aloni:i by the oth$ in 2. and at >o&r$ by the Ale'anni orran:$ a "ent&ry later# =o(ever, both of the$e engage'ent$ (ere early in the inva$ion$ of the 5o'anE'pire, and their artillery failed to prove effe"tive a$ the defender$ (ere able in both "a$e$ to b&rn the"atap&lt$ by h&rling blaFing 'i$$ile$ at the'# After the fifth "ent&ry there i$ no f&rther 'ention of the' inhi$tori"al $o&r"e$, and they $ee' to have pa$$ed into ob$"&rity#

Other hi$torian$ arg&e that the rea$on for the barbarian$G reKe"tion of 5o'an "atap&lt te"hnology i$ that theya""epted an alternative artillery, the tra"tion treb&"het# =ere a rotating bea' (a$ pla"ed on a f&l"r&'$&pported by a (ooden to(er and ba$e# On one end of the bea' (a$ atta"hed a $ling for the proKe"tile and onthe other a n&'ber of rope$ that, (hen p&lled in &ni$on, t&rned the bea' and fired a $tone $hot (ith"on$iderable a""&ra"y and for"e# A$ eviden"e, they point to an eye(itne$$ a""o&nt of the $iege of>he$$aloni:i by the Avaro!Slav$ in /., (ritten by ohn, the Ar"hbi$hop of >he$$a!loni:i# In thi$ a""o&nt,ohn de$"ribe$ $iege 'a"hine$ of the Avaro!Slav$, :no(n to hi' a$ petrooles or ro": thro(er$,J po$$iblyindi"ating that they (ere tra"tion treb&"het$3

>he$epetrooles (ere tetragonal and re$ted on broader ba$e$, tapering to narro( extre'itie$# Atta"hed tothe' (ere thi": "ylinder$ (ell "lad in iron at the end$, and there (ere nailed to the' ti'ber$ li:e bea'$fro' a large ho&$e# >he$e ti'ber$ had the $ling$ fro' the ba": and fro' the front $trong rope$, by (hi"h,p&lling do(n and relea$ing the $ling, they propel the $tone$ &p high and (ith a lo&d noi$e# And on being

fired they $ent &p 'any great $tone$ $o that neither earth nor h&'an "on$tr&"tion$ "o&ld bear the i'pa"t$#>hey al$o "overed tho$e tetragonalpetrooles (ith board$ on three $ide$ only, $o that tho$e in$ide firingthe' 'ight not be (o&nded (ith arro($ by tho$e on the (all$# And $in"e one of the$e, (ith it$ board$, hadbeen b&rned to a "har by a fla'ing arro(, they ret&rned, "arrying a(ay the 'a"hine$# On the follo(ing daythey again bro&ght the$epetrooles "overed (ith fre$hly $:inned hide$ and (ith the board$, and pla"ingthe' "lo$er to the (all$, $hooting, they h&rled 'o&ntain$ and hill$ again$t &$# or (hat el$e 'ight one ter'the$e extre'ely large $tone$M 6A$ )&oted in Spero$ +yroni$, r#, >he Evol&tion of Slavi" So"iety and// MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

the Slavi" Inva$ion$ in ree"e3 >he ir$t aKor Atta": on >he$$a!loni:i, AD /.,J&esperia /0 6-.9-83 ;9=E E%E3 >=E =?%S


25/198

>he =&n$ fir$t appeared at the end of the fo&rth "ent&ry (hen they atta":ed barbarian tribe$ living to the north and (e$tof the Dan&be# >he$e barbarian$ then "ro$$ed the river and atta":ed the 5o'an E'pire# >hey bro&ght (ith the' a $tyleof (arfare not entirely &n:no(n to either the barbarian$ or the 5o'an$, altho&gh neither had $een it on $&"h a large$"ale# >hi$ de$"ription of the =&n$, al$o fro' the pen of A''ian&$ ar"ellin&$, $o'e(hat di$tort$ the hi$tory of the=&n$, b&t it doe$ $ho( the "&rio$ity of the 5o'an people to(ard the$e $oldier$3

>hey are ill!fitted to fight on foot, and re'ain gl&ed to their hor$e$, hardy b&t &gly bea$t$, on (hi"h they $it li:e (o'ento perfor' their everyday b&$ine$$# B&ying or $elling, eating or drin:ing, are all done by day and night on hor$eba":

and they even bo( for(ard over their bea$t$G narro( ne":$ to enKoy a deep and drea'y $leep# 7hen they need to debate$o'e i'portant 'atter they "ond&"t their "onferen"e in the $a'e po$t&re # # # >hey $o'eti'e$ fight by "hallenging theirfoe$ to $ingle "o'bat, b&t (hen they Koin battle they advan"e in pa":$, &ttering their vario&$ (ar!"rie$# Being lightlye)&ipped and very $&dden in their 'ove'ent$ "an deliberately $"atter and gallop abo&t at rando', infli"ting tre'endo&$$la&ghter 6A''ian&$ ar!"ellin&$, T%e /ater +oman ,mpire (A.*. 4567489) tran$# 7alter =a'iltonR=ar'ond$(orth, England3 *eng&in Boo:$, -.9, hey "o&ld al$o fire a"ro$$ the rear of their hor$e$ to prote"t

the'$elve$ and their "o'panion$ a$ they (ithdre( fro' an atta": or in "a$e of retreat# >heir bo($ (ere notoverly po(erf&l, "ertainly not "o'pared (ith/) MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

the bo($ "arried by ByFantine foot $oldier$ or by later, 'o&nted ar"her$# >hey appear to have been &nable to$hoot an arro( "apable of penetrating the ar'or (orn by their opponent$, altho&gh again$t &nar'oredene'ie$ or &nprote"ted part$ of ar'ored $oldier$ their barbed arro($ "o&ld be deva$tating# >he =&n$ only&$ed infantry a$ a&xiliarie$#

De$pite "onte'porary and 'odern pop&lar opinion that the 'o&nted ar"her$ of the =&n$ (ore no ar'or, it i$"&rrently believed they did indeed (ear it d&ring battlefield "onfrontation$# =o(ever, the =&n$ favored $"aleor la'ellar ar'or and not the 'ail that (a$ be"o'ing 'ore prevalent thro&gho&t the fo&rth and fifth"ent&rie$# >hi$ preferen"e i$ re'ar:ed on by $everal late 5o'an (riter$ (ho $ee' $&rpri$ed by it, perhap$

giving an indi"ation that $"ale ar'or (a$ not "on$idered to be a$ prote"tive a$ 'ail at the ti'e, or perhap$they believed the =&n$ $ho&ld have been able to afford the 'ore expen$ive 'ail "oat$# A $i'pler an$(er"o&ld be that 'ail (a$ 'ore fa$hionable a'ong 5o'an$ than $"ale, b&t the oppo$ite (a$ tr&e (ith the =&n$#One late 5o'an a&thor, (riting in the fifth "ent&ry, al$o de$"ribe$ a =&n (ho (ore no $leeve$ on hi$ $"ale


26/198

ar'or, provo:ing $o'e $&rpri$e# >hi$ 'ight indi"ate a general trend, e$pe"ially a'ong the$e 'o&ntedar"her$ (ho 'ay have tho&ght the (eight and b&l:ine$$ of $&"h ar'or i'peded their ability to fire theirbo($ a""&rately# %o do&bt both $"ale ar'or (ith or (itho&t $leeve$ (a$ &$ed by =&n$H again, there (a$ no$tandardiFation#

&dging fro' hi$ earlier "o''ent$, A''ian&$ ar"ellin&$ had a lo( opinion of the bea&ty of =&nni"hor$e$ ! being ill!$hapedJ ! altho&gh he $ee'$ to have held their abilitie$ in higher e$tee' ! "alling the'hardy#J It i$ "ertainly "lear fro' hi$ $tate'ent that their o(ner$ greatly val&ed their hor$e$, better :no(n a$$teppe ponie$#J 7hile little i$ :no(n abo&t the hor$e$ that (ere ridden by other barbarian tribe$ (ho fo&ghtin the$e early 'edieval (ar$, '&"h 'ore i$ :no(n abo&t =&nni" hor$e$, e$pe"ially that they (ere light,$hort, and fa$t# >hey "o&ld al$o go for long di$tan"e$ (itho&t tiring, altho&gh A''ian&$ re'ar:$ el$e(herein hi$ narrative that 'o$t =&n "avalry $oldier$ traveled (ith $everal hor$e$ d&ring ti'e$ of (ar, "hanging'o&nt$ fre)&ently to pre$erve their hor$e$G $trength# oreover, the =&n$G hor$e$ (ere 'o$t often 'are$, a$their 'il: "o&ld $&$tain the life of the (arrior on "a'paign if needed# are$ are al$o ea$ier to "ontrol than$tallion$# >he$e 'ay in fa"t have been the an"e$tor$ of the 'odern ongolian hor$e, the 'are$ $tanding anaverage of /0 in"he$ 6-2 "enti'eter$8 high andTHE EARLY MIDDLE A"ES& '()*(+, /(

being able to be 'il:ed fo&r to five ti'e$ a day, providing 0#-- po&nd$ 6/0 gra'$8 of 'il: ea"h ti'e#

After hi$ defeat at the battle of Chalon$ in hi$ 'o$t feared of all

barbarian 'ilitary leader$ had been for"ed to t&rn ba": fro' an inva$ion of foreign land$, virt&ally the fir$tti'e that $&"h had happened to a =&n ar'y $in"e


27/198


28/198

"o'pletely &ninhabited and that the $ite of the hanG$ pala"e i$ no( $o de$erted that no eviden"e re'ain$that anyone ever lived there# All the =&n nobility died in thi$ (ar, all their glory departed 6Einhard, p# 8#

So great (a$ the booty ta:en by Charle'agne fro' the (ealthy Avar$ that it f&nded the b&ilding of hi$ o(npala"e "o'plex at Aa"hen, in"l&ding the "on$tr&"tion of the %otre Da'e Cathedral there#

B&t it (a$ probably the "on)&e$t of the Lo'bard$ that Charle'agne hi'$elf (a$ 'o$t pro&d of, for headopted the title ing of the Lo'bard$ after it$ $&""e$$f&l "o'pletion# Charle'agneG$ "a'paign, (hi"h

&lti'ately added Italy, fro' the Alp$ to 5o'e, to the Carolingian :ingdo', (a$ initiated in ; by *ope=adrian I, (ho be$ee"hed the relatively ne(ly "ro(ned :ing for a$$i$tan"e again$t the Lo'bard$# It (a$ notthat the Lo'bard$, (ho had held 5o'e $in"e the ti'e of the ByFantine$, had beg&n to 'i$treat their Italian$&bKe"t$ 'ore or to even treat the pope (ith le$$ re$pe"t than previo&$ly# =adrianG$ plea (a$ pro'ptedin$tead by the fa"t that the Lo'bard$ (ere Arian Chri$tian and not Catholi"# A$ $&"h the pontiff dee'edthe' to be hereti"$# S&rely, he felt, they $ho&ld not have politi"al $&Ferainty over the head)&arter$ of theCatholi"$#

Of "o&r$e, Charle'agne, (ho tr&ly believed hi$ re$pon$ibility a$ the leader of a po(erf&l 'ilitary extendedto the "onver$ion of non!Catholi"$, by for"e if need be, "o&ld not ref&$e a $&''on$ fro' hi$ e""le$ia$ti"overlord# =e re$ponded )&i":ly, '&$tered hi$ ar'y and 'ar"hed the' thro&gh the Alp$# =i$ $iege of theLo'bard "apital, *avia, began in late $pring ; and la$ted for nine 'onth$, d&ring (hi"h ti'e theCarolingian $oldier$ $&ffered 'ore fro' di$ea$e than fro' their opponent$, e$pe"ially a$ the (eather of

northern Italy (or$ened (ith the approa"h of (inter# ?lti'ately, the $iege (a$ $&""e$$f&l, and Charle'agnea""epted the $&rrender of the Lo'bard$ fro' their :ing, Didier# Charle'agne (ent on to 5o'e, (here he(a$ a""lai'ed it$ liberator, "ha'pion, and ! altho&gh he left '&"h of the lo"al politi"al "ontrol to the pope !governor#THE CAROLIN"IAN ERA& (+,*0,+, +'

>hi$ (a$ not to be the la$t ti'e Charle'agne (o&ld 'ar"h into Italy at the head of an ar'y, ho(ever# In900, =adrianG$ $&""e$$or, *ope Leo III, re)&e$ted 'ilitary a$$i$tan"e again$t lo"al 5o'an for"e$,e""le$ia$ti"al a$ (ell a$ politi"al, oppo$ed to hi' and hi$ pro!Carolingian poli"ie$# In traveling to 5o'e thi$ti'e he 'et no ar'ed oppo$ition a$ LeoG$ ene'ie$ "ho$e to $&b'it to the Carolingian :ing rather than fa"ehi'# In re"ognition of thi$ deed and hi$ leader$hip of virt&ally the (hole of 7e$tern and Central E&rope, LeoIII "ro(ned Charle'agne a$ the fir$t =oly 5o'an E'peror# Altho&gh there i$ $o'e di$p&te over (hether

Charle'agne (i$hed for or initially (el"o'ed thi$ "ro(ning, a$ it e$$entially 'eant that the *ope held $o'epo(er over the $e"&lar and the e""le$ia$ti"al (orld, there i$ no do&bt that he li:ed the honor and bore the titlefor the re$t of hi$ reign# In 90; he even 'ade hi$ noble$ and 'ilitary leader$ ta:e oath$ of fidelity to hi' a$=oly 5o'an E'peror, 'any of (ho' had previo&$ly ta:en $i'ilar oath$ to hi' a$ :ing#

CA5OLI%IA% ILI>A5 O5A%IA>IO% A%D OBLIA>IO%Charle'agne a""o'pli$hed the$e 'ilitary feat$ be"a&$e he, li:e hi$ father and grandfather, &nder$tood thepo(er of diver$e, (ell!trained, (ell!e)&ipped, and (ell!led profe$$ional for"e$# =e al$o "ontin&ally $o&ght toi'prove hi$ ar'y de$pite hi$ 'any vi"torie$, (hi"h 'ight have $&gge$ted that he "o&ld have adopted a 'oree"ono'i"ally "on$ervative poli"y and 'aintained the $tat&$ )&o# A$ n&'ero&$ la($ 6"apit&larie$8 fro'Charle'agneG$ reign atte$t, he (a$ "on$tantly $ee:ing to i'prove and $tandardiFe hi$ ar'y, e$pe"ially intheir per$onnel, "o''and $tr&"t&re, training, provi$ioning, and ar'$ and ar'or# >he n&'ber$ of $oldier$Charle'agne e'ployed at any ti'e d&ring hi$ reign "ertainly "alled for thi$# Exa"tly ho( large thi$Carolingian for"e (a$, ho(ever, i$ debated by 'odern hi$torian$# So'e believe Charle'agneG$ $tandingfor"e of profe$$ional, reg&lar $oldier$ n&'bered in the ten$ of tho&$and$ and that (hen the 'ilitia$,'er"enarie$, and other irreg&lar troop$ (ere added for any of hi$ n&'ero&$ "a'paign$, the total for"eoperating thro&gho&t the entire real', in offen$ive and defen$ive $trategie$, garri$oning, poli"ing, training,engineering, and )&arter'a$tering d&tie$, a$ (ell a$ in a"t&al fighting, n&'bered 'ore than -00,000# Other$"ontend that the e"ono'y of the Carolingian :ingdo' and later e'pire "o&ld not+/ MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

$&pport $&"h a for"e, altho&gh thi$ "ontention, even they ad'it, i$ ba$ed on $o"ioe"ono'i" $o&r"e$ and datathat are far fro' definite and re)&ire a "ertain a'o&nt of $o"iologi"al paradig'ati" 'anip&lation to proveJCharle'agneG$ inability to dra( on $&"h a large 'ilitary for"e# 7itho&t the :ind of de'ographi" re"ord$ and'&$ter roll$ that (e have for other period$, the $iFe of the Carolingian ar'y (ill have to re'ain in di$p&te,

tho&gh all do agree that it (a$ large, the greate$t organiFed 'ilitary for"e in 7e$tern E&rope $in"e the fall ofthe 5o'an E'pire#

=o( Charle'agne rai$ed $&"h a for"e i$ al$o an i$$&e not "o'pletely deter'inable by the extant $o&r"e$#


29/198


30/198

battlefield# At lea$t, that i$ ho( 'o$t hi$torian$ have portrayed Carolingian 'ilitary ta"ti"$# In battle,altho&gh the Carolingian "avalry "o&ld and did di$'o&nt to fight a$ infantry, their pri'ary ta"ti" $ee'$ tohave been the "harge, altho&gh one not yet delivered &$ing "o&"hed lan"e$# 7hat little eviden"e there i$$&gge$t$ that the $pear 'ay have been &$ed a$ a thro(ing (eapon (hen &$ed by "avalry ! altho&gh it "o&ldal$o have been &$ed for thr&$ting do(n at an ene'y# A li:ely $"enario 'ay have been that, (hen fightinginfantry, the Carolingian "avalry "harged and after fir$t thro(ing their $pear$, at $&itably "lo$e range,"ontin&ed the atta": &$ing their $(ord$# Alternatively it i$ po$$ible that they "o&ld have thro(n their $pear$

and then t&rned ba": for another to repeat the "harge# 7hen fighting again$t "avalry opponent$, $i'ilarta"ti"$ (ere probably &$ed, tho&gh at an e)&al level# =o(ever, the point of the "harge, here and later in theiddle Age$, 'ay have been le$$ to "o'e into "onta"t (ith the ene'y than to "a&$e the' to flee in di$orderfro' the battlefield# Inti'idation of poorer, le$$ (ell!ar'ored infantry and "avalry by (ealthy, expen$ively"lad "avalry (a$ the :ey here# Sho&ld even part of the ene'y line flee at the pro$pe"t of fa"ing the$e heavyhor$e'en, the (hole of the for"e (o&ld be $everely (ea:ened# >he "avalry (o&ld then be able to ridethro&gh the gap$ left in their opponentG$ line, 'eeting little effe"tive oppo$ition# S&b$e)&ent "harge$ (o&ldevent&ally "a&$e the (hole of the ene'y ar'y to flee, and vi"tory (o&ld be (on (ith very fe( "a$&altie$$&ffered# At the ti'e, no "avalry (a$ 'ore inti'idating in 7e$tern E&rope than Charle'agneG$#

7hen not fighting battle$, the "avalry "o&ld be &$ed for $ear"h!and!de$troy 'i$$ion$, $:ir'i$hing, $"o&ting,$"avenging, and other d&tie$ that re)&ired $peed and 'obility# D&ring $iege$, "avalry (a$ red&"ed to a

$&pporting role, $"o&ting and $:ir'i$hing (here and (hen ne"e$$ary#THE CAROLIN"IAN ERA& (+,*0,+, +(Even if it (a$ not the 'o$t do'inant part of the Carolingian ar'y, the infantry (ere enor'o&$ly i'portantin all 'ilitary a"tivitie$# >hey (ere pre$ent in all battle$, in far greater n&'ber$ than the "avalry, and $erveda$ $&pport troop$ to tho$e delivering the pri'ary atta":$ on the ene'y# >hro&gho&t the iddle Age$, (henthe "avalry faltered ! ad'ittedly not often d&ring Charle'agneG$ reign ! the infantry provided a defen$ivefor'ation behind (hi"h the "avalry "o&ld regro&p if needed# >h&$, there (a$ an obvio&$ need for di$"iplineand training a'ong Carolingian infantry $oldier$# Sho&ld they flee fro' the battlefield, (hether the "avalryhad or not, the battle (a$ li:ely lo$t# Sho&ld they $tand $olidly in their for'ation, again (hether the "avalryhad fled or not, the battle (a$ a$ li:ely (on# Carolingian infantry al$o $erved in patrol$ and a$ garri$ontroop$, be$ieger$, and "on$tr&"tion "re($ for fortifi"ation$ and other defen$e$ or p&bli" b&ilding$#

ollo(ing hi$ father, *ippin III, Charle'agne traditionally '&$tered hi$ ar'y yearly at the ar"hfield, $ode$ignated not be"a&$e of the ti'e of year it (a$ $&''oned b&t be"a&$e of it$ belli"o$e p&rpo$e# >hi$a$$e'bly (a$ "alled every year, even (hen Charle'agne &ndertoo: no "a'paign$# At that 'eeting,Charle'agne (o&ld in$tr&"t hi$ lord$ and other general$ of hi$ 'ilitary p&rpo$e$# So'eti'e$ he :ept thear'y together in a $ingle for"e, (hile at other ti'e$ it (a$ bro:en do(n into t(o or three $eparate for"e$# Ontho$e o""a$ion$, one ar'y 'ight "a'paign in Saxony (hile another "a'paigned in SpainH a third ar'y'ight have defen$ive or "on$tr&"tion re$pon$ibilitie$# ?ntil later in hi$ life, a$ hi$ health (ea:ened,Charle'agne pla"ed hi'$elf at the lead of one of the$e ar'ie$# =i$ $on$ often "o''anded the other$#Ca'paign$ &$&ally ended (ithin the year, 'o$t often before the fall harve$t, altho&gh if needed, $&"h a$d&ring the $iege of *avia, $oldier$ re'ained in the field &ntil their goal$ (ere a"hieved#

Co''&ni"ation bet(een and a'ong all of Charle'agneG$ 'ilitary &nit$ $ee'$ to have been re'ar:ablyeffi"ient d&ring the$e 'ilitary $ea$on$# Charle'agne &$ed $ignal fire$ and to(er$ to $end $hort 'e$$age$

(hile rider$ delivered longer di$pat"he$# 5e$pon$e$ to e'ergen"ie$ (ere )&i":ly 'ade, and it (a$ not&n&$&al to $ee the$e $eparate ar'ie$ Koin together to fa"e an i''inent threat, even if it 'eant a long 'ar"hthro&gh a large part of the :ingdo'# Servi"e in the Carolingian ar'y (a$ diffi"&lt, long, and $o'eti'e$dangero&$, b&t $oldier$ (ere (ell treated, honored, (ell fed, and, $ee'ingly, 'ore e"ono'i"ally (ell!offover other, non'ilitary Carolingian$#+- MEDIEVAL WEAPONS

Even tho&gh it i$ the battle$ that are 'ore reno(ned at thi$ or any other ti'e in the iddle Age$, the 'o$tfre)&ent 'ilitary a"tivity of Carolingian $oldier$ (a$ the $iege# Even a $'all, &nfortified to(n needed to bebe$ieged if the inhabitant$ de$ired to hold o&t again$t their atta":er$# Of "o&r$e, a larger, fortified $ite $tood abetter "han"e of (ith$tanding be$ieger$, b&t that, too, (a$ deter'ined al'o$t $olely by the (illingne$$ of thepop&lation (ithin not to $&rrender# It $ee'$ that Carolingian :ing$, in"l&ding Charle'agne, did not po$$e$$artillery of any $ort and th&$ (ere for"ed to rely on $tarvation or trea"hery to bring the' $&""e$$# >hi$ 'eant$iege$ "o&ld ta:e a very long ti'e, a$ (hen Charle'agne be$ieged *avia for 'ore than nine 'onth$, even ifthere (a$ no potential relieving for"e, a$ (a$ al$o the "a$e at *avia# Chan"e$ (ere al(ay$ good that abe$ieging ar'y 'ight be"o'e 'ore )&i":ly fatig&ed, h&ngry, or di$ea$ed than tho$e in$ide the to(n and


31/198

rai$e their $iege#

>herefore, it (a$ generally (hoever had the $tronge$t deter'ination, the be$ieger$ or the be$ieged, (ho"lai'ed vi"tory at the end of a $iege# Again at *avia, thi$ proved to be Charle'agne (ho, de$pite lo$ing'&"h of hi$ ar'y to di$ea$e, ref&$ed to be driven a(ay fro' the "ity# It $ho&ld be noted, ho(ever, that 'o$tpla"e$ be$ieged by the Carolingian$ $&rrendered )&ite )&i":ly, no do&bt either apatheti" over (hoever theirgovernor 'ight be or fearf&l of repri$al$ by :ing$ :no(n for their r&thle$$ne$$ $ho&ld they try to hold o&tand &lti'ately fail#

S&""e$$or$ to Charle'agne and the Event&al all of the Carolingian E'pire

In 90, re"ogniFing hi$ age and fearing that hi$ health (a$ deteriorating, Charle'agne 'et (ith hi$ three$&rviving $on$, Charle$, *ippin, and Lo&i$, and propo$ed a divi$ion of the :ingdo' bet(een the', follo(ingthe tradition of partible inheritan"e# =i$ $on$, (ho had ta:en only a little part in governing before, altho&ghthey had been leader$ of the ar'y $in"e their teenage year$, (ere anxio&$ abo&t thi$ divi$ion and the land$that 'ight be their$# At the $a'e ti'e, a$ $ee'ingly (ith all partible inheritan"e$, a $ibling rivalry began tobre(, a$ ea"h brother (orried that the otherG$ land$ 'ight $&rpa$$ their$ in )&antity or )&ality# Charle'agnedid not die in 90, ho(ever, and by 9-he 920inva$ion into the 'o&th of the 5iver Seine (a$ rep&l$ed by Carolingian troop$, b&t it (a$ one of the fe($&""e$$f&l defen$e$ 'ade by Lo&i$G $oldier$ again$t the', and (ithin a de"ade +i:ing raider$ "o&ld be fo&nd$ailing al'o$t &nhindered along al'o$t all of the river$ of the Carolingian real'#

Other per$i$tent 'ilitary threat$ to the $e"&rity of Lo&i$G reign (ere the B&lgarian$, (ho atta":ed the$o&thea$tern Carolingian provin"e$ in 929, and the &$li'$, (ho "ro$$ed over the editerranean andatta":ed Italy in 9; and 9o avoid repeating the negligen"e of hi$ father in in$tr&"ting hi' and hi$ brother$ on the art of governan"eby $haring hi$ offi"e$ and landholding$, early in hi$ reign Lo&i$ in"l&ded hi$ o(n $on$ in r&ling hi$ :ingdo'#

At hi$ very a$"en$ion to the throne, he pla"ed Lothar, *ippin, and Lo&i$ the er'anJ in governing po$ition$and later he did the $a'e (ith Charle$ the Bald, (ho$e yo&th and "ir"&'$tan"e$ of birth ! being born to&dith of Bavaria, Lo&i$G $e"ond (ife, rather than hi$ fir$t, Ir'engard, the 'other of the other three ! had:ept hi' fro' Koining hi$ brother$ in the early a")&i$ition of po(er# =o(ever, (hat 'ight be tho&ght of a$ a


32/198

ni"e (ay to ea$e an heir into hi$ role a$ r&ler, (hen $plit bet(een $everal $on$, $i'ply be"a'e a platfor' forin"iting Kealo&$y and rivalry# It had happened thi$ (ay (ith the erovingian :ing$ and (a$ to do $o al$o(ith the Carolingian one$# Of "o&r$e, the proble' (a$ partible inheritan"e, a barbarian tradition that al'o$tal(ay$ en$&red fraternal (arfare, a$ it did (ith the $on$ of Lo&i$ the *io&$#

In 9;0 the Carolingian E'pire $&ffered it$ fir$t fraternal "ivil (ar (hen *ippin and Lo&i$ the er'anrevolted again$t their brother, Lothar, and father, Lo&i$ the *io&$, be"a&$e of the latterG$ per"eived favoriti$'of the for'er# It (a$ 'ore than a year before pea"e (a$ re$tored, (hen Lo&i$ the *io&$ agreed to dire"t 'oreof hi$ favor to(ard the t(o rebellio&$ $on$# Of "o&r$e, thi$ had little "han"e of "orre"ting the proble', a$Lo&i$ di$"overed in 9;; (hen Lothar ro$e &p again$t hi', *ippin, and Lo&i$ the er'an, leading to hi$depo$ition and i'pri$on'ent for a year#

%or did the death$ of *ippin or Lo&i$ in 9;9 and 9reaty of +erd&n did not $top the Carolingian "ivil (ar$ either# Indeed, it (a$ le$$ than a yearafter the treaty had been $igned that Charle$ the Bald 'o&nted a "a'paign into A)&itaine again$t hi$

nephe(, *ippin 6:no(n a$ *ippin II8, the $on of *ippin I#THE CAROLIN"IAN ERA& (+,*0,+, )0

*ippin II, (ho had $&pported Lothar again$t Lo&i$ and Charle$, had been ex"l&ded fro' the >reaty of+erd&nG$ land $ettle'ent$ b&t had neverthele$$ o""&pied and de"lared hi'$elf :ing of A)&itaine, a provin"egiven to Charle$ the Bald in the +erd&n agree'ent# =en"e Charle$ invaded A)&itaine, b&t he (a$&n$&""e$$f&l and (a$ for"ed to a""ept *ippinG$ :ing$hip there, altho&gh *ippin agreed to do ho'age to hi$&n"le#

By 9/0, fatig&ed by the "on$tant 'ilitary bi":ering bet(een hi'$elf and hi$ brother$, Lothar de"ided toretire a$ =oly 5o'an E'peror and ing of Italy, both of (hi"h title$ he gave to hi$ $on, Lo&i$ II, (ho had(on $o'e 'ilitary legiti'a"y for hi$ defen$e of Italy again$t &$li' raider$ hi$ father had been b&$yfighting (ith hi$ brother$# >hi$ &npre"edented 'ove re(arded the for'er e'peror a pea"ef&l final five year$

of life, b&t, &nfort&nately, hi$ exa'ple (a$ not follo(ed by Lo&i$ the er'an, Charle$ the Bald, or *ippin ofA)&itaine (ho "ontin&ed to fight for the next t(o and a half de"ade$# Defeat$ of one another be"a'efre)&ent and (ere al(ay$ follo(ed by pea"e treatie$, b&t the$e (ere never de"i$ive# Soon, Lo&i$ II and hi$brother$, Lothar II and Charle$ of *roven"e, Koined in the fraternal "onfli"t$# >he Carolingian E'pire thatCharle'agne had nearly do&bled in $iFe thro&gh hi$ 'ilitary "on)&e$t$ (a$ $hattered#

7ith ea"h o&tbrea: of "ivil (ar the Carolingian E'pire be"a'e (ea:er and (ea:er# >he +i:ing$ "ontin&edto raid, $ee'ingly (itho&t re$i$tan"e, thro&gho&t the land$# >hey atta":ed *ari$ al'o$t at (ill, being paid offon t(o o""a$ion$ and $a":ing thi$ large$t "ity in 7e$tern E&rope on another# S'aller to(n$, village$, and'ona$terie$ had no "han"e again$t the', e$pe"ially a$ no effe"tive defen$e of any part of the :ingdo' "o&ldbe 'o&nted by the (arring grand$on$ and great!grand$on$ of Charle'agne# Even (hen $o'e $trategi" gain$(ere 'ade, $&am

Medieval Weapons

Documents

Transcript of Medieval Weapons