Medieval Trade Routes in the Kadapa Basin: A Study …Medieval Trade Routes in the Kadapa Basin: A...

Medieval Trade Routes in the Kadapa Basin: A Study of

Chitvel Taluka

Meghna Desai1 and Arvin Raj Mathur2

1. National Institute of Advanced Studies, Indian Institute of Science Campus,

Bangalore ‐ 560 012, Karnataka, India (Email: [email protected]) 2. West Chester Township, Butler County, Ohio, USA (Email: [email protected])

Received: 26 August 2017; Revised: 21 September 2017; Accepted: 06 November 2017

Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 5 (2017): 343‐356

Abstract: Chitvel village (Kadapa district, Andhra Pradesh) is situated in between two centres of intense

political and economic activity during medieval times: the Vijayanagar capital at Hampi and the port

cities of the south eastern coast. The village sits between the Sheshachalam Hills and the Velikondas the

southern portion of the Kadapa basin. This location, extending from the Chatravathi River to the

Cheyyeru River is known historically as “Renadu” (7,000 villages). The Telugu Cholas incorporated

Renadu, but were eventually driven out by the Pallavas. The Chola‐descended Matli chiefs maintained

administrative control in Renadu and eventually formed a dependency of the Vijayangar Empire. The

Matli chiefs sought to profit from the trade connecting Nellore district and Ballari. Trade in the eastern

coastal region known as Rayalseema led to intense struggles to control the eastern coast. The resultant

construction of Siddhavattam Fort provided the Matli ruler of Chitvel with a strategic vantage point

along this trade route. Present‐day roads connecting Kadapa to Nellore pass through Chitvel village and

cross the Velikondas. Although this road was constructed by the Public Works division of the Madras

Presidency, the presence of a Vijayanagar Gopuram in the village’s temple to Varadaraja Swamy may

indicate the possibility of an older route connecting Chitvel to the densely‐populated Nellore district,

allowing for the smooth passage of trade goods from Siddhavattam Fort to the coastal ports of

Krishnapatnam.

Keywords: Vijayanagara, Andhra, Economy, Trade, Chola, Kadapa, Temple

Introduction Chitvel (14.1728° N, 79.3290° E; Kadapa district, Andhra Pradesh) is a village in the

southern Kadapa basin located 10 kilometres west of the Velikonda Range. The granite

hills that surround Chitvel form a barrier to those travelling through the area. As a

result, the culture of Chitvel developed in relative isolation from the major urban

centres located outside of the basin. The presence of only two major roads connecting

the area to regional centres lead the Public Works division of the Madras Presidency to

describe the area as “. . . practically devoid of communications” (Brackenbury, 2000, p.

118), emphasizing the sequestered nature of the study area during historical times. The

Kadapa basin lies on the path between the political power at Ballari and the port at

ISSN 2347 – 5463 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 5: 2017

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Krishnapatnam (Nellore district, Andhra Pradesh), creating a necessity for travelers to

locate passages through the mountainous terrain. The oldest road to Krishnapatnam

extends from Kadapa to Badvel and then from Badvel to Krishnapatnam. A break in

the Sheshachalam Hills creates an ideal passage through this natural barrier, therefore

major roads connecting western Andhra Pradesh to the eastern coast routed through

Badvel (see Figure 1: BKr1). This route’s principal disadvantage is the distance added

when journeying to Krishnapatnam or Nellore city from an area south of Badvel, such

as Kadapa.

Figure 1: The Route/Highways from Ballari to Krishnapatnam. Bkr1 (NH 67 and

Mydukur Road), BKr2 (Mydukur‐Krishnapatnam) and Bkr3 (Bellary/Ballari‐Nellore

Road/Kadapa‐Gooty Road via Chitvel)

Figure 2: Chitvel, Shows Presence of Modern Road Connecting Chitvel to the

Eastern Portion of the Velikonda Range (India and Pakistan 1:250,000. Series U502,

U.S. Army Map Service, 1955‐ ND 44‐05)

In response to this problem, British civil engineers developed an alternative route from

Kadapa, south of the Pennar River, along the Cheyyeru and across the Velikondas

(Figure 2). The division of Public Works of the Madras Presidency organised this new

Desai and Mathur 2017: 343‐356

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passage as an extension of the Kadapa‐Madras road. The new construction presently

runs from Vontimitta through Chitvel to Nellore and provides travelers a route that is

20 kilometers shorter than its alternative (Figure 1; Brackenbury, 2000). Although the

present‐day road appears to have opened Chitvel to regular contact with major urban

centres, minor architectural evidence demonstrates the importance of the taluka during

the medieval period. This evidence may also imply the presence of a previously

unknown pre‐British passage through the Velikondas, connecting Chitvel with Nellore

district.

History of the Study Area The eponymous village headquarters of Chitvel taluka presently derives its source of

water from the seasonal Cheyyeru River, a southern tributary of the Pennar River, as

well as the recently constructed Somasila Reservoir. Chitvel sits in the eastern

periphery of the Telugu Chola domain known as Renadu, a collection of 7,000 villages

extending from the Chitravathi River to the Cheyyeru River along the Pennar River

(Figure 3; V.N. Reddy, 1999). The Cholas of Renadu were among the oldest of the

Telugu Cholas and justify their Chola affiliation by claiming descent from the

legendary king, Karikala Chola (Chetty, 1984). However, no evidence indicates the

presence of their putative ancestors in Chitvel nor in Krishnapatnam (Figure 4). The

records of the Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang describes the Chuliyas (Cholas) of Renadu as

a fierce people (Reddy, 1999). Xuanzang’s observations may indicate the development

of a cultural mentality in response to constant warfare. This conflict with neighboring

powers led the Telugu Cholas of Renadu to eventually meet their defeat at the hands of

the Pallavas. These Cholas eventually began establishing new territories farther north

towards Pottapi (Narasimham, 1984).

Figure 3: The Territory of Renadu


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Figure 4: The Area Showing the Kingdom of Karikala Chola

The expanse of time following the Pallavas saw the transfer of control of Renadu to

medieval chieftains of the Matli clan (Figure 5). These chiefs claimed descent from the

Telugu Cholas and their domain included cities such as Kadapa, Badvel and Rajampet.

The Matli’s established their administrative centre at Pottapi, then transferred to

Yerraguntlakota, and was subsequently shifted to Chitvel in the late 1600s

(Brackenbury, 2000). These Matli chiefs formed the governing structures that facilitated

relations between the Kadapa basin and the Vijayanagar kings.

Figure 5: The Key Towns Administered by the Matli Chiefs during the Early

Vijayanagara Period


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Siddhavattam Fort The Matli chiefs governing Chitvel constructed Siddhavattam Fort along the Pennar

River approximately during the time of the Early Vijayanagar Empire. Siddhavattam

holds prominence from ancient times where the temple of Siddheswara was built by

the Cholas. Even prior to the construction of the fort, the location held prominence as a

pilgrimage site (Sivaiah, 2011). The area chosen for the construction of Siddhavattam

Fort is rather distant from Chitvel, and was likely chosen due to the area’s importance

to the local culture.

Renadu later became a dependency of the Vijayanagara Empire that was continually

administered by the Matli chieftains. During this period of time, Siddhavattam Fort

provided the Matli chiefs with an excellent vantage point along the Ballari‐

Krishnapatnam trade route (Figure 6). The abovementioned route BKr1 (see Figure 1)

was the earlier route includes the fort of Siddhavattam implying that it may have

served as a checkpoint or a location for the assemblage and redistribution of goods

(Figure 7). Siddhavattam allowed the Matli chiefs to benefit from trade within the

Vijayanagar Empire.

Figure 6: The Location of Chitvel with Reference to Siddhavatam

The first dynasty of Vijayanagar saw the rise of iron metallurgy in the Kadapa basin.

Most of the area’s iron working aimed at creating implements for use in agriculture.

This was accomplished through the use of ores mined from the veins of the Kadapa

series. Chitvel taluka housed several furnaces used to mix ores from the Kadapa series

with lateritic ore (Ball, 1881). In the Rayalseema (between the mouths of the Krishna


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and Pennar Rivers) region, metal workers, such as blacksmiths, bronze‐smiths, and

goldsmiths, and carpenters formed the Panchamavaru castes which are presently

known as the Vishwakarmas who now trace their lineage to Vishwabrahma or the

Brahmin community. Iron production in Kadapa district intensified the area’s

importance to trade.

Figure 7: Inside Siddhavattam Fort

The rule of Devaraya in Vijayanagar is commonly associated with an emphasis on

policies to boost trade by land and sea. According to the inscription found in

Donyalasani (Siddhavatam taluk), Devaraya exempted craftspeople from all the taxes

(Narasimham, 1984). An inscription at Siddhavattam only further emphasizes the

importance of the fort as a centre for professional artisans and trade related activities

(Figure 7). Persian Ambassador Abdul Razzaq mentions about 360 active ports in

South India alone during the reign of Devaraya (Alam & Subrahmaniyam, 2011), many

of which are only accessible via passage through the Kadapa basin. Kathleen Morrison

(1997) characterises this time period as one of developing urbanism, long‐distance

volatile economic‐political relationships, and increased market‐based production. By

exempting metallurgists from taxes, Devaraya boosted the economic value of Chitvel

taluka in an increasingly competitive economic system.

Siddhavattam Fort illustrates the importance of connecting Kadapa to Nellore through

the southern Velikondas. Such a route would have allowed the Matli chiefs to increase

their ability to profit from the area’s increasing trade during the Vijayanagar Empire.

The conquest of the Chittiveli Kuppa (Figure 8) by the Renadu chiefs (Reddy, 1999)

might also indicate such a path through Velikondas, in order to enhance


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communications between the ports of the eastern coast and Siddhavattam Fort. Such a

passage would have provided Chitvel quick access to the densely populated markets

located on the southern coast of Andhra Pradesh.

Figure 8: The Red Marker Shows the Location of the Chittiveli Kuppa

(Kuppa Standing for a heap/mound in Telugu)

The Trade Centres of Renadu and the Ports of Trade The eastern coast of Andhra Pradesh served a gateway to maritime trade for the past

two millennia. Although the exact history of ports of Krishnapatnam and

Durgarajapatinam (district Nellore) is unknown (Narasimham, 1984), it is certain that

this area has been occupied by large, complex societies since early historic times.

Previous studies in the region yielded several Duvvuru silver punch‐marked coins,

Ikshvaku coins, and sherds of Northern Black Polished Ware, indicating the presence

of the Mauryan Empire at Krishnapatnam (Radhakrishna Reddy, 2004).

Durgarajapatinam port serves as a larger port and stands on the shores of Pulicat. The

port of Krishnapatnam and other smaller ports of Nellore acted as the feeders to

Durgarajapatinam during pre‐British times (The distance between the northernmost

point of Nellore to Madras would be around 120 miles and region had good ports

mostly used for coastal trade carrying diverse merchandise such as grain, Indigo, and

textiles. RFSG, Letters to Fort St. George, 1711.) This region between the Pennar and

the Krishna were invaluable to maritime trade in the east coast and comprised a region

known as Rayalseema.

Jaina remains recovered from the Badvel‐Nellore route (G.K. Murthy, 1963) signify the

presence of Jainas along this path. Singh (2008) argues that the decline in trade in

Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka between the fifth and ninth centuries CE is due to the

lack of Jaina merchants. However, the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang mentions the

presence of a high population of Jainas in the Renadu region during this time (V.N.


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Reddy, 1999). Therefore rendering the possibility of their absence being a cause of

decline unlikely.

Alternatively, major trade guilds, such as Ayyavolu played a monumental role in the

region’s trade relations. The Ainurruvar, or the guild of 500 Lords of Ayyavolu, trace

their ancestry to Aihole, and comprised groups of various merchants and craftsmen

from a wide array of specialisations such as pottery, goldsmithery, weaving and the

trade of exotic and luxury goods (Kulke et. al, 2009). The presence of such trade guilds

at Rayalseema allowed both the producers and distributors of goods to play key roles

in managing the various economies of the region.

Conflict in Rayalseema Intense economic activity brought political turmoil to the port of Durgarajapatinam. In

order to dominate maritime trade, states of the region fought to acquire territories

along the eastern coast of Andhra Pradesh and pathways to its ports (Subramanyam &

Shulman, 1990). Due to its location on a major route, Renadu transformed into a region

worth acquiring in order to control the movement of goods between Hampi and

Nellore.

Struggles for power between the Qutb Shahis of the Golconda Sultanate and the Matli

chiefs demonstrate seem to demonstrate no other motives other than to acquire the

southern Kadapa basin (Narasimham, 1984) and control trade routes to Nellore. The

struggle of an established kingdom to acquire an otherwise isolated area emphasizes

the significance of this region in relation to major trade routes.

Figure 9: The Area Showing the Expansion of the Chola Kingdom under Rajaraja

and Rajendra Chola


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Figures 4 and 9 compare the extent of the Chola empire from the reign of Karikala

Chola in the early century CE vs. the early medieval period Chola territory. The extent

of Chola empire in Figure 9 denotes the addition of the entire south‐eastern coast of

peninsular India to the empire as well as the entire Rayalseema and coastal Andhra

regions. The study area comprising the Kadapa‐Chitvel‐Krishnapatnam route was

likely developed as a result of the Chola Kings in early medieval Andhra.

During times of intense conflict, traders that migrated to Rayalseema along with

warrior communities gained control of the port towns and markets. These prestigious

positions promised them higher political status in the courts of the kings to whom they

pledged allegiance (These merchants were involved in revenue farming, governing

certain provinces etc., apart from trade which was their main economic activity. On the

careers of Mallaya and Chinnana, See, Joseph J. Bren). Vijayaditya, the immediate

successor of Pulakesin II, established numerous agraharas and increased the economic

resources of Rayalseema (Narasimham, 1984). This was also precisely the time the

Ayyavolu lords became a major trading power and established its presence in

Rayalseema.

Evidence of Outside Activity at Chitvel Thomas Munro, while on visit to Kadapa during the rule of Nawab Abdul Nabi Khan

in 1801, states that the Matli chiefs obtained Chitvel ninety years before his time. This,

he describes, was in order to pay the tributes to the Nawabs after Haidar’s conquest of

Kadapa. It appears that the town of Chitvel was of little importance to the Nawabs of

Kadapa.

Chitvel features an old town clustered behind new establishments which have

development along the State Highway 58, connecting Gudur to Rajampet via Chitvel

further to Gudur‐Pullampet and Nellore and Rapur to Rajampet. The region

demonstrates the presence of an agraharam that starkly contrasts with the local

vernacular tantric cults. The establishment of this agraharam is attested in an 1806

inscription describing the bequeathal of land by Jagirdar Jaikishen Rao to an

agraharam in Chitvel taluka. (Sastry, 1981).

Then inhabitants of Chitvel erected tantric stones (see Figure 10) along the

northwestern road across the bank of the Cheyyeru River, surrounded by temples.

These stones are inscribed with symbols in red and orange pigment and serve to

spiritually represent local goddesses that engage with residents during ceremonies and

times of need. Similar tantric cultures are also present in the nearby areas of Rajampet

and Nandalur. Tantric culture may be a feature of ancient Chitvel that has endured

throughout the years.

The vestiges of medieval activity are clearly visible at a particular temple dedicated to

the Tamil deity, Varadaraja Swamy (Figure 14). The temple dedicated to Varadaraja, a

strong Vishnu cult that saw its popularisation around the region of Kanchipuram in


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Tamil Nadu. The shrine dedicated to Garuda is facing the main temple. It is to be

noticed that the shrine of Garuda has a shikhara that resembles stylistically to the

Chola architecture (Figure 11). This adds the probability of the temple being

constructed by the Cholas or under the patronage of Cholas during the medieval

centuries further enhancing the importance of the area. The temple structure (Figure

12) itself is rather small, and plain in its design (Figure 13) but features an entrance

adorned with a Gopuram (see Figure 14) that matches the architectural style of the

Vijayanagar Empire. The presence of a Vijayanagar style Gopuram at an otherwise

ordinary temple illustrates an attempt to modify the appearance of the temple

structure to bypassers. This contrasts with an attempt to modify the temple structure

itself via additions to the interior or modifications to the exterior portions. The

Varadaraja Swamy temple and another nearby temple dedicated to Veerabhadra and

Bhadrakali represent cult ideologies that flourished under the Vijayanagar

administration (Verghese, 1995). The establishment of these temples signifies the

proximity of Chitvel to medieval trade centres and may imply the existence of an

additional route to Nellore district, due to the location of the Chitvel in relation to the

original routes.

Figure 10: Tantric Stone at Chitvel


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Figure 11: The Garuda Shikhara Stylistically Resembling the Chola Architecture

Figure 12: Temple Grounds of the Varadaraja Swamy Temple


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Figure 13: The View of the Varadaraja Swamy Temple from the Gopuram

Figure 14: Vijayanagar Gopuram at the Varadaraja Swamy Temple


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The temple sits inside of a large walled complex that is mostly empty. The size of the

walled complex compared to the temple itself suggests a different intended use for the

area during the time of the construction of the compound walls (Figure 10 and Figure

15). Although further evidence is required in order to establish an explanation for this

arrangement, it appears that the temple is the correct size for accommodating groups

of travelers. The practice of housing royal camps in large walled areas is common

throughout the region, including in later times. However, due to a lack of evidence, the

exact purpose of the temple grounds cannot be explained.

Figure 15: Empty Temple Grounds at Chitvel

Close to the Varadaraja Swamy temple adjacent to the state highway 58, lie three

rudimentary hero stones. Though the three hero stones give only a observatory

information on the dynasty/cattle warfare or the time‐space context, itʹs essential to

note that the erection of hero‐stones and the hero worship was not popularised before

the rise of Vaidumbas in the Kadapa region (Narasimham 1984). Chitvel’s spiritual and

religious infrastructure yields much evidence for interactions with many different

cultures from outside the Kadapa basin.

Conclusion The presence of the Vijayanagar‐style Gopuram at the Varadaraja Swamy Temple in

Chitvel village demonstrates the patronage of this isolated taluka headquarters to the

Vijayanagar Empire. Although the Public Works division of the Madras Presidency

built the road to Nellore (and by extension, Krishnapatnam) via Chitvel quite recently,

the intense activity on both sides of the Kadapa basin suggests the need for routes to

the eastern coast. This may indicate the presence of a pre‐British road across the

Velikondas through Chitvel.


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This, however, in retrospection is also important route for Siddhavatam Fort which

was ruled by the same Matli chiefs who had their seat at Chitvel. Although, the early

historical importance of Chitvel is unclear, the emergence of consolidated trade and

trade guilds in Andhra may have enacted the regulation of passages both major and

minor throughout the region. A few nomadic metallurgical activities, and multiple

inscriptions found in the nearby towns of Rajampet, Nandalur and Siddhavatam, gives

Chitvel some prominence as it lies in close proximity and shares political and cultural

perspectives. The taluka also serves as a natural line of defence against any kingdom

lying east or west of Kadapa and serves as a natural frontier for the southern side of

Siddhavatam Fort as well. The sequestered village of Chitvel lies in the middle of an

important pathway between major urban centres during medieval times.

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