Medieval Pole Weapons 1287-1513

8/2/2019 Medieval Pole Weapons 1287-1513

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Med ie va l M i li ta ry S er ie s

Med ie va l P o le Weapons1287M1513

Adrian Wnite

S t ua rt P r es s1 17 F arl cig h R oa d B nc kw el l, Bristol1st Ed it io n 2 0 0 1

C op yr ig ht : H is to ric al M an ag em en t A ss oc ia te s L td 2 00 1ISBN 1 & 5804 179 I


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Contents 2. Types of Pole Weapons1. In troduction Construction of Polearms

5. Conclusion

P olearm s c onsisted o f a m etal h ead, attac hed to a sh aft using a so ck et and L angets.T he h eads w ere o f vario us types as described belo w. T he L ang ets w ere m etal stripsalong th e sides o f th e shaft t ha t p ro vi de d r ei nf or ce me nt a nd p ro te ct io n. PrimaryL an gets w ere attac hed to th e so ck et. S ec ond ary L an gets c ou ld be ad ded to th e s ha ftw ithout attachment to th e so cket. R ivets w ere driven th rough the so cket and th eIangets to attach the head of th e polearm to th e shaft. T h e a ve ra g e polearm headw eig ht w as fo ur p ou nds , alth ou gh th is v arie d w ith th e ty pe o f w ea po n u se d.

2. T yp es o f P ol e W e ap on s3. P ol e W e ap on s i n B at tl e4. T h e B i ll m en

1. IntroductionI n t he f ou rt ee nt h c en tu ry , W i ll ia m G ui ar t, a F r en ch c ro ss bo wm an d es cr ib ed polearmsa s f o ll ow s:

M uc h h as b ee n w ritte n ab ou t late m edie va l w arfa re , b ut su rp risin gly little h as b ee nw ritten abo ut th e m ost c om mon w eapo n of the c om mo n m an - the polearm !

" Lo ng h ea vy s ha fts r ei nfo rc ed w it h i ro n w it h a l on g s ha rp i ro n p oin t .. . T he s ha ft s a rem ad e lo ng i n o r de r t o p er mi t s wi ng w it h b ot h h an ds . "

W hat w ere th e lethal w eapo ns th at w ere used to such deadly effect by co mm on m enon the m edieval battlefields o f E urope? Often developed from ag riculturalim plem ents or h unting w eapo ns, m edieval po learm s w ere used at c lo se quarters toi n fl ic t h o r ri fi c i nj u ri es . Of lim ited us e as w ea po ns in s ing le c om ba t, th ey a ch iev edth eir deadly po tential w hen used by m en figh ting in bloc ks. In E ngland, such m enw ere c alled 'billm en ', as th e m ost c om mo n fo rm of po le arm w as th e 'billho ok ', T hesu rv iva l o f s uc h b illm en de pen de d n ot o nly o n th e sk ill an d s tren gth o f th e in div id ua lb il lm an , b ut a ls o o n th e q ua li ty o f t he 't ea mw o rk ' in h i s b l oc k .

W hat fo llow s is a description o f th e 'H alberd ' - a comm on po learm espec ially inc o nt in en ta l E u ro p e, as it existed in the late fifteenth century w hen po learrns hadr ea ch ed t he p ea k o f t he ir e ff ec ti ve ne ss .

And w ho w ere th e men w ho w ielded th ese w eapons? Some w ere pro fessionals ol di er s, b ut m o st w er e peasants p re ss ed i nt o m il it ar y s er vi ce . All r is ke d t he ir l iv es inclo se and blo ody c om bat. W hat w as it like to be a me d ie v al billman?

T he po lcarm first appeared in E uro pean literature in 1 287 , but its first reco rdedappearanc e o n a E uro pean battlefield w as in th e hands o f th e Sw iss at M org arten in1315. D urin g th e tw o c en turie s th at followed II v arie ty o f p ole a rm s, e ac h d esig ned tobe used in a s pe ci fi c m an ne r, w er e d ev el op ed li nd u se d i n a ll E ur op ea n countries.T hes e w ere th e w ea po ns th at w ould g o o n Inc uu sc t he g re at es t s la ug h te r e ve r seen ona B r it is h b at tl ef ie ld a t Towton in 1461 , and to c au se t he a nn ih il at io n o f t he Scottisha rm y a nd n ob il ity a t t he B at tl e o f F lo dd en in 1513 .

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T he m ain feature of the 'H alberd ' is the blade. T his h ad been refined fro m that of aco mm on axe In a c onvex blade o f ro ugh ly equal w idth and leng th w ith an o bliqueang le to th e cutting edge. Th e spik e is q ui te e lo ng at ed w it h a m edian ridge to re-i nf or ce i t. T he b ea k (o r fluke) is elongated towards th e butt end of the shaft thusm ak in g it m ore effective for cutting or [ IS I I hook. Th e head is a ttac he d to th e sh aft b ya s oc ke t an d lan gets, th e la tter s tren gth enin g th e h ea d an d p re ve ntin g a ssa ilan ts fro mcutting th e shaft. Ash o r oak shafls were used as th ey w ere the s tr on g es t w o o dsa va ilab le, a nd th ese w ere u su ally c ut o cta go nal. A rm ou rers ' m ark s w ere c om mo nlyf ou nd a nd w er e m an y a nd v ar io us .

T he m edieval po learm and th e billman h av e n ot r ec ei ve d as m uc h a tten tio n as th eK nig ht or A rc her, e ith er because o f th eir lo wer status at th e tim e, or bec ause Interg en eratio ns h av e p er ce ive d th em to h av e b ee n les s 'romantic'. H ow ev er , t hc h il lm a nand his polearm h av e a sto ry to te ll that i s w o r th hearing.It is th e p urp os e o f th is b oo k to in tro du ce th at sto ry .

T he H alberd w as no t, ho wever, th e o nly form o f P olearm in use. A w ide num ber o fd if fe re nt t yp es w er e d ev el op ed e it he r t o f ac il it at e d if fe re nt m et ho ds o f f ig ht in g, o r t or ef le c t r e gi o na l v a ri a ti o ns in style.

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Types ofPoleannAhlspiessThe AhIspiess (awlpike) has a long quadrangular awl- Orneedle-l ike b lade, wi th a rondel hand guard . The b ladecould reach fifty inches in length and beas long asthe shaft.BardicheThe Bardiche is of Russian origin and was much used inthe sixteenth century. It has a long crescent-shaped bladethat is attached to the shaft by sockets at the centre and thelower end ofthe blade. As a result the blade extends beyondthe shaft and may be used for stabbing. I t is pronounced'Berdysh'.BillhookAn English weapon, performing the same function as the'Halberd' in continental Europe. It was derived from theagricultural billhook that was used for hedging, pruning andcutting fruit. Consequently, it ha s an axe-like blade like the'Halberd' , but it issmaller and terminates ina hook.

It usually has a thrusting point and a beak on the rear edge.The point can be rounded, square or f lat in profile. The beaklikewise can be of any shape. The shaft i s usual ly round oroctagonal, and is fixed to the 'bill' by using a roundedsocket and langets,The 'billhook' isusually lighter than the 'Halberd' , so whileit cannot be wielded with such force, itcan be wielded withgreater speed.Cbsuvc SourisA French version of the Runka - 'Chauve Souris' means 'hatwinged' . This isbecause it has large forward pointing wingsthat are sharpened and notched, making them reminiscent ofthe wings of a bat.Co rs eg u e (K or se k e)This isa type of Partisan with long backward sloping wingsand sharp forward edges. The wide wings would widen thearea that cou ld be attacked, bu t would also make it moredifficult (0 rCCJ:)Ver.

Coutesu de BrecheA large knife with a slightly convex cutting edge. This is anear ly form of Glaive and may originally have been formedby lying a sword ordagger to a pole to increase its length.DoloireThis was made with an axe-shaped head with a pointed topedge and rounded bottom edge. In France it was called the'Dolo ire', in England, the 'Wagoner's Axe'. It was probablydeveloped from a hewing axe.Fauchard or GlaivcThe Glaive isof French origin and was developed from the'Couteau de Breche' , It resembles a large kn ife , and had along cut ting convex blade, usually wi th a small parry inghook on the back . The word 'Glaive ' appear s to have beenused since the thirteenth century, with 'Fauchard' being alater term.GuisarmeThe Guisarme has a narrow head that curves fo rwards to apoint with the blade (1) the concave side of'Ihc curve, 01 1 therear edge is II point, lrom which there protrudes anotherpoint Iblll fhced forward. 11can therefore be used 10 either'slice' or 'stllll'. However, it isconsidered that the Guisarmcwould 1I0t make u very robust weapon and would b eunlikely to pierce armour. It is possible, therefore, that theGuisarme was always intended to be a ceremonial, ratherthan a practical, weapon.HalberdThe ear liest type of Halberd used a rectangular shaped axewith a strait cutting edge that wa s attached to the shaft bytwo sockets. Later II sp ike was added to the top, and thenafter 1400 IIb euk to th e re ar.During the f if teenth century the Halberd WIlS refined. Thetwo sockets were replaced with a single socket into whichthe shaft was inserted . 111e axe head became rhomboid-shaped and the points became more substantial and usuallyforged out of the same metal as the axe-head. Langets wereadded to the Ha lberd to protect the shaft. A loose collarplaced around the base, known as a 'Zwinge' could be addedto strengthen the shaft.

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KriegseertelThe Kriegsgertel is the German version of the billhook. It isthicker and heavier than the English Billhook, and whi le i thas a point on the reverse, itdoes not have a thrusting point.Lochaber AxeThe Lochaber Axe was developed in Scotland and has along convex cut ting edge, of ten wi th a backward facinghook at the upper end. The blade is attached to the shaft bymeans of two sockets.Lucerne HammerThe Lucerne Hammer typically had a four-prongedhammerhead mounted on the shaft , in conjunction with along and narrow point, and a beak on the rear. This wasdeveloped in Switzerland in the f if teenth century and usedthere until the seventeenth century. Unlike the 'Halberd' i twas designed to pierce rather than to crush.LUEl i :ed SpearThis fo rm of spear had a leaf-shaped head, with two lugs toprevent it from penetrating too deep. The reason was so thatthe lugged spear did not become lodged in the body of anadversary thus preventing its further use. It developed fromthe Viking 'Flugellange' that was used during the eleventhcentury.Military IforkThe Military Fork consists of two points Hunched 10 Itmounting at r ight angles to the shaf], II was 11 developmentof the agricultural pitchfork.Military ScytbeThe Military Scythe was formed by attaching a scythe bladeto the shaft . I t was similar to the 'Couteau de Breche ' butthe blade was on the concave edge of the b lade rather thanthe convex. It would therefore be used in warfare as ascythe, rather than as a knife.

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Ox TongueThe Ox Tongue or 'Langue-de-boeuf had a very broadpenetrating blade that was f lat or longitudinally ribbed andtapered to a point - hence the name. The weapon had noflanges and early types had no medial ridges.PartisanThe Partisan developed in f if teenth century I taly. Somebelieve it was a development of the lance, while othersbelieve it was a development of the boar spear or the'Langue de boeuf'. It ha s a long tongue-shaped head formedlike an elongated triangle with a long neck and socket, andflanges at the base . Early part isans had small wings at thebase and a flat triangular blade with a central r idge. Langetswere added later in the fifteenth century. In later centuriesthe Partisan became a ceremonial weapon and developedelaborate fleur-de-Iis shaped wings. The original Par tisanwas more practical!

In England, the poleaxe was favoured over the billhook bymilitary officers and k nig hts. T he sh all is sh orter th an th atof the 'h illh oo k' a nd th e h ea d consists of II convex axe, I Ipoint and H hnnunerheud instend of the benk. Thehf1l11lllcrhtud Wllri dlhetivl) lit cnmhing jointN whether inth e arm ou r o r 11 m wc ur er l T he f; hn H o fle n h ad II ro nde! top ro tc cl H w lu.ltl(l~ u nd n p oin t u l 1 I1 1 ; bU l l end :>0 th at th e USCI'co uld m ount an c ffcc tiv counter blow nllcr parrying theblo w o f 1 1 1 1 opponent.Poleaxes were used in tournaments either 'a outrance'where weapons were sharp and combat serious, or 'aplaisance' where blunt weapons were used and the combatwas theoretically friendly.RonconeA vers ion of the b il lhook that was developed in Italy, andtherefore sometimes known as the 'Italian Bill'. It combinesthe features of many other weapons, having a straight bladewith a convex cutting edge, a hook, a point on the tip, apoint on the back edge (known as a Beak. or Fluke), andwings at the base. In Germany, it became known as the'Rosschinder' which means a 'horse cutter' which reflects itsusefulness in repulsing attacks of cavalry.

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Runka ffianseur or Spetum)3. PoleWeapons inBattleThe Runka is a form of Partisan but with more pronounced

flanges, projecting at an angle of 45 degrees to the shaft, andcurving towards the tip of the blade. It developed infifteenth century Italy.

The first record of a polearm dates from 1287 when Konrad of Wurzburg mentionedthem in a poem about the Trojan Wars. During this period, authors usually seem tohave assumed that contemporary weapons had be.en used in classical and biblicaltimes.It is believed that poleanns developed from the spear and the long-handled f ightingaxe of the Vikings. They combined the length of the spear with the blade of the axe,and then deve loped into their numerous different forms , They represented animprovement on the axe, in that they had two 'eyes' thus making them more robustwith shafts less likely to split in use. Their principal advantage was in enabling a manto attack his adversary at a greater r ange, and to do so in a Phalanx. A Phalanx is aclose packed block of soldiers - a method of f ighting developed inthe classical worldand revived by the Swiss during the fourteenth century,

The spear issimply a wooden shaft with a simple iron tip. Itwas an old weapon by the fifteenth century and lesseffective than the other polearms that have been describedabove.

In the fourteenth century, Swiss patriots fought the 'Wars of Liberation' against theforces of the Austr ian Empire. In 1315 the two armies met at Morgarten and in theensuing battle victory went to the Swiss, whose ma in infantry weapon was the'Halberd' - an axe head mounted on a stout eight-foot shaft. The Polearm had madeits first successful and documented appearance on a European battlefield. One of theHalberds used inthe Battle has survived and is the oldest Halberd that can be datedand identified accurately, It is inthe possession ofthe Berne Historical Museum. Theblade is almost rectangular, with a slight 'spike'. It is fixed to the shaft with twosquare 'eyes ' the lower of which has a hole sothat Iould be riveted to the shaft.In 1330, King Louis of Aust ria employed mercenaries f rom Glari s to ass is t in h iswars with Bohemia. John of Winterthur records that:"The King ofBohemia saw their weapons called Halberds and how easy it was to killwith them. He says with amazement 'What a terrible aspect of this format ion wi ththeir horrible instruments of death'. II

Practising with Poleaxes - from Hans Talhoffer 's f if teenthcentury manual of close quarter combat,

Another Swiss victory was seen at Laupen in 1339 when the Bernese used Halberdsto defeat the Burgundians, At Sempach in 1386, the Swiss using Halberds repulsedanother Austrian invasion.A priest, w ho w ro te abo ut 1 1 1 1 ~English 1:1l1ll]l!\il{ll il l F rn nc c i n 1 41 5, r ec or de d that:" T he y d iv id e d t he m s el ve s 11110h r e (m o ps charging o ur l in es i n t hr ee p la ce s w h er eth e banners l I' er (~ : am i i n tN 'm ln g ll ll g t h ei r s p ea r s closely, they assaulted Ollr me n wi thsuch impetuosity, t h at t h ey ( .' omp d ft d {IwIII to ntn~at. A lm o st a t (1s p ea r 's l en g th . "" W he n t he a rr ow s w e re e xh au st ed . s ei zi ng u p a xe s, {Joles, s w or ds , a nd s ha rp s pe ar swhich we re l yi ng a b ou t. they p r o st r at e d, d i sp e r se d , a n d s t ab b e d the e ne m y. "

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I t s ho ul d be no ted th at, a t th is time, the E ng lish used th e expression 'spear' todescribe an y f or m o f p ol ea rm . Itw as rare fo r anyo ne to fig ht on h orsebac k at th is tim e, a s experience in Scotland,F ran ce an d S witze rla nd h ad sh ow n th e ine ffe ctiv ene ss o f a c av alry c ha rg e, an d th ere

w as alw ays th e fear th at a m ounted m an m igh t be able to escape a battlefield tooe asily ! H ow ev er, th ere w ere e xc eptio ns to th is ru le. F irstly , an yo ne w ith su ffic ie ntm eans to o wn a h or se w ou ld rid e it to ba ttle be fo re d is mo untin g to fig ht; se co nd ly ,th os e w ith a c om man d in b attle w ould c om mo nly rid e to e nab le th em to m ove a ro un dte battlefield sw iftly; and th ird th ere w ere blo ck s of c avalry used fo r partic ularpu rp ose s s uc h a s am bu sh es o r s ur pris e atta ck s, a mo ng st th e m ost fam ou s b eing th atc re ate d b y L ord J oh n C liffo rd in th e la te 1 45 0s, a nd n am ed th e 'F lo we r o f C rav en '.

T he c onc ept o f th e po learrn w as s im ple . It could be m ade easily by a com mon m anw ho c ould take an axe-head, billhook o r o th er im plem ent th at w as already in hispo ss es sio n., c ut a su itab le sh aft an d m oun t th e h ead . T he w eap on c ou ld b e us ed e ith erdefensively to keep th e enem y at bay, o r offensively - sw ing ing th e w eapo n w ithg re at fo rc e a t th e h ea d o f th e en em y. A p olea rrn b ro ug ht d ow n w ith fo rc e o n th e h ea dof a m an c ould cleave th ro ugh his h elm et and h is sk ull befo re co ming to rest o n h isl ow e r j aw . It w a s a n e ff ec ti ve killing implement.In th e h an ds o f m ilitar y tac tic ia ns, h ow eve r, th e p ole ar m d ev elo ped in to a y et m oreso ph istic ated w ea po n. I n th e case o f the Halberd , the first developm ent w as toe lo ng ate th e h ead in to a sp ik e, so th at it c ou ld b e u se d f or s ta bb in g a s w e ll a s h ac ki ng .I n th is fo rm , it c on tin ued u ntil th e en d of t he f ou rt ee nt h c en tu ry .

} A rm ie s w ere u su ally d ivid ed in to th ree d ivis io ns c alle d 'B attles ', e ac h o f w hic h w asplac ed under a seperate co mm ander. A rc hers w ould usually be plac ed betw een th eB attles , to facilita te th eir w ith draw al if need be. I f num bers w ere suffic ient th erew ou ld b e a res erv e in ad ditio n to th e th ree B attles .

T he se co nd d ev elo pm en t w as th e ad ditio n o f th e ' beak ' - b eing a se co nd ary p oin t o nt he b ac k o f t he H al be rd t ha t c ou ld b e u se d f or 's la sh in g'.

It w as in E ng land, o n P alm S unday 14 61 , th at th e P olearm w as to c ause th e g reatestlo ss o f life th at h as ever been seen o n an E ng li sh b at tl ef ie ld . T he b at tl e w as t o s et tl ew h et he r t he L an c as tr ia n King Henry V I w o ul d c on ti nu e t o r ei gn ., o r w h et he r h e w o ul dbe re plac ed by th e Y or kis t K in g E dw ard IV . T he ba ttle sta rted w ith an ar ch ery d ue l,in w hic h th e L anc as trian s fa re d w ors t b ec au se o f w in d d irec tio n an d p oo r v isib ility.T his resulted in a furio us c harg e by th e L anc astrian billm en., and a battle duringwh ich it w a s s ai d that 'M en fo ug ht a s ifa t t he G at e o f P ar ad is e'.

T he th ird develo pm ent w as to co mbine th e axe, point, eyes, and beak into a sing lepiece o f m etal w ith th e eyes becom ing a so cket to w hich the axe, point, and beakw ere w elded. Th is is th e c lassic fo rm o f th e Halberd and w as ach ieved during th ef if te e nt h c e nt ur y .T he B illm en c am e to form th e m ain infantry elem ent o f t he m edieval arm y, and m osto f t he f ig ht in g in w ars such as th e E ng lish W ars o f the R oses fell to th em . TheirP olea rm s w ere w ie ld ed w ith de vas tatin g e ffe ct a gain st m en o n fo ot o r h orse bac k, a ndw he n u se d by a b lo ck o f B illm en s tan din g s ho uld er to s ho uld er, an d th ree ran ks de epw as fo rm idable indeed. B attles o f th e Wars o f th e R ose s w ere pr inc ip ally b attlesw h er e o pp os in g ranks of B illm en 'slug ged it o ut', until o n o ne side o r th e oth er the'line bro ke', and th e B attle degenerated into a ro ut. T he B illm en typically w ore ahelm et, comm only a Saller w hich offered m ore pro tection to th e face than thea lt er na ti ve K et tl e B at , a nd a Jack.

C hro nic le rs r ec ord ed th e e xte nt o f th e c ar na ge as th e tw o arm ies f ou gh t:"S o g re at w as th e sla ug hte r.: th at th e v er y d ea d ca rca sse s h in de re d th em th atfought. " (Po l yd o re Ve rg i l)" Th er e w a s a g re at c on fl ic t, w hic h b eg an w ith t he r is in g o f t he s un a nd la ste d u ntilt he t en th h ou r o f t he n ig ht , s o g re at w a s t he p er ti na ci ty a n d b o ld ne ss o f t he m e n, w h on ev er h ee de d th e p os sib ili ty o f a m is er ab le d ea th ." ( Ge or ge Nevil le , B is ho p o fExe ter )

If a bat t le were to continue or some time, blocks of blllmen wou ld be withdrawn fromth e fro nt lin e so that th ey c ou ld re st from l ight ing nnd take S(HlJl~ food und drinkb ef or e r et ur ni ng t o t he m el ee , Thhis r eq ui te d t he r et en ti on o f s uf fi ci en t r es er ve s, l in dt he t ak in g o f g re at c ar e i n d is en ga gi ng a ct iv e b lo ck s.

The B attle w as eventually w on by the Y ork ists w ho pursued th e defeatedLancastrians as fur as Y ork . G eo rg e N eville , B ish op o f E xeter, and King Edward sC h an ce ll or w r ot e t ha t:

S oldiers o f h ig her status w ore more armour, and full plate armour w as no tuncom mon. The favourite w eapon o f an o ffic er, gentlem an, o r B aron, w as theP oleaxe; a sh orter m ore refined versio n o f the B illh oo k, w hic h bo asted a po int forsta bb in g, a n ax e fo r c uttin g, an d a h am me rh ea d fo r c ru sh ing . F ro m th is w ea po n themodem w ord 'Po leaxed ' is derived, and exam ination o f the dead f ro m t ll kc l1 lhcentury B attles sho ws th at m any died ho rrific death s fro m blow s with 11 p01cIlXC.A no th er fa vo urite w ea po n o f th ose o f h ig her s tatu s w as, o f c our se, th e sw ord . S wo rd sat this time w ere usually sho rt slash ing sw ords, how ever, nnd w ere used inc onju nc tio n w ith a s ma ll s hie ld k no wn a s a B uc kler.

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"A great part o ft ha r es t w h o gO I ( lW ( )) ' wh o gallren'd i n t he s am e t ow n a nd c ity , w er eslaln i11111So 11101(1 ' dead /J'II/"', ," 11'1'11' .\'firm /1.1' 1 0 C ( ll ' er a n { /1 "I ~a ix m il es l on g by threebroad olld,)bfflii/Olif [ ur lo ng s. I " t ht s bat t t, e le v en l or d s ol ( IU?(!Irem),f el l . . . w it h. \ "1) /11,) An/gM.! ',and ,IhJllr wha t Wi' hvar from persons WO"I!~JI of c o nf id e nc e , s om e28,O() ()persons per i shed OIl o n e s id e a u d t h o t h er . ( ) M i se r ab l e am i l uc k le s s r a ce ."R ic ha rd B ea uc ha mp , B is ho p o f S al is bu ry a dd ed t ha t:"The H er al ds c ou nt ed 2 8,0 00 s la in , a n um be r u nh ea rd o f in o ur r ea lm . .. w ith ou tc o un t in g t ho s e w o u nd e d a n d d r ow n e d. "

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An insigh t w as gained into the m anner of th e death s sustained at Tow ton, w henbuild ing w ork at T ow to n disturbed a m ass g rave found to c ontain th e rem ains of 37m en , 2 9 c om ple te w ith sk ulls, w ho h ad p er ish ed at th e B attle o fT ow to n. A ll h ad b ee ns trip pe d na ked b efo re bu ria l, a nd h ad be en tu mb le d in to a pit in la ye rs an d c ov ere dw ith tw en ty inc hes o f so il. T he o nly p osse ss io n d isc ov ered w as a sm all s ilve r ring.T he m en w ere a ged b etw een s ixte en a nd six ty, a nd th eir sk ele to ns s ho wed th at th eyh ad fo llo wed a regim e of strenuo us exerc ise sinc e ch ildho od rath er like that o f ap ro fe ssio nal ath lete . T his is u nu sua l am on g fifte en th c en tur y sk eleto ns , a nd so it isth ou gh t th at th ey w ere p ro fe ssio nal s old ier s. T hree o r f ou r o f th em sh ow ed e vide nc eo f h av in g d ra wn h ea vy w ar l on gb ow s.T he in jurie s th at th ey h ad su stain ed w ere fa r m ore nu mero us an d se rio us th an w ou ldh ave been required to k ill them . T here w ere a num ber o f arro w w ounds, but m ost o ft he b lo w s h ad b ee n s tr uc k w it h P ol ea rm s. F ur th er mo re . t he b od ie s h ad b ee n m ut il at ede it he r b ef or e o r a ft er d ea th .The inference is obvious. These men had no t been killed figh ting or defendingth em se lve s. T he y h ad b ee n ta ken p riso ner, s tripp ed o f th eir a rm ou r an d po ss es sio nsand then to rtured and m urdered. T he reaso n for th e to rture is lik ely to have beenrevenge. T he reaso n for th e rem oval o f th e ears and noses o f t he m en can be fo und inP ap al B ulls o f th e tim e th at "s ug ges t th at d isfig urem ent lik e th is w ou ld p ut th e so ul ind an ger o f n ot b eing r esu rre cte d; th at it m ark ed th e vic tim o ut as a reb el n ot w orth y o fs a lv a ti o n. "T he unprecedented num ber o f death s at th e B attle o f T ow ton can th erefo re bea ttrib ute d no t o nly to th e sc ale o f th e b attle an d th e a dv erse c on ditio ns o f th e ro ut, b uta lso to a d elibe ra te po lic y o f g en oc id e o n th e p ar t o f th e v ic to rio us Y ork ists . T his w ast he t ru e n at ur e o f f ig ht in g w it h a P ol ea rm !Polearrns, in th e fo rm of the Lochaber Axe, w ere still being used by Sco ttishH ig hlanders during the Jac obite w ars of 1 715 and 1 745 . H ow ever, nne o f the lasto cc asions w hen po lcarm s played a mn jo r part ill u ba ttlc b etw ee n n atio ns WII~ atF lodden on 9 11 1 Septem ber 1513 , w hen th e arm y o f King Jnm cx IV o f Sco tland w asd es tr oy ed b y 1 I1 l E n gl is h a rm y u si ng P o ic n nn s.The cause o f th e battle w as th e outbreak o f w ar betw een England and F rance,S co tland jo ined th e w ar on the F rench side and o n 2 2'1< 1A ug ust 1 51 3 !I S c ot ti sh a rm yo f a bo ut 3 0,0 00 m en c ro ss ed th e T we ed . T he y to ok th e c astle s at W ar k, N orh am , E ta!an d F ord . T he y w ere p rin cip ally a rm ed with a new w eapon - th e pike. The pik e w aslo nger th an the polearrn, and c ulm inated in a sim ple po int th at w as o ften fo rm eds im pl y b y s ha rp en in g t he s ha ft . T he p ik e h ad p ro ve d i ts el f e ff ec ti ve a ga in st h or se me nin E urope, but it h ad yet to be t es te d a g ai ns t a n E n gl is h b il l- li ne .

12

T he E ng lish co mm ander in N orth ern E ng land w as T ho mas H ow ard, E arl o f S urrey .W hen the Scots cro ssed th e bo rder, h e w as at N ew castle-upon- Tyne, but by 3 ,dSeptember 1513 had reac hed A lnw ic k C astle just south o f the S co ts w ith a forc e of26,000 w ho w ere m ainly billm en. T he E nglish h ad no c avalry o th er th an th e ligh tlyarmed border h orsem en o f L ord D ac re. T heir supplies w ere running sh ort due to th es pe ed w it h w h ic h t he y h ad a dv an ce d.T he S co ts to ok up po sitio n o n th e to p o f F lo dden H ill, and d ec li ne d L or d S ur re y'sin vitatio n to d o b attle o n M illfie ld P lain . T his m ean t th at th e E ng lis h h ad to c ro ss th eP alins bum an d th e R iv er T ill, an d th en atta ck th e S co ts u ph ill.The battle started w ell fo r the Scots . They attacked th e E ng lish rig h t flank ,c om manded by E dm und H ow ard w ith great succ ess, leading m any o f th e E ng lish toflee th e field . K ing Jam es IV th en o rdered th e m ain S co ttish arm y to leave F lo ddenH ill and fall upon th e main E ng lis h a rm y. T he S co ts d esc en ded th e h ill an d c ro sse dth e b og that p ro tec ted th e E ng lish p os itio n. E ng lish artille ry a nd arc he ry d id littled am ag e a nd t he S co ts e ve nt ua ll y a tt ac ke d t he E ng li sh a rm y.H ow ev er, th e e ffe ctiv en ess o f th e E ng lis h b ill w as p ro ved o nc e m ore, a s th e E ng lis hB illm en succ eeded in ch opping th e pik es into piec es, and then falling on th e Sc otsw h o w er e b y t he n u na bl e t o d ef en d t he ms el ve s a de qu at el y,There rem ained a division o f th e Sco ttish army on B ranxton H ill. These w ereattac ked by billm en under th e co mm and of S ir E dw ard S tanley w ho h ad to rem oveth eir sho es to g et a go od enoug h g rip o n the w et gro und. A gain th e bill pro ved m oree ff ec ti ve t ha n t he P ik e.A t som e point in the battle , Lord H ume and h is Scottish B orderers fled the field.T hey left beh ind th em 9 ,0 00 S co ttish dead, including K ing Jam es IV and m ost o f theS co ttish no bility . K ing Jam es I V h ad fallen vic tim to a billm an - h is hand alm ostsevered and h is face so disfigured by a blow from a bill, th at Lo rd D ac re and thec ap tu re d S c ot ti sh C h am b er la in h a d d if fi cu lt y in i de nt if yi ng h im .It h as been c alc ulated th at th e head of a po learm travels at 1 2m ph w hen w ielded by apro ficient billm an. T he averag e w eig ht o f th e h ead of a H alberd of th e fifteenthc en tu ry w as f ou r p ou nd s. T he f or ce o ft he i mp ac t w as t he re fo re s ig ni fi ca nt .T he e xa mina tio n o f th e r em ain s o f s {)ldk rs k ille d in m ed ie va l b attle s h as re vea ledhorrific injudcH c au se d b y !li)k arn m. A r ec en t ex cuv utio u o f II m ass g rav e at T ow to nf bund 1. \ uumbm (if rloldi(lHi h ur i( )l l n lk r t he hili le . T he c xum in atio n o f th eir i J 1 i u r i c s!;I!I)\vnd (jull n~pDlilcd hll)w~ I t .l 1I1l ) hClld w i th p ol on rm s k il le d 1110s1ofthem. A s imi la re xc av at lo n u t t he NittI oflh(~ Uul t) () of Dornnch (f(lllghl in 1 4 9 9 ) i n Sw a h il i 1 ( ) I I n d deepal1~t f at a l wO I I ~ ld s CIlUSt:(~by pl)il:Hr!llS. Other c )( (: av at i on s s up po rt t he d o cu m en ta rye vi de nc e t ha t It w as po ss ible lo r n h illm an w ith II p ole an n to strik e h is o pp on ent w ithsu ch fo rc e th at th e b lad e w ould sp lit n ot o nly th e h elm et, b ut als o th e sk ull, an d th at itw ould only com e to rest w hen it m et th e low er jaw ! The F rench King , Charles th eB old , m et h is d ea th in th is w ay, T his reality fac ed m edieval so ldiers w ho to ok th ef ie l d a s b i llm en .

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4. The BillmeuT he th ird g ro up w as m erc en aries . T he se w ere rec ruited by a m erc en ary c aptain , w how ould h ire out th e services o f h is so ldiers to w hoever paid th e highest price .M erc enaries w ere o ften o f a g oo d standard o f equipm ent and trainin g, b ut w erep oo rl y m ot iv at ed . I n f if te en th c en tu ry I ta ly , c om pl ai nt s w er e m ad e a bo ut m er ce na ryc aptain s a vo idin g ac tually h avin g to fig ht by 'do ing a d ea l' betw een th em se lve s a ndagreeing beforeh and w ho w ould flee the field after a to ken skirm ish . S om e use w asm ad e o f f or ei gn m er ce na ri es d ur in g t he Wars o f t he Roses in England.

A rm ie s o f t he l at e f if te en th c en tu ry c on si st ed of t hr ee g ro up s: F ir st ly , t he ' ho us eh o ld 's ol di er s o f th e King, a B aro n o r a K nig ht. T hese w ere p ro fes sio nal s old ie rs; s elec te da t a n e arly ag e fo r th e p ro mise that t he y s ho w ed a s s ol di er s, h ig h ly t ra in ed , w e ll -p ai d,an d em plo ye d p erm ane ntly b y th eir L ord as s ol di er s. T h es e f or me d t he p ro fe ss io na l'co re' of a fifteenth century army. How ever, th ere w ere comparatively few'househo ld' soldiers because o f th eir h igh cost! Soldiers o f a ll t ypes w ere organised into g roups o f tw enty; one o f w hom would be

ap po inted 'vin tner'. T his w as th e m edie va l equ iva lent o f a s erg ean t. T hese b lo ck sw ere th en org anised into gro ups o f five, co nsisting o f five bloc ks o f nineteen m en,fo ur vintners, and a 'centenary ' w ho w ould be o ne o f the vintners in c om mand of h iso w n n in ete en m en a nd th e o th er f ou r v in tn er s.

H ow ev er, th e sy stem o f 'L ive ry an d M ainten an ce' allo we d th e B aro nag e to a ttrac t aw id er f ol lo wi ng t ha n th ei r 'h ou se ho ld ' s ol di er s. U nd er 'L iv er y a nd M ai nt en an ce ', afo rm o f 'c on tra ct' w ould exis t be tw een a m an an d h is m aste r. T he m an w ou ld w ear h ism aster's 'liv ery ' usu ally b y w earin g a h era ld ic b ad ge th at pro claim ed h is lo yalty tothe B aro n - and in return w ould expect 'm aintenance ' m eaning em plo ym ent andp ro te cti on w he n r eq ui re d. T hi s s ys te m g re w a s t he p ow er o f r oy al a ut ho ri ty d ec li ne d,and gave the B aron a larg e poo l of labour th at he could call upon for military ando th er p ur po se s. T he se 'l iv er ie d a nd m ai nt ai ne d' m en s we ll ed t he r an ks o f t he B ar on ia larm ies du ring th e W ars o f th e R ose s.T he se co nd g ro up w as 'array ed ' so ld iers, c olle cted to ge th er un de r a 'c om mis sio n o fa rray'. T his sy stem h as its o rig in s in th e A ng lo -S ax on 'w ar h ost' an d N orm an 'fe ud alle vy ' - b ut w as so me wh at m ore refine d. T he e arliest 'c om missio ns o farrn y' h ad be enm ad e i n t h e th ir te en th c en tu ry , a nd b y t he f if te en th c en tu ry t he y w er e c om m on pl ac e.

C apta ins w ere th e h ig hest lev el o f paid so ldier a nd c ou ld be r es po ns ib le f or g ro up s o fm en of varying sizes. T hey w ere often appointed as 'co mm issioners'. T he C aptainw ould be th e person w ho w ould be contrac ted w ith th e King , B aron o r Knight, toprovide h im w ith a certain num ber o f so ldiers. He w ould be paid for th e w holecontract, and w ould then m ak e arrangem ents h im self to pay th e m en. O ften th e m enw ere not paid, as th is w ould increase the pro fit that th e C aptain could m ake o n thetransaction.

The 'Commission of Array ' w as issued in th e name of th e King to m en w ho mayeith er be m em bers of the B aronag e or royal o fficials. Th e 'C om mission of A rray 'stipulated th at th e 'C om missioner' w ould go to a c ertain area, and th ere require ac ertain n um be r o f m en w ith c erta in eq uip men t to be pro vid ed fo r m ilitary se rvic e. F orth is purpose the country w as divided into areas with d if fe re nt n am es i n d if fe re ntareas - in N ottingham shire , for example, th ey w ere called 'W apentakes '. Thenu mb ers req uire d fro m e ac h b oro ug h o r area w as d efine d b y c usto m a nd w as c lo selyr el at ed t o th e t ax a ss es sm en t f or th at a re a.

A s w ell as w ages fo r service, t he m ed ie va l s ol di er c ou ld e xp ec t a dd it io na l r ew ar ds ifh e fo un d h im se lf o n th e w in nin g side. T he re w as alw ays s om eth in g o f valu e to be ha dfro m lo otin g an d pillag e, and p artic ularly larg e p ro fits w ere m ade fro m ran so ms. T heben efit o f th e ran so m usu ally w ent to th e King o r B aron w ho co mm anded th e arm y,but soldiers w ho captured the victim w ere w ell rew arded. D uring th e W ars o f theR oses, h ow ever, ranso ms ceased to be so ug ht as it bec am e th e custom to exec utedefeated opponents rather than to ransom them . There w ere also tim es w henc om ma nd ers c ould no t affo rd to pay or p ro visio n th eir so ldiers , and so th ey 'liv ed oft'th e lan d' b y se iz ing fo od a nd o th er n ec essitie s fro m th e to wns and villag es th at th eypassed. This h appened, fo r exam ple, w hen th e Lancastrian arm y advanced fromN ew ark to S t. A l ba n s in 1461 .

The 'Commissioner', fo r example, w ould visit a bo rough and present th e'C om missio n o f A rray' to th e burgesses w ho w ould pro vide him w it h t he r eq ui re dnumber of men. Often, th e burgesses w ould provide men that th ey felt w eredispensable either because o f th eir ph ysic al w eakness or c rim inal tendenc ies.S ha ke sp ea re p oi nt ed t hi s o ut in h is p la y 'H en ry I V' w he re Jo hn F alstaff; a C ap tain,h avin g b eing g ive n a 'c om missio n' is g iven a g ro up o f in effec tiv e s oldie rs fro m th eesta te o f Ju stic e S hallo w. W he n P rinc e H en ry e xp resse s s urp ris e at th e po or qu ality o ft he m en , Falstaff r ep li es t ha t t he y w o ul d 'fill a p it as well as better'.

All m en aged betw een sixteen and sixty w ere liable fo r m ilitary servic e. T he onlyexceptions w ere noblemen and men of the clo th . H ow ever, noblemen w ere onlyexem pt from the 'array ' because they represented the 'o fficer' c lass and w ould .be'c al le d u p' t hr ou gh t hc s ep ar at e f eu da l p ro ce ss , F ur th er mo re , men of thc cloth wouldalso toke u p u rm s if they c ho se, F or example, James Gloys, !l family priest, fbllghtU IO l l f ! . l d d l l tJu t 1'00,IOll!1 i n d l l lhn l :( " o fNo rfo lk .

14

1\ II n hH i WN ti f 'XP i) l ;h : d , hy la w, to o wn I nflitiir y e quip me nt. M ed iev al society was amilitunt sudety, und CVNY man W i ll i t X IH , ~ :t (: d 1 0 k ee p h im self in r ~I Hlin e~ ~ for war.'l:hjs nlCll~lt th at h e should OWn II helmet, II jack, II sw ord a nd buckler, a dagg er, andeith er a bill or a bo w depending 011 h is area o f e xpertise, If he w as an arch er, h e w asalso ex pe cted to pro vid e 2 4 arro ws. W h en m uste red o r a rraye d, m en w ere ex pe cted toattend w ith at least th is level of equipm ent. M en of a higher station w ould bee xp ec te d t o a tt en d w i th c o rr es po nd in gl y b et te r q ua li ty e qu ip m en t.

IS

W here th e m en w ere being levied to defend th eir ow n h o m e l a n d s , it IH likely Ihiltb et te r q ua li ty l oc al v ol un te er s w o ul d be u se d. M a ny o f' th e 'mus l in ro ll s ' ! lul l r (~ (~mlcdw h o a tte nd ed h av e s ur viv ed , and give LISl in i de a of t ho cqulpment thl lt men wouldb ri ng . M o st w e re s ur pr is in gl y well a rm ed , w it h u rm ou r n nd u divtlSily of weapons.S om e o f th es e s ol di er s w er e w ome n, n s evidenced by t h( ~ ' B ri dp o rt M u st er R o ll ' t ha tshows w om en j oi ni ng the f or ce t o { ld (:l ld th e (own I Ig o in st t he F re nc h , armed withs wo rd s, p ol ea nn s a nd b ow s, a nd p ro te ct ed with helmet S lind armour,


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T he B illm en fo rm ed th e back bo ne o f th e late fifteenth c entury arm y. Th ey fo ug htw ith th e 'billhook' - o r o th er s im ila r polearm - a nd f ou gh t in 'b lo ck s'. T he b ill is adev elo pm en t o f th e a gric ultu ral billh oo k th at w as (and is) u sed to cu t bru sh wo od,h edg es, tre es and fruit - b ut w as m ounted o n an eig ht fo ot po le. It w as de vastatin g infi ft ee nt h c en tu ry b at tl es , a nd i s m o re e ff ec ti ve w h en b il lm e n w o rk to g et he r in a b lo c kth an w h en th ey w o rk i nd ep en de nt ly .

C la ssic al w ritin gs o n w arfa re w ere a lso stu die d, w ith 'R eg ula e B ello ru m G en era le s'w ritte n b y th e R om an w rite r V eg etiu s b ein g a p artic ula r fa vo urite . I t w as tra nsla te dinto F rench and E ng lish from the orig inal Latin. It co ntained m uch adv ice ofr ele va nc e t o th e f if te en th c en tu ry c ap ta in o fb il lm en , in clu di ng t he f ol lo w in g:

M en at A rm s w ere m ore 'u p m ark et' th an 'h illm en'. T hey w ere m en o f h ig her statusw ho may be a pp oi nt ed a s C ap ta in s, centenars o r v in tners. Their ro le w as to takec om ma nd , p ro te ct th e flanks o f th e bill b lo ck , an d in dulg e in a lo t o f sk irm ish ing .M en a t A rm s w ore a c on sid era ble a mo un t o f a rm ou r.

5. Conclusion

T he h illm an o bv io usly c arrie d a b illh oo k o r o th er p ole arm , a nd a lso u su ally c arrie d asw ord and bu ck ler and/o r dag ger w ith w hich to d efend h im self if h e g ot invo lv ed inc lo se q ua rte r fig htin g. H e w as p ro te cte d, a t t he le ast, b y a h e Jrn et a nd p ad de d ja ck .

"The bet te r the t roops of a gar ri son are t ra ined and accustomed to dis cipl ine, theJessproblems one wil l have with them dur ing bat tl e ' " Only afew men are brave bynature - good training increases their numbers. "

M ilitary instruc tions w ere often w ritten dow n in m anuals, som e of w hich havesu rvived. S om e no ble men to ok a c lo se perso na l interest in th e trainin g o f th eirso ldiers, no ne m oreso th an C harles th e B old, D uk e o f B urg undy , w ho reig ne d fro m1467 to 1477 . H e w ou ld o fte n sta y u p la te to w rite m ilita ry m an ua ls h im se lf, a nd th enhe w ould have th em copied and bo und so th at he co uld g ive them to h is captains atthe annual cerem ony w here they sw ore their o aths o f alleg iance. Som e of thesemanuals have survived , inc luding the 'O rdinanc e of St. M axim in de Treves'p u bl is he d i n O c to b er 1473 . W h at f oll ow s i s a n e xt ra ct f ro m t ha t o rd in an ce :"In order that the troops may be better trained and exercised in the use of arms andbet te r pract is ed and ins truc ted . .. whe ll they are in garr ison. the capta ins of thesquadrons and the chambres arefrom time to l ime to take some of their men at armsout into thef ields . .. 10 practice . .. to defend their ensigns . to withdraw on command,and torally, each helping the other . ..and how to withstand a charge."The bil lmen must be made toadvance in closeformations infront of the . .. archers ,kneel at a signfrom them, holding their bil ls lowered 10 the level ofa horse's back sothai the archer s can shoot over the heads of the said bil lmen as if over a wall . .. Thearchers must a lso learn to place themse lves . .. with the bil lmen outs ide them towithstand the charge of the enemy horse.

M o de m s tu di es of la te m ed ie va l w arfa re h av e te nd ed to fo cu s o n e ith er th e c hiv alrick nig ht o r th e ro mantic arch er. C on sequ ently , th e subjec t o f th e eq ually im po rtan tb illm an a nd h is p ole arm h as b ee n n eg le cte d. It is h op ed th at th is bo ok w ill h elp to fillt ha t g ap .Th ere w ere nu mero us typ es o f p olearm s; each dev elo ped to be used in a p a rt ic u la rw a y. D if fe re nt ty pe s a ch ie ve d p op ula ri ty in d ifferen t parts o f E uro pe. M any w ered ev elo pe d fro m a gric ultu ra l im ple me nts o r fro m w ea po ns u se d in h un tin g.F r om its a rri va l o n th e M e di ev al E u ro pe an b att le fi el d in t he t at e t hi rt ee nt h c en tu ry , toth e six te en th c en tu ry , th e p ole arm p ro ve d c ritic al in a se rie s o f b attle s. T he b lo od ie stb attle e ve r fo ug ht o n E ng lish so il w as fo ug ht b y h illm en u sin g p ole arrn s - p rin cip allybillh ook s - o n Palm Sun day 1 461 at To wto n in N orth Yo rk sh ire. Just o ve r fifty yearsla te r th e E ng lish d efe ate d th e S co ts a t Flodden using billhooks a ga in st th e p ik es o f th eScots .T he h illm en th em se lv es w ere o rig in ally d ra wn fro m th e lo w er ra nk s o f so cie ty , b ut a stime w ent o n g reat lo rds w ould reta in h ouseh old b ill m en w ho w ere traine d fro m ane arly ag e to fo llo w th e m ilitary life and to w ield a polearm, W ith th is w eapo n, th eyw ere a ble to gain mastery of t he l at e m e di ev al b a tt le fi el d.

"The off icers can begin byintroducing this way of doing things tosmall groups, a~d,when one of these groups is practised and instructed, they can take out others. WhIledoing th is the offi cers are to keep an eye on thei rpeople every day , so that none wil ldare absent themse lves or be without .. . annour, because they wil l not be sure onwhich da y t he off icer s wil l want to take them out on exercis es. Thus each wil l beconstrained 10 learn todo his duty. "

A fte r th e s ix te en th c en tu ry , p ol ea rr ns c on ti nu ed i n g en er al m il it ar y u sc o nl y i n c er ta ing eo graph ic al areas. F or exam ple, th e Sco ts fav oured th e 'Lo ch ab er A xe' u ntil th ee ig hte en th c en tu ry . I n o th er a re as, polearrns became ceremonial weapons, usuallysm alle r th an th eir m ilita ry fo re ru nn ers, F or ex am ple, th e S wiss G ua rd a l th e V atic anC ity u se s t he 'H al be rd ' 10 this day, H ow ever, th e po lea rm n s Il WcnPOIl reached ilsp N !\ :e tl on i n t h( ) f Hk un th (:.cnl\lfY,

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Further Reading:B a rr , N i al lB o ar dm a n, A n dr ewB o ar dm an , A nd re wDo li ne k , V l ad im i r& Du rd ik , J anEm b le t on , G e rr y& H ow e, Jo hnF i o ra to , V e ro n ic aB o y ls to n , An th e a& Knusel . , Chr i stopherSnook. George

F lo dd en ) 5 13T h e B a tt le o fT o wt onT he M ediev al S oldier in th e W ars o f th e R osesE u ro pe an H is to ri ca l W e ap on s

The Med ie v al S o ld ie r

B lo od R ed R os es

Th e H al be rd a nd o th er E ur op ea n P ol ea rm s 1 30 0- 16 50

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Other Publications by Stuart PressS Iu m1 P re ss is t he p ub lis hin g d iv is io n o f H isto ric al M an ag em en t A ss oc iat es L td . A ll b oo ks m ay beo rd er ed b y p os t f i om H is to ri ca l M an ag em en t A ss oc ia te s L td , 1 17 Farleigh Road, Backwell, Bristol.B S4 X 3 PG . P lea se e nc lo se a n A 4 o r A S st am pe d a dd re ss ed e nv elo pe a nd oaymcnt, Unl es s o t he rw i s es pe ci fi ed a ll b oo ks a re AS s iz e a nd r el at e t o t he p er io d 1580-1660. Fo r a f~1I c at al og u e a ls o c o ve ri ngc i vi li an t op ic s ( ma in ly f oo d a nd d ri nk , a gr ic ul tu re a nd l iv in g h is to ry ) s en d a n AS SAE.

Medieval ListAn ' w o rk r el at in g partially to the p er io d f ro m 1 06 6 t o 1 58 0 i s i n cl ud e' ; h er e a s w e ll a s t ho se purely ont h ai pe ri o dL h in g H is to rySoci~1 PracticeLust 1 4 50 - 16 6 0 : J an e H u gg et t. Ho w t o p ro vo ke i t, r es tr ai n i t a nd d ea l with t ie consequences.IS8'< .1858040639. I,Sp 2.50T he L an gu ag e o f L us t: J an e H ug ge tt . S ex ua l t er mi no lo gy . I SB N .1 85 1: 0~ 2 4p 3T he B oo k o f C hi ld re n. C hi ld re n a nd C hi ld re ar in g 14801680 Part 1. H lI t ~ t o a ge 7 . J an e H u gg et t.I SS t- ; I 85804(,90t-3::p 4The B oo k of C hildren. P art 2 ag e 7 -14 36 p 4The S hak in g o f the ~ ; he et s: D e at h 1 3 50 -1 6 6 0. T he a tr ir ud es , a rt ef ac ts a nd r it ua ls a ss oc ia te d w i thdeath. Jane Huggett . ISBN 185804! 09 o. 3?p 4MC(lidneT he M irro r o f H ea lth : fo od , d ie t a nd m ed ic al th eo ry 1450-1660. J an " H u gg et t. 5 6 p. 6.00

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Medieval Pole Weapons 1287-1513

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