Research ArticleMedicinal Plants Traded in Informal Herbal Medicine Marketsof the Limpopo Province, South Africa

Marula Triumph Rasethe,1 Sebua Silas Semenya ,2 and Alfred Maroyi 3

1Limpopo Department of Economic Development, Environment and Tourism, Private Bag X9484, Polokwane 0700, South Africa2Technology Transfer Office, Research Administration and Development Department, University of Limpopo,Private Bag X1106, Sovenga 0727, South Africa3Medicinal Plants and Economic Development (MPED) Research Centre, Department of Botany, University of Fort Hare,Private Bag X1314, Alice 5700, South Africa

Correspondence should be addressed to Alfred Maroyi; amaroyi@ufh.ac.za

Received 2 February 2019; Accepted 9 April 2019; Published 16 April 2019

Academic Editor: Adolfo Andrade-Cetto

Copyright © 2019 Marula TriumphRasethe et al.This is an open access article distributed under theCreative CommonsAttributionLicense, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in anymedium, provided the originalwork is properly cited.

Trading of herbal medicines generates economic opportunities for vulnerable groups living in periurban, rural, and marginalizedareas.This study was aimed at identifyingmedicinal plant species traded in the Limpopo province in South Africa, including tradedplant parts, conservation statutes of the species, and harvesting methods used to collect the species. Semistructured questionnairesupplemented by field observation was used to collect data from owners of 35 informal herbal medicine markets in the Limpopoprovince. A total of 150 medicinal plant products representing at least 79 plant species belonging to 45 botanical families, mainlythe Fabaceae (11.4%), Asteraceae (7.6%), andHyacinthaceae (6.3%), were traded in the study area. Roots (50.0%), bulbs (19.0%), andbark (16.0%) were the most frequently sold plant parts. Some of the traded species which include Alepidea amatymbica, Bowieavolubilis, Brackenridgea zanguebarica, Clivia caulescens, Dioscorea sylvatica, Elaeodendron transvaalense, Encephalartos woodii,Eucomis pallidiflora subsp. pole-evansii,Merwilla plumbea,Mondia whitei, Prunus africana, Siphonochilus aethiopicus, Synaptolepisoliveriana, andWarburgia salutaris are of conservation concern and listed on the SouthAfrican RedData List. Findings of this studycall for effective law enforcement to curb illegal removal of wild plants especially those species that are at the verge of extinction.

1. Introduction

Research by Olsen [2] and Djordjevic [3] estimated that70% to 80% of the people in developing countries use rawmedicinal plants to meet their primary health care needs.This high percentage is attributed to several factors includinglimited accessibility, availability, and affordability of modernmedicines [4, 5]. Generally, the number of African plantspecies with therapeutic uses is estimated to be close to6000 [6]. Therefore, it is not surprising that trading ofmedicinal plant species through informal herbal medicinemarkets in Africa has significant socioeconomic importancein various countries, as this enable millions of people togenerate incomes [7–17]. Quiroz et al. [16] argued that herbalmedicines generate economic opportunities for vulnerablegroups living in periurban, rural, and marginalized areasespecially women and farmers facing decreasing agricultural

incomes. Meke et al. [18] argued that 90% of herbal traders insouthern and central Malawi derived more than 50% of theirhouseholds’ income from selling medicinal plants. Similarly,over 61 000 kilograms of nonpowdered medicines valuedUS$344,882 are traded in informal herbal medicine marketsof Tanzania per year [19]. In Morocco, annual revenuesgenerated from export of medicinal plants were US$55.9million in 2015 [20] and US$174, 227,384 in Egypt [21].According to van Andel et al. [15], approximately 951 tonnesof crude herbal medicines with an estimated total value ofUS$7.8 million was traded in Ghana’s herbal markets in 2010.Findings from all these aforesaid studies show that tradingin medicinal plants play an important socioeconomic role inseveral Africans countries.

Similarly, trading in medicinal plants also serves as avaluable source of income for several households in differentprovinces of South Africa. Mander et al. [13] argued that

HindawiEvidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineVolume 2019, Article ID 2609532, 11 pageshttps://doi.org/10.1155/2019/2609532

2 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

the trade in herbal medicines in South Africa is estimatedto generate an income value at about R2.9 billion per year,representing about 5.6% of the National Health budget. Forexample, in KwaZulu, Natal province, between 20000 and30000 people, mainly woman make a living from tradingover 4000 tonnes of medicinal plant materials valued at R60million per year [9]. Dold and Cocks [10] found that a totalof 166 medicinal plant species estimated to be 525 tonnesand valued about R27 million are traded in the Eastern Capeprovince annually. In the Limpopo province, research byBotha et al. [22] showed that 70 plant species were tradedin Sibasa and Thohoyandou in Vhembe district, Giyani, andMalamulele in Mopani district. Moeng [23] found that eachmedicinal plant trader in the Limpopo province generatedmore than R5000 per month. There are concerns that thetrade in traditional medicines threatens the wild populationsof the utilized species as a result of harvesting pressure [8, 9,13, 17, 24].

The trade in herbal medicines in South Africa is on ascale that is a cause for concern among researchers, conser-vation organizations, and traditional healers as the harvestingmethods employed are unsustainable [9, 13, 17, 23, 25–31].Theharvesting methods employed by medicinal plant gatherersinvolve uprooting of whole plants, collection of roots, bulbs,removal of the bark, and cutting of stems and leaves. Theseharvesting methods are aimed at collecting large quantitiesof medicinal plants including those that are of conservationconcern and in some cases illegally collecting plant materialsin protected areas and critically endangered ecosystems.Consequently, the population numbers of these targetedmedicinal plants are declining rapidly and some of themare now on the verge of extinction leaving their therapeuticpotential unfulfilled. The current study was, therefore, aimedat documenting medicinal plants traded in the Limpopoprovince, including traded plant parts, conservation statutesof the species, and harvesting methods used to collect thespecies. This information will provide the insight into com-mercial trade of medicinal plants in the Limpopo province,information on targeted species, the economic value, andpossible ecological impacts of the species.

2. Research Methods

2.1. Study Area and Markets Survey. The present studywas conducted in all five districts (Capricorn, Mopani,Sekhukhune, Waterberg and Vhembe) of the LimpopoProvince of South Africa (Figure 1). In each district, seveninformal herbal medicine shops were sampled, resulting in35 shops visited in the study area. The shop owners whowere directly involved in marketing medicinal plants in theseshops were interviewed. The participants were informedabout the aim and objectives of the study before beingrequested to sign the consent form. The researchers adheredto the ethical guidelines outlined by the International Soci-ety of Ethnobiology (http://www.ethnobiology.net/what-we-do/core-programs/ise-ethics-program/code-of-ethics/). Theethical clearance to conduct this study was obtainedfrom the Limpopo Department of Economic Development,Environment, and Tourism (LEDET) and the survey was

conducted from January 2016 to March 2018. Data wasgathered using a semistructured interview, which was sup-plemented by market observations and field visits to deter-mine harvesting methods and habitats of the traded plantspecies. The latter activity was conducted together withthe participants. Other documented information includedsociodemographic profiles of the participants, plant partsused, sources of traded plants, and conservation statutes ofthe documented species.

2.2. Plant Specimen Collection and Data Analysis. Dold andCocks [10] argued that the use of vernacular names toidentify taxa traded in informal herbal medicine markets isunreliable as they vary considerably from place to place andeven between traders within the same market. Therefore, topositively identify the plant material traded in the sampledherbal medicine markets, we requested traders to accompanyus to the field. In this regard, the traders initially identified theplants using their vernacular names and during field trips thevoucher specimens of these species were collected and theiridentities authenticated at the University of Limpopo’s Larry-Leach Herbarium. Botanical names and the plant families ofthe documented species were confirmed using the ‘The PlantList’ created by theMissouri Botanical Gardens and the RoyalBotanic Gardens, Kew (http://www.theplantlist.org/).

Information gathered from the interview schedules andfield observations was collated and analyzed using MicrosoftExcel 2000 and the Statistical Package for the Social Science(SPSS) version 16.0 programme. Descriptive statistics such aspercentages frequencies were used.The conservation statutesof traded medicinal plant species were categorized followingthe IUCN Red List Criteria Version 3.1 (2001). Speciescan be classified into one of the three categories of threat,that is, Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN), orVulnerable (VU), or they are placed into Near Threatened(NT), Data Deficient (DD), Extinct (EX), or Extinct in theWild (EW). If a species does not meet any of these criteria, itis classified as Least Concern (LC). A species classified as LCcan additionally be flagged as being of conservation concerneither as Rare, Critically Rare, or Declining [32, 33].

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Sociodemographic Profiles of Participants. The majority(n=33, 94.2%) of medicinal plants traders interviewed inthis study were men, and females constituted 5.7% (n=2).The predominance of men in trading herbal medicines iscommon in Malawi [18], South Africa [22], and Tanzania[19]. However, Mander et al. [13] found that the majorityof medicinal plant traders in the Gauteng, Mpumalangaand KwaZulu-Natal provinces of South Africa were women.Ndawonde et al. [34] found that 77% of the 63 plant tradersinterviewed inKwaZulu-Natal province were women. Resultsof the current study revealed that the male participantswere the custodians of the species traded in the provinceand the associated indigenous knowledge, innovations, andpractices. These findings corroborate the observation madeby Cunningham [7] that the commercially sold medicinal

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 3

Burgersfort

LIMP_TownsNAME

PolokwaneSenwabarwanaTzaneen

LIMP_DistrictsDC_NAME

CapricornMopaniSekhukhuneVhembeWaterberg

0 37.5 75 150 225 300

Kilometers

Prepared byNelwamondo PfarisoLEDETBiodiversity ManagementNelwamondoP@ledet.gov

W

N

S

ETOWNS VISITED FOR MUTHI SURVEY

Figure 1: Map of the study area indicating surveyed informal herbal medicine shops and districts.

plants are an important feature of the cultural, medicinal,economical, and ecological component of every city in theworld.

Close to three quarters of the participants (n = 24, 68.5%)were between 31 and 40 years and 20% (n= 7)were between 21and 30 years while 11.4% (n = 4)were between 41 and 50 years.Therefore, increasing trade in themedicinal plants is expectedin the Limpopo province in the future as the majority of theparticipants were within the very active age group.More thanhalf of the participants (n = 22, 62.8%) were educated up tosecondary education, while 22.8% (n = 8) and 14.2% (n =5) had attained tertiary and primary education, respectively.The importance of medicinal plants and the need to tradethem in the Limpopo province were ubiquitously perceived,with all participants claiming to generate adequate profit tomeet their basic livelihood needs and being optimistic aboutthe future of the medicinal plants trade in the province.More than three quarters of the participants (n = 27, 77.1%)

earned monthly incomes of between R3000 and R4000.00.The rest of the participants earned monthly incomes of lessthan R3000 (n = 5, 14.2%) or more than R5 000 (n = 3,8.5%). The findings of this study emphasize the contributionof herbal medicines trade towards participants’ livelihoodneeds, source of primary health care products, and culturalheritage corroborating research by Mander et al. [13] whoargued that trade in herbal medicines in South Africa is alarge and growing industry which is important to the nationaleconomy.

3.2. Diversity of Traded Medicinal Plants. A total of 150medicinal plant products representing at least 79 plant specieswere recorded in the surveyed informal herbal medicineshops in the Limpopo province (Table 1). A total of 79 speciesbelonging to 45 botanical families, mainly the Fabaceae (n = 9spp., 11.4%), Asteraceae (n = 6 spp., 7.6%), Hyacinthaceae (n =5 spp., 6.3%), Amaryllidaceae (n = 4 spp., 5.1%), Celastraceae,

4 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table1:Listof

plantsrecorded

ininform

alherbalmedicinem

arketsin

theL

impo

poprovince,Sou

thAfrica.

Family

Scientificn

ame

Habit

Con

servation

status

Partused

Medicinaluses

Frequency

(%)

Acanthaceae

SclerochitonilicifoliusA

.Meeuse

Tree

LCRo

ots

Hypertensionandmalaria

28.6

Amaryllid

aceae

Cliviacaulescens

R.A.D

yer

Herb

NT

Roots

Policee

vasio

n54.3

Amaryllid

aceae

Boophone

disticha(L.f.)H

erb.

Herb

LCBu

lbCancer,diabetes

mellitus

andkidn

eyprob

lem

25.7

Amaryllid

aceae

Ammocharis

coranica

(Ker

Gaw

l.)Herb.

Herb

LCBu

lbHypertensionandbloo

dcancer

25.7

Amaryllid

aceae

Cliviaminiata

var.citrina

Herb

DDT

Bulb

Hum

anim

mun

odeficiency

virus(HIV

),arthritis,

skin

disorder

andtuberculosis

22.9

Anacampserotaceae

Talin

umcaffrum

(Thun

b.)E

ckl.&Ze

yhHerb

LCRo

ots

Eyed

isorder

14.3

Anacampserotaceae

Talin

umcrisp

atulum

Dinter

Herb

LCRo

ots

Kidn

eyandwom

bprob

lem

25.7

Anacardiaceae

Protorhu

slongifolia

(Bernh

.)En

glTree

LCBa

rkTo

othdecayandbadbreath,laxativea

ndpo

ison/killpeop

le22.9

Anacardiaceae

Lann

easchw

einfurthii(En

gl)E

nglvar.stuhlmannii

(Eng

l)Tree

LCRo

ots

Causem

emorylossandincrease

milk

prod

uctio

nin

pregnant

wom

an25.7

Ann

onaceae

Annona

senegalen

sisPers.

Tree

LCRo

ots

Chlamydiaandmalaria

8.6

Apiaceae

Alepidea

amatym

bica

Eckl.&

Zeyh.

Herb

ENRo

otsa

ndwho

leplant

Toattractcustomersa

ndprotectio

nfro

mtheft

,fluandcoldsa

nddiabetes

100.0

Apocyn

aceae

Acokantherarotund

ata(C

odd)

Kupicha

Tree

LCBa

rkHeadachea

ndsin

usitis

11.4

Apocyn

aceae

Mondiawh

itei(Hoo

k.f.)

Skeels

Herb

ENRo

otsa

ndfruits

Stam

inaa

nddiabetes

5.7

Araceae

Stylochaeton

natalen

sisScho

ttHerb

LCRo

ots

Waistpain

inmen

25.7

Araceae

Zantedeschiaaethiopica

(L.)Spreng

.Herb

LCRo

ots

Chlamydiaandmeasle

s5.7

Asparagaceae

Asparagusa

ethiopicu

sL.

Herb

LCRo

ots

Attractcustomersa

ndskin

protectio

nfor

peop

lelivingwith

albinism

22.9

Asteraceae

Callilep

issalicifolia

Oliv.

Herb

LCRo

ots

Flu,coug

handsto

machache

2.9

Asteraceae

Callilep

sislaureolaDC.

Herb

LCTu

ber

Tuberculosisandasthma

54.3

Asteraceae

Dico

maanom

alaSond

.Herb

LCTu

ber

Tuberculosisandflu

8.6

Asteraceae

Helichrysum

cymosum

(L.)D.D

onsubsp.calvum

Hilliard

Shrub

LCWho

leplant

Asth

ma,callancesto

rs,cou

ghand

tuberculosis

5.7

Asteraceae

Senecio

gregatus

Hilliard

Shrub

LCLeaves

Body

cleansin

g22.9

Asteraceae

Senecio

serratuloidesD

C.Sh

rub

LCLeaves

Body

cleansin

gandHIV

symptom

s22.9

Brassic

aceae

CapparissepiariaL.var.subglabra(

Oliv)D

eWolf

Shrub

LCRo

ots

Protectio

nfro

mlightning

andno

sebleed

2.9

Canellaceae

Warburgiasalutaris

(G.Bertol.)

Chiov.

Tree

ENBa

rkAs

thma,bloo

ddisorders,im

potency,skin

disorders,soresa

ndtuberculosis

100.0

Capp

araceae

Capparistomentosa

Lam.

Shrub

LCBa

rkHom

eprotection

11.4

Caryop

hyllacea

Dianthu

sbasuticu

sBurtt

Herb

LCRo

ots

Win

courtcases

22.9

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 5

Table1:Con

tinued.

Family

Scientificn

ame

Habit

Con

servation

status

Partused

Medicinaluses

Frequency

(%)

Cela

straceae

Cathaedulis(Vahl)Fo

rssk

exEn

dlTree

LCLeaves

Energy

boostera

ndsta

mina

14.3

Cela

straceae

Elaeodendron

transvaalense(Burtt)

RHArcher

Tree

NT

Bark

Tuberculosisandsexu

allytransm

itted

infections

(STI)

2.9

Cela

straceae

Pleurosty

liacapensis(Turcz.)Lo

es.

Tree

LCRo

ots

Eyes

disordersa

ndmentalilln

esses

28.6

Clusiaceae

Garcin

iagerrardiiH

arv.ex

Sim

Tree

LCRo

ots

Lack

ofappetite

20.0

Com

bretaceae

Combretum

molleR.Br.exG.Don

Tree

LCRo

ots

Skin

disordersa

ndtuberculosis

8.6

Com

melinaceae

Commelina

subu

lata

Roth

Herb

LCSeeds

Cause

mem

oryloss

5.7

Dioscoreaceae

Dioscorea

sylva

ticaEckl.

Herb

VU

Bulb

Foot

disorder

andbo

dypains

54.3

Dioscoreaceae

Dioscorea

dregeana

(Kun

th)T

Durand&Schinz

Herb

LCTu

ber

Foot

disorder,bod

ypains,malariaandto

oppresso

ppon

ents

54.3

Dipsacaceae

Scabiosa

columbaria

L.Herb

LCRo

ots

Assistp

eopletosto

pdrinking

alcoho

l,qu

ench

thirs

tand

oralinfections

20.0

Ebenaceae

Diospyros

lycioidesDesfsub

spseric

ea(Bernh

)De

Winter

Tree

LCRo

ots

Cancer,chestp

ains

andST

I11.4

Ebenaceae

Eucle

acrisp

a(Th

unb.)G

urke

subsp.crisp

aTree

LCRo

ots

Stom

achailm

ents

22.9

Ebenaceae

Diospyros

galpinii(H

iern)D

eWinter

Shrub

LCRo

ots

Body

cleansin

gandlaxativ

e2.9

Fabaceae

Vignafru

tescensA

Rich

subspfru

tescensv

ar.frutescens

Herb

LCRo

ots

Stom

achailm

entsanddiarrhoea

20.0

Fabaceae

Pterocarpu

sangolensis

DC.

Tree

LCBa

rkUsedto

causeh

arm/death

22.9

Fabaceae

Erythrinalys

istem

onHutch.

Tree

LCBa

rkCa

ncer,cou

gh,m

alaria,tub

erculosis

and

skin

rash

5.7

Fabaceae

Peltophorum

afric

anum

Sond

.Tree

LCBa

rkCleanseb

ody,tre

atbadluck

andHIV

symptom

s20.0

Fabaceae

Mun

dulea

seric

ea(W

illd.)A

.Chev.

Tree

LCBa

rkTu

berculosisandmenstr

uald

isorders

20.0

Fabaceae

Albiziaadianthifolia

(Shu

mach.)W

.Wight

Tree

LCBa

rkMentalilln

esses,soresa

ndmalaria

11.4

Fabaceae

Elephantorrhizaele

phantin

a(Burch.)Skeels

Shrub

LCRo

ots

Bloo

ddisorders,diarrhoea,HIV

symptom

sand

purgative

17.1

Gentia

naceae

Enico

stemaaxillare(Lam.)A.Raynalsub

sp.A

xillare

Herb

LCWho

leplant

Diabetes

100.0

Geraniaceae

Pelargonium

capitatum

(L.)L'Her.

Herb

LCRo

ots

Menstr

ualp

ains

andlabo

urpains

17.1

Geraniaceae

Monsoniaangustifolia

Sond

.Herb

LCWho

leplant

Diabetes,hypertensio

n,bo

dycle

ansin

g,im

potencyandincrease

appetite

100.0

Hyacinthaceae

Drim

iaela

taJacq.

Herb

DDT

Bulb

Bloo

drelatedailm

ents,

perio

dspainsa

ndwom

bproblem

100.0

Hyacinthaceae

Merwillaplum

bea(Lindl.)Speta

Shrub

NT

Bulb

Body

cleansin

g,skin

rash

inbabies

and

prom

otev

omiting

ofim

pure

milk

inbabies

14.3

Hyacinthaceae

UrgineasanguineaSh

inz

Herb

LCBu

lbHypertension,

diabetes,blood

clotting

,bo

dypainsa

ndST

I20.0

Hyacinthaceae

Eucomisautumna

lis(M

ill.)Ch

ittHerb

LCBu

lbBo

dypains,hypertensio

nandST

I100.0

6 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Table1:Con

tinued.

Family

Scientificn

ame

Habit

Con

servation

status

Partused

Medicinaluses

Frequency

(%)

Hyacinthaceae

Eucomispallidiflora

Bakersub

sppole-evan

sii(N

EBr)

Reyn

ekee

xJC

Manning

Herb

NT

Bulb

Body

pains,hypertensio

n,malaria,STI

andtuberculosis

17.1

Hypoxidaceae

Hypoxisobtusa

Burch.ex

KerG

awl.

Herb

LCBu

lbBloo

ddisorders,diabetes,hypertension

andinfertility

34.3

Hypoxidaceae

Hypoxishemerocallid

eaFisch,CAMey

&Av

e-Lall

Herb

LCTu

ber

Cancer,diabetes,energybo

oster,

hypertensio

n,tuberculosis,

infertilityand

HIV

100.0

Icacinaceae

Pyrena

cantha

grandiflora

Baill.

Shrub

LCRo

ots

Eyed

isordersa

ndbo

dypains

20.0

Kirkiaceae

Kirkiawilm

siiEn

glTree

LCBu

lbArthritis,diabetes,hypertensionand

quench

thirst

11.4

Liliaceae

Bowiea

volubilis

Harv.ex

Hoo

k.f.

Herb

VU

Bulb

Bloo

ddisorder,cancera

ndgood

luck

54.3

Malvaceae

Dom

beya

rotund

ifolia

Hochst.

Tree

LCRo

ots

Diarrho

eaandsto

machailm

ents

8.6

Malvaceae

Adan

soniadigitata

L.Tree

LCBa

rkStam

ina,infertility,impo

tencyand

respira

tory

infections

14.3

Meliaceae

EkebergiacapensisSparrm

.Tree

LCRo

ots

Bloo

dcancer

andST

I11.4

Meliaceae

Trich

iliaem

etica

Vahl

subsp.Em

etic

Tree

LCRo

ots

Body

cleansin

g5.7

Molluginaceae

Psam

motrophamarginata

(Thun

b.)D

ruce

Herb

DDT

Roots

Eyes

disordersa

ndbo

dypains

17.1

Moraceae

Ficusingens(Miq.)Miq.

Tree

LCBa

rkSoresa

ndsto

machdisorders

14.3

Myrsin

aceae

Rapaneamela

nophloeos(L.)M

ezTree

LCRo

ots

Cancer,w

ound

sand

wom

bprob

lem8.6

Olacaceae

XimeniacaffraSond

var.caffra

Tree

LCRo

ots

Stom

achdisorders

17.1

Oleaceae

Olea

europaea

Lsubsp.afric

ana(M

ill)P

SGreen

Tree

LCRo

ots

Facilitateb

irth,coug

handtuberculosis

8.6

Passifloraceae

AdeniaspinosaBu

rttD

avy

Shrub

LCBu

lbBa

thab

abyto

prom

otew

eightgain

14.3

Polygalaceae

Securid

acalongepedun

culata

Fresen.

Tree

LCRo

ots

Cou

gh,flu,im

provem

en'sfertilityand

impo

tency

57.1

Rham

naceae

Zizip

husm

ucronata

Willd.subsp.mucronata

Tree

LCRo

ots

Cou

gh,STI,sores,tub

erculosis

and

wou

nds

14.3

Rosaceae

Prun

usafric

ana(H

ook.f.)

Kalkman

Tree

VU

Bark

Colds,cou

gh,flu,HIV,stomach

complaintsa

ndtuberculosis

11.4

Rutaceae

Zanthoxylum

capense(Th

unb.)H

arv.

Tree

LCRo

ots

Asth

ma,colds,coug

h,fix

badsituatio

ns,

flu,sores

andtuberculosis

62.9

Rutaceae

Brackenridgeazanguebaric

aOliv.

Tree

CRRo

ots

Reverseb

adluck,protectho

useholdand

protectio

nfro

mevilspirits

57.1

Santalaceae

Osyris

lanceolata

Hochst.&Steud.

Tree

LCRo

ots

Attracta

wom

an/m

an,cause

harm

/death

topeop

le,str

engthenah

ouseho

ld,

reprod

uctiv

eproblem

sand

malaria

28.6

Thym

elaeacea

Lasio

siphoncafferM

eisn.

Herb

LCRo

ots

Asthm

a,colds,coug

handtuberculosis

14.3

Thym

elaeaceae

Syna

ptolepisoliveriana

Gilg

Shrub

NT

Roots

Goo

dluck

14.3

Vitaceae

Rhoicissustom

entosa

(Lam

)Wild

&RBDrummun

dHerb

LCRo

ots

Cancer,coug

handtuberculosis

17.1

Zamiaceae

Encephalartosw

oodiiSander

Tree

EWBu

lbProtectio

nagainsth

arm

2.9

Zing

iberaceae

Siphonochilusa

ethiopicu

s(Schw

einf.)B.L.Bu

rtt

Herb

CRBu

lbAsth

ma,colds,coug

h,bo

dypains,flu

,HIV

symptom

sand

good

luck

100.0

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 7

Ebenaceae, and Gentianaceae (n = 3 spp., 3.8% each) werepositively identified and, therefore, further analyses werebased on these species. The rest of the medicinal plant prod-ucts were excluded in the current study because they werenot positively identified due to lack of diagnostic featuressuch as leaves and fruiting material such as flowers andfruits. Previous studies showed that plant species belongingto Fabaceae (13.0%), Apocynaceae (5.7%), Phyllanthaceae(4.9%), and Rubiaceae (4.1%) were the most traded species inMalawi [18], while Fabaceae (7.4%), Asteraceae (6.7%), andEuphorbiaceae (5.5%) were the most traded taxa in SouthAfrica [27] while Asteraceae and Fabaceae (10.6% each),Euphorbiaceae (8.5%) and Cucurbitaceae (6.4%) were themost traded taxa in Botswana [14]. Plant families Apocy-naceae, Asteraceae, Cucurbitaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae,Phyllanthaceae, and Rubiaceae have the highest number oftraded species as herbal medicines probably because theseare large families characterized by several species, at least 989species each (http://www.theplantlist.org/).

Analysis of traded plant species showed that herbs andtrees (n = 34, 43% each) and shrubs (n = 11, 13.9%) were themost traded growth forms. Previous research in the Limpopoprovince carried out by Botha et al. [22] showed that trees,shrubs, herbs, climbers, and geophytes were the most tradedgrowth forms in the province. More than half of the tradedspecies (n = 67, 84.8%) were prescribed for more than oneailment and just 15.1% (n = 12) were sold as herbal medicinefor a single ailment (Table 1). Previous studies conducted inthe Limpopo [23, 35], Kwa-ZuluNatal [34], and the NorthernCape [36] provinces in South Africa also found that informalherbal medicine traders mainly sold species with multiplemedicinal applications. The medicinal applications of thetraded species were classified into 15majormedical categoriesfollowing the Economic Botany Data Collection Standard [1]with some changes proposed byMacıa et al. [37] andGruca etal. [38].These categories included respiratory disorders, ritualandmagical uses, blood and cardiovascular system disorders,reproductive system and sexual health disorders, cancer,diabetes, sexually transmitted infections (STI), body pains,gastrointestinal system disorders, human immunodeficiencyvirus (HIV) opportunistic infections, fever and malaria, der-matological problems, injuries, sores andwounds, pregnancy,birth and puerperium, and cleansing of the body (Figure 2).The species traded in the Limpopoprovince are used as herbalmedicine against several diseases categorized by Stats SA [39]as the top killer diseases in SouthAfrica in 2016which includetuberculosis, heart diseases, HIV diseases, influenza, diabetesmellitus, and other viral diseases. Over the years, there havebeen numerous studies that have validated the traditionaluses of some of the traded medicinal plants against the topkiller diseases.

3.3. Highly Traded Species. The most frequently traded plantspecies, recorded in 28.6% of the informal herbal medicineshops, included the following (in ascending order of impor-tance): Osyris lanceolata Hochst. and Steud., Pleurostyliacapensis (Turcz.) Loes., Sclerochiton ilicifolius A. Meeuse,Hypoxis obtusa Burch. ex Ker Gawl., Bowiea volubilis Harv.

ex Hook.f., Callilepsis laureola DC., Clivia caulescens R.A.Dyer, Dioscorea sylvatica Eckl., Dioscorea dregeana (Kunth)T Durand and Schinz, Brackenridgea zanguebarica Oliv.,Securidaca longepedunculata Fresen., Zanthoxylum capense(Thunb.) Harv., Alepidea amatymbica Eckl. and Zeyh.,Drimia elata Jacq., Enicostema axillare (Lam)ARaynal subsp.axillare, Eucomis autumnalis (Mill) Chitt., Hypoxis hemero-callidea Fisch, C A Mey and Ave-Lall, Monsonia angustifoliaSond., Siphonochilus aethiopicus (Schweinf) B L Burtt, andWarburgia salutaris (G Bertol) Chiov (Tables 1 and 2). Morethan half of the participants indicated that the followingspecies were in high demand but not readily available in thewild or rare or their populations declining (Table 2): Bowieavolubilis, Clivia caulescens, Dioscorea sylvatica, Dioscoreadregeana, Brackenridgea zanguebarica,Alepidea amatymbica,Eucomis autumnalis, Siphonochilus aethiopicus, and Warbur-gia salutaris. With the exception of Dioscorea dregeana andEucomis autumnalis these species are listed on the SouthAfrican Red Data List as threatened plant species (Table 1),with Brackenridgea zanguebarica and Siphonochilus aethiopi-cus listed as Critically Endangered,Alepidea amatymbica andWarburgia salutaris listed as Endangered, and Bowiea volu-bilis and Dioscorea sylvatica listed as Vulnerable while Cliviacaulescens is listed as Near Threatened [40]. Six other plantspecies that are traded in the study area but not categorized ashigh in demand by the participants which are of conservationconcern in South Africa and listed on the South African RedData List include the following (Table 1):EncephalartoswoodiiSander which is listed as Extinct in the Wild; Mondia whitei(Hook.f.) Skeels is listed as Endangered; Prunus africana(Hook.f.) Kalkman is listed as Vulnerable while Elaeodendrontransvaalense (Burtt) R H Archer,Merwilla plumbea (Lindl.)Speta, Eucomis pallidiflora Baker subsp. pole-evansii (N EBr) Reyneke ex J C Manning, and Synaptolepis oliverianaGilg are listed as Near Threatened [40]. Interviews withparticipants revealed that Alepidea amatymbica, Bowiea volu-bilis, Brackenridgea zanguebarica, Clivia caulescens, Dioscoreasylvatica, Dioscorea dregeana, Eucomis autumnalis, Sclero-chiton ilicifolius, Siphonochilus aethiopicus, and Warburgiasalutaris which were regarded as popular and harvested fromthe wild were becoming locally extinct and these speciesfetched high prices (Table 2). All these 14 species that aretraded in the Limpopo province but listed on the SouthAfrican Red Data List are in general overcollected as herbalmedicines and extracted at unsustainable rate throughouttheir distributional ranges [40].

About three quarters of the participants (n = 26, 74.2%)did not have plant collecting permits as required by law inSouth Africa [41]. Only a quarter of the participants (n =9, 25.7%) were in possession of a general plant collectingpermit allowing them to collect any medicinal plants inthe wild, without stating the quotas of materials to beharvested, use of sustainable harvesting techniques, andrestrictions on the collection of threatened and protectedplants. According to Retief et al. [42] a Threatened orProtected Species (TOPS) permit in terms of the NationalEnvironmental Management: Biodiversity Act (NEM:BA) of2004 is required to collect and possess the following specieswhich were traded by the participants and listed on the South

8 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative MedicineTa

ble2:Th

emostfrequ

ently

traded

medicinalplantsin

theL

impo

poprovince.

Speciesn

ame

Availabilityin

herbalmedicines

hops

durin

gsurvey

Dem

and

Availabilityin

thew

ildPricer

ange

ZAR(U

SD)/kg∗

Alepidea

amatym

bica

Yes(n=15,42.9%

)High(n

=35,100.0%)

Not

available(n=22,62.9%

)30.00(2.30)

Out

ofsto

ck(n

=20,57.1%)

Rare

(n=8,22.9%)

Enico

stemaaxillare

Yes(n=35,100.0%)

High(n

=35,100.0%)

Abun

dant

(n=35,100.0%)

15.00(1.15

)

Eucomisautumna

lisYes(n=29,82.9%

)High(n

=35,100.0%)

Declin

ing(n

=22,62.9%

)27.50(2.12

)Out

ofsto

ck(n

=6,17.1%

)Ra

re(n

=9,25.7%)

Not

available(n=1,2.9%

)

Hypoxishemerocallid

eaYes(n=21,60.0%

)High(n

=35,100.0%)

Abun

dant

(n=33,94.3%

)15.00(1.15

)Out

ofsto

ck(n

=14,40.0%

)Declin

ing(n

=2,5.7%

)

Monsoniaangustifolia

Yes(n=30,85.7%

)High(n

=35,100.0%)

Abun

dant

(n=30,85.7%

)22.50(1.73)

Out

ofsto

ck(n

=5,14.3%)

Declin

ing(n

=5,14.3%)

Drim

iaela

taYes(n=22,62.9%

)High(n

=35,100.0%)

Abun

dant

(n=35,100.0%)

12.50(0.96)

Out

ofsto

ck(n

=13,37.1%)

Siphonochilusa

ethiopicu

sYes(n=19,54.3%

)High(n

=35,100.0%)

Not

available(

n=32,91.4

%)

8.50

(0.65)

Out

ofsto

ck(n

=16,45.7%

)Ra

re(n

=3,8.6%

)

Warburgiasalutaris

Yes(n=31,88.6%

)High(n

=35,100.0%)

Declin

ing(n

=29,82.9%

)27.50(2.12

)Out

ofsto

ck(n

=4,11.4%)

Rare

(n=6,17.1%

)

Zanthoxylum

capense

Yes(n=11,31.4

%)

High(n

=22,62.9%

)Ab

undant

(n=22,62.9%

)27.50(2.12

)Out

ofsto

ck(n

=11,31.4

%)

Securid

acalongepedun

culata

Yes(n=9,25.7%)

High(n

=20,57.1%)

Abun

dant

(n=19,54.3%

)22.50(1.73)

Out

ofsto

ck(n

=11,31.4

%)

Declin

ing(n

=1,2.9%

)

Brackenridgeazanguebaric

aYes(n=7,20.0%)

Mod

erate(n=13,37.1%)

Abun

dant

(n=2,5.7%

)27.50(2.12

)Out

ofsto

ck(n

=13,37.1%)

High(n

=7,20.0%)

Not

available(n=18,51.4

%)

Callilep

sislaureola

Yes(n=15,42.9%

)Lo

w(n

=18,51.4

%)

Abun

dant

(n=18,51.4

%)

12.50(0.96)

Out

ofsto

ck(n

=4,11.4%)

Mod

erate(n=1,2.9%

)

Bowiea

volubilis

Yes(n=9,25.7%)

High(n

=16,45.7%

)Ra

re(n

=14,40.0%

)12.50(0.96)

Out

ofsto

ck(n

=10,26.6%

)Mod

erate(n=3,8.6%

)Not

available(n=5,14.3%)

Dioscorea

dregeana

Yes(n=5,14.3%)

High(n

=11,31.4

%)

Declin

ing(n

=17,48.6%

)27.50(2.12

)Out

ofsto

ck(n

=14,40.0%

)Mod

erate(n=6,17.1%

)Ra

re(n

=2,5.7%

)Lo

w(n

=2,5.7%

)

Dioscorea

sylva

tica

Yes(n=6,17.1%

)High(n

=19,54.3%

)Ra

re(n

=11,31.4

%)

27.50(2.12

)Out

ofsto

ck(n

=13,37.1%)

Not

availableE

(n=8,22.9%)

Cliviacaulescens

Yes(n=17,48.6%

)High(n

=9,25.7%)

Declin

ing(n

=16,45.7%

)12.50(0.96)

Out

ofsto

ck(n

=2,5.7%

)Mod

erate(n=6,17.1%

)Ra

re(n

=2,5.7%

)Lo

w(n

=4,11.4%)

Abun

dant

(n=1,2.9%

)Croton

gratissim

usYes(n=15,42.9%

)Lo

w(n

=15,42.9%

)Ab

undant

(n=15,42.9%

)12.50(0.96)

Hypoxisobtusa

Yes(n=11,31.4

%)

High(n

=9,25.7%)

Abun

dant

(n=9,25.7%)

12.50(0.96)

Out

ofsto

ck(n

=2,5.7%

)Mod

erate(n=3,8.6%

)Declin

ing(n

=4,11.4%)

Low(n

=1,2.9%

)

Osyris

lanceolata

Yes(n=7,20.0%)

High(n

=1,2.9%

)Ab

undant

(n=7,20.0%)

12.50(0.96)

Out

ofsto

ck(n

=3,8.6%

)Declin

ing(n

=3,8.6%

)

Pleurosty

liacapensis

Yes(n=1,2.9%

)High(n

=10,28.6%

)Ab

undant

(n=10,28.6%

)22.50(1.73)

Out

ofsto

ck(n

=9,25.7%)

Sclerochitonilicifolius

Yes(n=8,22.9%)

High(n

=10,28.6%

)Declin

ing(n

=7,20.0%)

22.50(1.73)

Out

ofsto

ck(n

=2,5.7%

)Ra

re(n

=3,8.6%

)∗Anaveragee

xchanger

atefor

2018

ofUSD

1=ZA

R13.00

was

used.

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9

0 5 10 15 20 25Respiratory disorders

Ritual and magical usesBlood and cardiovascular system disorders

Reproductive system and sexual healthCancer

Diabetes mellitusSexually transmitted diseases (STI)

Body painsGastro-intestinal disorders

HIV opportunistic infectionsFever and malaria

DermatologicalInjuries, sores and wounds

Pregnancy, birth and puerperiumCleansing the body

Number of species

Figure 2:Medicinal categories of tradedmedicinal plants in the Limpopo province following the Economic Botany Data Collection Standard[1].

Roots50%

Bulb19%

Bark16%

Whole plant5%

Tuber5%

Seeds1%

Leaves 4%

RootsBulbBarkWhole plant

TuberSeedsLeaves

Figure 3: Medicinal plant parts traded in the Limpopo province.

African Red Data List: Alepidea amatymbica, Bowiea volu-bilis, Brackenridgea zanguebarica, Clivia caulescens,Dioscoreasylvatica, Elaeodendron transvaalense, Encephalartos woodii,Eucomis pallidiflora subsp. pole-evansii, Merwilla plumbea,Mondia whitei, Prunus africana, Siphonochilus aethiopicus,Synaptolepis oliveriana, andWarburgia salutaris.None of theparticipants had a TOPS permit, therefore, these species werebeing illegally harvested by the participants. Findings of this

study call for effective law enforcement to curb illegal removalof wild plants especially those species that are at the verge ofextinction.

Interviews with participants revealed that common keyfactors that were considered in determining the price of thetraded species included demand and availability of the speciesand also whether the plant material being sold is rawmaterialor partially processed (Table 2). Prices of traded species

10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

ranged from ZAR8.50 (USD0.65) to ZAR30.00 (USD2.30)(Table 2). Plant species which were sold for more thanZAR26.00 (USD2.00) included the following (in ascendingorder of importance):Brackenridgea zanguebarica, Dioscoreadregeana, Dioscorea sylvatica, Eucomis autumnalis, Warbur-gia salutaris, Zanthoxylum capense, andAlepidea amatymbica(Table 2). Prices recorded in the Limpopo province werelower than prices recorded by Dold and Cocks [10] in theEastern Cape province for Alepidea amatymbica, Bowieavolubilis, and Dioscorea sylvatica with prices ranging fromZAR14.90 (USD1.90) to ZAR82.40 (USD10.30). Mander etal. [13] argued that there is increasing harvesting pressureon traditional supply areas leading to a growing shortagein supply of popular medicinal plant species which aresustaining livelihoods and providing important health careservices to local communities.

3.4. Traded Plant Parts. The plant parts traded as herbalmedicines in the Limpopo provinces were the bark, bulbs,leaves, roots, seeds, tubers, and whole plant. The rootswere the most frequently traded (50.0%), followed by bulbs(19.0%), bark (16.0%), tubers and whole plants (5.0% each),leaves (4.0%), and seeds (1.0%) (Figure 3). The bulbs, tubers,and whole plant were mostly from geophytes and herbaceousplant species (Table 1). However, harvesting of roots ofherbaceous plants for medicinal purposes, bark, bulbs, andwhole plant is not sustainable as it threatens the survival of theplant species used as herbal medicines. It is well recognizedby conservationists thatmedicinal plants primarily valued fortheir bark, bulbs, roots, stems, and tubers and as whole plantsare often overexploited and threatened [24].

4. Conclusion

Medicinal plants are globally valuable sources of pharmaceu-tical drugs and other health products, but they are disap-pearing at an alarming rate [24]. Several plant species usedas herbal medicines in the Limpopo province are threatenedwith extinction from overharvesting due to popularity of thespecies in the herbal medicine markets. Although this threathas been known for decades, the accelerated loss of speciesand habitat destruction in the province has increased therisk of extinction of medicinal plants in the country. Theillegal acquisition of some plant species especially those listedon the South African Red Data List from wild populationsis the principle threat to their persistence. There is need,therefore, to educate local communities on the contemporaryenvironmental legislation, at the same time emphasizing theneed to retain traditional knowledge on medicinal plantutilization in the province.

Data Availability

The data used to support the findings of this study areincluded within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank herbal medicine traders forsharing their knowledge.This studywas financially supportedby the Limpopo Department of Economic Development,Environment and Tourism (LEDET), National ResearchFoundation (NRF), South Africa and GovanMbeki Researchand Development Centre (GMRDC), and University of FortHare.

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