MEAT PURCHASING IN THE CATERING INDUSTRY

Journal of Consumer Studies and Home Economics (1978) 2,183-200.

MEAT PURCHASING IN THE CATERING INDUSTRY*

SUSAN CARPENTER Institute of Agricultural Economics, Oxford University

introduction

The production and marketing of food is aimed at two groups of consumers: household purchasers and caterers. There is considerable contrast, not only between the requirements for catering and domestic consumption, but also within the catering industry as a whole. This paper considers the following aspects of meat demand and meat purchasing in the catering industry: (a) an analysis of the different sectors of the catering industry and an estimate of the total demand for meat and meat products on a national scale; (b) the buying and use of meat in hotel and restaurant chains; (c) developments in catering technology and their possible influence on the characteristics of future meat supply to the catering industry.

The catering industry and its use of meat on a national scale

In 1976, consumers in Britain spent approximately E35 million a week on meals outside the home, and about 85 million meals and snacks are served weekly.' 13% of all food purchased in Britain goes to catering outlets, and so caterers form an important source of demand for meat traders and other food suppliers.

The catering industry is very diverse in terms of the type and function of establishments, and is characterized by a large number of relatively small establishments. Any attempt at an accurate description of the catering industry's structure and performance is handicapped by inadequate statistical coverage. However, the most comprehensive recent summary of the total number of establishments is found in The Catering Supply Industry, a report published by the Catering Supplies Study Group of the EDC for the Hotel and Catering Industry (Table 1).

The rate of growth of the catering industry is of considerable importance to the catering supply industry. Table 2 shows the real change in turnover of the catering industry, based on Business Monitor Statistics. The turnover is for establishments in the profit sector, i.e. hotels, restaurants and public houses, and it is total turnover, including services such as accommodation as well as meals and refreshments.

*This paper summarizes some of the findings of a research project sponsored by the Meat

Address: Institute of Agricultural Economics, Oxford OX1 2HP. and Livestock Commission.

0309-3891/78/0900-0183$02.00 01 978 Blackwell Scientific Publications 183

Meat purchasing for catering

Table 1. Number of catering establishments, 1973 ~ ~~~~ ~ ~ ~~

Kind of business Number of outlets

Public houses/clubs (a) 93600 Restaurants, cafh (b) 35000 Hotels (c) 34400 Take-away (d) 15000 Other (el 2000

lndustrial canteens 3 1000

Education (0 39000 Homes (9) 7900 Hospitals 2720 Services 600 Prisons 150

Total 261370

Total commercial sector

(of which run by catering contractors)

Total institutional sector 50370

180000

(8000)

Notes for Table 1 (a) NEDO estimate that there are 67 300 public houses and 26 300 clubs, and

that 37 000 pubs served food in 1973. Public house catering is the fastest growing sector of the catering industry.

(b) Includes restaurants, cafh and snack bars. (c ) Includes hotels and guest houses, 20 000 of these are unlicensed, and 62%

have less than ten bedrooms. (d) NEDO estimate that about 13 000 take-aways are fish and chip shops, so

the major demand for meat is from the remaining 2000, which are mainly fried chicken or Chinese food outlets.

(e) Includes travel outlets (British Rail, aeroplanes, ships, etc.) and about 1000 restaurants in department stores.

(f) 1203 million school meals were served in 1976 in England and Wales. About two thirds of all pupils had school meals in 1973 in comparison with 56% in 1962.

(g) 4700 homes are run by Local Authorities and 3200 by various private or charitable organisations. About one third of a million people are in homes of various kinds.

Source: The Catering Supply Industry. N.E.D.O.

It shows a period of growth until 1973, followed by a decline in turnover. At constant prices, 1976 turnover was 0.6% lower than in 1970.

Consumers’ expenditure on catering is not an adequate basis for estimating meat purchases by individual sectors of the catering industry, because of subsidized meals in canteens, free meals in hospitals and so on. However, total catering expenditure on food can be derived from the National Income and Expenditure Statistics (Table

The Catering Supply Industry report estimates caterers’ expenditure on food in 1973 as El 3 10 million, slightly less than the figure in Table 3. This total is subdivided for various sectors in Table 4.

3 ).

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Table 2. Turnover of catering industry 1970-1976 at 1970 prices

Year

Turnover at

current prices (Em)

Turnover less

VAT VAT (Lm) (Em)

Deflation Index

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976

2736 2989 3318 3749 4306 509 1 5826

2736 2989 3318

129* 3620 133 4173 144 4947 170* 5656

100 108.2 115.5 125.5 145.5 180.3 208

Turnover at 1970 prices

less VAT (Ern)

2736 2762 2873 2884 2868 2744 2719

% change on previous

year

+ 2.09 + 0.95 + 4.02 +0.38 -0.55 -4.32 -0.91

Sources: Business Monitor SD5. National Income and Expenditure 1966-1976. “Aspects of turnover and expenditure in the catering industry”, J. O’Connor.’ Annual Account, H.M. Customs and Excise, 1975.

*Estimate.

Table 3. Catering expenditure on food at current and 1970 prices

Household and

expenditure on expenditure expenditure catering Household Catering

food on food on food Catering (2nd (Em) (Em) expenditure

as 7% of total Year Current 1970 Current 1970 Current 1970 (1970 prices)

1966 6119 7 106 1967 6304 7181 1968 6524 7223 1969 6897 7247 1970 7373 7373 1971 8050 7353 1972 8577 7292 1973 9797 7390 1974 11409 7436 1975 13827 7366 1976 16270 7423

5300 5457 5655 5970 6365 6964 7423 844 3 9869 12044 14095

6170 6228 6260 6264 6365 6362 6320 6388 6431 6407 6448

819 84 7 869 927 1008 1086 1154 1354 1540 1783 2175

936 95 3 96 3 983 1000 991 972 1002 1005 959 975

13.2 13.3 13.3 13.6 13.7 13.5 13.3 13.6 13.5 13.0 13.1

Source: National Income and Expenditure 1966-1976.

From discussions with caterers, it seemed that an overall figure of 35% of total expenditure on food was a reasonable estimate for meat demand. Table 5 shows the estimated catering demand for meat on this basis.

An estimate of catering demand for meat based on the total value of meat sold

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Table 4. Food purchases by sectors of the catering industry in 1973

Total value of food purchased

Kind of business (Em)

Value of food purchased per

outlet (E)

Pubs/clubs Restaurants etc. Hotels Take-away Other

Total Industrial canteens Education Homes Hospitals Services Prisons

Total Total

140 340 120 130 20

230 160 55 70 40 5

1500 9700 3500 8700 10000

E750 m E4200

4 100 7000 26000 67000 33000

E560 m E6600 El310 m

Source: Catering Supply Industry, NEDO.

Table 5. Caterers’ estimated expenditure on meat 1966-1976

Catering expenditure on food Estimated expenditure on meat (Em) (Em)

Year Current prices 1970 prices Current prices 1970 prices

1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976

819 84 7 869 927 1008 1086 1154 1354 1540 1783 2175

936 953 963 983 1008 991 972 1002 1005 959 975

286.7 296.5 304.2 324.5 352.8 380.1 403.9 473.9 539.0 624.1 761.3

327.6 333.6 337.1 344.1 352.8 346.9 340.2 350.7 351.8 335.7 341.3

gives a lowervalue of f i62 million in 1976. Therefore i t is likely that 1976 expenditure on meat by caterers was between U 6 2 and E762 million.

The lack of adequate statistical coverage of the catering industry is proving to be a considerable obstacle, for example, for economists carrying out research into the food sector. It would be interesting to know whether similar problems are experienced by those working in the catering and catering supply industries, and if so, which particular areas require further clarification.

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Changes in the popularity of catering establishments and consumem’ tastes: a view of the commercial catering sector

Major factors influencing the type and size of caterers’ demand for meat at a national scale include not only changes in consumers’ disposable income, which will be re- flected by the number and type of catering establishments, but also changes in consumers’ tastes. It is very difficult to obtain accurate information on these aspects of catering and so most comments are based on observation and the opinions of some caterers with long experience in the catering industry.

In the popular price range, fast food service establishments have increased in numbers at the expense of more traditional restaurants and cafes with a trend towards hamburgers and grills, and away from the customary ‘meat and two veg’. Several caterers lamented the demise of the three-course meal in the popular price range and deplored the trend towards snacks. Most of the chain caterers said that they were no longer able to afford roast meat as a menu item, and identified a shift towards steaks for reduced labour costs, speed of cooking and reduction of wastage. However, individually owned establishments are still serving roasts- although frequently chicken rather than red meat-at less than E l . At the lower price range virtually everyone mentioned steak and kidney pie as the most popular item, while in a higher bracket, carvery restaurants, where the speciality is roast beef, have achieved considerable success. Even more noticeable is the large number of steak bars catering for avery wide market. While take-away food used to be virtually synonymous with fish and chips, Chinese restaurants and fried chicken bars have made significant inroads into this sector.

It seems probable that an important cause of change in the types of catering establishments has been the increasing spending power of the 16-25 age group over the last 20 years. Hamburgers have become an accepted part of the British diet and may be bought not only in chain restaurants but also in a vast number of individually owned restaurants. The decor and music found in most of the latter group is specifically aimed at the younger market-a generation which has grown up with processed foods andconvenience meals. Caterers may perform one of two functions: either provide for the public’s established preferences or else introduce novel types of food or recipes, An interesting example of the second f h c t i o n is pizza: pizzeria were well established by the time i t was possible to buy pizza for consumption at home from normal retail outlets.

Considerable publicity has been given recently to health factors involved in various foods and to the justification of vegetarianism. However, while the number of health food shops has increased, there does not seem to have been a significant increase in the number of vegetarian restuarants.

Therefore the overall trend seems to be the development of fast food service establishments, and a concentration on types of meat: hamburgers, steaks and chops and convenience food, which are easy and quick to prepare. All these may

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be bought in portion control form, eliminating the need for trimming or cutting by the caterer, and this is especially important as many establishments do not employ skilled staff. At the same time there seems to be a significant reduction in the purchase of meat for roasting, or cheaper cuts which require more elaborate preparation and cooking. For example, a large amount of steak and kidney pie sold is purchased ready-prepared.

Buying and use of meat in hotel and restaurant chains

A small survey of hotel and restaurant chains was conducted in order t o identify their use of meat and their meat-purchasing practices. It was thought likely that the concentration of buying power in chains would have resulted in the development of different practices from those found in individually owned establishments.* The market share of hotel chains can be shown by the following figures: 334% of British hotels are owned or managed by a group, and this represents 15.4% of total hotel bedrooms in Britain. An estimated 5 4 % of restaurants belong to groups with more than ten establishments. NED0 estimate that 9% of food purchases in the catering sector are made by hotels, and 35.9% by restaurants (Catering Supply Industry report). Therefore, the expenditure on food by hotel and restaurant chains in 1976 was probably in the region of E80 million.

It should be emphasized that there is no single pattern of meat usage or pro- curement which is ‘right’ for all caterers even within a type group. The preferable pattern will vary with internal organization, location, type of clientele etc. However, facilities and opportunities are constantly changing, and no caterer should ignore the possibility that an evaluation of the range of opportunities open to him would point to profitable adjustments. Similarly, the catering section of the meat supply business is changing and meat traders would be wise to make sure they are aware of the possibilities open to them and the changing competitive setting in which their business will be operating.

Table 6 shows the number of chains visited and the number of outlets. Some

Table 6. Sample of hotel and restaurant chains visited

Type of chain

Restaurantjcafk of which in-store catering: Restaurant and hotel chains

Hotel chains Total

No. in No. of No. of sample I estaurants hotels Other

9 1203

(6 1 (254) 3 519 91 (British Tramp or t

Hotels: 1100 catering vehicles

2 79 per day) 14 1,722 170

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chains included a number of establishments which were run as separate groups (e.g. Jo Lyons, London Steak Houses, Fisherman’s Wharf, Strand and Robley Hotels and Falcon Inns) so the actual number of restaurant groups was fourteen, and hotel groups was eight. These catering establishments were scattered widely over England, Wales and Scotland.

There was some form of control by the central offices of these organizations over the catering operations, although it will be seen that the degree of control varied widely, and the contrast was especially marked between hotels and restaurants.

The degree of centralized control of meat buying varied widely. Only one restaurant chain allowed the branch managers to choose their meat suppliers arguing that this choice increased job satisfaction. At the other end of the scale, four chains gave their managers no choice at all, as meat and meat products were distributed from central depots by the chains’ own vans. The influence of location is interesting: the establishments belonging to two of these chains were located in London and the Home Counties, while the third chain distributed to its branches all over Britain- one as far north as Aberdeen-from its depot in the Midlands. The fourth chain had branches all over Scotland and had a central butchery, where sides were cut, and meat products manufactured. Meat was bought from Glasgow Meat Market, but also from Smithfield and direct from Ireland. Portion control had been in operation for several years and the plant had recently started producing vacuum- packed portion controls steaks. Apart from supplying the chain’s own hotels and restaurants, meat was also supplied to local school meals services. It is interesting that comparable meat plants operated by two other chains have recently been closed down because they were uneconomic.

The second chain with central distribution had recently opened a cook-freeze plant. It supplied its outlets with a small amount of frozen portion control meat, but concentrated above all on the production of meat pies, pasties, sausages and cooked meats. They were buying whole pork and lamb carcases and beef fores from Smithfield, and said they could produce sausages for 16p/lb in comparison with 24%p/lb from Walls.

The third chain bought in a very small amount of carcase meat for roasting, and was distributing mostly ready-prepared meat courses, some of which was manufactured to their specifications on contract, while the rest was bought in from national frozen food wholesalers.

The fourth chain was using vacuum-packed primal cuts of beef which were delivered from the slaughterhouse to the central depot where the meat finished ageing and then distributed to individual outlets where final cutting took place. Other meat items were delivered frozen and prepared on contract by an outside manufacturer.

Five restaurant suppliers appointed nominated suppliers, although it was often permissible for managers to buy small quantities of meat elsewhere if there was a price or quality advantage. Because of the scattered location of the restaurants

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throughout the country, it was not normally possible to carry out quality control centrally, but some managers were required to send in price lists periodically, SO

that the general level of prices could be checked. The normal practice was to appoint two or more nominated suppliers for each region or for each establishment, in order to ensure competitive prices. In some cases, the review of nominated suppliers seemed haphazard or even nonexistent, and this method of purchasing seems more effective in ensuring consistent quality rather than favourable prices. Supplies of meat came from retail and wholesale butchers, and especially in London, from specialized catering butchers.

The remaining two chains were department store restaurants: one large London store and one multiple chain with stores throughout the U.K. Both chains also had retail butchers' shops in the same stores, and so meat for the catering departments was either bought by the meat buyer as part of the total requirement, or was purchased from the shop floor.

The purchasing system in the hotels was on the whole less rigorous than in the restaurants. Most managers were instructed to buy from nominated suppliers although there was little centralized control of prices or quality. One chain specified that meat should be bought from at least three suppliers, who could be chosen by the individual managers. With one exception, hotel groups were buying at least some meat on the bone, and final cutting was carried out by the hotel staff and the prevalent attitude was that quality was far more important than price. Portion control meat was used regularly in only two chains, while others had experimented with it, they had not been satisfied with the results. Certainly portion control meat seemed to be less generally available in the north than in the South Midlands or Scotland.

One of the hotel chains where portion control meat was used had also tried using frozen pre-cooked entrkes with reasonable success, and the experiment was continuing. This chain was outstanding for its application of the principles of food science to its catering operations. Illustrating the fact that considerable savings can be made without heavy investment in new equipment, they had found that substantial savings on energy costs could be made if all roast meat was cooked at 100°F lower than normal.

One could speculate that the type of meat bought and the system of purchasing used in an individual establishment or chain is a function of the relative power held by managers and chefs. Where chefs retain their traditional supremacy (and this normally only happens in the more expensive establishments) the pattern of buying from local retailers and wholesalers continues. However, where rigorous cost-control has been introduced, and the chefs independence restricted to a certain extent, it is more likely that other methods, including the use of portion control meat, ready-prepared meat and frozenmeat, will be used. For example, one attitude frequently expressed was that portion control meat is fine for lower-price establishments but i t is not necessary where the skills of a chef are available. Another atti-

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tude was that standardization was acceptable as long as it was custom-made-in spite of the fact that a customer would have to have a very large order or pay a large premium to justify the production of 7-oz steaks if a butcher’s range of steaks only included 6-oz and 8-02 portions.

Although contracts are used widely for the purchase of meat in local authority and hospital buying, most caterers in the commercial sector were unwilling to commit themselves contractually to suppliers of carcase meat, although several managers said they had a gentleman’s agreement with their major suppliers. It was generally considered that meat prices fluctuated so much that prices would have to be reviewed weekly and they preferred the freedom of being able to shop around. However, the chain buying vacuum-packed primal cuts had a contract with one supplier for the whole supply and prices were reviewed weekly. In this context there is a clear advantage in the use of frozen meat, as prices can then be futed for a matter of months rather than days.

It was difficult to obtain precise details of specifications used in meat purchasing. The normal specifications used were: weight, country of origin, fresh or frozen, bone-in or bone-out and trim. No-one was using the M.L.C. classification schemes, although most used the N.Z. Lamb grading scheme. Several caterers were using the Harrison and King guide, Stundardised Meat Buying which suggests detailed specifications for the preparation of cuts used by caterers, and this was considered more relevant t o their needs than a carcase classification scheme, as very little meat was bought in whole carcases or sides. Although most caterers were not clear about the differences between grading and classification schemes, when the differences were explained, they still supported grading in preference to classification although several were sceptical about the reliability of either type of scheme. Generally caterers relied on inspection of meat when it reached their premises for control of quality; meat which did not reach the required standard was sent back immediately.

It has been shown that the methods of meat purchasing and the type of meat used in the large scale-commercial catering sector varies greatly. Several chains are obviously making the most of their economies of scale, especially where they have a centralized meat manufacturing plant or buy in ready-prepared meals made to their own specifications. Because of the scattered location of establishments, i t is more difficult to benefit from bulk discounts from a single carcase meat supplier- and a common complaint was the lack of a meat firm distributing nationally. Where the capacity of a central plant exceeded the chain’s total catering demand, there were benefits from a company structure which included a variety of subsidiaries. For example, the restaurant chain which had set up a cook-freeze plant could sell its surplus through an associated group of supermarkets. A similar situation was found of a manufacturer of frozen meat and pre-cooked entrees, where a large proportion of the output was sold to an associated hotel group at substantially lower prices than to the rest of its customers.

In about half the cases considered, meat purchasing and use seemed to be at

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a very transitional stage; managers were trying all sorts of methods to find an ideal solution. It was very notable that by and large changes in the meat trade (introduction of portion control, vacuum wrapping, etc.) have been made in response to caterers’ demands. Only a small minority of meat firms have initiated changes and tried to sell them to the catering sector. However there is currently close collaboration between a couple of meat firms and hotel and restaurant chains experimenting with various ways of tenderising and wrapping meat, and it would surely be of benefit to both sectors if this sort of co-operation could be extended.

Changes in catering technology and restaurant planning

It has been seen that broad changes in the type of establishment in the commercial sector will influence the characteristics of caterers’ demand for meat. For example, an increased demand for standardised meat and meat products resulted from the growth of fast food establishments. This section considers the advances which have been made in catering technology in all sectors and the possible effects on the demand for meat, while the next section considers advances in food technology including equipment and packaging whch will determine the final form in which the meat appears.

First, however, it seems worthwhile to mention a new concept in planning a catering unit: systems catering. “There is n o particular magic in the use of common sense. All that is happening now is that many of the old methods of work in the kitchen will still be used, but will be integrated in with a better management and more sensible use of equipment and areas involved. Nothmg will happen in the kitchen in the use of space or people or equipment which cannot be economically justified.”u The essential difference in systems catering is that each stage in the operation-delivery , bulk storage, preparation, cooking, service and dishwashing, is planned as part of the whole process (an obvious area for the application of organization & methods). The most important factor for the meat trade is that this method of planning has been extended to include the whole iestaurant.

The starting point in planning is normally themenu, and subsequently everything is planned for the production of the menu; integrating not only equipment, but the establishment’s name, decoration, even openinghours. In the lower and middle price brackets, this type of planningwill normally lead to a restricted menu, concentrating on steaks, hamburgers or pizza for example. The choice of kitchen equipment will be limited and this choice determines subsequent supplies of fresh or convenience food. It is here that carcase meat wholesalers and retailers may lose part of their catering trade to frozen food wholesalers if they are not able to come up with an adequate supply of standardized products.

Probably the most widely known development in catering equipment is the microwave oven. Capable of radically reducing cooking times, the microwave oven was at one time thought to be capable of solving all the problems of the catering

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industry, and there are now about 70000 in use in Britain. The cooking process in microwave ovens differs from conventional ovens where food is cooked by heat conducted to the centre, giving characteristic browning on the outside. Microwave cooking relies on the radiation of energy at the far infra-red end of the spectrum, and as long as food is of the appropriate penetration depth (1 H" to 2" for steaks) the outside and inside are cooked simultaneously at the same rate. (Cold spots may appear if food is thicker than recommended).

Microwave ovens are not particularly suitable for fresh meat cookery: meat has to be pre-browned and shrinkage is increased. On the other hand microwave ovens are ideal for the reconstitution of pre-cooked convenience or frozen food, and eliminate most of the problems associated with re-heating cooked meat. The growth of mould is suppressed and the food sterilized-even foot and mouth virus in meat is destroyed!

Therefore microwave ovens are used to best advantage where fast heating is necessary: in hospital wards, for night workers provided for by industrial and institutional catering and in fast food service establishments. A further advantage in the reconstitution of convenience food is that single portions of a meal can be cooked in a microwave oven while bulk trays are cooked in convection ovens, eliminating the wastage involved in starting a new tray for just one helping.

It seems highly probable that the convenience factor afforded by microwave ovens has led to an increase in the use of convenience food, but it is likely that there are now few new users of convenience food in conjunction with microwave ovens.

Convection ovens are probably of more universal applicability in the catering industry as they are more efficient in terms of space and heat utilization than conventional ovens. The majority of convection ovens use electric fans to produce continuous circulation of hot air and even heat throughout. Thus food cooks more quickly and it is possible to cook more food in the same space. The major dis- advantage is that meat tends to dry out more than in conventional ovens and so normally lower cooking temperatures are recommended. Meat shrinkage can be eliminated if meat is cooked in a high-pressure steam oven, but these are very expensive in comparison with other ovens, and the meat is not browned.

The most progressive extension of catering technology to date is the development of the cook-freeze system, which is essentially a small-scale food processing factory where assembly line methods of production are used. Food is prepared, divided into portions of the required size, cooked, blast frozen to -20°C and then reheated when needed. There are certain limitations in the system: conventional sauces break down when frozen and so waxy maize flour has t o be used and some food is difficult to freeze and re-heat (boiled eggs, for example). Most meat gives good results although there have been problems with steak, which tends to become tough. Roast meat is sliced before freezing down, as food packages should be only l-1?4," deep in order to freeze sufficiently fast.

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One of the great advantages of the system is flexibility. The complete requirements of an establishment can be produced in the cook-freeze unit, or conventional methods can also be retained, especially for gravy and custard. Alternatively, some convenience food-instant mashed potato for example-can be incorporated in the system.

The second major advantage is the control of ingredients, and this is especially important for hospitals, where meals for special diets can be prepared to strict specifications. It is also easier to carry out bacteriological checks and to trace the source of any contamination.

Finally the system has obvious advantages where round-the-clock feeding is necessary. Staff can operate the cook-freeze plant during the daytime, and if a vending machine is used for service in conjunction with a microwave oven, only a bare minimum of catering staff need work unsociable hours.

The three cook-freeze systems visited were all buying whole carcases or sides, which were butchered on the premises. Wastage can be virtually eliminated if meat trimmings are used in sausages or pies. One cook-freeze system for a group of hospitals was also going to function as the central butchery for those hospitals in the area which were not taking part in the cook-freeze scheme. This was a rational way of using excess capacity.

Meat traders interviewed did not seem at all concerned that a growthin the number of cook-freeze schemes would affect their catering business. Certainly a large establishment is necessary for these systems to be feasible, and equipment for a plant to produce 3 5 000 meals a week costs ffi3 200. Ln the schemes visited there was no apparent price advantage in the use of a cook-freeze system compared with conventional cooking, but they had been chosen on grounds of increased convenience, better nutritional value of food and more acceptable quality. When capital becomes readily available in the institutional catering sector, it is likely that there will be a substantial increase in the number of these systems in operation.

In France a cook-chill system is widely used and as the name suggests, food is chilled rather than blast frozen, and consequently has a much shorter storage life. These systems can operate at a smaller scale and use less energy. (A system of comparable size to the cook-freeze mentioned above costs only 220 600). However, there are very few of these systems currently operating in Britain.

Developments in food technology that influence the catering industry

Progress in the fields of food technology and packaging influences the characteristics of meat supplied to the catering industry. Improvements in many different processes may be involved, ranging from the development of enzyme tenderizers to the production of ringpull cans for vending machine meals. Developments accruing from other sectors of the food industry have also been adapted to the needs of caterers. In the present connection the most important developments for caterers are (a)

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different methods of treating and processing meat and (b) new forms of packaging, both for carcase meat and for convenience foods.

Approximately 23% of all meat supplied to caterers is frozen and this includes frozen meat products and convenience food. There is considerable resistance to frozen carcase meat, both from consumers and from the meat trade itself. “There is ample evidence of the deterioration caused by deep freezing fresh meat. Apart from the obvious drawbacks of drip, discolouration, and shape distortion, there is also a loss of protein value and flavour”.’ However, with the introduction of fast freezing, the problems described are largely surmountable. For example, fast freezing will reduce and even eliminate moisture and protein losses, regardless of the subsequent rate of thawing, and discolouration does not appear to be a major problem. The essential difference is that in rapid freezing the original spatial distribution of the colloids is retained, and so the original structure can be reproduced when it is thawed. On the other hand, slow freezing creates large icy crystals which destroy the original structure.

One major problem with frozen meat is the possibility of freezer bum; cold shortening-the contraction of muscle fibres when meat is frozen down fast, producing tough meat-can be avoided if the carcase is hung by the aitchbone after slaughter. On the other hand, there are notable advantages: a reduction in the number of deliveries necessary, the possibility for small caterers of buying in bulk and the possibility of stabilizing prices over several months. It is also quite possible to cook meat straight from the frozen state, although longer cooking times are necessary, and this is often recommended. Alternatively, individual cuts like steaks may be thawed out in oil which reduces drip.

Frozen meat products have been readily accepted. A relatively new development in the market is the production of frozen gourmet dishes in individual portions, which are increasingly used for banqueting and, for example, for conferences in universities and colleges.

Another application of freezing is freeze-drying. When protected from moisture and oxygen, food can be preserved for long periods regardless of temperature. Experiments with beef proved that the reconstituted product tended to be tough, but this can be overcome to a certain extent by separating the muscle from the fat, and by cutting across the muscle fibres. Although freeze-dried meat has been marketed in the U.S.A., it has not yet proved successful.

Irradiation may be used to preserve food, and this was initially tried as a means of preserving meat for rations in the U.S. Services. If high doses of radiation are applied to meat, objectional tastesand smells are normally created, so this limits the amount of radiation possible. With high doses, it is possible to sterilize food totally, while lower doses reduce microbial activity and extend shelf life. It is claimed that irradiation does not change the nutritional value of meat, apart from vitamin losses similar to those sustained in canning. It was at one time possible to sell irradiated bacon in the U.S.A., but meat treated by irradiation may not be sold in Britain,

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although irradiated meat issometimesused in hospitals, where it is necessary to serve completely sterile meat.

The major distinction between catering and domestic meat supplies is the growth of portion control meat in the catering sector. Portion control is carried out mecha- nically, and the cut is pressed and then sliced to the required weight within a very narrow range of tolerance. The advantages of portion control for caterers are obvious: each customer is assured of an identical sized helping, cost control becomes much simpler, labour costs and wastage are reduced, and distribution costs are minimized. There is certainly a premium to be paid for portion control meat. In February 1975 a specialist catering butcher was charging94p/lb for imported strip loins and &1.19p/lb for portion control sirloin steaks; 87p/lb for imported bone-out rump steak and &1.22p/lb for portion control rump steaks: an increase of 27% and 40% respectively. The price of Scotch beef was virtually identical to the price of imported portion control beef.

A further extension of portion control meat is the manufacture of comminuted meat products. One method is to flake the meat, blend it t o disperse the fat, form into patties and freeze it. Thus a tender ‘steak’ is made from a cheap cut of beef. This is just one example of the many attempts which are being made to process cheaper cuts of meat and cow beef so that they can be fried or grilled-fast, cheap cooking methods where normally only the most expensive cuts can be used.

Apart from producing comminuted meat products, various other forms of ten- derization are available. Toughness in meat is a function of the total amount of connective tissue or collagen present, and the solubility of the collagen. (Collagen insolubility increases with age). During cooking, soluble collagen breaks down to form gelatine, while insoluble collagen is left as gristle. Toughness is also affected by the degree of interlocking between the rods of protein which form muscle fibres. Enzyme tenderizers are used increasingly-the effect is to break down collagen as well as some of the muscle fibres. The main constituents of tenderizers are normally papain (extracted from paw-paws) and ficin (from figs). Meat may be dipped in the tenderizer or alternatively it may be injected into the animal shortly before slaughter. In the latter case, meat texture (after cooking) is slightly different from untreated meat and some economic advantages are lost because the kidney is over-tenderized if normal cooking methods are used, and so is not normally sold to the public.

Mechanical means may also be used for tenderizing meat, and one method is needling using a machine with 500 punches or needles, with about 15 to 25 needles per square inch. The needles help to break down the connective tissue, and this process a i m s to ensure consistent tenderness. One firm visited uses needling machines for rump and entrecote steaks; rump steak received two treatments and sirloin steak only one.

Tenderizing meat is nothing new to the catering trades, and traditional kitchen methods include marinating meat in a mixture of oil and lemon juice or vinegar,

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for example. However, tenderizing meat commercially has two functions: first, to ensure consistent quality of the best cuts from prime carcases and secondly, to increase the acceptability of cheaper cuts and lower grade carcases, cow beef, for example. If the ultimate eating quality proves to be universally acceptable, tenderized meat could be important for carcase meat traders with a large catering trade, as it may be recognized as an obvious way of counteracting risingmeat prices.

Portion control meat, both fresh and frozen, and tenderized meat are relatively recent innovations for the meat trade in Britain. Both have cost advantages: tenderized meat should be cheaper than normal cuts, while portion control meat reduces labour costs, althoughselling at higher prices than normal cuts. However, widespread acceptance of these processes in the catering industry will depend not only on price, but also on quality. Meat quality is a complex attribute, and depends on many factors, including the system under which the animal was raised, its age, pre-slaughter conditions and post-slaughter handling, as well as carcase composition. Various complaints were heard about the quality of portion control meat and tenderized meat from some suppliers. Caterers, especially those in charge of small establishments, often feel that they cannot risk losing customers by experimenting widely with different types of supplies. If there are initial problems, there is a danger that caterers may reject the whole idea of portion control meat, for example, rather associating the problems with the quality of meat used by one particular supplier. The demand for portion control meat was initiated to a great extent by fast food service chains. However, once butchers have identified satisfactory quality and price levels for particular sections of the catering market, they should also find a growing demand for portion control meat from more traditional establishments.

The most important developments from the meat packaging industry are various types of plastic film for wrapping meat, and laminated flexible pouches for convenience food. Many different sorts of wrapping film are now available. Some have a high degree of gas permeability-these are used especially for wrapping meat at retail outlets, as excluding oxygen from meat produces a change in colour from bright red to brown. On the other hand, the presence of oxygen leads to bacterial growth in meat, and so these types of film do not extend shelf life very much. The best known film used in the wholesale meat trade is Cryovac (vinylidene chloride). It is suitable for gas- and vacuum-packing because of its low degree of water vapour and gas permeability. It is widely used for packing primal cuts, because the meat can age while in the package. Furthermore, meat is packed immediately after cutting, before the colour change from dark red to bright red meat has taken place. When the package is broken, and the meat exposed to the atmosphere, i t turns bright red, and full advantage can be taken of this colour change. The only problem is that the meat tends to smell ‘off when the pack is opened because of the exclusion of air. This smell soon disappears, however, and vacuum-packing bone-out carcases is proving to be a popular and hygienic method of packing meat for distribution.

Laminated flexible pouches have been developed for convenience meals. They

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may be processed in retorts, like cans, and the food is finally prepared by boiling the pouch in water. Because of the retorting process, they can be stored at any temperature, with a shelf life of at least 6 months. Pouches are also used for pre- cooked entrees which are then frozen, but may also be cooked by ‘boiling-in-the- bag’. Retortable pouches have yet to make a significant breakthrough into the catering and retail markets.

There were initial problems with ‘pinholing’ in the aluminium foil which forms an important layer in the pouch, but these seem to have been overcome. The pouches are still relatively expensive to buy, and so are used mainly for gourmet foods. One Scottish firm is now producing catering-sized packs for special orders, and it seems that there is considerable scope for development in the higher price bracket of the catering sector, if only as a source of ‘back-up’ meals.

Probably the most radical development in catering over the last 3 years has been the introduction of meat substitutes and meat extenders, known variously as textured vegetable protein, vegetable meat, synthetic meat or vegetable protein foods. The products currently on the market are manufactured from soya beans, although research is continuing into the production of similar foods from wheat, seaweed, yeast and singlecell proteins. So far, sales of meat extender have out- stripped those of total meat substitutes, of which only one brand is currently available. Meat extenders are manufactured by a relatively simple process: defatted soya flour is mixed with water, heated under pressure and then extruded, when it expands due to the fall in’pressure. The manufacture of meat substitutes is more complex. Strands of an isolate, containing 90% soya protein, colouring, flavouring and additional vitamins, are spun into fine threads and then baked, to give a more fibrous product. According to Which’ the nutritional value of TVP is comparable to that of meat, with half the calories of an equivalent amount of meat, and virtually no fat. However, TVP has a low methionine content, and although the Food Standards Committee recommended that manufacturers should add more of this essential amino acid, so far only one company has been able to accomplish this4- the major problem is that methionine smells of rotten cabbage.

The recommendations of the Food Standards Committee’ have not yet been incorporated in legislation, and so the legal position surrounding the use of TVP is far from clear. The recommendations affect manufacturers in the choice of additional nutrients for their products, while caterers are affected especially by the requirements of the Food and Drugs Act and the Labelling of Food Regulations. It would appear that caterers have to specify the use of TVP on the menu, if it is used to replace a proportion of the statutory minimum meat content of some meat products, including meat pies, sausages and sausage rolls. However, as one caterer in the survey pointed out, ‘TVP is ideal for caterers who want to cheat.’ TVP can be indistinguishable if used in small amounts, and the temptation of not indicating the use of TVP on the menu must be increased by consumers’ resistance to its use. A further problem emerges with the sale by caterers of bought-in meat

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products, as according to the Food Standards Committee report, the Labelling of Food Regulations do not apply t o some products sold to a caterer for his catering business.

The Foods Standards Committee recommended that the maximum use of TVP in meat products should be 30% of the minimum meat content, and that in institutional catering, TVP should replace a maximum of 10% of meat used over a given period. In our survey of catering establishments in Kent and Manchester it was found that the latter recommendation was being followed by all the caterers using TVP, and in many cases its use was much less than 10% of total meat consumption.

The arguments for and against the use of TVP have been well aired in the press, and little would be gained from repeating them. However, the use of TVP had aroused considerable interest among the caterers in the survey, and their reactions are reported below. Twenty-three caterers in the survey had tried TVP, either because of rising meat prices or purely out of curiosity. Although six caterers in the profit sector had tried TVP none was using it, and there was a general feeling that it would not be introduced because of customer’s objections, apart from criticisms that the products tried were ‘tasteless and spongey’.

In canteens, homes and schools, TVP had been tried by seventeen individual caterers, but only seven had continued to use it. Kent County Council had introduced TVP for school meals for the first time in early 1977. The main objections were also concerned with the taste and texture of the products, but only one caterer had stopped using TVP after customers’ complaints. The users of TVP had mixed reactions: those with a ‘captive’ market in schools and the army base were completely satisfied with its use as a mince additive to make up bulk, as long as it was used according to manufacturers’ instructions. Caterers in colleges and staff restaurants where customers were not ‘tied’ to the establishment reported a strong reaction to the use of TVP, when it had been stated on the menu.

It is difficult to obtain a precise estimate of the total market for TVP. However, one estimate quoted in Caterer and Hotelkeeper6 was of a total production of between 20 000 and 25 000 tonnes in 1977. Since 75% is sold to the meat processing industry, catering consumption could be as much as 5000 tonnes, since the retail market is still relatively insignificant. It seems quite possible that sales toinstitutional catering outlets could double over the next few years, and if there was a significant breakthrough into the commercial catering market, growth could be even more rapid.

Conclusions

In conclusion, it is perhaps worth mentioning briefly some developments in the catering supply industries of two other countries: West Germany and the U.S.A. In West Germany, cook-freeze systems have been widely introduced, especially for hospital catering. In some other hospitals, where kitchens have been modernized recently, the catering is based almost entirely on the regeneration of bought-in

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frozen foods. Manufacturers of frozen food are also finding a growing market in the profit and partly-profit sectors. An interesting feature of the supply system is the existence of about 200 central kitchens, run by small firms which supply canteens with hot meals delivered in insulated containers. Most carcase meat is sold to caterers by wholesale butchers, but there are also several large catering supply firms, which deliver a full range of food, including fresh and frozen meat.

In the U.S.A. the structure of the catering market and the associated supply industry is described in detail in The Food Service Industry, published by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1966. The catering demand sector is more easily identifiable within the overall meat market than in Britain. Firms offer a comprehensive range of branded, pre-packed normally frozen portion-control meats, which are sold by general wholesalers as well as specialist catering butchers. Many of the latter have expanded their product range, and also sell frozen vegetables, desserts, sauces and pickles. It is possible that the concentration of the catering industry has provided a stimulus for the widespread development of specialist catering services. For example, in 1971 the top twenty food service chains controlled over 41 000 units, and accounted for 18% of the total turnover of the catering industry.

The National Association of Meat Purveyors is the trade association which represents meat traders at all levels of the industry whose principal customers are caterers. The association has many representative functions, which would be carried out in Britain by the Federation of Meat Traders, the U.K. Association of Frozen Food Producers, and various other trade bodies. However, in this context, the most relevant function of N.A.M.P. is to provide an annual report on marketing trends, based on members’ experience of the previous year’s business, and their predictions of future trends. This seems to provide a valuable clearing house for experience and information, and an opportunity for members to compare their achievements with others in the same field. A similar organization might prove worthwhile for meat traders supplying the catering industry in Britain.

References

1. NED0 estimate from ‘Trends in Catering’. October-December 1976. 2. For details of meat purchasing by individually-owned establishments in Oxfordshire, Kent &

Manchester, see: The Supply of Meat and Meat Products to Catering Establishments in a selected area (Oxfordshire) by S . Davies and R. Pattison, Institute of Agricultural Econo- mics, Oxford University, 1975, and The Supply of Meat & Meat Products to the Catering Industry in Britain by S . Carpenter, I.A.E, forthcoming.

3. ‘Vegetable Meat’, Which, February 1976. 4. “Are we learning to love the bean?” Caterer & Hotelkeeper, June 9 1977 p. 58. 5. Food Standards Committee report on Novel Protein Foods, M.A.F.F., 1974. 6. Caterer & Hotelkeeper, ibid. 7. ‘Aspects of turnover and expenditure in the catering industry’. J. O’Connor, British Hotelier.

Dec. 1974. 8. Industrinl Catering Year Book. 1974. Blandford Press 9. Meat Trader, 117,1976.

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MEAT PURCHASING IN THE CATERING INDUSTRY

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