McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 1 The Sociological...

McGraw-Hill © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

1

The Sociological Perspective

ORGANIZING SOCIAL LIFE

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McGraw-Hill

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© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

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CHAPTER OUTLINE

•Understanding Groups•Understanding Organizations•Organizational Change•Technology’s Impact on the Workplace•Social Policy and Organizations: The State of the Unions

6GROUPS AND ORGANIZATIONS


3 Understanding Groups

█Types of Groups– Group

• A number of people with similar norms, values, and expectations who interact with one another on a regular basis.

• Examples of groups are:– fraternities

– dance companies

– Clubs

– tenants’ associations



█Types of Groups– Primary Group

• This term refers to a small group characterized by intimate, face-to-face association and cooperation.

– Secondary Group• This term refers to formal, impersonal groups in

which there is little social intimacy or mutual understanding.



█ Table 6.1: Comparison of Primary and Secondary Groups

Generally small Usually large

Relatively long Relatively short duration, period of interaction often temporary

Intimate, face-to-face Little social intimacy association or mutual understanding

Some emotional Relationships generally depth in relationships superficial

Cooperative, friendly More formal and impersonal

Primary Group Secondary Group



█Types of Groups– In-Groups

• In-groups are any groups or categories to which people feel they belong.

– Out-Groups• Out-groups are any groups or categories to

which people feel they do not belong.



█Studying Small Groups– Small Groups

• Small groups are groups small enough for all members to interact simultaneously (to talk with one another or at least be well acquainted).



█Focus Groups– 10–15 people assembled by a researcher to

discuss a predetermined topic, such as a new product or a need in the community.

– Developed by Robert Merton and colleagues at Columbia University



█Reference Groups– A reference group is any group that

individuals use as a standard for evaluating their own behavior. • Reference groups set and enforce standards of

conduct and belief• Reference groups serve as a standard against

which people can evaluate themselves and others.



█Studying Small Groups– Size of Group

• Smaller groups have greater interaction opportunities.

– Dyad: A two-member group.

– Triad: A three-member group.

– Coalition: A temporary or permanent alliance geared toward a common goal.


11 Understanding Organizations

█ Formal Organizations and Bureaucracies– Formal Organization

• A formal organization is a special-purpose group designed and structured for maximum efficiency.

– Examples of formal organizations:• the U.S. Post Office

• McDonald’s restaurants

• the Boston Pops

• this college



█Coalitions– An alliance geared towards a common goal

-The effects of group size and coalitions– Survivor



█Characteristics of a Bureaucracy– Bureaucracy

• A bureaucracy is a component of formal organization in which rules and hierarchical ranking are used to achieve efficiency.

– Ideal Type Bureaucracy• This term indicates a construct or model serving

as a measuring rod against which specific cases can be evaluated.



█Formal Organizations and Bureaucracies– A formal organization is a group designed

for a special purpose, structured for efficiency.• U.S. Postal Service• McDonald’s• Your college or university



█ Table 6.2: Characteristics of a Bureaucracy

Division of labor Produces efficiency in Produces trained Produces a narrow large-scale corporation incapacity perspective

Hierarchy of authority Clarifies who is in Deprives employees Permits concealment of command of a voice in decision mistakes

making

Written rules and Let workers know what Stifle initiative and Lead to goal regulations is expected of them imagination displacement

Impersonality Reduces bias Contributes to feelings Discourages loyalty to of alienation company

Employment based on Discourages favoritism Discourages ambition Fosters Peter principle technical qualifications and reduces petty to improve oneself

rivalries elsewhere

Negative Consequence

Characteristic Positive Consequence For the Individual For the Organization



█Characteristics of a Bureaucracy– Bureaucratization

• Bureaucratization is the process by which a group, organization, or social movement becomes increasingly bureaucratic.

– Oligarchy• An oligarchy is a bureaucracy ruled by a few.



█ Bureaucracy and Organizational Culture– Scientific Management Approach

• Workers are motivated by economic rewards.

• Productivity is limited by physical restraints of the workers.

– Human Relations Approach• The roles of people, communication and participation

within a bureaucracy are emphasized.

• Workers’ feelings, frustrations and emotional needs are the focus of this approach.



Aerospace SafetyAdvisory Panel

Aerospace SafetyAdvisory Panel

NASA AdvisoryCouncil

NASA AdvisoryCouncil

InspectorGeneral

InspectorGeneralOffice of the

AdministratorOffice of the

Administrator

Chief FinancialOfficer

Chief FinancialOfficer

GeneralCounselGeneralCounsel

Equal OpportunityPrograms

Equal OpportunityPrograms

ExternalRelationsExternal

Relations

LegislativeAffairs

LegislativeAffairs

Human Resourcesand Education

Human Resourcesand Education ProcurementProcurement Public AffairsPublic Affairs

Policy andPlans

Policy andPlans

ManagementSystems and

Facilities

ManagementSystems and

FacilitiesSafety and Mission

AssuranceSafety and Mission

AssuranceHeadquarters

OperationsHeadquarters

OperationsSmall and

Disadvantaged Business Utilization

Small andDisadvantaged

Business Utilization

STAFF OFFICES

OFFICESPROGRAM

Source: Office of the Federal Register. 1999. The United States Government Manual1999-2000. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, p. 586.

█ Organization Chart: National Aeronautics and Space Administration (I)



Earth ScienceEarth Science Space FlightSpace FlightLife and Micro-

gravity Sciencesand Applications

Life and Micro-gravity Sciencesand Applications

Space ScienceSpace Science Aero-spaceTechnologyAero-spaceTechnology

Goddard SpaceFlight Center

Goddard SpaceFlight Center

Lyndon B. JohnsonSpace Center

Lyndon B. JohnsonSpace Center

John F. KennedySpace Center

John F. KennedySpace Center

George C. MarshallSpace Flight CenterGeorge C. MarshallSpace Flight Center

John C. StennisSpace Center

John C. StennisSpace Center

Jet PropulsionLaboratory

Jet PropulsionLaboratory

Ames ResearchCenter

Ames ResearchCenter

Dryden FlightResearch CenterDryden Flight

Research Center

LangleyResearch Center

LangleyResearch Center

John H. GlennResearch Center

at Lewis Field

John H. GlennResearch Center

at Lewis Field

OFFICESPROGRAM

CENTERS

Source: Office of the Federal Register. 1999. The United States Government Manual1999-2000. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, p. 586.

█ Organization Chart: National Aeronautics and Space Administration (II)



█Voluntary Associations– Voluntary Associations

• Organizations established on the basis of common interest, whose members volunteer or even pay to participate.

• “Formal organizations” and “voluntary organizations” are not mutually exclusive.



█ Figure 6.1: Membership in Voluntary Associations in the United States

Source: J. Davis and Smith 2001:347.


22 Organizational Change

█Goal Multiplication– Goal Multiplication

• Goal multiplication takes place when an organization expands its purposes.

• This is generally the result of changing social or economic conditions that threaten the organization’s survival.


23 Organizational Change

█Goal Succession– Goal Succession

• Goal succession occurs when a group or organization has either realized or been denied its goal.

• If it is to continue, it must then identify an entirely new objective.


24Technology’s Impact on the Workplace

█ Telecommuting– Telecommuters are employees who work full-time

or part-time at home rather than in an outside office.

– Telecommuters are linked to their supervisors and colleagues through computers, phones, and fax machines.

– Telecommuting may move society further along the continuum from Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft.



█Electronic Communication– E-mail Benefits

• E-mail is efficient, rapidly communicated, and democratic.

• E-mail gives an organization the benefit of experiences and views of more of its workforce.



█ Electronic Communication– E-mail Disadvantages

• E-mail is so easy to do that it can inundate a worker with too many messages.

• E-mail doesn’t convey body language which in face-to-face communication can soften insensitive phrasing and make unpleasant messages (such as a reprimand) easier to take.

• E-mail leaves a permanent record which can be a problem when messages are written in a reckless and thoughtless manner.


27 Social Policy and Socialization

█The State of the Unions– The Issue

• What has happened to diminish the importance of organized labor unions?

• Have unions perhaps outlived their usefulness in a rapidly changing global economy dominated by the service industry?


28 Social Policy and Organizations

█The State of the Unions– The Setting

• Labor unions consist of organized workers sharing either the same skill or the same employer.

• The experience of unions varies widely in different countries.

Continued...



█The State of the Unions– The Setting

• Reasons given for the decline of labor unions:– Changes in the type of industry

– Growth in part-time jobs

– The legal system

– Globalization

– Employer offensive

– Union rigidity and bureaucratization



█ The State of the Unions– Sociological Insights

• Both Marxists and functionalists would view unions as a logical response to the emergence of impersonal, large-scale, formal, and often alienating organizations.

• Conflict theorists would point out that the longer union leaders are in office the less responsive they are to the needs and demands of the rank and file and the more concerned they are with maintaining their own positions.

• Many union employees encounter role conflict.



█The State of the Unions– Policy Initiatives

• A major barrier to union growth exists in the 20 states that have so-called right to work laws.

• Debate over campaign finance reform in Congress in 2001 raised the question of whether labor unions should be able to use dues to support a particular candidate or promote a position.



█ Figure 6.2: Union Membership in the United States

Source: Developed by the author based on data from Bureau of Labor Statistics 2003: National Right to Work Legal Defense Foundation 2003..

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