~- .. ... ,_... , \

..;Jtf

ln.t\ff"lt)" "''"' ~ '" Cat) S?::!.&2 eo.,,..,.... 0 199?"' .... Vnot",...ltt or Jo- Pnoss

All r11tht1 rtttf'\d

Prln1rd In th~ l 111111d S111u. of An~rloNl

' ptin of lhi book ma" bit,.~ or uulaed lin) (onn or by M) mean. ... .. K't.l'OIUC' Of' '*"

cnpnal on1l lohor 1nirr~11l 111 1rad11io11al rnod1 of or1i,a11 production. B> 1830. tht f't:o110111ir, ur lihf'rul 1npitoli"n ""'I'd 1m arqui~iti'e in di,iduali

l'rodurtoon' or h N'O ir Ill( fod rn m 8\ 't O M1 I\ j! faf \\ 111 forrt'; l 8 orJ 8 poct' f)ptk meltidruma' fltolor '"th \\t>rlin2-do" 'fll'Li1u1ional form in lit ne\\ romc111ion' of llw ~IUr nMwor~. ' n1r )Millan ideology of manl)

ho~or. rrpublirnn indrprndr11c1'. 111111 lwro worship rirculatcd in otli~r S

-u rou~ t 1or pol111ral armN1r and esin>' mlodl'lln1011r th J hilO.O-h eatn>, not b) l1>1rninj! 10 >pt:'erhe on pohuca P fl > bu1 b1 apple d h . . . 'Ulg for . u mit rrtlianding ovauon and a

. . . d nus IS THE PEOPLE'S \,ER huge bonnrr on "lurh '''' prollll' Oler .. Th rd o l the banner rt'ferr..d to Forrest'.> recent and

(' \\0 \ I . b d i d \\ideh pubhcized diH>rrt> rn

ner "' complete vindirauon. In o curmin lirr. I do not propo~t' to 1\aminP the procet'din~ of tht latr unhapp1 triI I b . ? . " tB!W as well as on. Actor....,,.. arr~tt remembered wh "th B d

"a> Bltrae rgrN nlifo publ of po-. er and d re image led people to name objects

anger after him: Stl'omhoats, raeehor. fire enginl'S and 70 Th1trp o' I

'I t-on1an lndrtHnd(nt"t>

locomotives. i\s one commentntor noted ofter his death in 1872, For rest wa' "the object of o lwro "oMhip which is now imposible.'"

Forr(st hod mnrril'd Cotherine Norton Sinclair in 1837: she "as 1tlnetee11. he "as thirt) one: shr wos English. he was American; she nnd her famil) hod prNen;.ions to bourgeois gentility, he gloried in the rough democrOC) of his \\Orkin~doss ocquaintonces. After a few vears of initial ho1>pine>s. their oocial lt'e' moed opnrt. Sinclair ("ho re-sumed her fomtl) suniamr ofter the di1 orce) made friends ";th se' era I in the soc1ol l'ltte. Forrt'St lllt'd much a hf' had ~fore marriage. ca rousing "ith hi friends from Tamman) Hall, "horing with prostitutes and actre;;,e;., and earnestl~ pul"iuing his career as a star. The rupture came m 1849 when Forrt'\l di cO\er IN!ll'lt~: wpnot .. -pherl'c or inftuence for men and

Th~ f'l'Opl \~rdi

\\'Onun. ruorrio~r a' o prnolP n-lutiou .. hip iu,o1,iug n1utual respi and nJTection, ond o "ifr' dun 10C'I\11111 hl'r liu,bond ond fomil). Sin dair c>rn odm1111d thm hrr fl\ il11in~ funrtiun mi~ht inH>l-r "pride an M>lf-,ocrifitt'." if thr h1"bond ,hould "ondnlitUhlit'AU poilil or\ j(l'\\. \\ Offit'll \\ tre hlfrrinr 10 and h~nrr dr1)t'ndcm u1)011 nwn; an h" rurtoin >pt'C'th at the Broad "D) flwa1n- "omrn "rreial \ friend> eanw to roll. Willi depiction of the dass di-\ld~ nuining Lhn111i:h 1lw F'ornls' nrnrriagt'. though rolor1ic nccu~aiion, of his 0" n boorilme>S >

n u roni to h h ..... " onor In the 'um mer of 1851, Forret BCCO>trd 11 '""

on 8 '"" )orl Mre .. I i~-- . N, tool 8\\0\ hi' cane locrordin~ to "ilneS> P "'"'" h1> foot on h .. \\ h.I b "rllr end lmd u110n his person "ith thr cant 1 hcd. Nonetheless. \Villi< &urd ~orr('(!union to tl1e honor or hi' hou,lhold.

111e dl\orc1 triol bl'~on in Scp1rmber 1851. Forrest's law~ers called hou ... c \er\ nnt ... to t(\tir) to thr .. 'tf('fl(>' or \\8S"oil" Sinclair had ('lljoycd in For1i'M0s hou;e i11 the mo\lcr\ ahsrne. I le Jll'rforn1e1l hi' ,wrring '""" fil the Broodwoy 1l1eatre from mid l'cbrunry 10 th1 md or 1\pril for 'i\l) nine performances LO an Mimowd eighty thou~nnd ,prrtotor>. on "rngagrml'nl unparalleled in the hi'tol) nf thr tugquire> an understanding of "tar ent('rt111nrnf'nl and th(' thc1rt"ma1ir publir image of Ed,, in Forrest .

AaronHighlight

AaronHighlight

The popularityoritioeram suuring reswd on lwro wor.hip. a hi>tori cell) unique tie between octon. and oudil'n""' In earlier times, actors rnm1hl'llge "i1h their audienccs-LoWs XIV bad prai>d \lolifre, ror eomple-but such

orti~ti. "ere not stars because or their 'ubord11101e role in theatrical produruon. Betterton. Ga1Ticl, and othrr prtmi1'r prforrners or the ri11ht('enth-cemury .tage \\('re 1ronsitio11ol fi11urt"> Ill th{' shirt rmm 1>rcu111nent actors in stock companir~ to indrpt.'nd('ut chari,mntic stars. With the : that we all or "' rtHrenl'e and must e'er ~erell('e Cri>at \1!-11; thi' i>. to me. the

liHn~ ruc:L omid all rush in gs-do" n "hoi-o.-er. the one fLed point 111 modic to the actor. llwnrrii'ol >ta1don 1 d h . .

' ta l e same oconorn1c b1111' nnd p6ydrosoc1al dJ 11m1t O thnrii.matic political leade..,hip. "hid ol;o Oourished in lhr

n1111tNnth cen1u..,, ' d' h d ,. u 1cnces a l'l'>P('Ctrd 13'-tterton and Horllce

\\nalpolt': the) "o.-hipped FoM"e>t and \ndr("' Jork>on. 11' emt'r1wnct> of 'irt ' t - ll \ - uo'' ) in ,. men

"the uniqueness of thl' self a' the Outte of \&luc b) trnnsforming his roll' into u source of unimagined O"er. and beaut)" for hh oudJcnce. Hero \\on.hip in the ll'I' n>H..,,i-d the traditional pa tronartisan relalionship: From their folloHrs point or' irw. stars had l'\l'eptional, hl'roic f>O"ers lhot

hi"hon 1alL 10 a Boston audienc do "1th the actor ecept to \\llne.s. to oppro,e, or to condemn bis perfonuance; ooted an irate editor ... ,\q thing> are no": he contin twd dw >tar .. is com II d d

pe e to rop th \\' illirun Pelb) und Josephine Clifton also poid for priz

In the fiflh act, Pauline> emotions an- oil of calm end object grief- lhc faint, hopeless stnaAAlings of o broken lwort. My very we-0kn1ss aidrd the personntion. The pallor of cxrt~iHJ fotiguc, the worn -out look. touering walk, ond fpeble ' 'oir wev to complim('nt the manager for "ho ing to~eo great core" to ce;i th~ most inrompetent actors os characters who urc killed so th1n 1hrir "1imelrss dl'lllhs do not draw to an unnl'to rs."

No actor in the star network wos os ill used and os poorly paid as the suprrnum1'rory. Given the desire l)f heroic stars lO bo srrn addressing a stage full of citizens, commanding large army. or colliillg an entire cit) LO tremble. the number or ~upen emplo)ed b) manaRei'S increased with the popularity of stars. tsuall) hired for the run of a star's ap-pearance ond paid only e dollor o do~. supers rarel) \\ Orked for an entire Sl'llSOn. J\lost had littl!' or no rehearsal timl', poor costumes, cramped, unheated drl'sSing roul\ls, and no re;p(r1 rroiro managers, stock nctoNt, or sLarcrazed audirnrt-s. When thl\ir ruggd, uncertalu appearanre on stage sometimes produced "long hor~eleughs in thf' most seriou and alfectin11 scen\'s," re;ewers in\lriabl) blamed the supers thl'm,f'hes for their un" 11tin~ errors. "With" hat a noble tr8n quility the) poi.s through a reolution or on earthquake: ond how some Of the lodies hold up their clreSSl'S from the dust, while llying from th~ eruption or Mt. Vesuvius," crarl cd one crilic. Harrird, mocked. under

paid. ond oftt'n u11rmployrd. the sup the unskilled laborers or a ;toe!.. >)>tern \\Orpecl b) 1hr AAronrli1rnirn< of the s111,.,,.1

Thr \lOr; us~ or "ICOlk cornpani4, lurtu.d lhtOll'P troupes into .. dis~ ' of thr loci. actor. 11110 monor rolh. ubjuRated plarwriRhb to thcir needs. and grabbed" murh monr) and fame a tlu" could '"""from "eal-rned manR

cosd) ;pecrnclcq ond stors to otuact the public. Hi> gamble paid off'. aided by the timely buming or the PorL Theatre in December of 1848. B) 1850. with control or the large;! pla)hOllW Lil America, European 011ents contracting operatic ond lcgitinlall' .iars for American tours. and the monagcmcnt of tributal") theotreq in Philadelphia. Boltimore. and \\ashm~ton. O.C .. . A. \lorUIN undrl"itood the 1cnns of his monopolistic control. 1110 ~t cracL' m his ')Wm apped to the fullest dramatic frenz). its lsirl loudMt \\Ctt as the blasts of a trumpet and, aided b) the megnif1Ccnt 6t&ture ofthe man, go'e to his feigned passion the gnmdl'ur or gianh.

Lile "-ean, "ilh "horn hi' had actl'd early in his career. ForreS1 shocked hi oud1to,.,. b) ju111pin1t from romeNotionol tones to energetic bursU. of p81>1>ion. ~Orre,t\ 't)le, hO\\('H'r, \h tar. During Fomt \ first London tour in 1836. one typi cal English rl'vil'"rr found his ortinA more "po"erful" but less "spiri tun!" than Kt'on\. 0,l'rall, tlw critk r "simplicity.

sin nluch as an)one. helped to ,hap

tests for oil the publicil) he could gN. In fact. all the pl.1HH1ghts "ho \\Oil award' hud "ritten plop befor1'. 11.:t tnln,fornwd the curtain speech from o >irnplc Lhan kyu into o full-blo"n orution. When tlw Forn>SI l.ifr Guards. in full-dre" uniforms. came to ..i111h hi' Corio /anu, forn>,l lecwrod mem ufll'r lhe 'hO\\ for l\\l'lll~ minute> On the \irtut'' of ,elf-help. \t tl1e 5'11111' Urnl'. l'orresl nmtinut-d '01ll theatre. '11d1 o' underpa>ing play" r1ghi. ond taking benefit prrfornmnl'es. "'""II) onl' ot the dosl' or each '''tO-"t.\tl engag heroic role>. hi' admirmg public painted h1m O' O elf-made SUffl"i,, U child or naturt. Oil iron man Of l\apolN111ic PO\\ er. and an or11focl or God's handiwor~. Thi' image is importoni for lltn0 perrei the reason for his populonl) : "Oi>on hi; own cupilt. Fo1-rr.i was often picturrd e' a powerful man of lhr 1wuple unafraid In get his hands di1\): "II i' no painl" of '\apoleon. 111' 1101rd that "the naturall> ntrgetic man poole a few lines to Forrest." The rP vir\"'

bis no101ion poin" up 1hc eon> with which Jncksonion imaginations associa1ed lhe populoril) nod heroic quoli1ie or Forrest with the sue CM> a11d charisma or the French emperor.

\n 1deali2ed imllj!c of opolron fascino1ed mon) Jacksonian Ameri cans. Pia)>. bool. 011d pictures celebrntinj! Napoleon's military cam paigns and imperial rule cnjoied "idepread populorit). Emerson prai'ed 1he French emperor a rcprese11tati\C modem man for his "ill po" er .nd crcnti> 11)- fortt>t himlf odn\lred Bonapane and prommentl) displaied his portrail in his s1ud). He once tNmpe1ed: "\\bt'tt\er lt\opoleonl pas A tliousand imperishable monumeni. aue'l the magnilkcncr or hi> itnius.''. Lik man) Jackson ions. For-""' o' erlooled 'elr on the Co,.icn11 up1ar1; donning the imperial wreath of \merican greau1es. Forrest eagerly conrro11ted the fame or European ta .....

Specifically, l'orres1 rhallenged the Englih star William Charles Macready, n nndy-made >)1nbol or Euopean aristocracy for arden1 Jorksonion. forre>t' action' lw1wen 1845, when he hissed Macrcad} in Edinburl\h. nnd 1849. when his fons fomented Lhe Astor Place riot to chase Mucrcndy olT tht American srngc. were pctly and vindicti\'e, ho1dly in urrord with his public image or Napoleonic majesty and power. Forre.i ju,tilird his ill mannered act in Edinburgh by claiming that Macreody ond hi, minions were ronspiring, out of jealousy, IO pre -em the succe~ or his second English tour-a charge that was never pro,cn ond '"'" probobl) folse. Apparently Forrest tool no part in the plans lo d1>rup1 ~locreody's opening performance a1 the Astor Place Oporo llousc. but hr certainly encouroged them. The leaders of the mob, "Coplain" Isaiah R)ndcn 11nd E. z. C. Jud~on (be1ier kno"n as llied Buntlme, the dnnr no.rlist), \\ere Tammonv Democrats, and FOe )Cmpha1i;~$ Forrest'$ sublrmt end \pol1"0n1r c1u1tltlftli .

adm1nnJ! fans i~nored hi> petulnn1., 'liugaru unnaLural and full ortri!'l hrcous(' it is mighty and thun-drr so in its full? ... Whenevpr I sow I ForrOn fon't'\l mirror to reflect bod.. o heroic image of thellbPh "' ii "a' on imaRe shimmering "ith idt'OIOJ!icel dh isions and contradiction,. forrt',l as self made yeoman .\m('rinm, for instance. dn'I' almo't rquoll) on 1he antagonistic tradi lion;, of republican and liberal idroloio. On the on in thr soil of 011 Arcodion past, preserved his r('publican sin1plicity, virtu e, and inrltprudtnte. 111is is the Forres who does his \VOrk "bra\1.'inly" anrl spurn" th(l entrapments of luxury ond dl'rudcncc in "society." On th~ othrr hond, the young octor hnd "l'"o1Jil111i1,ed" on the "fire of grnius \\ithin" 10 voull abovl' ltis humble b(1tinn111g-, and arhie,e in1en101ional rtor Pince und his postdivon:e engagemrn1 m the Broud"llY 111eatre. Bui

"111f l'oplr i ~erdirt.. 89

I i:.L.

Lhe relol ion of 1 he rode or honor 10 clas;icol republicanism had always been ambiguous. llonoroblt> republirons mighl fight ogoinst tyronny for their independence. but men al;,o demonstrated their claim LO an hon-orable reputation b) dominating olhrN. As thr political philosopher Thomas Hobbes reminded seMteenlh-renturi Engli;hmen. "To obe) is to honor. becou'e no men olw)s them, "hom lhry think have no po"er to help or hun tht;. public pen.Ona o' u l\opoleon 1c hero "a' ,ha pre.I by thr roles he prform..d in his Lhree mu;,1 popular prite pl)'' \lriamora (1829) by Jolu1 \u~us1us Stone, The Claduuor (1831) b) Robl.'n \lom~meri Bird, ond Jack Cade ( 1833) b' Robtrl T. Conrod. \ltl1oul!h imilar to romantic tra~edies. thee rhirlt, manift" o >1runural rf'linnet> on ,ilJain) and Proidence that olil!n' ihtm "iih the r"mentiuns or melodrama. Ostensibly con-

c~md w &l'rt th

f~(/,., 4 u!li.yi ,.....ti;. ~ ta. 1111' (a..~. v. ..tabli,hrd hi' puhlir ~r-ona "' 1lw \nclrr" Jaehicle> before predominotrlv Drmonotic outhrnrr,. 8) thot timr, most elitr \\hi~, hod topped ollrndon- Forrt".1\ t>1I forth in orw of tho'" long-lrhops l\\O thou,oncl) at the \\olnut , h) thru under Mor.hell's lrudership . .\lthough Mar;,hall '""> hme ollrftrt

would oommodole 4.500 persons, hoving seats for 4,000. Tilere >on immense pi1 to" hieh only men and boys were admitted. The price or odmi5,ion (10 1hc pit) ""s twcnty-6e cents and the >eats Prt plain benches wilhou1 backs, and on Theatre rn t8S2.

Smee theatrejtoing l't'rnamed a predominau~l) male acti.-il) at the Boel'). \\'alnu1, and Broad-.o) 1hcatl't's in the two decades preceding 185S. forre'I' urbon hero Ol"\hippers mus1 ha'e been mostly men ond boy- conrlu,ion 1hot olso fits \\ilh the "rlcome given 1he star or1er his di\Of' riot in 1849, and 1 he ract th al rough!) 65 1>rrcen1 or llw urban population~ or Philadelphia and New York in 1850 \\Cre workingdOSS, 1110>1 or f'orrrsi's ra n; in the f840s were male \\'01'k(ll"$. G

. Bui 1101 oil "~rkcrs wr111 10 1he theotrr. Sonw preferred union mect-rn~s or evungrlrcul ~Ol lwrings 10 1hc drinking and rowdiness of play-l!Omg. Others ung men made h b 1, r . up t c u ~ o th audience. In his report on the Bo""" audrenC'e or 1he I Io.,,

&14' """"' JOUn1ah>1 George Foster noted

!J.I Thafrf' o/ ll'Oman /11drp,.ndl'nrr

the presence of"thc s hop-woman," "1he map-colorer," and "the straw-braidl'r" (three femole orcupotions). in addition to several male types. including the "butchl'rboy, th mechanic -.i1h his boiterous ramify, (ond) 1lw b'ho) in red Oonncl shirt-slce'e' and cone-shapl'd irousers." Social brMorion Chn,tine Ston,ell rondudl's 1ho1 "orking-class sociel) on thr Bowel') was primaril) a "youth rolture."

l'orre-i's \\Orking class rans ere predominalCI~ 1raditionalists in orientoiion. H1~10rian' Peul Faler tmd Alon Da"le) define three l)pes or rMflOnSe among Orl..rrs 10 lhe ill. the "r11d1C'als," formed poli1ical parties and labor unions to demand bet1cr P> the trn-hour da). rrec public education, and an end 10 the monopoly po"er or 1hc rich. B) the lat or cmploymeni ror slilled journepnen. With rew l'xptions, th' paniC'or 1837 and 1he folio\\ ing six years or depres-5ion obli1er01ed the~nlist>," lookcd to religion. temper-ance, hard worl , end d holl' or thr re' i' a list,. In addi1ion to thl'atregoing. tradiuoneli\tS l'IUO~t'd contl'~l> or Orlin!!da.- honor Such as cocl

fight>. horw ru(r, nnd boinl! mntrhr,, For the most part. tradition aJi,b ought'"" l''trrm throujlh honuniblr ramaraderir, not self-d!'-ninl. and 'licre: throul(h thr trt ;nn of tracliuonel ortban rights. not srlr improemem.

These kmd' of "orlrr. trnMd to \Otr for Jacl">nien Democrats: inde(d. 010,t Jacl ... oniun1it. \\OrL1nJt rlo..,., or 1101. 'har('d e 1raditiooali!tt or1tnta11on lO\\lrd \\OrL. "iOC'itI~. jtO\f'rn1nc:n1. and enjO)rt\ent. Ora\\

in~ on oa .. 1d Rir.,rnon, noliOJl\ ur .. onal char&l"lf'r," historian La" rence Kohl '''"'in> that \\hllr mal~ \mNkans during the age or Jarl-Mlll ran~rd elon1t a rominuum "from stronl!I) tnulition-dire. thr" urged the abo Inion of all l1oal r1l"r1c>i>ol d I .

,.. v r an prr1e pm 1legt to reestablish what the) tool to be thl' nnturnl equoltt) or all \\hitr men. Th('ir hrroes. like Jadon, or ond 'apoll'Onic authority: Jack son himself, the} belir,ed, foul!ht nrinotnttic po\\er to restore repub bran mdep1nd Richard Penn Smith, Da' id Paul llrO\HI, and Georjte l\1ilrs -ritten for Junius Brutus Booth. Jonws I~. Murdod1. und 01twr "nrs. 11 Not ell oftheoe heroic melodra-mas follo"l'tl th~ formula of ,\INn111or.1, T/1e GtaditJtor, and Jack Cadt', or ('()Ul'Sl'. bul tlll'Sl' V('ltirls. ,.,p .. dnlly the first two, establishrd a 111udel thnl wu "idely infhwntiol. if 11ot slnvishly topied. Like For-rtst's ploy~. tht\8c ron1ontic \'C-hin. I ilP \ Jack Cade, in other \\Ord>. 1111plidtl} in'i'h thot the tru~ '101) of this medie\OI peasant ~S al'. Ju.-kily. brimful of hrro1c aNion, romon1ic character... and poeuc speerh. The conunuo11, of tlw hi'itori

Roman slave insurrection, a Wompnnoag chier rl'sisted the P'uritans. and the arious other Romans, e\plOl"l'l'S, and indigcnou) pl'Oples or these pier mol"I' or le~s accomplished what thl'ir pla)~vrol(hts claimed for them.

The sure on the English swgl' of earlier dramas of 1.'0rHervali-e romance inOuenced the content of mani of 1hese pla~ ancludinR Forres!'" mos1 popular melodrama\. Three of these in panicular-Virginius ( 1820) b)' Shrridan KnowlPs, Brutus, or The Fall o/Tarquin (1818) b> John Howard Payne, nml Pizarro i11 Peru (1799). adapted b> Richard Brinsle} Sheridan from Kotzebue's original-helped to ohape lhe plots and cl10racters of MNamora, Thi' Gladiator. and Jack Cade." Knowles and l'oyne wrote their plays specifically for Kean. al though it wa Mocr who popularized Virginius in the mid 1820.. British and \meriran >tars were performing the~e pie" hen Forrest was pen~tmg his craft and rising in lhe rank~. Forrest. in foct, playtd roles in nll three shms early and throughout hi long tareer, though neither 1" often nur 10 O> many peoplP os his popular priw plays.

Vi"l!iniu.t, Brows, and Pi:arro. lil.e Fo'"'"' daughter to s'~ her honor. \le1amora is closer oerall, ho .. eer, to Pi:arro in Pero Lke i..otztbut>'s lncan htro Rollo, \fotnmora ,mods abo'e nnd be1ween the deeool~nt pleeMrres or the Europeans and th" squabblinR und sav ogery of h1~ o,,,, folJo'""'rs. A virtuou\ nortn btt,,een t"o 1nlmoral e;.. tl"l'mes. \letamora ~ues for pear in the anion, and b >lutions a~oin.i this clo11 rail in Ja

L

tamora. and Tiit' Clacli11101, unption oft11e hero. In l'i:,.rro in P1ru, Hollo i diidrd nsninst himsrlf. seeking bth ro

nusnt~c lo'l' with on l11(un \YOnu111 nnd 1hr vic-tory of 1he Incas o,er Lhc Spomords-dl'>irM whieh th~ 11101 manages 10 sN 01 odils " i1h each ?lher._ulrwis the 111ili1ary might or

R~me ond jealou'> r pU3 , .. ing. i\nd '0111"\ nbo>r tlw -iorm, and lool.s nnd laugh> Oo"n on i" ''ruJUtlin~ tcrro". SarN) still ltt"unh 1gnobh (n,C': Bl' min thr.

Ho' in!! >lrupped on 1hP1r shield' and buckl IOSf' 1110>1 or the \'Ufncrabilit) and gen tlf'nr\\ or\ il"l!llliu~. HrtttU,. nnd Rollo. ,\1 stake here ..... different con-Ccinlli. natural innocence is O ll') lo uudtr-IOndin~ l'\pf'rif'nre- an OJ>ir innoct>nre a' a badge to ju,tify their '('ngrfol figh1 for frNrlom. R111her1han Pmphasi1ing lite namrnl tics I hat ml'll of tlilTereut cullur('' hOH' in common, as does Holla when he vol unLorily ~urTonian definition of hrroism, ure al'o 'fotunil \1eth to MNamora: '' Ille high hill> &ent hack the echo. ond rocl... and ()('t'~n. l'nnh. end nir openo>d then~e or death!' .. (UJ , I). :\a-lurt> oho \oitt'> Go

The stonn brol.P b bea,en's high mnsonl') "ntul') Amenn1ns 8\ fundamental to the history ofhumoOJt) : 1he lesson of Christ\ rnorifiion.

Audiences understood Cade. Metamora. and Spartacus as symbols noi only of Mo~ death. In none Of lhese plB)S ore lhe people WOrth) Of the hero\ trut, goodness, Or sacrifice. Hence 1hr drametk action or lhrC or lh(' people against ari~tocraur "Plll't'Ssion, rej

-un~l'en hand of the Almighty in shopin1t the mart) rtlorn of Forrt'st'~ yeomun Christs mnndutc 11 nonlrof(ir form for i\iletommn. Jock CadP, and 7nr Gladiator. In effect, Jackso111ani'm shiftuhed in a lobor force that "8> "bound hand and fool b) a ')'H'm or pell) de,pott'm as galling 8 ' e\('r oppressed thP ubjuliticions oppoed lhe monopoly power or the r ich. in true,., .. pubhron fashion, but, liJ..e good libman r~public lf'd Ja in his ploys."

011 the other hond. the traditionul repres('ntotivS ol' the foll in Rirtl\. Conrad\. nnd Stone's drama- lurk the \'inue of the Jocksonion JM' for \lomfest Desun} looked to hard) nnd 111dustrious )N>man fanne,.., w 111\urr the con tinuotion of agrnrion ei1uhtarianism. While heroic nwlodroma like\\isr proi"'' the peo1>le in general, most members of the folk are unworlh) of llw lwro's elTorl\ 011 their behalf. Before Jack Cade' nrrival in En ~lond. the peasonl' "t'rf' confused and ro"ardly "h111 fodng aris10 crollr oppres.ion. Tht '"P"rhero puh iron in their bat lo.bones "hen the) fight the noblr.. bu1 they ...,main pl'l'plexcd and d1>1ded "hen he

i~ 11ot nmong them. L!tt own no God I But !\1ammon" (Ill, I), romments one S)mpalheti

ture of the people. Eorly tn th can ghr "' ho\\S \nd f('B'I>: ond thert>fore i' tht> proper man." (II, II

Onhnrnius bctrai his brother. leeing Spar-tacus hop(le"IY Outm1Jtrhed on his ~uicidal ottock on the Roman. In all tlirlec l!t.(1Cr111rt' \\ hC"n thr 1> - . f h . urotonq c. optur(' 1hem and he gi>es himself up to ree er and h" ch'Jd d h , d f I ' On . Jlllt'Ollq de~pair when they are IJiled al I t tn o the dremo "\1 r I

I . . ) WI (', rnr qmen, m) 'lahmeokeel" are ~ ..... more. o't "'"r11, (\' 5) Th . .. . r-. &Nod er relations "ert' imbued "1th v '"l'ption oft he peoson1;, seulrrs, Amcricen lndi1111.s, end fo1'111rr olov('' in Forrl'st's plA)S."

But if the peo11lr arr inriwbl) grrt>dy, cowardly. ond "bauble bruincd."' whal arr the rhnnrt'\ for demorrary? Significant!}. anti dcmoroti lwro "o"hip nbo penodd the t)picul romantic novels of the onicbellum South, tlw region lllO'il 1tttrertrd to Jad,sonianism. The plot\ of nurrau'"' ,uclt ., T/1r \'alley of Shenandoah b} George Tucker, C11v11/11'r> of \'1~mia by\\ illiam Caruth

lleroi m fai~tnle mrlodramas. God and the hero mo\I' the good cherac-tr" of heroic m1lodrama lO\\&rd e utopian roncl1Mon. Fairytale pJ.11, j(roUf) their oudirncc's need for imrncdiote "i'h fulfi11111en1 by proid inlt timeles; honH'"'Wf.'f.'lhome by th!.' end of 1hr show. Heroic mclo dramas. howe,er, offer the ff'A"1ira11ce of p1-o' id111tial design hut do not lead the chosen people to the promiS ~dge rather than [uspeaks i;1 his war voice From I hr douds! MurdtN',..,! The lru.t of tlw \\amponoag, rurse bl' on >ou! \fa) )our 11ruw' and TI1e 1!'"11'' of JOUl' children be in the path thl' Red Mon 'hull ll'ace! And rnoy the \\olf ond Pan1h11 howl o'er your fleshless bones, fit Banquf't for the destroyers. (V.5)

Here i> no ncoplotonitian bea,en. a ron,enient metaphor \\hich allo-.< the hero to gain n kind of neoplatonrr utopia and th!' hope of a Chri\ tian heaven at 1hc so111e ti111c-. Pottil' conceptions. of coursl". ni'r than purpo,l'full) ambiguou about the antinomies imohc-d.

The inabilit) or 1he;e melodrama; 10 in

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Thi ambiguity about biSlory and utopia. plu; ib enlidemocratic im-plications. "as present in Demo111te, "a; already a .. perfect purtt)" for O'Sullivan and most other traditiondirecteci Democrots, 'omchov. the .-illainous ingenuityofthr "0118ckin~cause .. keptgeouinc utopio just out of reach. In O"Sulliven's phra~ing. Democratic history wo> moving both forward and backward 0 1 once: forwurd toward more bultlt'S with tl1e Whigs and backwurd 10 tlw purity of ilS origins. Wi1h o new charismatic leader in 1lw pr to understand why many Arneri cans in the audience cmbrared bo1h democrotir egalitarianism and the amidemocr111ic hero worship of chorismatic ou1hority.

The persuasive power or heroic mclodrornu owes much to the gen (roli7Cd rhetoric or patrioti.,n pcrvasiv~ in thr United States during the Jacksonian years. Historian or rhrtorir lloward Marlin notes lhe prevaltnce of generic rather thnn specific lertns in l'ounh or Jul) ora-tions. for instance. Likewise. rhetorician Richard Wea' er commen1s on the ease with "hich mostan1.ebellum oratoN u,,.d uch words as .. free-dom" and "morality .. ,..;thou1 bothering to define lhem. The ~l'ical orator. he states ... srems to be ~p

S1a1"' Among ForTes1's plap-ril(hl,, Conrad ond Stone ech: '"Pwple 1hrn, if not 110\\, iook stroigh1Ionard >al l'fo lht'hentntionaJ and formulaic. Forrct\ hero added room for more spectators. \\ hile 1820.. 1hr11tr11int' out. krps in check "a kind of officious detail "hich \\ould onl) lo\\ er 1hc l!eneral elJect." In a ~eet111n~ parado~. the formalil) nod rl'lllOlelll'>S or antebellum Or8tol')' und \tar nctinp led to some or the lllO'I tmo11on-pock .. d spealdn11 and ll"rfonninll e'er witneS>ed in \mtnra ."

\111.,bellum orators \\Orled rarl'foll) for ma,imwn emotional olTf'l't b) building moments of l'ApP'l't' Or 10 rush 10 th e Side or I he

ol his training muscl('S and thunderou' voice than the result of his probing nnd rmbodyin& hi> own and his characters' vulnerabilities. In a re>ie" of the superstar' Virginius. an 1841 critic praised his mo-

men~ of "reenge. hale. &ron1, and indignation." Regarding those emotions that "belong to the 'melting mood.' howc.-er, the critic added chruitabl) that ;uch fecl11111' "'lie farther beyond the circle of hi

~emus and resources.'' Forrest'> apparent fear of exposing his softer ide probabl) accounted for the woodennes of his Macbeth and the general failure of hi I lomlN. both of" hirtoru;, thrn, 111\0ll'd the oudiencJ\t& ~ional. >A)> Suuc-. Forrest', reputntion for s incerit) and the near ~dm~ll) bet"ccn hr~ o" n public image and the image of the protagon ~1' 111 h1> ht'm1(' nwlodronrn,, ho"cer, allo" ThPar,..,. Collt>ttion. '"" rorlc: Pub/it: l .. ibrary for thr Ptrfornuni . \rtl. 1\.1tor. Lf'no.'

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houtrd, "FrNdom for ho11dmen ! Frrt:'dom nnd rr rngl'!" (11.3) hi' wo< prokin11 1101 onl~ 10 1hr rnlod Alodiutoro on stage, but direcd) 10 the ouditncr us""" From the 'Prt)lr i rerahn2 m chi' rt'l(Drd. 11w hort&LOI') ''>Ir u thrntrr. A gold-hungry audience identifitd the Amerirun lndion' in tlll' Jllny with the Cherokees oft.hP area, on whose lrtuty gilen lund tht> ~old lrikr hnd oecurred. Forrest had performer! the melodromo nl l'>Ortly the "rong moment: the settlers were en roged 11t thc l(ovrrnnw111's prower ion of Nalive American rights-only o lrm1>orory guornntrr, us it 111rncd out-nod could loll.. of little t'lse when Forro''' strppr

his cornmondments. A~ in other orgnnizotions dominated by a charis motic lrodrr, the lndion tribe and the roAAed army or former slaves or freed bondScl"'ontS hod no cleor hirrnrchicol order; like pittites roar-ing for Forrest in the theotrt', thr~e men temporarily repudiated their mvohcmcnt in eel")dD) affeirs to follow the coll of Forrest-Metamora. Cade. or Sportaru~. The 'uperstar-superhcro promised a ne" Jack

i.onian di prn>ntion. a rt>volution&r) o' erturning of the status quo in the epectation that somrd). sonwhow. the lost shall be firsL T11e vc~ ambiguat) about ho\\ and "hen this final jud~ment mi~ht be rendered gae add('(! 1uthorit) to Forrest Cade and his fello" Jacksonian char i>matics. In the meo1111mr. the super'itor's performances com inced hi traditiondirN"trd follo"e" 111 the audience that they should tender their entl1w.1a'm and obdience to hi~ cherismotic command. In ex change. hr would gie them himself, on image of authorit~ both per

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