Maureen Lewis and David Wray writing frames - · PDF filewriting framesMaureen Lewis and David...
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scaffolding children’s non-fiction writing in a range of genres
writing framesMaureen Lewis and David Wray
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National Curriculum English documents ( ; f ) have made it clear that childrenshould undertake a wide range ofdifferent types of writing and thatthey should be ‘helped to plan andproduce these types of writing’ –descriptions, explanations, opinions,etc – ‘by being given purposefulopportunities to write their own’. In spite of the many changes to theEnglish orders over the last few years,the emphasis on non-fiction writingremains a recurrent theme �.
The (Exeter ExtendingLiteracy) project attempted to address this issue by developing‘writing frames’ which would act as a kind of scaffolding for children’snon-fiction writing. The frames havebeen trialled with children through-out the country in primary and lowersecondary years and across the fullrange of abilities, including childrenwith special needs.
This publication sets out to:■ explain the history and purposes
of writing frames
■ outline the characteristics of six different non-fiction genres –recount, report, explanation,procedure, persuasion and discussion
■ give examples of how writingframes scaffold children’s writing in each of these genres
■ offer blank templates (see pages‒) which can be used in a rangeof situations.
Introduction
contentsIntroduction
Writing frames
Recount genre frames
Report genre frames
Explanation genre frames
Procedural genre frames
Persuasion genre frames
Discussion genre frames
Photocopiable writing frames
© Maureen Lewis & David Wray – Exeter ExtendingLiteracy project.
‒‒‒
Reset
National Centre forLanguage and Literacy
The University of ReadingBulmershe CourtEarleyReading
This publication was firstproduced as part of the (The Exeter ExtendingLiteracy) project funded bythe Nuffield Foundation.
We would like to thank themany teachers and childrenthroughout the country whohave trialled writing framesin their classrooms. Theirinsights, expertise, sugges-tions and critical supporthave been invaluable.
We would particularlylike to thank the followingDevon teachers who were all members of our GenreGroup and gave freely oftheir time, their ideas andtheir classroom experience:
Carolyn BallardBishopsteignton Primary School
Margaret BirchManor Primary School
Andrea BradshawBere Alston County Primary School
Caroline CoxStoke Hill First
Rosie CulverhouseTavistock Community College
David EdwardsCheriton Bishop Primary School
Jan MarshallHorrabridge County Primary School
Patricia RospigliosiLearning support teacherWest Devon
Chris StrattonAlphington Combined School
� ‘Pupils should be able to … produce a
range of types of non-chronological writing.’
English in the national curriculum
( : , level d)
‘Pupils should … be taught to write in a range
of forms, incorporating some of the different
characteristics of those forms.’
Key stages and of the national curriculum
(f : )
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Genre analysis undertaken byAustralian researchers offers anexciting way forward. Six main genreswill be considered in this publication– recount, report, procedure, explana-tion, persuasion and discussion.Analysis of the typical structure ofthese different genres has helped toshape the writing frames developedas part of the project �.
Writing frames are templatesconsisting of starters, connectives andsentence modifiers which offer chil-dren a structure for communicatingwhat they want to say. They help by■ giving experience of a range of
generic structures
■ providing the cohesive links whichallow children to maintain the senseof what they are writing
■ offering a varied vocabulary ofconnectives and sentence begin-nings which allow children to gobeyond the familiar and then…
■ encouraging a personal interpreta-tion of information gatheredthrough the careful use of personalpronouns
■ asking children to select and thinkabout what they have learnt by re-ordering information and demon-strating their understanding, ratherthan just copying out text
■ ensuring some success at writing,a vital ingredient in improving self-esteem and motivation
■ providing an alternative to a blank sheet of paper – a particularlydaunting experience, especially forchildren who find sustained writingdifficult
■ giving children an overview of thewriting task.
A model for teaching The model of teaching upon which we have based the work of the
Project can be summarised in below.
This model arises from Vygotsky’s() ideas on how children learn incollaboration with experts – parentsor teachers. At first they are spectatorsand most of the cognitive work isdone by the expert. As they grow inexperience and capability, the expertpasses over greater and greaterresponsibility but still acts as a guide,assisting the child at problematicpoints. Eventually, the child assumesfull responsibility for the task with the expert still present in the role of a supportive audience �.
This model makes good theoret-ical sense but can be a little difficult to apply in a busy, over-populatedclassroom where children are oftenexpected to move into independentwriting before they are really ready. A ‘scaffolded phase’ is clearly neededto span joint and independent activ-ity, where children are offered strate-gies to aid writing which they can usewithout an adult necessarily beingalongside them. Writing frames areone such strategy. They act both as away of increasing a child’s experienceof a particular type of non-fictionwriting and as a substitute for teacherintervention.
How to use the frames Use of the frame should always beginwith discussion and teacher model-ling before moving on to joint con-struction (teacher plus child/children)and then to independent writingsupported by the frame. This patternof teaching is vital, for it not only
models the generic form and teachesthe words that signal connections andtransitions, but also provides oppor-tunities for developing children’sthinking and oral language. Somechildren, and especially those withlearning difficulties, may need manyoral sessions and sessions where theteacher acts as a scribe before theyattempt their own writing.
‘Big’ versions of the frames can be used in the teacher modelling andjoint construction phases. It is impor-tant that both child and teacherunderstand that the frame should beused as a support for drafting – wordsmay be crossed out or changed, extrasentences may be added and surplusstarters crossed out. The frame shouldnot be treated as a strait-jacket.
When to use the frames Writing in a range of genres is mosteffective if it is located in meaning-ful experiences. For this reason, theframes should always be used as partof class topic work rather than inisolated study skills lessons. Muchprimary school teaching is still largelybased on this model of curriculumplanning and we would argue verystrongly for its potential effectiveness.The frame itself never offers a purposefor writing.
When children do have a reason for writing, there are several situationswhere you may decide it is appropriateto offer a frame:■ when they first attempt indepen-
dent writing in an unfamiliar genre
� For a more detailed explanation of genreanalysis, see Lewis, M. & Wray, D. ()Developing children’s non-fiction writing.Leamington Spa: Scholastic
� Vygotsky, L. () Mind in society: thedevelopment of higher psychological processes.Cambridge Mass: Harvard University Press
Writing frames
teacher modelling/demonstration
joint activity
scaffolded activity
independent activity
The teaching model
Non-fiction writing is generally felt to be more problematic
for children than more familiar narrative texts because of
linguistic features such as the use of specialist vocabulary,
structures and connectives. Consequently, they need more
support to produce their own non-fiction writing.
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■ when they appear stuck in a partic-ular mode of writing, eg constantlyusing ‘and then’ … ‘and then’
■ when they wander between genresin a way that demonstrates a lack of understanding, eg proceduraltexts such as recipes may start in asecond person or instructionalmode (First you beat the egg) butthen shift into a recount (Next Istirred in the flour). Mixing genrescan, of course, be a deliberate andcreative decision, and we must takecare to differentiate between thoseoccasions when children purposelymove between genres and thosewhere different genres are confused
■ when they have written somethingin one genre which would be moreappropriate in another genre, egreporting an experiment as apersonal recount.
In all of these situations it is impor-tant to stress that writing frames arejust one of a range of strategies andwriting experiences which teacherswould offer children.
Using the frames with a range of writers The frames are helpful for children of all ages and abilities from ks to ks.However, they are particularly usefulwith children of average writingability and with those who findwriting difficult.
Children already confident andfluent in a particular genre clearlyneed no further scaffolding in thatgenre. However, writing frames can
be used to extend their experience to other genres. While teachers some-times note an initial dip in the qualityof the writing, the new genre and itslanguage features are often added tothe repertoires of confident writersafter only one or two uses of a frame.
Moving from frame toindependent writing As children become familiar with a frame, they should be encouraged to make additions or deletions. Forexample, Robert (aged ) had more tosay than the frame allowed and so hecontinued to add to it (see ).It is noticeable that he continues to use appropriate connectives andmaintains the textual cohesion. Theinitial scaffolding has begun to giveway to independent usage. Thisindicates he is probably ready to moveto the independent phase. The lengthof time that children feel the need touse a frame will, of course, vary fromindividual to individual.
Later, as children begin to showevidence of independent usage, theycan consult copies of the framesplaced in a box of help cards in thewriting area. This form of supportalso encourages them to start makingindependent decisions about theirown learning.
Remember
■ use of the frame should always takethe following sequence• discussion and teacher modelling • joint construction (teacher plus
child/group) • independent writing supported
by the frame
■ not all the children in a class willneed to use a writing frame
■ writing frames should only be usedwhen children have a purpose forwriting
■ children should be encouraged tocross out, amend and add to theframe as suits them
■ frames are only a small part of thevaried and rich writing experienceswe offer children
■ generic structures are not rigid,unchangeable forms
■ the frames in this book are startingpoints which teachers can developfor their own unique classroomcontexts and purposes.
Writing produced by Robert, a Year child: initial draft with independently added connectives underlined.
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Recounts usually consist of■ orientation: a ‘scene setting’
opening, eg I went on a visit to themuseum, Our class planted someseeds
■ events: a recount of the events asthey occurred, eg I sat with Sarah on the bus, We put soil in four pots
■ reorientation: a closing statement,eg When we got back from the trip wewrote about it, The seeds with soil,light and water grew best.
Recounts are often written in the past tense, with events presented inchronological order. They focus onindividual participants and use‘doing/action’ clauses.
Recount frames are often the most successful way of introducingthe frames: they clearly direct thechildren’s attention to the topic and,through the use of the personalisedsentence structure, make them activeparticipants, using their own voices(see, for example, ). Writingfrom personal experience is a veryimportant part of children’s writingdevelopment.
Most children already write many
recounts and are very familiar with
this genre. The frames given here may
therefore be most useful in offering
alternative starters and connectives
and encouraging children to write
in different ways. Seven alternative
recount frames are offered:■ prior knowledge and reaction
■ prior knowledge and reaction(visit)
■ prior knowledge and revision
■ prior knowledge and revision (visit)
■ sequential
■ enumeration
■ enumeration (visit).
These photocopiable frames are onpages ‒.
Recount genre framesRecounts inform or entertain their audience –
or even both! – by retelling events.
An example of recount writingproduced by a Year child.
orientation
events
reorientation
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Prior knowledge and reaction frame This frame encourages children tobase their accounts on what they havelearnt rather than what they did andoffers them an alternative structure to a chronological recount. Pupils givetheir opinion of the information theywish to recount eg the most interestingthing I learnt (see ).
Prior knowledge and revision frame The prior knowledge plus revisionframe helps children to reflect onanything they have discovered whichconflicts with or supplements whatthey already knew. Getting children to acknowledge and change theirmisconceptions is difficult. They will often ignore information thatcontradicts what they already know.This frame can be used to acknowl-edge such conflicts or to add furtherdetail to existing knowledge (see ).
name
title
date
I also learnt that
Another fact I learnt
However the most interesting thing I learnt was
Although I already knew that
I have learnt some new facts. I learnt that
PR
IOR
KN
OW
LEDG
E AN
D R
EAC
TION
FRA
ME
Recou
nt gen
re
Writing with a prior knowledge andreaction frame by a Year child withspecific learning difficulties, afterwatching a video and group discussion.
Writing produced by a Year child aftercollecting information from books.
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Prior knowledge andreaction/revision visit framesAs we can see in , theseframes can transform a ‘bed to bedretelling’ (I got up and had my break-fast … then we ate our sandwiches …then we went back to school…) into a personalised, detailed account ofwhat has been learnt.
Sequential frames Recounts are usually chronological in order, ie they are told in the timesequence in which they took place.This often means that children adoptan ‘and then, and then, and then’mode of writing. The sequentialframe offers more interesting alterna-tives. It also offers a logical structureto help those children who find it hardto hold a sequence. In the example ofchildren’s work shown in
the given frame is underlined.
Writing produced using a priorknowledge and reaction (visit) frame bya Year child after a visit to a museum.
An alternative structure to achronological recount completed by a Year child after previous sharedwriting experiences using sequentialframes.
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Enumeration frame Listing is an early genre familiar for most children. The enumerationframe uses this familiar form toenhance recount writing. Mostchildren find this an easily accessibleformat. Many teachers also encouragethe use of this frame to summarise the end of a term’s work, as we see in Hannah’s recount in .
Writing produced by a Year child using an enumeration frame tosummarise and reflect on her work on the Romans.
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Reports usually consist of ■ an opening, general classification,
eg Exeter is a city in Devon, Humans are mammals
■ a more technical classification(optional), eg A city holds a RoyalCharter, The scientific name is‘Homo sapiens’
■ a description of the phenomenon in question, eg qualities, parts andtheir function, habits, behaviour oruses. They are usually written in thepresent tense, are non-chronologi-cal, focus on groups of things(generic participants) and use‘being’ and ‘having’ clauses, as wesee in Simon’s report in .
Report genre framesReports describe a range of natural, cultural or social
phenomena.
An example of report writing producedby Simon, a Year child.
description
general classification
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Comparison and contrast frames These are more complex versions of reports. An opening statementintroduces the general classification.This is followed by a description of the similarities and differences, eg Although Exeter and London areboth cities, they are different in manyways….
Comparing and contrasting phenomena is a sophisticated skill forwhich most children require support.Before attempting the frame childrenwill need to use some kind of graphicorganiser like the grid provided (see ). This enables them toorganise a mass of information beforethey begin writing. Later, they pro-ceed to use this information in contin-uous writing. , for instance,is an example of independent writingafter experience of using a compari-son frame.
characteristics BAcharacteristics
title
Report gen
re
CO
MPA
RIS
ON
GR
ID
name
date
What to do:■ Write the names of the objects being compared/contrasted in boxes A and B below
– for example A: My house, B: Victorian house.
■ List the characteristics being studied in the boxes in the left hand column – for
example heating, lighting, cooking facilities, building materials.
■ Use the grid to record information before writing a report.
Grid for u
se before writin
g a comparison
and con
trast frames
A comparison grid completed by a Year child before using a writing frame.
Independent writing by a Year child after previous experience of usinga comparison frame. The child firstfilled in a grid. Note how the structureand language of the frame has beenassimilated into her independentwriting.
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Explanations usually consist of ■ a general statement to introduce
the topic, eg A butterfly goes through several stages in its life cycle,Computers use a binary numbersystem
■ a series of logical steps explaininghow or why something occurs.These steps continue until the finalstate is produced or the explanationis complete, eg A goes through thisprocess to become B, B then goesthrough this process to become C, etc.
Explanations are often written in the simple present tense, usingtemporal (then, next, after, etc) and/or causal conjunctions (because,therefore, etc), and mainly ‘action’clauses.
Some explanations contain ele-ments of the sequential genre but aredifferentiated from simple sequentialrecounts by the use of causal state-ments. For an example of explanation,see ; and for examples ofwriting with explanation frames, see and .
In the photocopiable pages found at the end of this book, a choice ofexplanation frames is given. The first(page ) is causal. The other two
frames (pages ‒) not only askchildren to explain a phenomenon but also to ascribe value to differingexplanations.
Explanation genre framesThis genre is used to explain natural and social phenomena.
An example of explanation writingproduced by Bill, a Year child.
opening statement
series of stepsexplaining thephenomena
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title
Explan
ation gen
re
name
date
I want to explain why
So now you can see why
A further reason is
Another reason is
There are several reasons for this. The chief reason is
EXP
LAN
ATIO
Ntitle
Explan
ation gen
re
name
date
I want to explain why
So now you can see why
A further reason is
Another reason is
There are several reasons for this. The chief reason is
EXP
LAN
ATIO
N
An example of writing with anexplanation frame produced by a Year child receiving individuallanguage support.
An example of a writing with anexplanation frame produced by a Year child.
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A procedural text usually consists of■ a statement of what is to be
achieved, eg How to make a cake
■ a list of materials/equipmentneeded to achieve the goal
■ a series of sequenced steps toachieve the goal, eg Cream the sugar and butter
■ in many cases, a diagram or illustration.
It is usually written in the simplepresent tense or using imperatives (do this, do that), is chronological,focuses on generalised human agentsrather than individuals (first you takerather than first I take), and consists of mainly doing/action clauses. For an example of procedural writing, see .
Procedural frames scaffold chil-drens’ writing in the more formalregister of instructions.
The first two procedural frames in the photocopiable section at theend of this book (pages ‒) use the same generic structure but offerdiffering vocabulary and layout.
During the trialling of these frames many children commented on the need for diagrams to clarifytheir instructions. The third frame(page 32) allows for a more visualapproach.
Procedure genre frames
An example of procedural writingproduced by Sarah, a Year child.
Procedures or instructions are written to describe how
something is done in a series of sequenced steps.
goal
materials andequipment
steps to achieve the goal
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Persuasive writing usually consists of■ the thesis: an opening statement,
often in the form of position/pre-view, eg Fox hunting is a cruel andbarbaric sport
■ the arguments: often in the form of point plus elaboration, eg Foxesrarely attack domestic animals.Statistics show…
■ reiteration: a summary and restate-ment of the opening position, eg We have seen that… Therefore, allthe evidence points unmistakably tothe conclusion that fox hunting isclearly cruel and unnecessary.
It is usually written in the simplepresent tense, focusing mainly ongeneric human participants and usingmostly logical rather than temporalconjunctions. For an example ofpersuasive writing see ; for an example of writing producedwith a persuasive frame see .
As with all the frames in this publi-cation, discussion, teacher modellingand joint construction of texts arevital first stages. Many children willfind some kind of preliminary organ-ising of their main arguments such asthe ‘protest posters’ frame (see page) a helpful first stage in recordingtheir ideas and information.
An example of persuasive writingproduced by James, a Year child.
Persuasion genre frames Persuasive writing takes many forms from advertising copy to polemical
pamphlets. Its purpose is to promote a particular point of view or argument –
unlike a discussion paper which considers alternative points of view.
thesisposition
reiteration
title
Persuasion
genre
PER
SU
AS
ION
name
date
Although not everybody would agree, I want to argue that
I have several reasons for arguing for this point of view. My first reason is
A further reason is
Furthermore
Therefore, although some people might argue that
I think I have shown that
Writing produced by a Year child using a persuasion frame.
preview
pointelaboration
elaboration
elaboration
point
point
arguments
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They usually consist of■ a statement of the issue plus pre-
view of the main arguments, eg Ourschool is trying to decide whether tohave a uniform. Some people think it would improve the school whilstother groups that it is unnecessary
■ arguments for plus supportingevidence, eg Most of the local schoolsalready have a uniform and most ofthe children look very smart
■ arguments against plus supportingevidence, eg Most of the pupils feelvery strongly that not wearinguniform allows them to feel moreindividual and grown-up. (Theorder of arguments for and againstcan, of course, be reversed)
■ recommendation given as a sum-mary and conclusion, eg One groupwants to unify the school whilst theother group claims freedom ofchoice…. I think….
They are usually written in the simplepresent tense using generic human, or non-human participants, ratherthan personal pronouns (except in the conclusion) and use logical con-junctions (therefore, because etc). Anexample of discussion writing can beseen in opposite.
Children are increasingly expected to use this genre as theyprogress through the educationsystem. Although the weighing ofarguments backed by evidence beforereaching a conclusion is used insecondary and higher education for the writing of academic essays,younger pupils often have very littleexperience of this genre.
Writing discussion papers can be anatural extension of the debate whichis a feature of primary classrooms. Apreliminary framework (see
) should be used after or alongsidediscussion. This can then be furtherrefined into a completed piece ofwriting (see, for instance, ).Teachers can make their own giantversions on sugar paper or use an
for the initial teacher modelling/ jointconstruction phase. Gathering theinformation and organising it is a vitalstep before writing. Some teachersmay feel that the preliminary frame-work itself is sufficient scaffold forfurther writing. Others may wish touse a discussion frame.
Discussion genre frames
An example of discussion writingproduced by Laura, a Year child.
Discussion papers are written to present arguments and
information from differing viewpoints.
statement of issue preview
arguments for
arguments against
recommendation
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title
Discu
ssion gen
re
DIS
CU
SS
ION
name
date
The issue we are discussing is whether
My conclusion, based on the evidence, is
Make notes in the boxes below listing the arguments for and against. ■ Remember notes are just brief outlines. They don’t have to be in sentences.
Arguments for Arguments against
Now use these notes to help you writea discussion paper on this issue
Writing by a Year child using a discussion frame typed up on the computer after producing a handwritten first draft.
A Year child using the preliminary frame for discussion writing.
Our class have been debating whether football should
only be allowed to be played in the school playground
on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays because our
playground is quite small in the winter when we can’t
use the field.
The people who don’t like playing football say it is
unfair that football takes up a lot of space in the
playground. They say they cannot walk around because
they get bumped into and hit with the ball. They also
say it is scarey for little kids.
The footballers say that most people like playing so
they should be allowed to. And if they cannot practice
the school team will get worse and we won’t win many
games. Also they will not enjoy school if they cannot
play with their friends.
I think that football should be allowed everyday
because most people like it and it is good fun.
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Photocopiable writing frames
Recount genre frames ‒
Report genre frames ‒
Explanation genre frames ‒
Procedure genre frames ‒
Persuasion genre frames ‒
Discussion genre frames ‒
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nam
e
titl
e
date
I als
o le
arnt
that
Ano
ther
fact
I le
arnt
How
ever
the
mos
t int
eres
ting
thin
g I l
earn
t was
Alt
houg
h I a
lrea
dy k
new
that
I hav
e le
arnt
som
e ne
w fa
cts.
I le
arnt
that
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE AND REACTION FRAME
Recount genre
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Alt
houg
h I a
lrea
dy k
new
that
I hav
e le
arnt
som
e ne
w fa
cts
from
our
trip
to …
……
……
……
……
……
……
….
I lea
rnt t
hat
titl
e
date
nam
e
Recount genre
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE AND REACTION FRAME (VISIT)
How
ever
the
mos
t int
eres
ting
thin
g I l
earn
t was
Ano
ther
fact
I le
arnt
I als
o le
arnt
that
917 pages 12 copy 22/11/02 5:25 pm Page 18
titl
e
nam
e
date
Recount genre
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE AND REVISION FRAME
Befo
re I
bega
n th
is to
pic
I tho
ught
that
Fina
lly I
lear
nt th
at
Furt
herm
ore
I lea
rnt t
hat
I als
o le
arnt
that
But w
hen
I rea
d ab
out i
t I fo
und
out t
hat
917 pages 12 copy 22/11/02 5:25 pm Page 19
titl
e
Recount genre
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE AND REVISION FRAME (VISIT)
nam
e
date
Befo
re I
wen
t on
the
visi
t to
……
……
……
……
……
……
……
… I
thou
ght t
hat
Fina
lly I
lear
nt th
at
Ano
ther
thin
g I l
earn
t was
that
I als
o le
arnt
that
But w
hen
I got
ther
e I f
ound
out
that
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titl
e
Recount genre
SEQUENTIAL FRAME
nam
e
date
To b
egin
wit
h
Nex
t
Then
Aft
er th
at
Fina
lly
Now
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titl
e
Recount genre
ENUMERATION FRAME
nam
e
date
I fou
nd …
……
……
……
……
……
……
……
……
inte
rest
ing
for s
ever
al re
ason
s.
I dis
cove
red
that
As
you
can
see
Fina
lly
It w
as in
tere
stin
g th
at
I als
o le
arnt
917 pages 12 copy 22/11/02 5:25 pm Page 22
I fou
nd o
ur v
isit
to …
……
……
……
……
……
……
……
……
inte
rest
ing
for
seve
ral r
easo
ns. I
dis
cove
red
that
titl
e
Recount genre
ENUMERATION FRAME (VISIT)
nam
e
date
As
you
can
see
Fina
lly
It w
as in
tere
stin
g th
at
I als
o le
arnt
917 pages 12 copy 22/11/02 5:25 pm Page 23
char
acte
rist
ics
BA
char
acte
rist
ics
titl
e
Report genre
COMPARISON GRID
nam
e
date
Wha
t to
do■
Wri
te th
e n
ames
of t
he
obje
cts
bein
g co
mpa
red/
con
tras
ted
in b
oxes
A a
nd
B
belo
w –
for
exam
ple
A: M
y ho
use,
B: V
icto
rian
hou
se.
■L
ist t
he
char
acte
rist
ics
bein
g st
udi
ed in
the
boxe
s in
the
left
han
d co
lum
n –
for
exam
ple
heat
ing,
ligh
ting
, coo
king
faci
litie
s, b
uild
ing
mat
eria
ls.
■U
se th
e gr
id to
rec
ord
info
rmat
ion
bef
ore
wri
tin
g a
repo
rt.
Grid for use before writing comparison and contrast reports
917 pages 12 copy 22/11/02 5:25 pm Page 24
titl
e
Alt
houg
h …
……
……
……
……
……
… a
nd …
……
……
……
……
……
… a
re
diff
eren
t ……
……
……
……
……
……
they
are
alik
e in
som
e in
tere
stin
g w
ays.
For e
xam
ple
they
bot
h
Report genre
COMPARISON FRAME
nam
e
date
Fina
lly th
ey b
oth
The
……
……
……
……
……
……
rese
mbl
es
The
……
……
……
……
……
……
is th
e sa
me
as
They
are
als
o si
mila
r in
917 pages 12 copy 22/11/02 5:25 pm Page 25
titl
e
Report genre
CONTRAST FRAME
nam
e
date
Alt
houg
h …
……
……
……
……
……
……
and
……
……
……
……
……
……
are
both
……
……
……
……
……
……
……
… th
ey a
re d
iffer
ent i
n m
any
way
s.
The
……
……
……
……
……
……
… h
as …
……
……
……
……
……
……
whi
lst
……
……
……
……
……
……
……
… h
as …
……
……
……
……
……
….…
……
They
are
als
o di
ffer
ent i
n th
at
Ano
ther
way
in w
hich
they
diff
er is
Fina
lly
917 pages 12 copy 22/11/02 5:25 pm Page 26
titl
e
Explanation genre
EXPLANATION
nam
e
date
I wan
t to
expl
ain
how
To b
egin
wit
h/I
t sta
rts
by
And
this
mak
es/m
eans
/cha
nges
Aft
er th
at
And
as
a re
sult
Nex
t
Then
The
final
resu
lt is
that
the
917 pages 12 copy 22/11/02 5:25 pm Page 27
titl
e
Explanation genre
EXPLANATION
nam
e
date
Ther
e ar
e di
ffer
ing
expl
anat
ions
as
to w
hy/h
ow/w
hat/
whe
n
One
exp
lana
tion
is th
at
The
evid
ence
for t
his
is
An
alte
rnat
ive
expl
anat
ion
is
This
exp
lana
tion
is b
ased
on
Of t
he a
lter
nati
ve e
xpla
nati
ons
I thi
nk th
e m
ost l
ikel
y is
917 pages 12 copy 22/11/02 5:25 pm Page 28
titl
e
Explanation genrena
me
date
I wan
t to
expl
ain
why
So n
ow y
ou c
an s
ee w
hy
A fu
rthe
r rea
son
is
Ano
ther
reas
on is
Ther
e ar
e se
vera
l rea
sons
for t
his.
The
chi
ef re
ason
is
EXPLANATION
917 pages 12 copy 22/11/02 5:25 pm Page 29
titl
e
Procedure genre
PROCEDURE
nam
e
date
How
to
You
will
nee
d
1Fi
rst y
ou
2 Th
en y
ou
3N
ext
4 5 6
The
stag
es
917 pages 12 copy 22/11/02 5:25 pm Page 30
PROCEDURE
titl
e
Procedure genrena
me
date
Goa
l
Equi
pmen
t and
mat
eria
ls re
quir
ed
Eval
uati
onH
ow fa
r h
as th
e go
al b
een
ach
ieve
d? A
ny fu
rth
er a
ctio
n to
be
take
n?
Act
ion
plan
■U
se th
e bo
x be
low
to e
xpla
in e
ach
sta
ge –
eg:
1. F
irst
you
…2.
The
n…3.
…4.
…
917 pages 12 copy 22/11/02 5:25 pm Page 31
titl
e
Procedure genre
PROCEDURE
nam
e
date
How
to
You
will
nee
d
Dia
gram
/dra
win
g
The
stag
es
■U
se th
e bo
x be
low
to p
ut a
dra
win
g or
dia
gram
of w
hat
you
are
exp
lain
ing
■U
se th
e bo
x be
low
to e
xpla
in e
ach
sta
ge –
eg
1.Fi
rst y
ou…
2. T
hen…
3. N
ext…
Fina
lly…
917 pages 12 copy 22/11/02 5:25 pm Page 32
titl
e
Persuasion genre
PERSUASION
nam
e
date
Wri
te s
tate
men
ts in
the
‘pro
test
pos
ters
’ to
supp
ort y
our p
oint
of v
iew
917 pages 12 copy 22/11/02 5:25 pm Page 33
titl
e
Persuasion genre
PERSUASION
nam
e
date
Alt
houg
h no
t eve
rybo
dy w
ould
agr
ee, I
wan
t to
argu
e th
at
I hav
e se
vera
l rea
sons
for a
rgui
ng fo
r thi
s po
int o
f vie
w. M
y fir
st re
ason
is
A fu
rthe
r rea
son
is
Furt
herm
ore
Ther
efor
e, a
ltho
ugh
som
e pe
ople
mig
ht a
rgue
that
I thi
nk I
have
sho
wn
that
917 pages 12 copy 22/11/02 5:25 pm Page 34
titl
e
Persuasion genre
PERSUASION
nam
e
date
Thes
e fa
cts/
argu
men
ts/i
deas
sho
w th
at
Mor
eove
r
beca
use
Ano
ther
reas
on is
I thi
nk th
at
beca
use
The
reas
ons
for m
y th
inki
ng th
is a
re, fi
rstl
y
so
917 pages 12 copy 22/11/02 5:25 pm Page 35
Persuasion genre
PERSUASION
nam
e
titl
e
date
I wou
ld li
ke to
per
suad
e yo
u th
at
Ther
e ar
e se
vera
l poi
nts
I wan
t to
mak
e to
sup
port
my
poin
t of v
iew
. Fi
rstl
y
Th
ese
wor
ds a
nd
phra
ses
mig
ht
hel
pyo
u:
beca
use
ther
efor
e
you
can
see
a su
ppor
ting
ar
gum
ent
this
sho
ws
that
anot
her
piec
e of
evid
ence
is
917 pages 12 copy 22/11/02 5:25 pm Page 36
titl
e
Discussion genre
DISCUSSION
nam
e
date
The
issu
e w
e ar
e di
scus
sing
is w
heth
er
My
conc
lusi
on, b
ased
on
the
evid
ence
, is
Mak
e no
tes
in th
e bo
xes
belo
w li
stin
g th
e ar
gum
ents
for a
nd a
gain
st.
■R
emem
ber
not
es a
re ju
st b
rief
ou
tlin
es. T
hey
don
’t h
ave
to b
e in
sen
ten
ces.
Arg
umen
ts fo
rA
rgum
ents
aga
inst
Now
use
thes
e no
tes
to h
elp
you
wri
tea
disc
ussi
on p
aper
on
this
issu
e
917 pages 12 copy 22/11/02 5:25 pm Page 37
titl
e
Discussion genre
DISCUSSION
nam
e
date
Som
e pe
ople
thin
k th
at
beca
use
They
arg
ue th
at
Ano
ther
gro
up w
ho a
gree
wit
h th
is p
oint
of v
iew
are
……
……
……
……
……
…
They
say
that
On
the
othe
r han
d …
……
……
……
……
……
… d
isag
ree
wit
h th
e id
ea th
at
……
……
……
……
……
……
. ……
……
……
……
……
……
……
……
……
…
They
cla
im th
at
They
als
o sa
y
My
opin
ion
is
beca
use
917 pages 12 copy 22/11/02 5:25 pm Page 38
titl
e
Discussion genre
DISCUSSION
nam
e
date
Ther
e is
a lo
t of d
iscu
ssio
n ab
out w
heth
er
The
peop
le w
ho a
gree
wit
h th
is id
ea, s
uch
as …
……
……
……
……
……
… c
laim
that
They
als
o ar
gue
that
A fu
rthe
r poi
nt th
ey m
ake
is
How
ever
ther
e ar
e al
so s
tron
g ar
gum
ents
aga
inst
this
poi
nt o
f vie
w.
……
……
……
……
……
……
bel
ieve
that
They
say
that
Furt
herm
ore
they
cla
im th
at
Aft
er lo
okin
g at
the
diff
eren
t poi
nts
of v
iew
and
the
evid
ence
for t
hem
I th
ink
beca
use
917 pages 12 copy 22/11/02 5:25 pm Page 39
scaffolding children’s non-fiction writing in a range of genres
writing framesMaureen Lewis and David Wray
917 cover 4 22/11/02 4:31 pm Page 1