MATERIAL MATTERS

Societal Issues inMaterials Science

and TechnologyMorris Cohen

The following is an edited transcription of the David Turnbull Lecturegiven by Morris Cohen at the 1994 MRS Spring Meeting. Cohen isInstitute Professor Emeritus, Department of Materials Science and

Engineering, at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

I am extremely grateful for this occasion tohonor Professor David Turnbull, whom Iadmire very much and who has contributed soelegantly to advance materials science. Hismany achievements have been acclaimed bythe most eminent scholarly awards. DavidTurnbull was among the first to appreciateand teach the multidisciplinarity of materialsscience. In fact, he has termed it a superdisci-pline covering "the characterization, under-standing, and control of the structure of mat-ter at the ultramolecular level and the relatingof this structure to properties."^ My lecturebuilds on this concept of materials science butbroadens this branch of knowledge and activi-ty to include materials engineering, therebyconnecting with the technologies throughwhich materials help serve societal needs andnational goals.

I am going to use this special opportu-nity to reflect in a rather general way onthe held of materials science—its place inthe scheme of things, its changing nature,and its novel role in national and societalissues. All this is embedded in the ongo-ing debate on the interdependencebetween science and technology and theirrelationship to national well-being, oftentranslated to mean industrial and eco-nomic performance, quality of life andhealth care, environmental protection,and national security.

Clearly, the materials community musthave some part to play in various aspectsof the country's prosperity and standardof living, and that raises serious questionsas to what a technical association such asthe Materials Research Society mightchoose to do about it, if anything. Thesecomplex matters are particularly critical atthe present time when science and tech-nology are coming under increasing pub-lic and governmental scrutiny—even

pressure—to better serve the needs andthe values of the nation.

Materials as a Basic Resourceof Society

One might first ask why materials areimportant enough to demand attention inthis societal context. To start with, materi-als rank among the most basic resourcesof society, even of civilizations throughthe ages (see Table I).

Table I: Some Basic Resourcesof Humankind.

Air, water, and foodLiving spaceMaterialsEnergyManpowerKnowledge

Materials have been an intimate factorin human existence ever since the begin-ning of recorded history. In fact, materialsare so ubiquitous that the public is onlyvaguely aware of their nature and hardlyrealizes that materials constitute a specialkind of physical matter, namely, the sub-stances which can be employed for mak-ing things. This is an apt notion of whatmaterials are because it leads directly to a

Material Matters is a forum forexpressing personal points ofview on issues of interest to thematerials community.

definition of the frequently used—per-haps even overused—term, "technology."

Simply stated, technology is the system-atic knowledge, or the technical advance,of the means for making things—whichon sufficient scale denotes manufacturing.Whereas the output of science can beregarded as knowledge, the output oftechnology is goods and services. Theword "technology" is also often extendedto include the products being manufac-tured as well as the processes or conceptsbeing invoked. Technological develop-ment is important because it expands soci-ety's ability to generate and apply knowl-edge. Notwithstanding the diversity ofapproaches and methods that may beemployed, it is almost always materialsthat are being purposefully formed orassembled in the technology.

High-technology products are thosewhose operation or function is relativelyintricate. Typical examples are communi-cations and electronic equipment, com-puters and robotics, aircraft and space-craft, military armament and rocketry,fiber optics, professional and scientificinstruments, and engines of many sorts.The materials that enable these high-tech-nology products to function successfullyare often referred to as advanced materi-als. They are usually state-of-the-art devel-opments or traditional materials that havebeen recently improved. They are general-ly high-performance, comparatively high-cost materials, representative of the latestin production or end-use products.

The Global Materials CycleWell before materials appear in end

products to serve societal objectives, theiringredients participate to various degreesin what has come to be viewed as a globalmaterials cycle2 (Figure 1). This cradle-to-grave circuit extracts raw materials fromnature, largely by mining, drilling, or har-vesting; converts the raw materials intobulk materials, such as cements, metals,chemicals, rubber, silicon, petroleum,lumber, and fibers; and refines the bulkmaterials into engineering materials, suchas ceramics and glass, alloys, semiconduc-tors, optical fibers, plastics and elas-tomers, and composites. Then the engi-neering materials are further treated andshaped as needed to be assembled intoinnumerable kinds of products for society,including machines, devices, appliances,construction and infrastructure, muni-tions, and all forms of transport. Afterthese products have ended their usefulpurposes, they are typically discarded,and their constituents are recycled to func-tion again if economically feasible, or theyare disposed of back to the earth from

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MATERIAL MATTERS TSynthesis

andProcessing

EngineeredMaterials

Agriculture • ConstructionEnvironmental • Defense

Information/CommunicationsTransportation • Energy • Health

Extraction/Production

Product DesignManufacture

Assembly

Figure 1. Schematic representation of the global materials cycle.3

whence they came, thus completing theircomplex journey through the global mate-rials cycle.

Some 15 billion tons of raw materialsare taken from nature annually on thisplanet, and in passing around the globalcircuit, they link companies and countriestogether through national and internation-al commerce and competition. Value isadded to the materials at each step of theway by inputs of labor, energy, and capi-tal, and in a market-oriented system, theseeconomic factors enter into the "drivingforce" which keeps the materials movingfrom stage-to-stage throughout theirrespective lifetimes. Overall, it is the soci-etal demand, reflected by what peopleand institutions are willing to pay for, thatprovides a pull on the materials flowalong their global routes.

One should note in this connection thatthere are many interactions betweenmaterials, energy, and the environment.About one-half of the energy consumedby manufacturing industries in the UnitedStates goes into the cost of materials pro-duced and fabricated. Conversely, materi-als are indispensable for generating andtransmitting energy in the first place.Indeed, virtually all the modern energy-conversion technologies are presentlymaterials-limited with regard to efficien-

cy, reliability, safety, or cost-effectiveness.At the same time, it is obvious just fromthe workings of the materials cycle thatthe processing, use, and disposal of mate-rials require special attention to minimizethe attendant environmental problems, allof which can add significantly to the totalcost of industrial production and can alsoseriously degrade the quality of life.

MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING

Function/Performance

Synthesis/Processing

Properties/Behavior

Structure/Composition

Figure 2. Model of the multidiscipline ofmaterials science and engineering illus-trating its four main elements and theirmutual interactions.4

Materials Science and EngineeringA good insight to the nature of materi-

als per se may be gained through the mul-tidiscipline of materials science and engi-neering (MSE). MSE is concerned with thegeneration and application of knowledgerelated to the synthesis and processing ofmaterials, their composition and structure,their properties and behavior, and theirfunction and performance in machines,structures, devices, and end products(Figure 2). The doubleheaded arrows con-necting the vertices of the tetrahedron aremeant to show that each of the elementsof MSE interacts reciprocally with, andgives valuable information about, the oth-ers, all contributing to a growing systemof fundamental knowledge and practicalapplication of materials. The scope of MSEranges from the most basic understandingof condensed matter to useful functionsfor human needs. MSE does not replaceany of the existing disciplines, but pro-vides an interconnected medium ofknowledge and endeavor in which anyrelevant branch of learning can contributeto the understanding of materials or helpmake them available and serviceable.When visualized this way, MSE operatesas a multidiscipline; it acts as a multidi-mensional knowledge-transfer systemthat offers valuable interactions amongotherwise separate disciplines.

MSE is also a continuous medium forthe back-and-forth intermixing of scientif-ic and empirical knowledge: i.e., scientificinformation arising from materials R&Dand empirical information reflecting theneeds and experience of society. This situ-ation means that there are no rational bar-riers between science and engineering inthe field of materials. Materials research,even though sometimes classed as"basic," is appropriately exposed to soci-etal requirements for potential utility andso, strictly speaking, can be "purposeful"or "applied" or "strategic" from the stand-point of MSE.

Materials comprise key components ofalmost every kind of technology, butsimultaneously, materials also form anintegral part of the natural world. In a realsense, then, MSE puts society into a part-nership with nature when society seeks toadvance technologies to achieve nationalgoals, such as economic growth, industrialproductivity, national security, and quali-ty of life.

Because of the indispensable andenabling functions of materials in diversetechnologies, MSE is intimately linked to,and benefited by, many scientific and engi-neering disciplines. Accordingly, the pro-fessionals associated with MSE are quitediversified, as reflected, for example, by

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MATERIAL MATTERS

the membership of the Materials ResearchSociety. In technical outlook and priorities,MRS members are probably representativeof a cohort in the United States of approxi-mately 1.5 million scientists, engineers,and technologists, who spend an apprecia-ble fraction of their efforts on some aspectof MSE. But as it happens, a substantialfraction of that population would identifythemselves primarily with their specificdegrees or disciplines in science or engi-neering rather than as materials scientistsor engineers. This means that the profes-sionals who study and work with materi-als are not staunchly coupled through aspecific branch of learning, but rathercome together through various intereststhat somehow interconnect through themultidiscipline of MSE and its relatedtechnologies.

Materials science andengineering is a purposefulenterprise closely coupledto mankind's requirements

for products, structures,machines, and devices.

Thus, the unity and coherence whicharise in MSE are largely self-organizing,but in disparate ways, and it is difficult tofind a single agency or institution that cantruly represent the field of MSE or speakwith an authoritative voice concerning itsimportance, its trends, and its support.There is strength in the fact that materialsare so pervasive in character and in utility,but a persistent problem exists in that therole of materials in technologies generallyis so diversified. This is a dilemma thatmaterials-oriented societies will have toconfront as they look to the future.

Basic Versus Strategic ResearchIt is well to inquire at this point how the

field of materials is regarded, or evaluat-ed, by the federal government. MSE neednot be overly concerned by the currentdebate about basic versus applied orstrategic research. Purely basic research,by definition, is performed withoutthought of practical results; it creates fun-damental knowledge and understandingof nature and its laws, but it is not de-signed to have value for useful technolo-gies. Yet such basic science is reasonablywell-funded by government. It turns outthat the thoughtful public has an inherent,even if detached, curiosity about the struc-ture of the universe and the way the nat-

ural world functions. Indirectly, this inter-est extends to such profound questions asthe origin and expansion of the universe,the beginning and evolution of life, ele-mentary-particle physics and the ultimatestate of matter, the detection of dark mat-ter in the cosmos, and the advance of puremathematics signifying new capabilitiesof the human mind.

As we have now learned, however,from the cancellation of the Superconduct-ing Super Collider—intended to reach agreat step closer to the ultimate nature ofmatter—there are cost limits, dependingon social and economic conditions at thetime, beyond which society (as reflectedby Congress) is not prepared to go. Thisdoes not necessarily mean any lessening ofhigh regard for very basic science; it pri-marily manifests the escalation of othercritical human needs arising from chang-ing social conditions.

Most other so-called basic research,especially in materials, is at least remotelymission-oriented; i.e., it is performed withsome general or long-range utilitarianobjective. As a result, this kind of basicresearch becomes more related to appliedor strategic research than to the purelybasic research previously mentioned.

Federal R&D Initiatives inCivilian Technologies

The federal government is projected tospend about 4% more overall for R&D inFY95 than in FY94 ($71 billion versus $68billion, not including facilities) and 6%more for the National Science Foundationin FY95 than in FY94 ($3.2 billion versus$3.0 billion). These increases are notinsignificant considering the constraintson total discretionary federal spending. Atthe same time, there will be increasingemphasis on civilian technology R&D.President Clinton's Progress Report ofNovember 19935 stresses that "Technolo-gy is the engine of economic growth, cre-ating new jobs, building new industries,and improving our standard of living.Technology is also a powerful tool formaking government more efficient andresponsive, harmonizing our economicgrowth and environmental objectives, andmaking more efficient use of our energyresources. Increasingly, leadership in theuse and commercialization of technologyprovides the foundation for America's sta-tus as an economic and military super-power." This affirmation of technology incontributing to the nation's future mightbe regarded as the "Clinton-Gore doc-trine" from the standpoint of R&D.

It is obvious from the initiatives andtechnologies cited in the President's reportthat there will be a strong governmental

thrust toward the civilian sector of theeconomy, with national objectives tied tosocietal and industrial enhancement.Mentioned among many other initiativesare the Technology Reinvestment Pro-gram to promote the transition fromdefense to civilian industrial capabilities;the Advanced Technology Program tostimulate the development of high-riskcommercial technologies, being organizedby the National Institute of Standards andTechnology in the Department of Com-merce; Dual-Use Technologies forMilitary and Commercial Products andProcesses, being administered by theAdvanced Research Projects Agency inthe Department of Defense; the Clean-CarInitiative for developing technologiesleading to a new generation of fuel-effi-cient, nonpolluting vehicles in collabora-tion with the U.S. automobile industry;the National Information Infrastructure tofoster a huge web of advanced communi-cation networks; and a system of manu-facturing extension centers to assist in themodernization of small- and medium-sized businesses.

Concerning basic science, the Presi-dent's report notes "the inseparable linksbetween fundamental scientific researchand technological progress," quoting atheme of the groundbreaking VannevarBush report on Science—The EndlessFrontier, which declares that "scientificadvances are the wellspring of technicalinnovations whose benefits are seen ineconomic growth, improved health care,and many other areas."6 However, thebasic science being mainly referred to inthis context is not the purely basic typementioned previously, but the more ori-ented version that can connect, even if inthe distant future, to applied or strategicR&D in line with the special accent beingplaced on technological strategies.

Federal Status of Materials R&DWe now come back to the question:

Where does the area of materials stand inthe light of the foregoing national initia-tives? It is important to assess the prevail-ing changes in the national mood. Intrin-sically, the very nature of MSE—with itsfocus on materials via a seamless spec-trum of science and engineering—isentirely consistent with the presentemphasis on advanced technologies bythe federal government. This fact isdemonstrated by the Advanced Materialsand Processing Program (AMPP), whichis a part of the President's FY94 budget.According to Dr. John H. Gibbons, direc-tor of the Office of Science and Technolo-gy Policy, who wrote the letter of trans-mittal to Congress, "The economic pros-

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MATERIAL MATTERS

National Scienceand Technology Council

(NSTC)

Health, Safety& Food R&D

Chair: Phil Lee (HHS)Vice-Chairs: Dean Plowman (USDA)

David Kessier (FDA)White House Co-Chair:

MRC Greenwood

FundamentalScience andEngineering

Research

Information &Communication

R&D

Chair: Anita Jones (DoD)Vice-Chair: Melvyn Ciment (NSF)White House Co-Chair: Skip Johns

InternationalScience

Engineering &Technology

ExecutiveSecretariat

Executive Secretary:Angela Phillips Diaz

NSTC DeputiesGroup

Chair: John Deutsch (DoD)Vice Chair: Vic Reis (DoE)White House Co-Chair: Jane Wales

Environment& NaturalResourcesResearch

CivilianIndustrial

Technology

Chair: Mary Good (DoC)Vice-Chair: Martha Krebs (DoE)White House Co-Chair: Skip Johns

TransportationR&D

Education &Training

R&D

Co-Chairs: Neal Lane (NSF)Harold Varmus (NIH)

White House Co-Chair:MRC Greenwood

Chair: Tim Wirth (DoS)Vice-Chairs: Phil Lee (HHS)

Susan Tiemey (DoE)White House Co-Chair: Jane Wales

Co-Chair: Jim Baker (NOAA)TBA (Dol)

Interim: Tom Lovejoy (SI)Vice-Chairs: Robert Sussman (EPA)

Christine Ervin (DoE)White House Co-Chair: Bob Watson

Chair: Mort Downey (DoT)Vice-Chair: Wes Harris (NASA)White House Co-Chair: Skip Johns

Chair: Madelaine Kunin (ED)Vice-Chairs: Tom Glynn (DoL)

Luther Williams (NSF)White House Co-Chair: Henry Kelly

Figure 3. The National Science and Technology Council and its committees. Organizational chart taken from the 1994 National Academy of

Engineering Regional Meetings.

perity, environmental well-being, andquality of life of all Americans are linkedto the development of advanced materialsand processing technologies. Improvedmaterials and processes can contribute toa number of national priorities: energyefficiency, environmental quality, nationalsecurity, health care, information andcommunication, infrastructure, trans-portation."7

However, several downsides should benoted for materials. The total FY94 R&Dbudget for AMPP, summed up over the10 listed federal agencies, is actually 5%less than for FY93. Moreover, whereas theFY93 AMPP was established as a Presi-dential Initiative, the FY94 AMPP wassubmitted at the lower level of the FederalCoordinating Council for Science, Engi-neering, and Technology (FCCSET).Perhaps even more significantly, FCCSEThas now been dissolved because, accord-ing to Vice President Gore, "it lacks theteeth to set priorities, direct policy, andparticipate fully in the budget process. Itcan't compel agencies to participate in its

Civilian IndustrialTechnology Committee

Chair: Mary GoodVice-Chair: Martha Krebs

White House Co-Chair Skip Johns

Manufacturing

Chair: J. Bordogna

Electronics

Chair: L Glasser

Materials

Chair: L Schwartz

Automotive

Chair: M. Good

EnvironmentalTechnology

Proposed

Construction& Building

Proposed

Figure 4. Civilian Industrial Technology Committee and its subcommittees. Organizational

chart taken from the 1994 National Academy of Engineering Regional Meetings.

MRS BULLETIN/SEPTEMBER 1994

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MATERIAL MATTERS

&

(ED)i (DoL)c)Henry Kelly

ctionling

ed

ER 1994

projects, nor can it tell agencies how tospend funds."8 In addition, other materi-als-related governmental committees,deemed not to be sufficiently effective,have been discontinued, including theNational Critical Materials Council, theMaterials Caucus, and the CongressionalMaterials Subcommittee.

High-level coordination for federallysponsored R&D will now be vested in anewly created National Science andTechnology Council (NSTC), to be chairedby President Clinton himself, thusupgrading science and technology to thestatus of other Presidentially headed top-level councils, namely the NationalSecurity Council, the National EconomicCouncil, and the Domestic Policy Council.NSTC is to have nine R&D coordinatingcommittees, as illustrated in Figure 3.Evidently, the entire sweep of federallysupported R&D will be planned and coor-dinated by the NSTC; the committeescomprising NSTC have been accordinglydesignated to identify with national goals.MSE may play active roles in many ofthese important domains, particularly inFundamental Science and EngineeringResearch. So far, however, materials perse are only highlighted in a subcommitteeof the Civilian Industrial TechnologyCommittee (Figure 4); but materials R&Dwill surely be involved as enabling tech-nologies in the planning of the other sub-committees portrayed in Figure 4.

It should be mentioned that the NSTCstructure is still new and not yet fullyorganized or in effective operation. As faras materials are concerned, much willdepend on the initiative and responsive-ness of the MSE community in the unfold-ing process.

Materials R&D and National GoalsThrough Technologies

Obviously, with this type of organiza-tional structure, the role of materials willoften come in as enabling technologies,i.e., to function appropriately in manufac-turing and in end products, rather than asa high-priority endeavor in itself for thedevelopment of new materials and newstructure-property relationships. Suchmaterials R&D is still essential, but it willbe favored if it has a chance to implementa technology for some societal purpose. Itis still feasible, even desirable, for individ-ual ideas and investigator-initiated re-search to contribute in constructive waysto these long-term programs, particularlyas part of a cooperative effort.

So, the materials profession is facing anew challenge. Going beyond continuingprogress toward understanding the com-plex relationships which interconnect the

MRS BULLETIN/SEPTEMBER 1994

synthesis and processing of materials, theircomposition and structure, their propertiesand behavior, and their function and per-formance, the community is now beingurged by the federal government to focusmore attention on the enabling functionand performance of materials in technolo-gies that will contribute to national pro-ductivity and economic growth (Figure 5).This means that in undertaking materialsR&D, investigators would do well to thinkabout national goals and potential benefitsto society. It appears that MSE may notprosper unto itself hereafter as a criticalmultidiscipline unless its role is linkedmore supportively to technologies thatwill help fill the needs of society sooner orlater. All these matters will surely encour-age more R&D collaboration between uni-versities and industry. And sooner or later,cost factors will have to be taken intoaccount—economic costs bearing on even-tual commercialization and social costsbearing on the quality of the environment.Technical societies related to materials andmaterials departments in academia willhave to consider these issues.

In looking ahead, it is well to keep inmind that, in general, technologiesadvance successfully most often by incre-mental improvements, by trial and test-ing, by testing and adjustment; that is tosay, by the mutual interplay of scientificknowledge and experienced performancerather than by direct prediction from fun-damental principles. As Harvey Brookshas clearly pointed out: "Technological in-novations usually arise out of a perceptionof a social need or market opportunity,not out of the conception of a potentialapplication for a new scientific discovery.

MATERIALS SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

Societal Needs and National GoalsPerformance in End Products

Function in Technologies

Synthesis/,Processing

Properties/Behavior

Structure/Composition

Figure 5. Portrayal of the merging ofmaterials science and engineering withmaterials function in technologies andperformance in end products.

Most of the research used in the innova-tion process is technologically driven andfollows rather than precedes invention. Itsproduct is useful technical knowledgewhich is sought not for its own sake, butin order to overcome a problem whichbecomes well-defined only after a newproduct or process is already in existence,at least in rudimentary form. One evi-dence for this is the fact that much of eventhe most fundamental research applicableto transistors and lasers, for example, tookplace after, not before, the basic invention.Indeed, several studies in the innovationliterature show that the highest appropri-able returns are associated with incremen-tal improvements on a radical inventionrather than with the original inventionitself."9 This advice will undoubtedly beheeded in the Advanced TechnologyProgram (ATP) administered by theNational Institute of Standards andTechnology, whose ATP budget wastripled in FY94 over FY93 and is projectedto increase by an additional 125% (to $451million) in FY95 over FY94. It reflects thefederal government's strategic shift frommilitary to civilian technologies. Thematerials R&D community should re-spond to this national challenge.

Another growing societal issue, ofmajor importance, is the environmentalimpact of industrial technologies and thebalancing out of economic productivityversus environmental quality.10 Of course,there are many aspects of these nominallyconflicting objectives, but in the process tominimize ecological damage and depreci-ation of natural resources, there will beincreasing social pressure to avoid wasterather than to clean up after the fact. Suchenvironmental concerns will make posi-tive economic sense as the costs of envi-ronmental damage are internalized in theexpense of manufacturing and in the envi-ronmental impact of the product. Forexample, there are indications that by1996 the Department of Commerceintends to take the economic costs of airand water pollution into account in arriv-ing at the national output. It has been esti-mated that U.S. industry now spendsabout $10 billion annually just on environ-mental R&D. So, in minimizing the envi-ronmental costs of evolving technologies,modern industry will be moving towardprocessing systems and products thatmust take the wastes into account, prefer-ably throughout the design and manufac-turing sequences. Clearly, industrial ecol-ogy is another major technological chal-lenge that should motivate the materialsR&D community.

Indeed, Japan has already initiated along-range R&D program through its

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MATERIAL MATTERS

Research Institute for Innovative Tech-nology for Earth to work toward environ-mentally friendly technologies in theexpectation that they will become com-mercially attractive in the long run.11 Suchopportunities may also be unfolding inthe United States; the EnvironmentalProtection Agency's R&D budget is nowslated to increase by 13% to $383 millionin FY95. Here again, one can see theopportunity and support for new thinkingon the part of the materials professionalstoward a major national goal.

Summing UpTo sum up, it is evident that the multi-

discipline of materials science and engi-neering is going through a vital change,not in its essential nature but in a rede-ployment of its efforts and in the waysthat it can best serve society. This amountsto a rebalancing of outlook and emphasisrather than an actual paradigm shift.Synthesis of new materials with unusualstructures and properties will still be as

intellectually exciting as ever, but nownational conditions are such that morefocus on materials processing and perfor-mance is needed to enable furtheradvances in useful and environmentallybenign technologies that can lead toimproved products on the world scene.

Actually, these challenges still remainwithin the original purview of MSE. Toparaphrase from the 1974 COSMATreport on Materials and Man's Needs:Materials science and engineering inti-mately combines knowledge of the con-densed state of matter with the real worldof function and performance. It links thequest for deep and fundamental under-standing of matter with the imperative ofsatisfying man's needs. Overall, materialsscience and engineering is a purposefulenterprise closely coupled to mankind'srequirements for products, structures,machines, and devices. Herein lies itsstrength, value, and novelty. It promisesdeep contributions to the nation's pros-perity, security, and quality of life.12

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AcknowledgmentsIt is a pleasure to acknowledge the spe-

cial help I have received in various waysfrom Drs. Jagdish Narayan of NorthCarolina State University, Rustum Roy ofPennsylvania State University, and LyleH. Schwartz of the National Institute ofStandards and Technology. I am alsoindebted to Miss Marguerite Meyer forher skill and patience during the manydrafts caused by these rapidly changingtimes.

References1. D. Turnbull, Annual Reviews of MaterialsScience (Palo Alto, CA, 1983) p. 1.2. Materials and Man's Needs (NationalAcademy of Sciences, Washington, DC,1974).3. Advanced Materials and Processing: TheFiscal Year 1993 Program, The Federal Pro-gram in Materials Science and Technology,Report of the Federal CoordinatingCouncil of Sciences, Engineering, andTechnology, (Washington, DC, 1992) p. 9.4. Materials Science and Engineering for the1990s, Report of the National ResearchCouncil (National Academic Press,Washington, DC, 1989) p. 29.5. Technology for Economic Growth:President's Progress Report (The WhiteHouse, Washington, DC, 1993).6. Ibid., p. 22. Quotation of V. Bush,Science—77K Endless Frontier, A Report tothe President on a Program for PostwarResearch (1945), reprinted by the NationalScience Foundation (1980).7. Advanced Materials and Processing: TheFiscal Year 1994 Federal Program inMaterials Science and Technology, Report ofthe FCCSET Committee on Industry andTechnology (Washington, DC, 1993).8. A. Gore, Reinventing Government—Creating a Government that Works Better andCosts Less, Report of the National Perfor-mance Review (U.S. Government PrintingOffice, Washington, DC, 1993) p. 51.9. H. Brooks, in The Technology Race, Canthe U.S. Win? The Herbert HollomonMemorial Symposium, Center for Tech-nology Policy and Industrial Develop-ment (MIT, 1991) p. 20.10. S. Schmidheiny, Changing Course (MITPress, Cambridge, MA, 1992).11. Reference 9, p. 22.12. Reference 2, p. xxiii. •

MRS BULLETIN/SEPTEMBER 1994

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