MATERIAL AND METHODS -...
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CHAPTER-II
MATERIAL AND METHODS
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TOPOGRAPHY, GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE OF ANDHRA PRADESH
Andhra Pradesh lies between 12°41' and 22°N latitude and 77° and 84°40'E longitude,
and is bordered by Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh and Orissa in the north, the Bay of Bengal in
the East, Tamil Nadu to the south and Karnataka to the west. State lies in the Godavari Delta
in north-east of the state.
Andhra Pradesh abbreviated A.P., is a state situated on the south-eastern coast
of India. It is India's fourth largest state by area and fifth largest by population.
Geography and climate
Andhra Pradesh Climate is generally hot and humid. The major role in determining
the climate of the state is played by South- West Monsoons. But the winters in Andhra
Pradesh are pleasant. This is the time when the state attracts most of its tourists.
Summers in Andhra Pradesh last from the month of March to June. During these
months the moisture level is quite high. In the coastal plain the summer temperatures are
generally higher than the rest of the state. In summer temperature generally ranges between
20°C and 40°C At certain places the temperature as high as 45 degrees on a summer day.
July to September is the season for tropical rains in Andhra Pradesh. The state
receives heavy rainfall during these months. About one third of the total rainfall in Andhra
Pradesh is brought by the North- East Monsoons. Sometime around the month of October
winter arrives in the state. October, November, December, January and February are the
winter months in Andhra Pradesh. Since the state has a reasonably long coastal belt the
winters are not much cold. The range of winter temperature is generally 13°C to 30°C. Since
the Andhra Pradesh Climate is not much favorable during the major part of the year, So
October to February is the best time to visit the state.
The annual rainfall varies from 512.8 mm in the central region to 1025.6 mm towards
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the coast the rains are mainly due to South West monsoon which begins in the month of
June. Generally, three seasons can be distinguished.
1. Monsoon, which prevails between June and October, Experienced heavy spells of
rains with intermittent clear days.
2. Winter, spreading between October and February is cool and almost dry.
3. Summer is experienced between March and June and is hot and dry. The
atmospheric temperature during this period may raise up to 45°C.
Altitude; 545 m (1788 ft).
The average temperature in Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India is 25.9 °C (79
°F).
The range of average monthly temperatures is 12 °C.
The warmest average max/ high temperature is 40 °C (104 °F) in May.
The coolest average min/ low temperature is 15 °C (59 °F) in
December.
Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh receives on average 764 mm (30.1 in) of
precipitation annually or 64 mm (2.5 in) each month.
On balance there are 81 days annually on which greater than 0.1 mm
(0.004 in) of precipitation (rain, sleet, snow or hail) occurs or 7 days on an
average month.
The month with the driest weather is January when on balance 2 mm
(0.1 in) of rain, sleet, hail or snow falls across <1 days.
The month with the wettest weather is July when on balance 165 mm
(6.5 in) of rain, sleet, hail or snow falls across 19 days.
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Mean relative humidity for an average year is recorded as 47.3% and
on a monthly basis it ranges from 27% in March to 70% in September.
Hours of sunshine range between 3.6 hours per day in July and 10.2
hours per day in February.
On balance there are 2877 sunshine hours annually and approximately
7.9 sunlight hours for each day.
On balance there are 0 days annually with measurable frost and in
January there are on average 0 days with frost
Divisions
Andhra Pradesh has 23 districts. Hyderabad is the capital and largest city of the
southern Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. It occupies 650 square kilometers (250 sq mi) on the
banks of the Musi River. Its population is 6.8 million, and its metropolitan area increases that
number to 7.75 million people, making it India's fourth most populous city and sixth most
populous urban agglomeration.
Mir Alam Tank
Mir Alam Tank is a lake in Hyderabad, India, located adjacent to Nehru Zoological
Park on the Hyderabad-Bangalore Highway. It has provided drinking water to Hyderabad
people for 125 years before the Osman Sagar and Himayat Sagar were built.
Mir Alam Tank is located at the latitude and longitude coordinates of 17.34 and 78.43.
Mir Alam Lake was constructed as a source of protected water supply in 1806. The lake has a
of 14.89 Km2
and is fed by a stream 10 Km in length.
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Mir Alam laid the foundation for the tank on July 20, 1804, as a plaque still lying in a
corner shows. It was completed in about two years on June 8, 1806. the present investigation
was under taken to elucidate certain aspects of ecology of algae and physico-chemical
parameters of water of Mir Alam lake, with reference to water quality and pollution.
SAMPLING STATIONS
Four sampling stations were selected from the Mir Alam lake and are characterized as
follows:
STATION I
Station I is situated where the southern the Mir Alam lake in opposite Pratap negar
school. Clear water flows into the lake, throughout the year; except in the rainy season.
During rainy season water inflow is largely associated with mud and sand.
STATION II
Station II is located 100 meter after station I, is provided for the discharge of water to
Zoo Park. At this station water is clear and it is used for washing by the people. This station
gets polluted due to different activities of the people.
STATION III
Station III is located 100 meter after station II. At this station water is polluted
because excess water reaching this site by activities of the people.
STATION IV
Station IV is situated East Mir Alam lake. this station is very important because
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excess water reaching this site overflowing during rainy season. At this station water is
polluted.
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STATION - I
STATION - II
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STATION -III
STATION - IV
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COLLECTION OF WATER SAMPLES AND THEIR ANALYSIS
Water samples from the surface were collected at all the sampling stations in
polythene containers at monthly intervals for a period of 18 months from November 2011 to
April 2013. Water samples were collected in separate standard glass bottles (BOD bottles)
for the estimation of dissolved oxygen with necessary precautions. All the samples were
carried to the laboratory in an ice-box. The samples were analyzed on the same day in the
laboratory for different physico-chemical parameters following the standard methods. The
following factors had been estimated:
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1
.
Temperature
2
.
pH
3
.
Carbonates (C032_)
4
.
Bicarbonates (HCO3)
5
.
Chlorides (Cl)
6
.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand(BOD)
6
.
Dissolved Oxygen (D.O)
7
.
Oxidizable organic Matter (O.M)
8
.
Total Hardness (T.H)
9
.
Calcium (Ca2+
)
1
0.
Magnesium (Mg2+
)
1
1.
Sulphates (SO4)
1
2.
Phosphates (PO4)
1
3.
Silicates (SiO44-
)
1
4.
Nitrites (NO2)
15. Nitrates (NO3)
16. Sodium (Na)
17. Potassium (K+)
18. Total solids (T.S)
19. Suspended solids (S.S)
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TEMPERATURE
The temperature of water was recorded at sampling site itself with the help of
centigrade thermometer.
pH
pH was recorded with the help of a digital pH meter.
CARBONATES (WILCOX AND HATCHER, 1950)
50 ml of the sample was titrated against N/20 H2SO4 using phenolphthalein as an
indicator.
BICARBONATES (WILCOX AND HATCHER, 1950)
50 ml of the sample was titrated against N/20 H2SO4 using Methyl Orange as an
indicator.
CHLORIDES (WILCOX AND HATCHER, 1950)
5% potassium chromate is added to 50 ml of water sample and then titrated against
N/20 AgNO3 till the yellow colour turned to brick red.
DISSOLVED OXYGEN (APHA, 1995)
300 ml of water sample was collected in a narrow mouthed reagent bottle (BOD
Bottle) taking all the necessary precautions. To this 2 ml of MnS04 followed by 2 ml of
Winkler's reagent were added in the field itself to fix oxygen. After returning to the lab, 2 ml
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of conc. H2SO4 was added to dissolve the precipitate. From this 100 ml was pipette out and
titrated against N/80 Na2S203 using 1% starch as an indicator.
OXIDIZABLE ORGANIC MATTER (TAYLOR, 1949)
To 50 ml of sample, sufficient KMnO4 and 1:4 H2SO4 were added and incubated at
40°C for about 4 hours. Then the samples were cooled to room temperature. 2 ml of 5%
Potassium Iodide solution was added and then titrated against N/80 Na2S203 using 1% starch
as an indicator.
TOTAL HARDNESS: (APHA, 1995)
2 ml of Ammonia solution was added to 50 ml of water sample. It was then titrated
against N/50 EDTA solution using Erichrome black T as an indicator.
CALCIUM (APHA, 1995)
To 50 ml of water sample 2 ml of 8% sodium hydroxide was added and then Titrated
against N/50 EDTA solution using Ammonium purputrate (Muroxide) as an indicator.
MAGNESIUM: (APHA, 1995)
Magnesium was calculated by deducing the value of calcium hardness from the total
hardness.
SULPHATES (APHA, 1995)
To 50 ml sample, 5 ml of conditioning reagent solution and a spoonful of Barium
chloride crystals were added after stirring it at a constant speed for one minute, its turbidity
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was recorded on spectrophotometer at 420 nm, the sulphate concentration in the sample was
estimated by comparing the turbidity reading with a standard curve.
PHOSPHATES: (APHA, 1995)
To 50 ml of water sample, 1 ml of Ammonium molybdate solution and 3 drops of
stannous chloride are added. A blue colour will appear. It is kept aside for 10 minutes (Not
more than 15 minutes) and measured with the help of a spectrophotometer at 690 nm. The
concentration of phosphates is calculated from the standard graph.
SILICATES (APHA, 1995)
2 ml of 10% Ammonium molybdate and 1 ml of 1:4 H2SO4 were added to 30 ml of
water sample. The yellow colour developed in the sample was measured with
spectrophotometer at 410 nm.
NITRITES (APHA, 1995)
To 50 ml of water sample 1 ml each of sulphonic acid, Alfa-naphthalamine
Hydrochloride solution and Sodium acetate were added in sequence. The absorbency of the
solution was recorded on spectrophotometer at 520 nm using distilled water as blank. Nitrite
content of the sample was deduced by comparing absorbency with the standard curve.
NITRATES (APHA, 1995)
50 ml sample was evaporated to dryness and extracted with phenol disulphonic acid.
After adding ammonium hydroxide the sample turned yellow and this was made to 50 ml
simultaneously standards were prepared by using potassium nitrate (kno3) as standard and the
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colour was compared in nessler’s cylinders.
SODIUM AND POTASSIUM
Sodium and potassium were estimated with the help of Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometer (perkin- Elmert, 2380) and the percent sodium was calculated by using
the following formula:
𝐍𝐚×𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐍𝐚+𝐊+𝐂𝐚+𝐌𝐠 (Saxena et al., 1979)
TOTAL SOLIDS (APHA, 1995)
50 ml of sample was evaporated in a weighed silica basin on a steam bath and then
dried to constant weight in an oven at 105 oc. The increase in weight over that of the empty
dish represents the total solids.
SUSPENDED SOLIDS (APHA, 1995)
Suspended solids were calculated by deducting the value of dissolved solids
from total solids.
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PLANKTONIC ALGAE
(Collection of Algae and Frequency Measurement)
One liter of surface water samples were collected from four different stations of the
lake and were kept in the sedimentation column after adding 2-3 ml of 4% formaldehyde
solution. The samples were kept undisturbed for about one month for complete settling of the
organisms. The samples were concentrated to 100 ml. Finally, the concentrated material was
used for frequency measurements and identification of species.
For frequency measurement of different species of algae at each station, the drop
method of Pearsal et al., (1948) was followed. Ten drops of the concentrated sample was
carefully pipette out and mounted on 10 slides. From each drop 12 high power microscope
field (15x45) situated at even distance from each other were counted. Thus from each
concentrate 120 high power microscope fields were counted to record species composition.
The number of various organisms was calculated per milliliter. For this purpose, the
microscope was standardized to find out the area of the field.
ALGAL MICRO PHOTOGRAPHS
Microphotograph of each specimen was taken using American optical binocular
research microscope fitted with Cat com digital image camera. The organisms were identified
by following different monographs. Philipose (1967), Prescott (1968), Suxena &
Venkateswarlu (1966)).