Maruyama OkyoThe success of his ‘realism’

By Anda Padurescu

In 18 th century Japan, the son of a family of farmers came to be the most highly respected artist in Kyoto and the founder of a school that would influence the next generation of artists.

“The emergence of modern painting in Japan – painting conceived, in other words, as an individually creative art based on freedom of self-expression and descriptive realism – began with the Kyoto based artist Maruyama Okyo (1733-95)1”

A clear demarcation should be made between the term ‘realism’ in 18th century Japan, or shaseiga, and the understanding of realism in the West. In relation to 18 th century Japan, the term is used relatively, in contrast to the traditional idealist generalization of Japanese landscape painting of that time, but this is not to be confused with the aim of complete verisimilitude of Western painters.

The aim of this essay is to understand how Okyo’s visionary perception of naturalistic representation grew to become the most influential trend of that time and to consider whether the very mechanism that helped him to climb the artistic ladder of Kyoto restricted his true genius. For this purpose I will analyze some of his works keeping in mind the sources that might have influenced Okyo and the social and cultural context of his time. Due to limitations of space I will narrow my analysis down to a few of his interests, i.e. his landscapes and sketches of living things.

Maruyama Okyo was the son of Maruyama Tozaemon in the village of Ano, Kuwada county, Tanba province in 1733. He went to Kyoto in search of a different destiny from that offered by his birth and one can say he was born under a lucky star.

At this time Kyoto was the center of a scientific and artistic culture different from all other the other cities of Japan. Home to the imperial family since 794, it was a city where the shogunal officials had a limited presence and hence it possessed a more relaxed atmosphere and more cultural freedom. Artists could explore different techniques and styles. Breaking the norms was accepted by this society, so unique personalities and daring philosophies found a safe place. “Eccentricity, foolishness, mania: these are the key words to understand 18th century Kyoto artistic society.2” At the same time, with the ban on imported books lifted in 1720, the country had access again to foreign technology and culture.

On the other hand, the city was the largest religious center with approximately two thousand temples and shrines. Monks, especially those of the Zen sect, had traditionally formed the core of the educated elite in Kyoto, serving the imperial court as scribes, advisers, poets and painters.3

“Okyo was caught up in the spirit of positivism and empirical thought which swept through the city’s intellectual and cultural community4” But how did he reach these circles?

His starting point was an apprenticeship, as a teenager, in Owariya toy store. The shop was making dolls for the imperial court and had access to items that were still hard to find at that time such as western books and lenses. Here, his inquisitive nature found a favourable terrain to develop a real affinity for ‘advanced cultural phenomena’ and ‘assimilation of new scientific and expressive methods’.

The master of the store must have recognized Okyo’s talent as he arranged for him to study under the painter Ishida Yutei (1721-86), a member of the Tsuruzawa branch of the

1 Sasaki Johei and Sasaki Masako. A study of Maruyama Okyo, p 5072 Kano Hiroyuki, The philosophical underpinnings of eighteenth century Kyoto painting

circles, raditions Unbound p 433 Christine Guth, Japanese art of the Edo period, p 544 Sasaki Johei and Sasaki Masako. A study of Maruyama Okyo, p 506

2 | P a g e

Kano5 school. However, it seems that “he hated6 the easy formalism of this style which produced completed works by simply copying, with slight revision of the paintings of previous generations.”

Following his apprenticeship, Okyo was employed by the Buddhist abbess Renchiin of the temple Hokyoji, which purchased dolls from the Owariya. He gained entry into a select group of painters and craftsmen who received patronage from the imperial family. His first major commissions were for the Imperial prince-abbot Yujo (1723-73) of Enman’in temple. His friendship with Yujo that started around 1765 opened doors to numerous painting commissions, including renovation projects within the Imperial Palace itself.

“His rapid ascent from the son of a farming family to the leader of one of Kyoto’s principal painting atelier was due in large to this elite social environment and its patronage7”

One of Okyo’s tasks in the toy store was to produce perspective painting or megane-e for one of the European inventions that was in fashion in Japan at that time, the ‘peep-box’ or ‘optique’8. The images were seen through a mirror and a convex lens, fascinating the viewer with its illusion. To have this effect it had to use one-point perspective for the sensation of space and chiaroscuro for a three dimensional appearance.

By the time he was 31 (in 1764) Okyo had mastered this technique. His megane-e were depictions of Kyoto “through Western eyes”. The dramatic juxtaposition of a building partially viewed in the first plane with its diagonal lines, and the lower horizon, brings dynamism and leads the eye to the distant view. Okyo used blue for the sky, which gradually fades to meet the mountains. (fig.1) This is a ‘radical departure from the established norms’9.

Fig 1 Megane-e. Restaurant in Maruyama

Nine years later he painted the hand scroll Famous views of Kyoto consisting of sixteen images. He uses a muted palette of ink and pastel color giving his scenes a touch of

5 The Kano school was established by Kano Masanobu (1434 -1530). Kano imagery, decorative and expressive, combined the dynamic link lines and the beauty of color. By the time Okyo started his studies the major branches of Kano school moved to Edo, leaving only few artists in Kyoto, none of them of great talent

6 Tadashi Kobayashi, A kaleidoscope of painting Styles, Essays on Edo Period Paintings , Geika Shoin, Tokyo, Japan, p21

7 Sasaki Johei and Sasaki Masako. A study of Maruyama Okyo, p 5058 Yoko Woodson on artist’s biographies, Traditions Unbound.Asian Art Museum of San

Francisco, 2005, p 649 Matthew McKelway, Journeys in the handscrolls of Jakuchu and Okyo, citing Kishi Fumizaku,

Traditions Unbound p 46.

3 | P a g e

lyricism. Clouds and mist create an atmosphere that contrast with the clarity of megane-e. Nevertheless the space is composed with the same logic. (fig 2) Created on an intimate scale, these handscrolls were free from any constraint that could be associated with commissions, and can be considered a signifier of individual genius, with ‘their themes reflecting the artist’s own personal concerns10’.

In the last decade of his life, Okyo’s school received a commission for the painting of Daijo-ji. My attention was drawn to a small painting used to decorate a display alcove. (fig.3) The first thing to notice is the unusual angle from which the house and the tree are depicted. In Okyo’s works and in traditional Japanese painting the scenes are normally represented as if observed from a higher point. Here they are painted as if seen from the same plane. Then we notice the reflection of the elements of the painting in the burnished wood. I think there can be no doubt that this was Okyo’s intention from the start and he cleverly used a lustrous surface to represent water. Observed from a sitting position, this effect would bring a surreal feeling of continuity of space. The shimmering candle light reflected in the decorative gold would accentuate the illusion on the wooden surface.

Fig 2 Famous views of Kyoto; Detail of Gojo bridge and Takasegawa

10 Matthew McKelway, Journeys in the handscrolls of Jakuchu and Okyo, citing Kishi Fumizaku, Traditions Unbound p 45

4 | P a g e

Fig 3. Detail from Landscapes; Color on gold decorated paper; Daijo-ji temple

The patronage of the rich Mitsui merchant family patronage gave Okyo relatively more liberty. The long traditions at the Imperial court or in Buddhist temples of producing and consuming paintings in certain styles created a degree of rigidity in accepting innovations where codes had become strict. The new emerging class of art consumers must have been more open to recognizing the aesthetic values of a new style.

To illustrate this, I will discuss the six panels screens entitled ’Pines in the snow’ (fig 4) Okyo’s master work, which is considered a National Treasure in Japan11. The folding screens were made for the Mitsui family and exhibit ‘a power and a heightened realism that places them in a realm apart, beyond imitation or instruction12’.

Although its value is now recognized, their influence on the next generation is far smaller than that of many less sublime works13. It seems that the artistic manifestation of Okyo’s true form was too radical for that time. In fact it was hard to understand even in the 20th century. Testimony to this is Morrison’s writing in 1911 referring to these screens

“I must confess that no other painter of the first rank - where he undoubtedly stands – leaves me as cold as does Okyo”

11 The Great Japan Exhibition, Art of Edo, catalos Royal Academy art, 1981, p 28912 J. Hiller, The uninhibited brush, Hugh M. Moss Publishing, p 2313 Idem

5 | P a g e

Fig. 4 Pine tree in snow; Ink, slight color and gold on paper; 155.5 x 362 cm, Mitsui Bunko, Tokyo

Higuchi Kazutaka in his essay14 discusses the influence that patrons play as ’reflecting will is reflected in a painter’s art work’. In my opinion we can go even further by saying that all of cultured society is reflected in an artist’s work, acting as a constraint that must be observed to some extent no matter how original the painter is or how distinctive his artistic vision. The impact of Chinese naturalistic painting on Okyo’s works has been debated. While Johnson states that Shen Nanpin influenced many artists including Okyo 15, J. Hiller considers ‘certainly not Shin Nanpin’.16 “Possibly the influence of Chinese masters on his work has been overstressed. “There is a persistent theory that it was the example of Shen Nanpin that led to the upsurge of naturalism in Japan, but his work is that of a typically dry, half-naturalistic, half-decorative Qing painter from which Okyo’s direct, first-hand naturalism was an explicit departure17”

I think Johnson mistook the common themes for influence. Japanese society was one where symbolism was raised to an artistic level and ‘sentiments were validated by ancient convention predominantly Chinese18’. These conventions were ancestral and shared among both countries. Wishes for a long life, prosperity, sons, and academic success resorted to the same visual puns. The resemblance between Okyo and Nanpin can only be found in these kinds of coincidences and stop here: they are reflections of common conventions.

The sketches reveal another glimpse into the interests and beliefs of the artist. He must have seen Shiko Wanatabe’s sketches and to some extent followed his botanical and zoological subjects. In fig.5 and fig.6 we can see examples of Watanabe’s sketches, which follow the living model with the highest accuracy. Watanabe (1683 - 1755) studied with Ishida Yutei under the same teacher of the Kano school. He died when Okyo was young but most probably they met. His series were produced for Prince Konoe Iehiro who was an enthusiast of western science19.

14 Higuchi Kazutaka, Maruyama Okyo and his patrons in the Mitsui family , Traditions Unbound pp27-35

15 Hiroko Johnson, Western Influences on Japanese art, p 131 16 J. Hiller, The uninhibited brush, Hugh M. Moss Publishing, p 2017 J. Hiller, The uninhibited brush, Hugh M. Moss Publishing, p 2018 Timon Screech, Obtaining images, 2012, p 6719 The Great Japan Exhibition, Art of Edo, catalos Royal Academy art, 1981, p 73

6 | P a g e

Fig.5 Watanabe ShikoSketches of birds, Ink and color on paper; 27 x 1758 cm

Fig.6 Insect sketches

The most interesting subjects in Okyo’s works are depictions of human physiognomy and studies of the human body. Far from the careful observation and representation that is a trademark of Okyo they look rather naïve by contrast.

Even in the Heian era the Japanese stressed the spiritual and the inner aspects of human existence. It was more natural to describe the beauty of a woman by comparing it with tiny blades of autumn grass than by a direct description20.

Portraits were used for funeral rituals and generally they bore little resemblance to the real person. These portraits were to be testimony of moral attributes for future generations. Motori Norinaga wrote ‘when painting an exalted person just make sure they appear noble exuding sentiments of high birth21’. Elite persons should be depicted with care as ‘moral examples’ or as people of ‘high virtue’, the greatest mistake being to make them look like a commoner22. When commissioned by a figure of high rank, the painter would barely see the model and even then the final result was sometimes modified by request till ‘only the pupil of the eyes will still resemble’23.

20 Hiroko Johnson, Western Influences on Japanese art, p. 5621 Timon Screech, Obtaining images, 2012, p 18322 It would be interesting to study furthermore the depiction of social classes in

painting. Generally servants and workers do appear little grotesque 23 Timon Screech, Obtaining images, 2012, p 172 citing from Mitamura Engyo

zenshu

7 | P a g e

Striving to capture the face had no meaning. The person’s appearance had to show their character. Physiognomic tables were created illustrating how loyalty, fierceness or perfidy manifest themselves.

Okyo’s sketches of the human face also follow these rules to some extent. He focuses more on typology that on realistic depiction. Young people (fig 7) are depicted using outlines. No shading effect, no intent of photographic appearance. Old people are somehow more naturalistic, with more shades and more uniformity in skin color (fig 8).

Fig. 7 Sketches of young people

Fig.8 Sketches of old people

The same pattern can be seen in the depiction of the human body. Painting the human body of old males and especially of old females was an extremely unusual and bold thing to do and to my knowledge no other painter had done this before. Although the artist’s interest in anatomy is evident he is more or less consciously resisting depicting the body with the same accuracy as the biological studies he made. This resistance is stronger if the subject is young, to the point where he represents only the idea of a body. (Fig 9 and 10) On the other hand, in the hanging scroll ‘Skeleton meditating on waves’ we can see how the

8 | P a g e

shading on the spine and the skull are used to create a strong three-dimensional effect. (Fig 11)

“This ritualistic obedience to the practice of shading techniques suggests a strong conviction that dead and living bodies must be treated differently24”

Since traditionally commissions for portraits were made in case of imminent death to serve later for funeral rites it may have been inauspicious to portray a young person, so as not to ‘arrest his shadow25’.

It was a religious practice that nobody should disturb the face or the body of a deceased person as long as it retained its human form26. This did not apply to executed criminals. The first autopsy in Japan was performed in Kyoto by Yamawaki Toyo, an official physician for the Imperial Court, in 1754 and five years later first Japanese anatomy book was published. The need for scientific knowledge, brought by westerners, conflicted with religious practices and social norms27. I think the same conflict was felt on artistic grounds, so that Okyo’s affinity for naturalistic depiction could not overcome the barriers imposed by these contemporary norms.

Fig.9 Sketches of old woman Fig.10 Sketches of young woman

24 Western Influences25 Timon Screech, Obtaining images, 2012, p. 17326 It is worth mentioning that the bodies were buried in fetal position so that when

the tomb was opened only a pile of bones was found 27 Only the social outcasts known as ‘Eta’ could touch dead bodies

9 | P a g e

Fig.11 Skeleton Meditating on waves; Hanging scroll, Light color and ink on paper; 132.6 x 59 cm

Okyo is considered the father of shasei (sketching from life), a technique that is still taught in today’s art universities in Japan. He developed a new conception of visual reality based primarily on realistic representation and a steadfast insistence on individual creativity within inherited tradition. His paintings display an eloquent fusion of descriptive naturalism and artistic imagination and his finished works were never mirrors of the natural world. They were, instead, elegant, and at times lyrical or humorous “visual constructions”, each built up through the integration of multiple, smaller shasei sketches. “Rather than characterizing Okyo as a ‘shasei painter’ it is more appropriate to describe him as a kind of ‘pictorial architect’28.”

His aim was to reach the viewer; his art is not made to be passive. He uses naturalism to create a state of dream-like perception. Nevertheless he knew how much novelty could be accepted. As a professional painter and leader of a school he would always bend according to the context, never too much to break the boundaries completely but always pushing them forward.

Okyo’s contribution to the modernization of Japanese painting rests specifically in these artistic and philosophical attitudes, and the genius of his painting lies in its exquisite balance between tradition and revolution.

Bibliography

1. Higuchi Kazutaka, Maruyama Okyo and his patrons in the Mitsui family,

Traditions Unbound; Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, 2005;

2. Hiroko Johnson, Western Influences on Japanese Art, Hotei Publishing,

Amsterdam; 2005

3. J, Hiller, The uninhibited brush, Hugh M. Moss Publishing

4. Matthew McKelway, Journeys in the handscrolls of Jakuchu and Okyo, citing

Kishi Fumizaku, Traditions Unbound; Asian Art Museum of San Francisco, 2005;

5. Sasaki Johei and Sasaki Masako. A study of Maruyama Okyo, 1996

6. Special Exhibition Catalog. Maruyama Okyo: Shaseiga – Challenging a New

Frontier, Osaka Municipal Museum of Art, 2003

7. Tadashi Kobayashi, A kaleidoscope of painting styles, Essays on Edo Period

Paintings, Geika Shoin, Tokyo, Japan;

8. Timon Screech, Obtaining images, Reaktion Books, 2012;

9. The Great Japan Exhibition, Art of Edo, Catalog Royal Academy Art, 1981;

10. Yoko Woodson on artist’s biographies, Traditions Unbound; Asian Art Museum

of San Francisco, 2005;

List of images

Images 3, 4, 7-11

28 Sasaki Johei and Sasaki Masako. A study of Maruyama Okyo, p. 506

10 | P a g e

Special Exhibition Catalog. Maruyama Okyo: Shaseiga – Challenging a new

Frontier, Osaka Municipal Museum of Art, 2003

Image 6

Sasaki Johei and Sasaki Masako. A study of Maruyama Okyo, 1996

Image 1, 2

J, Hiller, The uninhibited brush, Hugh M. Moss Publishing

Image 5

The Great Japan Exhibition, Art of Edo, Catalog Royal Academy Art, 1981

11 | P a g e