Mars Miscellaneous Articles

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter

NA

SA

Fact

s

www.nasa.gov

NASA launched a multipurpose spacecraft named Mars Re-connaissance Orbiter on Aug. 12, 2005 to advance our under-standing of Mars through detailed observation, to examine po-tential landing sites for future surface missions and to provide a high-data-rate communications relay for those missions.

Scientists will use the spacecraft to study the surface, moni-tor the atmosphere, and probe underground, all to gain bet-ter knowledge of the distribution and history of Mars’ water, whether frozen, liquid or vapor.

Carrying the most powerful telescopic camera ever flown to another planet, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter will be able to show Martian landscape features as small as a kitchen table from the spacecraft’s low orbital altitude. That camera and five other science instruments will produce copious data every day for a planned 24-month science phase. To pour the data back to Earth at more than 10 times the rate of any previous Mars mission, the spacecraft will use a wider antenna dish, a faster computer and an amplifier powered by a bigger solar-cell ar-ray.

Mission Overview

An Atlas V two-stage launch vehicle sent the spacecraft on its way to Mars from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Fla.

During the cruise phase of the mission, the flight team put the spacecraft through a series of checkout tests and science cali-brations, in addition to conducting two maneuvers to fine-tune its trajectory.

The spacecraft will reach Mars on March 10, 2006. A multi-en-gine burn as the spacecraft first nears the planet will slow the craft enough for Mars’ gravity to capture it. The first orbit will take about 35 hours and have an extremely elliptical shape, with its farthest point about 150 times farther from the planet than its closest point. The mission will use aerobraking for the next 6 months to modify the orbit to a rounder shape optimal for science operations. Aerobraking, used previously at Mars by NASA’s Mars Global Surveyor and Mars Odyssey orbiters, relies on repeated, carefully calculated dips into the upper atmosphere, where friction with the atmosphere slows the spacecraft. This reduces the cost of the mission by reducing by about 450 kilograms (992 pounds) the amount of onboard fuel that had to be launched from Earth in order for the space-craft to enter the desired orbit around Mars.

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter’s primary science phase will be-gin in November 2006 and operate for 2 Earth years, encom-passing a full Mars year. Every 112 minutes, the spacecraft will make a complete circuit of Mars, flying a nearly circular orbit that will range from about 255 kilometers (160 miles) over the

NA

SA

Fact

sSouth Pole to 320 kilometers (200 miles) over the North Pole.

In addition to its own science, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter will serve as a communications relay satellite for missions that land on Mars. The first to use this capability, according to current plans, will be Phoenix, the first mission in NASA’s com-petitively selected Mars Scout program. Phoenix is a station-ary lander for studying Mars’ north polar region in 2008. Data from Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter will also help in selection of landing sites for future missions. Among the first planned for using this capability is a highly sophisticated rover called Mars Science Laboratory, now in development and slated to begin surface operations in 2010.

Science Objectives

The science objectives for the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter mission make it the critical next step in the NASA Mars Ex-ploration Program of “following the water” as a multi-mission strategy for learning about Mars’ changing climate, geologic history and potential ability to harbor life. Key objectives for this mission are to:

q Characterize the present climate of Mars and how the cli-mate changes from season-to-season and year-to-year.

q Characterize Mars’ global atmosphere and monitor its weather.

q Investigate complex terrain on Mars and identify water-re-lated landforms.

q Search for sites showing stratigraphic or compositional evi-dence of water or hydrothermal activity.

q Probe beneath the surface for evidence of subsurface layer-ing, water and ice, and profile the internal structure of the polar ice caps.

q Identify and characterize sites with the highest potential for future missions that will land on Mars’ surface, including pos-sible missions to collect samples for returning to Earth.

q Relay scientific information to Earth from Mars surface mis-sions.

Spacecraft

Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter has a height of 6.5 meters (21 feet) topped by a 3-meter (10-foot) radio antenna dish. Its width from the tip of one solar panel to the tip of the other is about 13.6 meters (45 feet). The solar panels have about 20 square meters (220 square feet) of solar cells. The spacecraft weighed about 2,180 kilograms (4,800 pounds) at launch, with fuel for 20 onboard thrusters making up about half of that mass.

Lockheed Martin Space Systems, Denver, Colo., built the spacecraft.

For handling large amounts of data, Mars Reconnaissance Or-

biter has 160 gigabits of solid-state memory and a processor operating at up to 46 million instructions per second.

The orbiter carries six science instruments for examining the planet in various parts of the electromagnetic spectrum from ultraviolet to radio waves. Two other investigations will use the spacecraft itself as a tool.

q High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment will photo-graph many areas totaling about 1 percent of Mars’ surface in unprecedented detail, revealing features as small as 1 meter (3 feet) across. Ball Aerospace, Boulder, Colo., built the cam-era for the University of Arizona, Tucson.

q Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars will extend the search for water-related minerals on Mars by providing spectral information that could identify key miner-als in patches as small as a swimming pool at a few thousand carefully chosen sites, while covering the whole planet at a resolution of 200 meters (650 feet). Johns Hopkins University’s Applied Physics Laboratory, Laurel, Md., provided this instru-ment.

q Context Camera will take wider-swath pictures to provide a simultaneous visual context for smaller-area observations by other instruments. Over the primary science phase, this im-ager could cover 15 percent or more of the Mars surface. The supplier is Malin Space Science Systems, San Diego, Calif.

q Mars Climate Sounder will look both down and horizon-tally through the atmosphere in order to quantify the global atmosphere’s vertical variations of water vapor, dust and temperature. This instrument, supplied by NASA’s Jet Propul-sion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., utilizes recent technological advances to achieve the measurement objectives of a heavier, less compact instrument originally developed at JPL for the 1992 Mars Observer and 1998 Mars Climate Orbiter missions.

q Mars Color Imager will produce global images daily to track changes in Martian weather. In addition, it will use ultra-violet filters to examine variations in ozone. Ozone serves as a reverse indicator about water in Mars’ atmosphere. Where there’s more water, there’s less ozone, and vice versa. The camera is essentially a copy of a Mars Climate Orbiter instru-ment. However, the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter instrument has a wider fish-eye lens to compensate for the spacecraft rolls needed to target specific locales on Mars. The new Mars Color Imager is also supplied by Malin Space Science Sys-tems.

q Shallow Subsurface Radar will penetrate to roughly half a kilometer (a third of a mile) below Mars’ surface for information about underground layers of ice, rock and, perhaps, melted water that might be accessible from the surface. This radar, which will also probe the internal structure of the Martian ice caps, is provided by the Italian Space Agency (ASI) through a bilateral agreement.

q The Gravity Investigation will track variations in the orbiter’s movement in order to map Mars’ gravity by its effect on the spacecraft. Previous orbiters have mapped regional

2

NA

SA

Fact

svariations in the planet’s gravity that result from differences in crustal thickness and other factors. This spacecraft’s lower altitude will allow higher-resolution data. Researchers will use gravity measurements to assess how much the mass of Mars’ polar ice caps changes with the seasons.

q The Atmospheric Structure Investigation will use data col-lected from the orbiter’s accelerometers during each dip into the upper atmosphere throughout the aerobraking phase of the mission. The upper atmosphere’s effect on the spacecraft’s velocity will be analyzed for information about changes in the density of the atmosphere at known altitudes. Quick analysis will help guide calculations about how deep to plan the next dip. The accumulated data will also improve understanding of atmospheric dynamics.

Additional Payload

The payload for the mission also includes a relay telecommu-nications package and two technology demonstrations.

q Electra is an ultra-high-frequency (UHF) radio for relaying commands from Earth to landers on the Mars surface and for returning science and engineering data back to Earth using

the orbiter’s more powerful direct-to- Earth telecommunica-tions system.

q The Optical Navigation Camera compares the predicted positions of Mars’ two moons, Phobos and Deimos, with the camera’s observations as the spacecraft approaches Mars. Once demonstrated by Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, this navigation technique can be used by future Mars landers to enter the atmosphere more precisely and thus land closer to the intended site.

q Another technology demonstration adds a higher-frequency (Ka band) radio transmitter to the standard (X band) pack-age. The Ka band package uses less power than its X band counterpart to send the same amount of data. However, the Ka band signal is more attenuated by water in Earth’s atmo-sphere. A comparison of Ka band and X band performance will provide information to support planning future use of the telecommunications systems.

For More Information

The official Web site of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter proj-ect is at http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/mro

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Jet Propulsion LaboratoryCalifornia Institute of Technology Pasadena, California

3-06

3

MAPPING THE SURFACE OF A PLANET

Mars Education ProgramJet Propulsion LaboratoryArizona State University

Version 2.00

Student Guide

Mapping the Surface of a Planet

Written and Developed by:

Keith Watt, M.A., M.S.Assistant Director

ASU Mars Education Program

Edited by:

Paige Valderrama, M.A.Assistant Director


Sheri Klug, M.S.Director


(C) 2002 ASU Mars Education Program. All rights re-served. This document may be freely distrubuted for non-commercial use only.

Arabia Terra, MarsCredit: Malin Space Science Systems/NASA

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has been returning pictures of Mars back to Earth since 1965, when the Mariner 4 spacecraft flew past Mars and sent back twenty-one images. Science and technology have progressed greatly since the early mission days. The Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft has sent back over 100,000 pictures of the Martian surface. These pictures have helped scientists determine what types of geological activity have occurred to make the planet appear as it does today. Impact craters, volcanoes, layering, and river beds look much the same on Mars as they do on Earth. Scientists can, therefore, use Earth's features as a comparison for Mars. In these activities you are a mission scientist trying to figure out what is happening on the surface of Mars. Geological features on Mars are easy to identify if you know what you are looking for. The following is a description of some of the most common geological features on Mars. Becoming familiar with these features will assist you in completing the activities that follow.

Impact craters on Mars, the Moon, or any other planetary body are formed when meteorites slam into its surface displacing rock and soil, creating a bowl-shaped hole or crater. Impact craters on Mars vary in size from less than 1 km (0.6 miles) to 2,100 km (1,300 miles) in diameter. An impact crater usually has five parts, although not all of these parts are visible in all craters. The picture at right is of a crater in a region called Arabia Terra on Mars. It is typical of craters found not only on Mars, but on the Earth and Moon as well. The raised area around the edge of the crater is called the rim, and is material that was thrown upward by the violence of the impact that created the crater. Some of the material that was in the crater was thrown high into the air and landed outside the crater in a blanket called ejecta. One type of ejecta is long, outward-pointing streaks called

rays. These rays are particularly visible on the Moon. The walls of the crater slope down to the floor, which is often remarkably flat. If the impact was violent enough to melt the rock which became the floor of the crater, a central uplift or peak will often form. You can see this for yourself by adding drops to a glass of water. As each drop hits the water's surface, a crater will form complete with a central uplift. Try it!

Impact Craters

Identifying Surface Features


1

Rim

Wall

Floor

Ejecta

Central Uplift

On both Earth and Mars, volcanoes are hills or mountains made from built-up layers of lava (hot, molten rock) ejected from cracks or vents in the planet's crust. At the top of the volcano is a roughly circular depression. This depression is called a caldera if it is larger than one mile (0.6 km) in diameter or, confusingly enough, a crater if it is smaller than one mile (0.6 km) in diameter. There are five major types of volcanoes. Shield volcanoes are domes much wider than they are high (shaped like a shield) and have very low slopes. They are formed from hot, freely-flowing lava (usually silica-poor basalt). The largest volcano on Earth is a shield volcano called Mauna Loa, which rises over 9 km (5.4 miles) from its base on the sea floor. The largest volcano in the Solar System, Olympus Mons on Mars, is a shield-like volcano. Olympus Mons is almost 27 km (17 miles) high and its base is almost 700 km (430 miles) across!

If the lava from a volcano is made up mostly of silica, it will flow more

sluggishly. This lava doesn't flow very far from the vent, but instead gets heaped up into a bulbous "plug", giving this type of volcano the name plug dome. This type of volcano is usually small, rising not more than a few thousand meters above the surface. Spatter cones are of a similar size, but are formed from gas-charged lava fountains that spew lava high into the air. Cinder cones are formed from volcanic ash and coarse materials exploding from the vent. The most famous cinder cone appeared in a Mexican farmer's cornfield in 1943. The cinder cone erupted for nine years and reached a height of over 400 meters (1300 feet)!

The last type of volcano, and the most common on the Earth, is the composite volcano. This type of volcano is actually a blend of the other types, sometimes having quiet eruptions and sometimes having violent explosive eruptions. Mount St. Helens, which last erupted on May 18, 1980, is an example of this type of volcano.

Volcanoes

A. Plug Dome (Jabal Abyad, Saudi Arabia) Photo by Vic CampB. Spatter Cone (Pu'u 'O'o, HI) Photo by J.D. GriggsC. Cinder Cone (Pu'u ka Pele, HI) Photo by J.P. Lockwood - USGSD. Shield Volcano (Mauna Loa, HI) Photo by D. LittleE. Composite Volcano (Mt. St. Helens, WA) Photo courtesy of USGS

A B C

D E


2


3

The Earth's crust has experienced many changes over its four and a half billion year history. The crust is made up of many layers of rock, one laid on top of the other in a process called layering or stratification. These rock layers, or strata, tell us much about the history of the Earth and how it has changed over time. The strata form a geological timeline that we can use to date significant changes in the Earth's crust. Wherever this timeline is exposed, we can easily read off the history of that area. One spectacular place where we can see the strata that make up the Earth's crust is in the Grand Canyon. The canyon was formed over many millions of years as the Colorado River slowly wore through the surface rock and carved deeper and deeper channels. As the river dug deeper, more and more layers of rock were exposed, revealing more and more about the geological history of this region.

Canyons also exist on Mars, some possibly cut by a moving fluid such as water or lava. The largest canyon on Mars is Valles Marineris, which is over 10 km (6 miles) deep and 4,000 km (2,500 miles) long. If placed on the Earth, it would stretch across the entire United States! The entire Grand Canyon would fit in one of its side canyons. Unlike the Grand Canyon, however, Valles Marineris was not cut by a river. Instead, it was formed when some event caused the Martian crust to bulge so that it pulled apart. Regardless of whether a canyon was formed by flowing water or by a separating crust, the strata revealed tell us the same story of the planet's history. Using cameras aboard spacecraft orbiting Mars, scientists have found evidence of layered terrain. Could these layers tell us how Mars has changed over time? This is one of the questions scientists hope to answer by studying the strata found on Mars.

Stratification

Grand Canyon, ArizonaPhoto by Piotr Azia

Valles Marineris, MarsCredit: NASA


4

Rivers on Earth form when running water carves channels into the land as rainwater flows from higher to lower elevations. On Mars, no liquid water can exist today because of its cold surface temperatures and low atmospheric pressure, so no water can flow to carve channels. NASA spacecraft instruments, however, have found many examples of long, snake-like formations that resemble dry river beds similar to those found on Earth. At the eastern end of Valles Marineris is a complex system of outflow channels that drain into the plain called Chryse Planitia. These channels were thought to have formed when hundreds of cubic kilometers of water suddenly flooded the surface, carving each channel in just a few weeks. It was as if all of the water in the Great Lakes were suddenly drained into the Gulf of Mexico in just two weeks. There are many features on Mars, such as Nanedi Vallis, shown below, that indicate that at one time the planet may have been much warmer and

wetter than it is today. So where did all the water go? Water on Mars today can exist only as ice or as water vapor. Scientists theorize that much of Mars' water is locked up as ground ice deep beneath the surface. This layer of frozen ice and rock, called permafrost, may be several kilometers thick. Even after much of the water on Mars froze, scientists believe that periodically large impacts may have melted the permafrost and temporarily allowed water to flow on Mars again. Not for long though! This water would eventually either refreeze or turn to vapor and escape into the atmosphere. The water in the Martian atmosphere is visible today as wispy ice clouds that float over the surface. If Mars was warmer and wetter in the distant past than it is today, what happened to cause this change? Could the same change happen to Earth? These are questions that scientists are attempting to answer by using data returned by spacecraft sent to Mars.

River Beds

Nanedi Vallis, MarsCrfedit: Malin Space Science Systems/NASA

Mississippi River, EarthCredit: MODIS/NASA


5

Think of the most beautiful and interesting place you have ever seen. Are there mountains, lakes, volcanoes, rivers, or rocks there? Do you have any idea how these geological features were formed? Determining how these and other geological features formed and how they influence their surroundings is the job of geologists. With geological knowledge gathered from the Earth's surface, geologists can determine what is happening on other planets. Once you have learned to identify geological features on the Earth or on Mars, the next question you should ask is: How were these features formed? Which features were formed first and are therefore older? Which features were formed later and therefore are younger? The process of answering these questions is called determining the surface history of the planet. In order to make this determination, geologists use three basic rules, or principles, when trying to figure out an area's geological history. You must learn these principles so that you can determine the history of the areas of Mars you will study in the activities that follow.

The first principle which is used in determining the surface history of an area is called the Principle of Superposition. This principle describes the order in which rocks are placed above one another. You know from our discussion of stratification that rocks in the Earth's crust are laid down in layers, one on top of the other. The Principle of Superposition states that strata located at the bottom of an undisturbed stack of rocks are older than the layers at the top of the stack. If you think about it, this makes sense. No natural force would have peeled back layers of older rock and then laid down a layer of younger rock in between. The only place the younger rock could be laid down is on top of the older layers. The picture to the right is of an area on Mars and shows an excellent example of strata. Which layers in this picture are the oldest?

Which are the youngest? On Earth, by examining the different minerals and fossils that appear in the different layers, geologists can estimate when the rock layers were laid down. In this way we discover a timeline of Earth's geological history preserved in the exposed layers of rock. In areas where the layering is not exposed, geologists drill into the ground and remove long tubes of rock called core samples. These core samples reveal the layering of rock beds in exactly the same way.

The Principle of Superposition

Determining the Surface History

Exposed Strata on MarsCredit: MSSS/NASA


6

The second principle geologists use in determining the surface history of an area is called the Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships. This principle states that rocks or geological features such as canyons, rivers, or cracks in rocks, may be cut by other rocks or by other geological features. The picture of the Grand Canyon (see page 3) shows rocks that have been cut over millions of years by the Colorado River. The river slowly wore its way down through the layers of rock to

produce the deep canyon feature we see today. Because the rocks were cut by the river, they must be older than the river. The canyon itself, the "cut" in the rocks, was created by the river carving its way through the rocks. Therefore, the rocks are the oldest feature, followed by the river, and then the canyon "cut". These kinds of relationships help geologists determine the age of different geological features on the surface. This process will reveal a lot about the surface history of a region!

The Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships

The final principle used by geologists that we will study here is called the Principle of Horizontal Bedding. This principle states that rocks that are deposited by water, such as limestone, or rocks that are deposited by wind, such as sandstone, are deposited in nearly horizontal layers. If the layers are no longer horizontal, they must have been bent or folded after they were originally laid down. The picture below and to the right is of folded bedding in a rock unit near California. What forces could have caused these layers to bend?

California lies upon a fault, or a moving fracture between two huge plates of the Earth's crust. These continental plates are moving very slowly, and over millions of years the rock layers begin to buckle. Take a telephone directory and hold it by its edges. Look at the end of the book and notice that the pages start out horizontal. Now watch the pages as you move your hands together. They bend! This is the same effect that is happening as the continental plates apply force to the rock layers, so they bend as well.

The Principle of Horizontal Bedding

Horizontal LayersPhoto by John Crossley

Folded Sandstone LayersPhoto by Mark Peletier

MAPPING THE SURFACE OF A PLANET - ACTIVITY 1

7

Now is your chance to apply what you've learned to actual images of the Martian surface. The image included with this activity was taken by the Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC), one of the three instruments aboard the Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) spacecraft. MGS was launched November 7, 1996, and arrived at the Red Planet on September 12, 1997. The spacecraft completed its primary mission on January 31, 2001, but was still in good health so controllers decided to extend its mission. The goal of this activity and the ones that follow is to give you practice analyzing actual data sets from Mars in order to determine the surface history of the planet. You will need to be able to recognize the various geological features and apply the three principles we studied to determine the ages of those features. Once you have the ages of all the features, you will develop hypotheses of how those features were formed.

Features Near Olympus Mons (MOC2-102)1. The image has been overlaid with a grid that has been marked in kilometers so that you can record the positions of features you identify.

a) What is the width of the area shown on the image? __________ kmb) What is the length of the area shown on the image? __________ km

2. Examine the long, winding feature that extends from the bottom left to the top right of the image. Is it raised above the surface or is it carved into the surface? What is your hypothesis?

_________________________________________________________

3. In order to answer question 2, you actually need more information: the Sun is illuminating the picture from the right. Your teacher will perform a demonstration which will show you where the shadow appears when features are illuminated from different sides. Now look at the circular feature just above and to the right of the center of the image. If the Sun is shining from the right side of this feature, is it a volcano or an impact crater? __________ For this image, if the shadow is on the right side of a feature, is that feature raised or lowered? __________ If the shadow is on the left side, is that feature raised or lowered? __________

4. Olympus Mons, the largest volcano in the Solar System, produced the lava flows that you see in the upper left corner of the image. Which feature is older, the lava flows or the long winding feature that extends across the image?

_________________________________________________________

Features Near Olympus Mons (MOC2-102) - Data Log

5. Complete the Data Log above, identifying as many features (such as craters, canyons, riverbeds, and volcanoes) in the image as you can recognize. Record the grid coordinates of each feature on the Log so that you can find them later. After you have identified these features, use the three principles you learned previously to rank the features from oldest to youngest. Be sure to explain your reasoning in the "Notes" column! Finally, in the space below "tell the story" of what has happened to form the features shown in this image in your own words.

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

FeatureGrid

CoordinatesAge

RankNotes


8


9

The second instrument aboard the Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft is the Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES). The purpose of TES is to measure thermal infrared (IR) energy that is emitted from Mars. We often perceive thermal IR energy as heat. Just like visible light, thermal IR energy exists in many different "colors" or wavelengths. These "colors" however, are so red that your eye can't perceive them. TES has a special instrument which can not only see these wavelengths, but it can also measure how much of each wavelength is present. The instrument is also capable of measuring the total amount of energy reflected from the surface of Mars. Material with a high albedo is shiny and bright because it reflects a great deal of light, while material with a low albedo does not reflect much light and appears dark. You will use TES's measurement of the albedo of the Tharsis Province to learn more about the unique geology of this region.

Albedo of the Tharsis Province1. Examine the scale printed below the TES image. This scale shows the percentage of visible and IR light received from the Sun that is being reflected from the surface of Mars.

a) What is the minimum percentage of visible and IR light that is reflected in the image? ____________ b) If you were looking at this area through a telescope, would it appear light or dark? ______________

c) What is the maximum percentage of visible and IR light that is reflected in the image? ____________

d) If you were looking at this area through a telescope, would it appear light or dark? ______________

e) Approximately what percentage is represented by a dark green color? _________________

2. Find the three volcanoes of the Tharsis Montes region. The volcano located on the lower left is called Arsia Mons, the volcano in the middle is Pavonis Mons, and the volcano located to the upper right is Ascraeus Mons.

a) Which of these volcanoes has the highest albedo? _____________ b) Which of these volcanoes has the lowest albedo? ______________


10

3. The large volcano northwest of (to the left and above) the Tharsis Montes is Olympus Mons, the largest volcano in the Solar System. Notice that there is a region of very bright material on the northwest face of the volcano. This bright material is actually not on the surface, it is water-ice clouds in the atmosphere. a) Which side of Olympus Mons is the material on? _________________ b) Now look at the Tharsis Montes. Which side is the material on here? __________________________________________________________ c) Why do you think the material is only found on one side of the volcanoes?

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

d) What does this tell you about the winds on Mars?

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

4. Look at the filmy white feature stretching northeast from Pavonis Mons and lying southeast of Ascraeus Mons. This feature is Valles Marineris, the largest canyon in the Solar System. The canyon is marked by material that is similar in albedo to the material on the northwest side of the Tharsis Montes. a) What do you think this material might be? _______________________ b) Why do think this material would collect in the canyon?

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

5. Look at the red-colored region near the north pole of Mars (the black circular area here is just the area where Mars Global Surveyor could not collect data). a) Is this region bright or dark? ____________________________ b) Why do you think the region appears this way (bright or dark)?

__________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

The third major instrument on board the Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft is the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA). This instrument, controlled from NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, transmits infrared laser pulses towards Mars. These pulses bounce off the Martian surface and the instrument measures the time it takes to receive the return pulse. Because light (and an infrared laser pulse) always travels at the same speed, the instrument can measure the distance from the spacecraft to the surface with a great deal of accuracy. The image you will use in this activity shows the topography or heights, of the region surrounding the three Tharsis Montes volcanoes. This image is not a photograph! A computer generated this image by assigning colors to represent different heights above or below the datum, or "sea level" on Mars. The color scale below the image will allow you to determine the heights of the features.

Topography of the Tharsis Montes Region1. The grid on this image is marked in degrees of latitude and longitude. The Martian equator runs directly through the middle of the image at 0 degrees latitude. One degree of latitude or longitude in this region is about 59 km.

a) What is the width (in degrees) of the image? __________ deg

b) What is the length (in degrees) of the image? __________ deg

2. Notice the three volcanoes that cross the image from bottom left to top right. a) How tall (in meters) are these features above the datum? ______,_______,______ m

b) How wide (in degrees) are the volcano bases? _____,______,_____ deg

c) Multiply each of your three answers in part b by 59 km/degree to find out the width (in km) of each base. ______,_______,______ km 3. Based on your reading and your results from question 2, what type of volcano do you think the Tharsis Montes are? Why?

_____________________________________________________

4. Based on what you know about this type of volcano, what type of rock might the interior of Mars be made of (basalt or silica-rich rocks)? Why?

_____________________________________________________


11


12

Topography of the Tharsis Montes Region - Data Log

5. Complete the Data Log above, identifying as many features in the image as you can recognize. Record the grid coordinates of each feature on the Log so that you can find them later. Using the color key below the image, estimate the height of each feature. After you have identified these features, use the three principles you learned previously to rank the features from oldest to youngest. Finally, in the space below "tell the story" in your own words of what happened to form the features seen in the image.

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

FeatureGrid

CoordinatesAge

RankHeight


Mars Education ProgramJet Propulsion LaboratoryArizona State University

Version 2.00

Teacher Guide

Mapping the Surface of a Planet

Written and Developed by:

Keith Watt, M.A., M.S.Assistant Director


Edited by:

Paige Valderrama, M.A.Assistant Director


Sheri Klug, M.S.Director


(C) 2002 ASU Mars Education Program. All rights re-served. This document may be freely distrubuted for non-commercial use only.

Mapping the Surface of a Planet is intended to fit within your existing Earth science curriculum, rather than in addition to it. This Teacher Guide presents tips that you can use to make Mapping the Surface an engaging educational experience for your students. The background information presented on pages 1-6 is intended to be given to each student or student team. The three activities (one using data from each instrument on board Mars Global Surveyor) are best set up as stations through which student teams can rotate, but can also be used as a whole class activity. Each team should have a printed copy of all three activity sheets, but the image itself can be placed at the appropriate station. Of course, if resources permit, each team can be given a complete set of images. If students do have their own copies, it is suggested that you allow the students to circle features they have found in each image, writing notes about their observations directly on the image. Vocabulary words are printed in bold text throughout the background material. Definitions can and should be obtained from the context, rather than presented as simply a list of words. In this way the students not only learn the targeted vocabulary, they are also given the opportunity to practice comprehension skills.

Activity 1: Features Near Olympus Mons (MOC2-102)1. a) 7 km b) 12 km. It is important that you stress the sense of scale in the images contained in each activity. Each is taken at very different resolutions (levels of detail), so actual sizes of the surface features shown will vary.2. Answer depends upon students. There is no right or wrong answer here. The important issue is that they make a hypothesis, but then realize they do not have sufficient information to answer the question. This process is at the core of the scientific method.3. It is an impact crater. Shadow on right = lowered, shadow on left = raised. You will need to demonstrate this using a bucket. Shine a light (flashlight, sunlight, etc.) at an angle across the top of the bucket. The side of the bucket nearest the light will be in shadow, while the opposite side will be lit. Turn the bucket upside down and you'll get the opposite result. 4. The lava flows are older. Because the winding, river-like feature cuts across the lava flows, the Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships says that the lava flows must be older.5. This is an example of what to look for: "Olympus Mons erupted, sending massive amounts of lava flowing outward. River runoff (or lava from a later eruption) cut a canyon through the lava flow. Later runoff through the canyon carved the smaller channel. A meteor impacted in the area, causing a crater that partially covered the canyon and smaller river bed. Different students will identify different features, but all should have something plausible. A quick tip: Some people find the canyon easier to visualize if the image is turned upside down!

MAPPING THE SURFACE - TEACHER GUIDE

1


2

Activity 2: Albedo of the Tharsis Province

1. a) 7% b) Dark c) 37% d) Light e) ~18-22%. There are two important concepts in this question: first, can the students correctly interpret a visual scale, and second, do they undersand the concept of albedo. Albedo is nothing more than how bright or dark certain areas on the planet are, just like looking at a black and white television set. TES is somewhat unique in that it measures not only the "visual brightness", but also the "infrared brightness". Depending upon the level of your class, this could be the perfect time to introduce your students to the electromagnetic spectrum, if you have not done so already. Once you have explained the colors in the visual part of the spectrum, it's not too difficult for the students to visualize a color "redder than red, so red that that your eye can't see it".2. a) Pavonis Mons b) Arsia Mons. This question is intended to provide an application of the concept of albedo, but also serves as an introduction to Martian geography. Remember that a place seems more "real" when you have a name for it!3. a) Northwest (This is given in the question.) b) Northwest c) The clouds are being blocked by the tall volcanoes. d) The winds on Mars in this region must have been blowing west to east when this image was taken. The situation on Mars is similar to the "rain shadow" of mountain ranges on Earth. The winds are blowing the clouds against the mountains, so they all "congregate" on one side of the volcanoes. Most people don't think of Mars as having weather, but it does! In fact, Mars provides meteorologists on Earth with a simpler atmosphere they can study to improve their knowledge of Earth's atmosphere.4. a) Ice clouds b) The lower altitude of the canyon floor is cooler and often protected from the Sun, so clouds are more likely to form there. The spacecraft Lunar Prospector found deposits of water ice on the surface of the Moon, hidden in craters that were sheltered from the Sun. Could we possibly find water ice in Valles Marineris? 5. a) Bright b) The ice at the pole reflects the light very readily, making the surface appear bright. Your students should be able to draw this conclusion by making an extension of their knowledge of the brightness of water-ice clouds, as discussed in the previous questions. Be sure to point out to them that the black spot directly at the pole is simply a region that Mars Global Surveyor was unable to map. We don't have any data there, so we don't have any colors. Mars Global Surveyor was in a nearly-polar orbit which enabled it to map almost all of the surface of Mars. Had it been in an exactly polar orbit, it would have been able to fill in the black spot in this image.


3

Activity 3: Topography of the Tharsis Province

1. a) 30 degrees b) 40 degrees. Here we are using latitude and longitude rather than using kilometers directly. Mars uses the same latitude and longitude system we use on Earth, so this is a good time reinforce that concept. Because the image is centered on the equator, the distance represented by one degree of both latitude and longitude is approximately the same. For a more advanced class, you can point out that this is not true everywhere on a globe because the lines of longitude converge at the North Pole!2. a) about 12,000 m for all three volcanoes b) ~8 degrees, ~5 degees, and ~6 degrees, respectively. c) ~472 km, ~295 km, and ~354 km, respectively. This question has the dual purpose of allowing you to reinforce scale and multiplication tasks and of getting a sense of just how big these volcanoes are. Putting them in perspective to known distances ("about the same size as Arizona") will be very helpful. Note: Student answers will vary somewhat.3. They must be shield-like volcanoes because the bases are so big and the slopes are so low. Remind your students that the background material states that hotter lava flows a further distance and shield volcanoes have the hottest lava of all five volcano types, so the lava flows the furthest and creates the largest bases and the lowest slopes.4. Basalt. Basaltic lava is hotter and therefore flows further than silica-rich lava. Now we have a good idea what the material that makes up the lava flow is. Point out that geology is a like detective story - from small clues, we get big answers.5. An example: "The Tharsis Montes volcanoes formed and then erupted, sending lava flowing out onto the surrounding plain. Two smaller volcanoes erupted, adding more lava to the initial flow. Finally, some object impacted the surface, creating a crater on the lava flow." Again, student responses will vary depending on which features they chose to rank. Note that the smaller volcano could have formed after the impact crater, but because we assume the volcanism all occurred at about the same time, we assume that the smaller volcano formed not too long after the Tharsis Montes. Again, you are grading the students' thinking and reasoning skills -- if they can support their answers, they have achieved the educational objective.


4

Features Near Olympus Mons (MOC2-102) - Data Log

FeatureGrid

CoordinatesAge

RankNotes

Topography of the Tharsis Montes Region - Data Log

FeatureGrid

CoordinatesAge

RankHeight

Main Lava Flow 0 km, 0 km to 5.0 km, 5.0 km

1All features cut across the flow.

Canyon 0 km, 12.0 km to 7.0 km, 0 km

2Cuts across lava

flow, but has other features on it.

Long Channel 4.5 km, 6.0 km to 4.5 km, 8.0 km

3

Short Channel 3.0 km, 7.5 km to 4.5 km, 8.0 km

4

Impact Crater 4.5 km, 4.75 km 5

Eroded Crater 4.0 km, 4.25 km 6

Cuts across plainand canyon.

Cuts across longchannel

Clearly defined edges, no erosion, so must

be recent.

Extemely eroded, so must be older.

Volcano

Volcano

Lava Flow

Volcano

Volcano

Impact Crater

-113, +0.5 deg

-120.5, -9.5 deg

-123, +10 deg to -116.5, +7 deg

-113, +8.5 deg

1

1

1

2

3

4

12,000 m

12,000 m

5,000 m

3,000 m rim,0 m floor

5,000 m

-104.5, +11 deg 12,000 m

-124.0, +2.5 deg

Appendix 1: National Science Education Standards


5

CONTENT STANDARD D: As a result of their activities, all students should develop an understanding of:

1. Structure of the Earth system (Volcanoes, Stratification, River Beds, Act.1, Act.2, Act.3),2. Earth's history (Impact Craters, Stratification, Principle of Superposition, Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships, Principle of Horizontal Bedding, Act.1, Act.2, Act.3),3. Earth in the Solar System (Identifying Surface Features).

Mapping the Surface of a Planet is not just a fun and motivating activity for your students, it also satisfies many of the standards laid down by the National Research Council in their publication National Science Education Standards (1996). In this appendix we identify the specific Standards which are met by this activity. The relevant section titles are given in parenthesis.

Content Standards:

CONTENT STANDARD A: As a result of their activities, all students should develop the abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry:

1. Identify questions that can be answered through scientific investigations. (Activity 1, Activity 2, Activity 3)2. Conduct a scientific investigation. (Act.1, Act.2, Act.3)3. Use appropriate tools to analyze and interpret data. (Act.1, Act.2, Act.3).4. Develop descriptions and explanations using evidence. (Act.1, Act.2, Act.3)5. Think critically and logically to make the relationships between evidence and explanations. (Act.1, Act.2, Act.3)6. Recognize and analyze alternative explanations. (Act.1, Act.2, Act.3)7. Communicate scientific procedures and explanations. (Act.1, Act.2, Act.3)8. Use mathematics in all aspects of scientific inquiry. (Act.1, Act.3)

CONTENT STANDARD G: As a result of their activities, all students should develop an understanding of:

1. The nature of science (Principle of Superposition, Principle of Cross- Cutting Relationships, Principle of Horizontal Bedding, Act.1, Act.2, Act.3).

Appendix 1: National Science Education Standards (cont.)


6

In addition to content standards, the National Science Education Standards roadmap also lays out teaching standards to guide educators in the best practices for the teaching of science. Mapping the Surface of a Planet models these teaching standards and serves as a vehicle for their implementation. The specific Standards for which the unit is especially well-suited are outlined below.

Teaching Standards:

TEACHING STANDARD A: Teachers of science plan an inquiry-based science program for their students.

1. Develop a framework of year-long and short-term goals for students.2. Select science content and adapt and design curricula to meet the interests, knowledge, understanding, abilities, and experiences of students.

TEACHING STANDARD B: Teachers of science guide and facilitate learning.

1. Focus and support inquiries while interacting with students.2. Orchestrate discourse among students about scientific ideas.3. Challenge students to accept and share responsibility for their own learning.4. Recognize and respond to student diversity and encourage all students to participate fully in science learning.5. Encourage and model the skills of scientific inquiry, as well as the curiosity, openness to new ideas and data, and skepticism that characterize science.

TEACHING STANDARD C: Teachers of science engage in ongoing assessment of their teaching and of student learning.

1. Use multiple methods and systematically gather data about student understanding and ability.

TEACHING STANDARD D: Teachers of science design and manage learning environments that provide students with the time, space, and resources needed for learning science.

1. Structure the time available so that students are able to engage in extended investigations.2. Create a setting for student work that is flexible and supportive of science inquiry.3. Ensure a safe working environment.

Appendix 1: National Science Education Standards (cont.)


7

TEACHING STANDARD E: Teachers of science develop communities of science learners that reflect the intellectual rigor of scientific inquiry and the attitudes and social values conducive to science learning.

4. Make the available science tools, materials, media, and technological resources accessible to students.5. Engage students in designing the learning environment.

1. Display and demand respect for the diverse ideas, skills, and experiences of all students.2. Enable students to have a significant voice in decisions about the content and context of their work and require students to take responsiblity for the learning of all members of the community.3. Nurture collaboration among students.4. Structure and facilitate ongoing formal and informal discussion based on shared understanding of rules of scientific discourse.5. Model and emphasize the skills, attitudes, and values of scientific inquiry.

Iden

tify

Que

stio

ns

Con

duct

a s

cien

tific

Inve

stig

atio

n

Use

too

ls a

nd

anal

yze

data

Dev

elop

exp

lana

tion

s

usin

g ev

iden

ce

Rel

ate

evid

ence

and

expl

anat

ions

Ana

lyze

alter

native

expl

anat

ions

Com

mun

icat

ion

Mat

hem

atic

s in

scie

nce

Str

uctu

re o

f Ea

rth

Sys

tem

Eart

h hi

stor

y

Eart

h in

the

Sol

ar

Sys

tem

Nat

ure

of S

cien

ce

IdentifyingSurface Features

ImpactCraters

Volcanoes

Stratification

River Beds

Principle of Superposition

Principle of Cross-cuttingRelationships

Principle of HorizonalBedding

Activity 1

Activity 2

Activity 3

Background

Activities


8

Contact: ESA Publications Divisionc/o ESTEC, PO Box 299, 2200 AG Noordwijk, The NetherlandsTel. (31) 71 565 3400 - Fax (31) 71 565 5433

MA

RS

EX

PR

ES

ST

he S

cientific P

ayload

SP-1240

MARS EXPRESS

SP

-1240

The Scientific Payload

sp1240cover 7/7/04 4:17 PM Page 1

SP-1240August 2004

MARS EXPRESSThe Scientific Payload

AAsec1.qxd 7/8/04 3:52 PM Page 1

ii

SP-1240 ‘Mars Express: A European Mission to the Red Planet’ISBN 92-9092-556-6 ISSN 0379-6566

Edited by Andrew WilsonESA Publications Division

Scientific Agustin ChicarroCoordination ESA Research and Scientific Support Department, ESTEC

Published by ESA Publications DivisionESTEC, Noordwijk, The Netherlands

Price €50

Copyright © 2004 European Space Agency

AAsec1.qxd 7/8/04 3:52 PM Page ii

iii

Foreword v

OverviewThe Mars Express Mission: An Overview 3A. Chicarro, P. Martin & R. Trautner

Scientific InstrumentsHRSC: the High Resolution Stereo Camera of Mars Express 17G. Neukum, R. Jaumann and the HRSC Co-Investigator

and Experiment Team

OMEGA: Observatoire pour la Minéralogie, l’Eau, 37les Glaces et l’Activité

J-P. Bibring, A. Soufflot, M. Berthé et al.

MARSIS: Mars Advanced Radar for Subsurface 51and Ionosphere Sounding

G. Picardi, D. Biccari, R. Seu et al.

PFS: the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer for Mars Express 71V. Formisano, D. Grassi, R. Orfei et al.

SPICAM: Studying the Global Structure and 95Composition of the Martian Atmosphere

J.-L. Bertaux, D. Fonteyn, O. Korablev et al.

ASPERA-3: Analyser of Space Plasmas and Energetic 121Ions for Mars Express

S. Barabash, R. Lundin, H. Andersson et al.

MaRS: Mars Express Orbiter Radio Science 141M. Pätzold, F.M. Neubauer, L. Carone et al.

Beagle 2: the Exobiological Lander of Mars Express 165D. Pullan, M.R. Sims, I.P. Wright et al.

US ParticipationUS Participation in Mars Express 207A.D. Morrison, T.W. Thompson, R.L. Horttor et al.

Acronyms & Abbreviations 215

Contents

AAsec1.qxd 7/8/04 3:52 PM Page iii

FOREWORD

AAsec1.qxd 7/8/04 3:52 PM Page v

mars express: foreword

Mars, our most Earth-like planetary neighbour, beckons. Its pristine and diversesurface, equal in area to Earth’s land surface, displays a long and fascinating history,punctuated by impact events, volcanism, tectonics, and aeolian, fluvial and glacialerosion. A century ago, astronomers believed they were witnessing the last attemptsof a dying martian civilisation to cope with the devastating effects of climate change.The notion of an intelligently inhabited Mars was later dispelled, but the expectationthat simple life forms could have survived persisted. Today, after sending roboticmissions to Mars, our view of the planet retains some striking similarities to thoseearlier romantic conjectures.

We know from orbiting spacecraft that Mars has undergone dramatic climatic andgeologic changes. Water coursing over its surface in the distant past left dramaticevidence in deeply carved channels and fluvial networks. Yet today we find the planetis cold and dry. There is no evidence so far that life exists there now, but primitive lifeduring Mars’ warmer, wetter past is a real possibility. So, mysteries remain: how didour Earth-like neighbour arrive at its present parched, cold and almost airless state?Did life evolve and then die out? Did it leave a fossil record? Last but not least, canthe changes experienced by Mars teach us something about the dramatic changesbeing predicted for our own planet?

These and other questions have spurred scientists and engineers to meet theenormous challenge of sending missions to Mars. A Mars-bound spacecraft mustsurvive journeys of more than 6 months, approach the planet from just the right angleand at the right speed to enter orbit, and then operate successfully to return valuableobservations. Some missions have failed, but the successes have more than repaid theeffort and risk. Our knowledge about Mars has grown dramatically with everysuccessful visit. Four decades of space-based observations have produced moreinformation and knowledge than earlier astronomers with Earth-bound telescopescould have imagined.

Europe joins Mars explorationSince the Greeks of more than 2000 years ago, many Europeans have made importantobservations of Mars with the naked eye and through ground-based telescopes,including Nicolaus Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei,Christian Huygens, Giovanni Cassini, William Herschel, Giovanni Schiaparelli andEugene Antoniadi. Europeans have also contributed their fair share of speculation andfantasy about the planet in a fine tradition beginning in 1897 with the publication ofThe War of the Worlds by H.G. Wells, in which hostile martians invade Earth.

vii

The Soyuz launcher and its precious cargo aretransported to the launch pad on 29 May 2003.

AAsec1.qxd 7/8/04 3:52 PM Page vii

SP-1240

Europe, however, never sent its own spacecraft to Mars – until now. The EuropeanSpace Agency (ESA) launched the Mars Express orbiter and its small Beagle 2 landerin 2003 on Europe’s first mission to any planet. Research institutes throughout Europeprovided the instruments onboard the orbiter, some of them first developed for the ill-fated Russian Mars-96 spacecraft. Now upgraded, they provide remote sensing of theatmosphere, surface, subsurface and space environment of Mars to a degree ofaccuracy never before achieved. The information being gleaned is helping to answermany outstanding questions about the planet.

The missionMars Express was successfully launched on 2 June 2003 from Baikonur, Kazakhstan,by a Russian Soyuz rocket. Following a cruise of almost 7 months, the main space-craft was captured into orbit on 25 December 2003 and soon established a highlyelliptical polar orbit with a closest approach to the surface of about 270 km and aperiod of about 6.75 h. The fate of the Beagle 2 lander, aimed to land in Isidis Planitia,remains unknown. In addition to global studies of the surface, subsurface andatmosphere at unprecedented spatial and spectral resolutions, the unifying theme ofthe mission is the search for water with all the instruments in its various stateseverywhere on the planet.

ESA provided the launcher, orbiter and operations, while the instruments wereprovided by scientific institutions through their own funding. The ground segmentincludes the ESA station at Perth, Australia, and the mission operations centre atESOC in Germany. The Mars Express prime contractor was Astrium in Toulouse,France, and a large number of European companies were involved as subcontractors.The ESA engineering and scientific teams are located at ESTEC in The Netherlands.International collaboration, through participation either in instrument hardware ordata analysis, is important for diversifying the scope of the mission and improving itsscientific return. Collaboration with the NASA Mars Exploration Rovers plays animportant role because of the complementary science goals.

Following spacecraft commissioning in January 2004, most instruments begantheir own calibration and testing, in the process acquiring scientific data. This phaselasted until June 2004, when all the instruments but one began routine operations afterthe payload commissioning review. The deployment of the MARSIS radar antennas,however, was postponed. The late deployment was initially planned to maximisedaylight operations of the other instruments before the pericentre naturally drifts tosouthern latitudes, which coincides with the nightime conditions required forsubsurface sounding by MARSIS. The nominal lifetime of the orbiter is a martianyear (687 days), with a potential extension by another martian year to complete globalcoverage and observe all seasons twice over.

Early science resultsThe High Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC) has provided breathtaking views of theplanet, in particular of karstic regions near the Valles Marineris canyon (pointing toliquid water as the erosional agent responsible for modifying tectonic and impactfeatures in the area) and of several large volcanoes (the Olympus Mons caldera andglaciation features surrounding Hecates Tholus). The OMEGA IR mineralogicalmapping spectrometer has provided unprecedented maps of water-ice and carbondioxide-ice occurrence at the south pole, showing where the two ices mix and wherethey do not. The Planetary Fourier Spectrometer (PFS) has measured atmosphericcarbon monoxide variations in each hemisphere and confirmed the presence ofmethane for the first time, which would indicate current volcanic activity and/orbiological processes. The SPICAM UV/IR atmospheric spectrometer has providedthe first complete vertical profile of carbon dioxide density and temperature, and hassimultaneously measured the distribution of water vapour and ozone. The ASPERAenergetic neutral atoms analyser has identified the solar wind interaction with theupper atmosphere and has measured the properties of the planetary wind in Mars’

viii

Mars from 5.5 million km, imaged by the High Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC). The darkfeatures at top are part of the northernlowlands, where oceans possibly existedbillions of years ago.(ESA/DLR/FU Berlin; G. Neukum)

AAsec1.qxd 7/8/04 3:52 PM Page viii


magnetic tail. Finally, the MaRS radio science experiment has measured for the firsttime surface roughness by pointing the spacecraft high-gain antenna towards theplanet, reflecting the signal to Earth. Also, the martian interior is being probed bystudying the gravity anomalies affecting the orbit owing to mass variations of thecrust.

Water is the unifying theme of the mission, studied by all instruments usingdifferent techniques. Geological evidence, such as dry riverbeds, sediments anderoded features, indicates that water has played a major role in the early history of theplanet. It is assumed that liquid water was present on the surface up to about3.8 billion years ago, when the planet had a thicker atmosphere and a warmer climate.Afterwards, the atmosphere became much thinner and the climate much colder, theplanet losing much of its water in the process; liquid water cannot be sustained on thesurface under present conditions. Mars Express aims to reveal why this drastic changeoccurred and where the water went. A precise inventory of existing water on theplanet (in ice or liquid form, mostly below ground) is important given its implicationsfor the potential evolution of life on Mars; the 3.8 billion-year age is precisely whenlife appeared on Earth, which harboured similar conditions to Mars at that time. Thus,it is not unreasonable to imagine that life may also have emerged on Mars andpossibly survived the intense UV solar radiation by remaining underground. Thediscovery of methane in the atmosphere could indicate just that or the presence ofactive volcanism. From previous orbital imagery, volcanoes on Mars were assumedto have been dormant for hundreds of millions of years. This idea needs a fresh lookas the implications of currently active volcanism are profound in terms of thermalvents providing niches for potential ecosystems, as well as for the thermal history ofthe planet with the largest volcanoes in the Solar System. Mars Express is alreadyhinting at a quantum leap in our understanding of the planet’s geological evolution,complemented by the ground truth being provided by NASA’s rovers.

Scope of this publicationThis ESA Special Publication focuses on the Mars Express scientific instrumentationand its state about a year after launch in order to include some initial scientificdiscoveries. In spite of the Beagle 2 failure, the lander’s payload is also thoroughlydescribed here because it is of the highest scientific value. Furthermore, the orbiterinstruments are looking specifically for possible evidence of past or present life. Noother mission to Mars since NASA’s Viking missions in the 1970s has madeexobiology so central to its scientific goals. For further details, both in terms ofscience results and public outreach, see http://sci.esa.int/marsexpress/

Spectacular viewsA few spectacular initial results are shown in the next few pages, selected in view oftheir wide public appeal rather than their intrinsic scientific value. All the scientistsinvolved in Mars Express are now busy submitting papers that include importantscientific results, and even a few breakthroughs at this early phase of the mission. Thepurpose here is to give a visual impression of this early science data.

Agustin ChicarroProject Scientist, Mars Express

ESTEC, June 2004

ix

AAsec1.qxd 7/8/04 3:52 PM Page ix

SP-1240

x

This HRSC image was recorded on 14 January 2004. It shows a portion of a 1700 km-long and65 km-wide swath taken in the south-to-north direction across the huge Valles Marineris canyon. Itis the first Mars image of this size at high resolution (12 m pix–1), in colour and in 3-D. (ESA/DLR/FU Berlin; G. Neukum)

AAsec1.qxd 7/8/04 3:52 PM Page x


xi

This HRSC image was recorded duringrevolution 18 on 15 January 2004 from aheight of 273 km, east of the Hellas basin at41°S/101°E. The area is 100 km across, with aresolution of 12 m per pixel. It shows the ReullVallis, formed by flowing water. North is attop. (ESA/DLR/FU Berlin; G. Neukum)

This HRSC image was recorded duringrevolution 18 on 14 January 2004. It shows avertical view of a mesa in the true colours ofMars. The summit plateau stands about 3 kmabove the surrounding terrain. Only isolatedmesas remain intact after the original surfacewas dissected by erosion. The large crater hasa diameter of 7.6 km. (ESA/DLR/FU Berlin;G. Neukum)

AAsec1.qxd 7/8/04 3:53 PM Page xi

SP-1240

xii

This HRSC image was recorded during revolution 143 from an altitude of 266 km, providing a perspective view of the western flank of the OlympusMons shield volcano in the western hemisphere. The escarpment rises from surface level to more than 7000 m. Resolution is about 25 m per pixel. Thepicture is centred at 22°N/222°E; north is to the left. (ESA/DLR/FU Berlin; G. Neukum)

This HRSC vertical view shows the complexcaldera at the summit of Olympus Mons, thehighest volcano in the Solar System. Theaverage elevation is 22 km; the caldera has adepth of about 3 km. This is the first high-resolution colour image of the completecaldera, taken from a height of 273 km duringrevolution 37 on 21 January 2004. Centred at18.3°N/227°E, the image is 102 km across witha resolution of 12 m per pixel; south is at thetop. (ESA/DLR/FU Berlin; G. Neukum)

AAsec1.qxd 7/8/04 3:53 PM Page xii


xiii

This HRSC image shows the Acheron Fossaeregion, an area of intense tectonic activity inthe past. Acheron Fossae marks the northernedge of the Tharsis plateau; it is part of anetwork of extensional fractures that radiatesfrom the Tharsis ‘bulge’, a huge area ofregional uplift of intensive volcanic activity.The region is situated at 35-40ºN / 220-230ºE,about 1000 km north of Olympus Mons.(ESA/DLR/FU Berlin; G. Neukum)

OMEGA observed the southern polar cap of Mars on 18 January 2004,in all three bands. At right is the visible image; in the middle is carbondioxide ice; at left is water ice. The two types of ice are mixed in someareas but distinct in others. (ESA/IAS, Orsay; J-P. Bibring)

AAsec1.qxd 7/8/04 3:53 PM Page xiii

SP-1240

xiv

PFS initial results indicate that the atmospheric distribution of carbonmonoxide is different over the northern and southern hemispheres. Thepresence of atmospheric methane has also been confirmed by PFS, whichopens up new possibilities of there being lifeforms on the planet today.Methane is rather short-lived in the martian atmosphere, so the source(s)that replenish it can have only two origins: volcanic or biologic. (ESA/IFSI Frascati; V. Formisano)

SPICAM has provided the first complete vertical profileobtained by an orbiter of the density and temperature of carbondioxide from 10 km to 110 km above the surface. It has alsomeasured the distribution of water vapour and ozonesimultaneously for the first time, indicating that where there ismore water vapour there is less ozone. (ESA/CNRS Verrières; J.-L. Bertaux)

Initial ASPERA results indicate the very different characteristics of two important regions: the impact area of the solar wind with the upperatmosphere and in the Mars tail (planetary wind), confirming the existence of the planetary wind (O+ and molecular ions). (ESA/RFI Kiruna; R. Lundin)

AAsec1.qxd 7/8/04 3:53 PM Page xiv

MISSION OVERVIEW

Chicarro.qxd 7/7/04 10:11 AM Page 1

Mars Express is not only the first ESA mission to the red planet but also the firstEuropean mission to any planet. Mars Express was launched in June 2003 from theBaikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan aboard a Russian Soyuz rocket. It includedboth an orbiter and a small lander named Beagle 2, in remembrance of CharlesDarwin’s ship. It is the first ‘Flexible’ mission of ESA’s long-term science programme(now known as Cosmic Vision) and was developed in the record time of about 5 yearsfrom concept to launch, and in the most cost-efficient manner with respect to anyother comparable Mars mission.

Before Mars Express, ESA and the scientific community spent more than 10 yearsperforming concept and feasibility studies on potential European Mars missions(Marsnet, Intermarsnet), focusing on a network of surface stations complemented byan orbiter, a concept that was further developed by CNES in the recently cancelledNetlander mission. The network concept was considered to be a high scientificpriority in Europe until the demise of the Russian Mars-96 mission, which includedmany outstanding European scientific instruments and which may be reconsidered inthe future. Mars Express was conceived to recover the objectives concerning theglobal study of the planet by the Mars-96 mission, and added two major new themes:water and life, following the recommendations of the International Mars ExplorationWorking Group (IMEWG) and the endorsement of ESA’s Advisory Bodies that MarsExpress be included in the Science Programme of the Agency.

The scientific investigations of Mars Express closely complement those of recentUS orbital missions such as Mars Global Surveyor and Mars Odyssey, as well as thespectacular Mars Exploration Rovers. In addition, very close collaboration wasestablished, in anticipation of future collaboration with Japan, with the Nozomimission because the scientific objectives and orbital characteristics werecomplementary. Unfortunately, Nozomi did not reach the planet.

On 2 June 2003 at 17:45:26 UT, a Soyuz rocket with a Fregat upper stage waslaunched from Baikonur and injected the 1223 kg Mars Express into a Mars transferorbit. Launch windows to Mars occur every 26 months but 2003 was particularlyfavourable because it offered the maximum launch mass, a situation that does notrepeat for another 16 years. This was important; Beagle 2 could not have been carriedin the less-favourable 2005 window.

Mars Express is a 3-axis stabilised orbiter with a fixed high-gain antenna andbody-mounted instruments, and is dedicated to the orbital and in situ study of theplanet’s interior, subsurface, surface and atmosphere. It was placed in an ellipticalorbit (250 x 10 142 km) around Mars of 86.35° quasi-polar inclination and 6.75 hperiod, which was optimised for the scientific objectives and to communicate withBeagle 2 and the NASA landers or rovers being launched in 2003-2005.

The spacecraft was captured into Mars orbit on 25 December 2003. Followingcompletion of spacecraft commissioning in mid-January 2004, the orbiterexperiments began their own commissioning processes and started acquiring

3

The Mars Express Mission: An Overview

A. Chicarro, P. Martin & R. Trautner

Planetary Missions Division, Research & Scientific Support Department, ESA/ESTEC, PO Box 299,2200 AG Noordwijk, The Netherlands

Email: [email protected]

1. Introduction

2. Mission Overview


SP-1240

scientific data from Mars and its environment. The radar antenna was planned to bedeployed last in order to maximise early daylight operations of the other instruments,before the natural pericentre drift to the southern latitudes. The optical instrumentsbegan their routine operational phase after the Commissioning Review in June 2004.The deployment of the radar antennas was delayed for safety modelling checks. Thenominal orbiter mission lifetime is a martian year (687 days), following Mars orbitinsertion and about 7 months’ cruise. It is hoped that the nominal mission will beextended into a second martian year of operations in order to increase the globalcoverage of most orbital experiments and, eventually, to allow data-relaycommunications with potential landers up to 2008, provided that the spacecraftresources allow it.

The Beagle 2 descent capsule was ejected 5 days before arrival at Mars, while theorbiter was on a Mars collision course; Mars Express was then retargeted for orbitinsertion. From its hyperbolic trajectory, Beagle 2 entered and descended through theatmosphere in about 5 min, intending to land at < 40 m s–1 within an error ellipse of20 x 100 km. The fate of Beagle 2 remains unknown because no signal was everreceived from the martian surface, neither by the UK’s Jodrell Bank radio telescopenor by the Mars Express and Mars Odyssey orbiters. All of them made strenuousefforts to listen for the faintest of signals for many weeks following Beagle 2’s arrivalat Mars. ESA set up a commission to investigate the potential causes of the probableaccident and issued a number of recommendations for future missions. The selectedlanding site was in Isidis Planitia (11.6°N, 269.5°W), which is a safe area of highscientific interest – this impact basin was probably flooded by water during part of itsearly history, leaving layers of sedimentary rocks. The area is surrounded bygeological units of a variety of ages and compositions, from densely crateredhighlands to volcanic flows to younger smooth plains. The lander’s highly integratedinstrument suite was expected to perform a detailed geological, mineralogical andchemical analysis of the site’s rocks and soils, provide site meteorology, and focus onfinding traces of past or present biological activity. Data from this combination ofinstruments could have solved the issue of life on Mars. Beagle 2’s operationallifetime was planned to be up to 180 sols (about 6 months).

ESA provided the launcher, orbiter, operations and part of Beagle 2, the rest of thelander being funded by a UK-led consortium of space organisations. The orbiterinstruments were all provided by scientific institutions through their own funding.

4

Fig. 1. Mars Express with the Beagle 2 capsule still attached. 1: MARSIS. 2: HRSC.3: OMEGA. 4: PFS. 5: SPICAM. 6: ASPERA.7: Beagle 2. (MaRS requires no dedicatedhardware).

2

3

45

6

7

1


mission overview

Most ESA Member States participated in providing the scientific payload but othercountries (including USA, Russia, Poland, Japan and China) have joined in variouscapacities. The ground segment includes the new ESA station of New Norcia, nearPerth, Australia, and the mission operations centre at ESA’s European SpaceOperations Centre (ESOC). A second ESA station at Cebreros, near Madrid, Spain,will be used later in the mission, while NASA’s Deep Space Network (DSN) willincrease the scientific data return during the whole mission. The orbiter was built byAstrium in Toulouse, France, as prime contractor, together with a large number ofEuropean companies as subcontractors in each of ESA’s Member States.

The Mars Express orbiter is the core of the mission, scientifically justified on its ownmerit by providing unprecedented global coverage of the planet, in particular of thesurface, subsurface and atmosphere. Beagle 2 was selected through its innovativescientific goals and very challenging payload. The combination of orbiter and lander(Figs. 1 & 2) was expected to be a powerful tool to focus on two related issues: thecurrent inventory of ice or liquid water in the martian crust, and possible traces of pastor present biological activity on the planet. The broad scientific objectives of theorbiter are:

— global colour and stereo high-resolution imaging with about 10 m resolutionand imaging of selected areas at 2 m pix–1;

— global IR mineralogical mapping of the surface;— radar sounding of the subsurface structure down to the permafrost;— global atmospheric circulation and mapping of the atmospheric composition;— interaction of the atmosphere with the surface and the interplanetary medium;— radio science to infer critical information on the atmosphere, ionosphere,

surface and interior.

The ultimate scientific objective of Beagle 2 was the detection of extinct and/or

5

Fig. 2. Mars Express in launch configuration at Baikonur.

3. Scientific Objectives


SP-1240

extant life on Mars, a more attainable goal being the establishment of the conditionsat the landing site that were suitable for the emergence and evolution of life. In orderto achieve this goal, Beagle 2 was designed to perform in situ geological,mineralogical and geochemical analysis of selected rocks and soils at the landing site.Furthermore, studies of the martian environment were planned via chemical analysisof the atmosphere, local geomorphological studies of the landing site and via theinvestigation of dynamic environmental processes. Further studies to be performed byBeagle 2 included the analysis of the subsurface regime using a ground-penetrationtool and the first in situ isotopic dating of rocks on another planet.

The description and detailed science goals of the orbiter and lander experimentsare presented below; see also Table 1.

3.1 Orbiter scientific instruments The Mars Express orbiter scientific payload totals about 116 kg shared by sixinstruments, in addition to a radio-science experiment that requires no additionalhardware. The instruments can be listed in two catagories: those dealing primarilywith the solid planet by observing the surface and subsurface (HRSC super/high-resolution stereo colour imager; OMEGA IR mineralogical mapping spectrometer;MARSIS subsurface sounding radar altimeter), and those studying the atmosphereand environment of Mars (PFS planetary fourier spectrometer; SPICAM UV and IRatmospheric spectrometer; ASPERA energetic neutral atoms analyser). The MaRSradio science experiment will provide insights into the internal gravity anomalies, thesurface roughness, the neutral atmosphere and the ionosphere of Mars.

The camera is based on the space-qualified HRSC Flight Model 2 developed forthe Mars-96 mission, with the addition of a super-resolution channel. Its major goalis global coverage of the planet at high resolution. The scientific interpretation of thedata focuses on the role of water and climate throughout martian history, the timingand evolution of volcanism and tectonics, the surface/atmosphere interactions, theestablishment of an accurate chronology, and the observation of Phobos and Deimos.In order to meet these objectives, the imaging capabilities of HRSC allow thecharacterisation of surface features and morphology at high spatial resolution (about10 m pix–1 in stereo, colour and at different phase angles), surface topography at highspatial and vertical resolution with dedicated stereo imaging, surface features andmorphology using nested images at super resolution (2 m pix–1), terrain classificationby multispectral datasets, scattering properties of the regolith and atmosphere bymulti-phase angle observations, and atmospheric properties and phenomena by limbsounding and nadir observations. High- and super-resolution are obtained aroundpericentre, at and above 250 km.

OMEGA, derived from the Mars-96 spare model, is a visible and near-IR mappingspectrometer operating in the wavelength range 0.38-5.1 µm. It will provide globalcoverage of Mars by the end of the nominal mission at medium resolution (1-5 km)from orbital altitudes between 1000 km and 4000 km, and higher-resolution (a fewhundred metres) snapshots of selected areas, amounting to at least a few percent ofthe surface. OMEGA is characterising the composition of surface materials, studyingthe time and space distribution of atmospheric CO2, CO and H2O, identifying theaerosols and dust particles in the atmosphere, and monitoring the surface dusttransport processes. It is contributing greatly to understanding the evolution of Marsfrom geological time scales to seasonal variations and is giving unique clues forunderstanding the H2O and CO2 cycles throughout martian evolution.

MARSIS is a low-frequency nadir-looking pulse-limited radar sounder andaltimeter with ground-penetration capabilities operated. It uses synthetic aperturetechniques, two 20 m booms and a secondary receiving monopole antenna to isolatesubsurface reflections. It is the first radar sounder to investigate the martian surfaceand subsurface. Its primary objective is to map the distribution of water (both liquidand solid) in the upper portions of the crust down to 3-5 km varying with geologicalcomposition (nightside). The detection of such water reservoirs addresses key issues

6


mission overview

in the geological, hydrological, climatic and possibly biological evolution of Mars,including the current and past global inventory of water, the mechanisms of transportand storage of water, the role of liquid water and ice in shaping the landscape of Mars,the stability of liquid water and ice at the surface as an indication of climaticconditions, and the implications of the hydrological history in the evolution ofpossible martian ecosystems. Secondary MARSIS objectives include subsurfacegeologic probing, surface roughness and topography characterisation at scales fromtens of metres to km (dayside), and ionosphere sounding (dayside) to characterise theinteractions of the solar wind with the ionosphere and the upper atmosphere. At thetime of going to press, the radar booms had not been deployed.

The Planetary Fourier Spectrometer, also derived from a Mars-96 model, is adouble-pendulum IR spectrometer optimised for atmospheric studies. It covers thewavelength ranges 1.2-5 µm and 5-45 µm with a spectral resolution of 2 cm–1 and aspatial resolution of 10-20 km. The main scientific objectives are the global long-termmonitoring of the 3-D temperature field in the lower atmosphere, the measurement ofthe minor constituent variations (water vapour and carbon monoxide) and D/H ratio,the determination of the size distribution, chemical composition and optical propertiesof the atmospheric aerosols, dust clouds, ice clouds and hazes, and the study of globalcirculation and dynamics. PFS will also determine the thermal inertia (from the dailysurface temperature variations), the nature of the surface condensate and seasonalvariations of its composition, the scattering phase function, pressure and height forselected regions, and is studying the surface-atmosphere exchange processes.

7

Table 1. The Mars Express scientific experiments.

Expt. Principal ParticipatingCode Instrument Investigator Countries

OrbiterHRSC Super/High-Resolution G. Neukum D, F, RU, USA, FIN,

Stereo Colour Imager DLR/FU, Berlin, D I, UK

OMEGA IR Mineralogical J.P. Bibring F, I, RUMapping Spectrometer IAS, Orsay, F

PFS Atmospheric Fourier V. Formisano I, RU, PL, D, F, E, Spectrometer CNR, Frascati, I USA

MARSIS Subsurface-Sounding G. Picardi I, USA, D, CH, UK, Radar/Altimeter Univ. Rome, I DK, F, RU

& J. PlautNASA/JPL

ASPERA Energetic Neutral Atoms R. Lundin S, D, UK, F, FIN, Analyzer & S. Barabash I, US, RU

RFI, Kiruna, S

SPICAM UV and IR Atmospheric J.L. Bertaux F, B, RU, USSpectrometer CNRS, Verrières, F

MaRS Radio Science Experiment M. Paetzold D, F, US, AUniv. Köln, D

LanderBeagle 2 Suite of imaging instruments, C. Pillinger UK, D, US, F, CH,

organic and inorganic Open Univ., UK RU, PRC, A, Echemical analysis, robotic & M. Simssampling devices and Leicester Univ., UKmeteo sensors


SP-1240

SPICAM is a UV and IR spectrometer devoted to studying the atmosphere. It isfocusing on atmospheric photochemistry, the density-temperature structure of theatmosphere (0-150 km), the upper atmosphere-ionosphere escape processes, and theinteraction with the solar wind. The UV sensor is looking through the atmosphereeither at the Sun or stars to obtain vertical profiles by occultation, or to the nadir toobtain integrated profiles, or at the limb to obtain vertical profiles of high-atmosphereemissions. The IR sensor is used only in the nadir-looking mode (column abundancesand H2O, CO2 and O3 cycles). SPICAM measurements are addressing key questionsinto the present state of the atmosphere, its climate and evolution. SPICAM and PFSare highly complementary.

The ASPERA energetic neutral atom analyser is studying plasma domains atdifferent locations along the spacecraft’s orbit, focusing on the interaction of theupper atmosphere with the interplanetary medium and the solar wind, andcharacterising the near-Mars plasma and neutral gas environment. The scientificobjectives are being met by studying remote measurements of energetic neutral atomsin order to investigate the interaction between the solar wind and the atmosphere,characterise quantitatively the impact of plasma processes on atmospheric evolution,and obtain the global plasma and neutral gas distributions in the near-Marsenvironment. In situ measurements of ions and electrons complement the energeticneutral atom images; they have never been obtained before and provide undisturbedsolar wind parameters. A similar instrument was carried by the Japanese Nozomimission.

The MaRS radio science experiment does not require dedicated hardware but it isperforming radio sounding experiments of the neutral martian atmosphere andionosphere to derive vertical density, pressure and temperature profiles as a functionof height, and the diurnal and seasonal variations in the ionosphere. It is alsodetermining the dielectric and scattering properties of the martian surface in specifictarget areas with a bistatic radar experiment for the first time, and is determininggravity anomalies in the crust in order to investigate the structure and evolution of theinterior. Precise determination of the mass of Phobos and radio sounding of the solarcorona during superior conjunction with the Sun are also among the objectives. Theexperiment relies on the observation of the phase, amplitude, polarisation andpropagation times of radio signals transmitted by the spacecraft and received atground stations on Earth. This experiment has a significant heritage from itsequivalent on the Rosetta mission.

Although not considered as part of the scientific payload, two subsystems on thespacecraft were planned to benefit particularly from Beagle 2 operations. The MarsExpress Lander Communications (MELACOM) subsystem is the orbiter-to-landerdata relay transponder, with the primary mission of providing data services for thelander. Mars Express was scheduled to fly over the landing site every 1-4 sols and wasto relay scientific data to the UK-based Lander Operations Centre via ESOC. TheVisual Monitoring Camera (VMC) also remained as part of the orbiter. Thisstandalone digital camera imaged the successful separation of Beagle 2 before arrivalat Mars.

3.2 Lander scientific instruments Although Beagle 2 (Fig. 3) did not accomplish its mission because it was most likelylost during the entry, descent and landing, it is still relevant to review the variousscientific instruments and robotic tools, given the importance of the investigationsand the high standards to which they were built. It is hoped that another opportunitywill allow all or some of these instruments to fly again to Mars to undertake the searchfor life.

The lander’s scientific payload totalled less than 10 kg, shared between sixinstruments and two dedicated tools to sample the surface and subsurface materials ofMars, plus a robotic sampling arm with 5 degrees-of-freedom. Two were mounteddirectly on the lander platform: the Gas Analysis Package and the Environmental

8


mission overview

9

THE ISSUE OF WATER

Today, liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Marsbecause of the low atmospheric density (6 mbar).However, there is ample evidence that liquid waterflowed freely in the early history of Mars, as witnessedby dry riverbeds in the heavily cratered Noachiansouthern highlands. The early climate appears to havebeen warm and wet (although there are renewed doubtsabout this) until about 3.8 billion years ago, much likethe Earth’s at about the same age. This was when lifeappeared on our planet, as evidence from Greenlandindicates. So, if the conditions were similar on bothplanets, it appears reasonable for biological activity tohave flourished on Mars as well. Soon after 3.8 billionyears ago (in geological terms), surface conditionschanged dramatically, creating the cold and dry place oftoday, as modest erosion rates at the Mars Pathfinder siteillustrate. There is also growing evidence that the youngsmooth northern plains were once covered by a liquid-water ocean extending over a third of the planet. Thequestion is thus: where has all this water gone? Was itlost into space through natural degassing, includingatmospheric erosion through large impacts, or is it stillsomewhere on Mars, probably below the surface in iceform, as in terrestrial permafrost? Recent Mars Odysseygamma-ray spectroscopy data have revealed asignificant concentration of H+ ions adsorbed to the first

few microns of soil in both polar caps. However, in lightof similar results on the Moon from Lunar Prospector,where we know from rock samples there is no water atall, these data only indicate an existing mechanismconcentrating H+ from the solar wind towards the poles.Therefore, most of the Mars Express orbiter instrumentsare directed towards settling this issue, in particularthrough radar subsurface sounding (MARSIS), surfacemineralogical mapping (OMEGA), establishment of adetailed chronology of geological evolution (HRSC),imaging of atmospheric escape (ASPERA) and the studyof the H2O, CO2 and dust cycles in the atmosphere (PFSand SPICAM). Never has a mission to Mars been sofocused on producing the water inventory of the planet,and never has it been so well equipped to find out.

THE ISSUE OF LIFE

The Mars Express mission planned to address the issueof the emergence of life in the cosmos and, in particular,life signatures on Mars both directly and indirectly. Themajority of orbiter instruments are looking forindications of favourable conditions for the existence oflife, either at present or during the planet’s past, andparticularly for traces of liquid, solid or gaseous water.The HRSC camera is imaging ancient riverbeds, theOMEGA spectrometer is looking for minerals with OH–

radicals formed in the presence of water, the MARSISradar will look for subsurface ice and liquid water, thePFS and SPICAM spectrometers are analysing watervapour in the atmosphere, and ASPERA and MaRS arestudying neutral-atom escape from the atmosphere, inparticular O2 coming from water and carbonates. Theinstruments on Beagle 2 were designed to look for thepresence of water in the soil, rocks and atmosphere, andin particular to look for traces of life with directmeasurements, such as the presence of a larger amountof the light C12 isotope compared to the heavier C13,

which would have indicated the existence of extinct life,or even the presence of methane, indicative of extant lifetogether with other organic compounds. Results from asingle instrument will most likely not allow the issue oflife on Mars to be settled, but all the measurements takentogether will allow us to build a scenario pointing, ornot, in the direction of present or past life on Mars.Either way, the cosmobiological implications would befar-reaching: we would know if life is a commonoccurrence in the Universe or not. In this debate,comparing the geological evolutions of Earth and Marsis obviously a fruitful exercise because the planets shareseasons, polar caps, a transparent atmosphere andaeolian activity, for example. Our other planetary twinneighbour, Venus, must not be forgotten in view of itssimilarities with Earth in terms of internal activity andrecent resurfacing. Comparative planetology is the keyto our understanding of Solar System evolution,including cosmobiology. Since NASA’s Viking missionsin 1976, it is the first time that the exhaustive search forlife is so central to a space mission to Mars, even afterthe failure of Beagle 2.


SP-1240

Sensor Suite. The others were housed within an innovative structure called thePayload Adjustable Workbench (PAW) at the end of the robotic sampling arm: theStereo Camera System, Microscope, X-ray Spectrometer and MössbauerSpectrometer, together with a set of tools that included the Rock Corer Grinder, thePLanetary Underground TOol and other support equipment such as a sampling spoon,a torch and a wide-angle mirror. The PAW also carried one of the ESS sensors. Thescience-payload-to-landed-structure ratio is about 1/3, the highest so far of anyplanetary lander.

The Gas Analysis Package (GAP) is designed for quantitative and qualitativeanalysis of sample composition and precise isotopic measurements. It can processatmospheric samples and soil or rock chippings acquired by the sampling tools. Theseare deposited via an inlet system into one of eight miniaturised ovens. Gases areanalysed directly (such as those present in the atmosphere), after their release fromsamples by heating, or those resulting from a byproduct of chemical processing (e.g.CO2). GAP is very flexible and can investigate processes dealing with atmosphericevolution, circulation and cycling, the nature of gases trapped in rocks and soils, low-temperature geochemistry, fluid processes, organic chemistry, formation temperaturesand surface exposure ages, and can also assist in isotopic rock dating.

The Environmental Surface Suite (ESS) contributes to the characterisation of alanding site and to meteorological studies through the measurements from 11parameter-sensors scattered around the lander platform and PAW. Measurement of theUV and radiation flux at the surface together with the oxidising capability of the soiland atmosphere provides insights into exobiological investigations. In addition, themeasurement of atmospheric temperature, pressure, wind speed and direction, dustsaltation and angle of repose complements the in situ environmental experiments.

The Stereo Camera System (SCS) consists of two identical CCD cameras andintegrated filter wheels. A primary engineering objective of the Beagle 2 SCS was theconstruction of a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the landing site from a series ofoverlapping stereo image pairs. The DEM was to be reconstructed on Earth and usedto position the PAW with respect to target rocks and soils. The investigation of thelanding site included 360° panoramic imaging, multi-spectral imaging of rocks and

10

Fig. 3. Beagle 2 operating on the surface ofMars.


mission overview

soils to determine the mineralogy, and close-up imaging of rocks and soils to infer thetexture. Observations of the day and night sky, Sun, stars and Deimos and Phobosallow the identification of atmospheric properties such as optical density, aerosolproperties and water vapour content. The SCS also supports the determination of thelanding site location by providing panoramic and celestial navigation images.Furthermore, the observation of lander surfaces and atmospheric effects allows theidentification of dust and aerosol properties in the atmosphere.

The Microscopic Imager (MIC) investigates the nature of martian rocks, soils andfines at the particulate scale (few mm). Such studies would have provided importantdata to fulfil Beagle 2’s exobiological objectives in the form of direct evidence ofmicrofossils, microtextures and mineralisations of biogenic origin, if present. Inaddition, identifying the physical nature and extent of the weathering rinds/coatingson rocks and soils contributes to the geological characterisation of a landing site.Atmospheric and global planetary studies also benefit from detailed knowledge ofdust morphology. The MIC was the first attempt to image and assess directlyindividual particles of sizes close to the wavelength of scattered light on anotherplanet. The acquisition of complete sets of images for each target allows the 3-Dreconstruction of sample surfaces in the visible and UV.

The primary goal of the X-Ray Spectrometer (XRS) is to determine, in situ, theelemental composition and, by inference, the geochemical composition andpetrological classification, of the surface material at the landing site. Major elements(Mg, Al, Si, S, Ca, Ti, Cr, Mn, Fe) and trace elements up to Nb are detectable. Theinstrument employs X-ray fluorescence spectrometry to determine the elementalconstituents of rocks, using a set of four radioisotope sources (two 55Fe and two 109Cd)to excite the sample. Crude radiometric dating of martian rocks in situ was to beperformed using the 40K/40Ar method. For this, the XRS needs to make a precisemeasurement of K on a ‘fresh’ sample of rock. The Ar component is determined bythe GAP as part of a suite of experiments performed on a core sample extracted fromthe same specimen.

The Mössbauer Spectrometer (MBS) allows a quantitative analysis of Fe-bearingmaterials in rock and soil materials. The Fe-rich nature of martian deposits enablesrelative proportions of Fe in olivine and pyroxene to be determined using theMössbauer technique, together with magnetite in basalts. Owing to the abundance ofFe-bearing minerals on Mars and their formation being linked to the history of wateron the planet, MBS measurements are particularly important. Also, these resultsprovide information about rock weathering in general, and oxidation in particular. TheMBS uses gamma rays from the decay of 57Co to 57Fe. The generated spectra allow thecharacterisation of the mineralogical make-up of rocks and soils, and hence theirpetrological classification. In conjunction with the X-ray spectrometer, the Mössbauerspectrometer complements the in situ geochemical and petrological work, andprovides support for the GAP measurements.

The Rock Corer Grinder (RCG) on the PAW is a combined tool that addresses thescientific prerequisite that all the PAW instruments have access to pristine material ona suitably prepared rock surface to avoid the effects of weathering rinds andgeometric effects that can seriously compromise instrument performance. The RCGremoves the altered material and produces a flat, fresh surface suitable for both typesof spectrometer measurements. After the in situ analyses have been completed, asample from the ground patch is extracted by the coring action of the device, anddelivered to the GAP inlet port for chemical analysis.

The PLUTO (PLanetary Underground TOol) is another PAW tool to retrieve soilsamples from depths down to about 1.5 m and, depending on the terrain, from undera large boulder. This capability is very important for exobiological investigationsbecause materials preserving traces of biological activity would be found at depthwithin the soil or rocks, where they would be unaffected by solar-UV radiation. Inaddition to its main function as a soil sample-acquisition device, PLUTO allowsin situ temperature measurements as a function of time and depth as it travels below

11


SP-1240

the surface. The ground-intrusion behaviour also allows the mechanical propertiesand layering of the soil to be estimated.

Coordination between Mars Express orbital observations and Beagle 2experiments had to be carefully planned, so that the lander could provide ground truthto the orbiter through its detailed geological and chemical analysis, and the orbitercould provide the landing site regional context for the Beagle 2 experiments. Detailedstudies of the Beagle 2 landing site have also been carried out.

The ‘G3-UB’ baseline orbit of Mars Express has a quasi-polar inclination of 86.35°.In order to fine-tune observation parameters such as illumination, a manoeuvre wasperformed to transition from a G3-U to a G3-B orbit a few weeks after Mars orbitinsertion. The total number of orbits during the nominal mission is 2293, whichcorresponds to slightly more than 3 orbits per sol. Good illumination conditions for asystematic coverage of the whole surface is a major requirement for the globalcoverage strategy. Priorities are dictated by scientific goals (e.g., polar coverage,regions of interest, targets of opportunity) and, at the beginning of the mission, by theneed to fly over the lander site in the Isidis Planitia area. Beagle 2 communicationcontacts were repeatedly attempted for more than a month, and were expected to varybetween once a week to once a day during nominal Beagle 2 operations. The landerlifetime, a main driver of the orbiter’s early science operations, was estimated to beabout 6 months as a result of decreasing illumination and dust building up on thelander panels.

Mars Express is recording science data onboard and dumping it during groundstation passes. The daily data volume varies throughout the year from less than 1 Gbitto about 6 Gbits, via the single New Norcia ground station with its 35m antenna and8 h daily coverage. The use of NASA’s Deep Space Network is planned in order toincrease the capacity.

As one of the various actors in Mars Express science operations, the PayloadOperations Service (POS) was established at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory,(Chilton, UK) to support the Mars Express Project Scientist Team (PST), the PrincipalInvestigators (PIs), the Mission Operations Centre (MOC) and the Lander OperationsCentre (LOC). The POS carried out the development, implementation, testing andoperations of the system and tools required to support Mars Express scienceoperations under contract from ESA. The PST and PIs compile the Master SciencePlan (MSP) to schedule the acquisition of science data by the spacecraft in a way thatis consistent with the scientific objectives and the resources available during theobservation time. The MSP represents the basis of all payload operations timelineplanning during the various phases of the mission. The high-level scientific planningis performed by the Science Operations Working Group (SOWG), which includesrepresentatives of all the PI teams. PST and POS both interface with the MOC, the PIinstitutes and the LOC.

4.1 Data distributionTo further the potential use of the Mars Express scientific data, as well as to benefitfrom a new scientific perspective, ESA established a participating programme forInterdisciplinary Scientists (IDSs) and Recognised Cooperating Laboratories (RCLs).The six selected IDSs (half being non-European) bring their expertise in variousmultidisciplinary fields, such as the space environment, surface-atmosphereinteractions, geological evolution or cosmobiology, in order to support various PIteams by typically combining data from several instruments into investigations froma fresh viewpoint. The RCLs have IDS guidance to prepare themselves forinterpreting the data when they become available to the public after the 6-monthproprietary period and distributing them further into the geoscience communityand/or country they represent, as these RCLs have been selected to encouragescientific groups from areas new to space activities to participate in ESA planetary

12

4. Science Operations


mission overview

missions. In addition, ESA is building a scientific data archive for all planetarymissions as a repository of European planetary data after the 6-month proprietaryperiod (see below).

4.2 Data archivingThe Planetary Science Data Archive (PSA) is an online archive that provides datasearch and access via the Internet of ESA’s planetary missions, data-formatted toNASA’s Planetary Data System (PDS) standards. Following the request by MarsExpress PI teams for the archive to offer additional functionality on top of thedelivery of PDS-compliant data sets, the reuse of an existing astronomy scientific dataarchive architecture was adopted because it offered significant cost benefits overdeveloping an entirely new system. This archive will be located at the EuropeanSpace Astronomy Centre (ESAC), Villafranca, Spain, while expertise exists in thePST at ESTEC. Detailed requirements have been defined for the PSA byrepresentatives from a wide variety of disciplines, who will support the testing andoverall future functionality of the PSA. The PSA will support scientists looking fordata on specific topics, particular instruments or given locations on the planet, as wellas helping the general public and educators, interested in visually appealing or easy-to-interpret data.

International collaboration beyond the ESA Member States, through participation ineither instrument hardware or scientific data analysis, is important for diversifying thescope and quality of the mission’s the scientific return. Three major partners arecontributing to the mission: USA, Russia and Japan. NASA provided a major shareof MARSIS and is supporting Co-Investigators in most of the scientific payloads.NASA is also making its DSN available to increase the science data downloadthroughout the mission, including critical manoeuvres. Russian scientists are involvedin most of the orbiter experiments as many of these originated on Mars-96 as jointcollaborations between European and Russian institutes. Other non-ESA countriesparticipating in the mission include Poland and China.

Collaboration with Japan is a special case, although the high expectations wereunfortunately not met. Turning the malfunction of the Nozomi spacecraft soon afterlaunch in 1998 into a positive event, the Mars Express and Nozomi Science WorkingTeams began a close collaboration because both missions were then expected to reachMars at the same time. In the end, however, Nozomi could only fly past Mars becauseits technical difficulties could not be overcome to enter orbit. This collaborationincluded scientific data exchange and analysis, as well as the ongoing exchange ofscientists from all the instrument teams. The missions were highly complementary interms of orbits and scientific investigations, with Nozomi focusing on the atmosphereand in particular its interaction with the solar wind from a highly-elliptic equatorialorbit, while Mars Express is devoting a large share of its mission to the surface andsubsurface from polar orbit. Never before was a planet expected to be simultaneouslyobserved from two different geometries by two orbiters of different space agencies.This tandem exploration was planned to pave the way for even closer cooperation inthe future between Europe and Japan to other targets, such as Mercury.

Further details on the Mars Express mission and its Beagle 2 lander can be foundat http://sci.esa.int/marsexpress/ and http://www.beagle2.com/

13

5. InternationalCollaboration


SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS

Neukem.qxd 7/7/04 11:48 AM Page 15

The High Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC), originally developed for theRussian-led Mars-96 mission, was selected as part of the Orbiter payload forESA’s Mars Express mission. The HRSC is a pushbroom scanning instrumentwith nine CCD line detectors mounted in parallel in the focal plane. Its uniquefeature is the ability to obtain near-simultaneous imaging data of a specific siteat high resolution, with along-track triple stereo, four colours and five differentphase angles, thus avoiding any time-dependent variations of the observationalconditions. An additional Super-Resolution Channel (SRC) – a framing device –will yield nested images in the metre-resolution range for detailed photogeologicstudies. The spatial resolution from the nominal periapsis altitude of 250 km willbe 10 m px–1, with an image swath of 53 km, for the HRSC and 2.3 m px–1 for theSRC. During the mission’s nominal operational lifetime of 1 martian year(2 Earth years) and assuming an average HRSC data transfer share of 40%, itwill be possible to cover at least 50% of the martian surface at a spatialresolution of ≤ 15 m px–1. More than 70% of the surface can be observed at aspatial resolution of ≤ 30 m px–1, while more than 1% will be imaged at betterthan 2.5 m px–1. The HRSC will thus close the gap between the medium- to low-resolution coverage and the very high-resolution images of the Mars ObserverCamera on the Mars Global Surveyor mission and the in situ observations andmeasurements by landers. The HRSC will make a major contribution to thestudy of martian geosciences, with special emphasis on the evolution of thesurface in general, the evolution of volcanism, and the role of water throughoutmartian history. The instrument will obtain images containing morphologic andtopographic information at high spatial and vertical resolution, allowing theimprovement of the cartographic base down to scales of 1:50 000. Theexperiment will also address atmospheric phenomena and atmosphere-surfaceinteractions, and will provide urgently needed support for current and futurelander missions as well as for exobiological studies. The goals of HRSC on MarsExpress will not be met by any other planned mission or instrument.

17

HRSC: the High Resolution Stereo Camera of Mars Express

G. Neukum1,4 , R. Jaumann2 and the HRSC Co-Investigator and Experiment Team3

1Freie Universität Berlin, Department of Earth Sciences, Institute of Geosciences, Remote Sensing of theEarth and Planets, Malteserstr. 74-100, Building D, D-12249 Berlin, GermanyEmail: [email protected]

2German Aerospace Center (DLR), Rutherfordstrasse 2, D-12489 Berlin, GermanyEmail: [email protected]

3see Tables 2 & 34until 2002: German Aerospace Center (DLR), Rutherfordstrasse 2, D-12489 Berlin, Germany


SP-1240

Europe will make a major contribution to the international programme of Marsexploration with the launch of Mars Express in 2003. The scientific objectives of theorbiter include the significant task of completing the high-resolution reconnaissanceof Mars from orbit and the partial recovery of the scientific objectives of the lostRussian Mars-96 mission.

Imagery is the major source for our current understanding of the geologic andclimatologic evolution of Mars in qualitative and quantitative terms. It has thepotential to enhance our knowledge of Mars drastically and is an essential prerequisitefor detailed surface exploration. Therefore, a prime objective of the Mars Expressorbiter is the photogeologic analysis of the martian surface at high resolution. For thistask, the existing second flight model of the High Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC)developed for Mars-96 was selected. This pushbroom camera will providesimultaneously high-resolution, stereo, colour and multiple phase-angle coverage andthus will acquire imaging data of unprecedented scientific quality. In response to theurgent demands for very high-resolution imagery in the metre-range, acomplementary Super-Resolution Channel (SRC) was added. This boresightedchannel serves as the ‘magnifying lens’ by providing image strips nested in the widerswath of the HRSC stereo and colour scanner.

The reconnaissance task is quite challenging: in only 2 Earth years – the nominaloperational lifetime of Mars Express – at least half of the martian surface shall becovered at a pixel resolution better than 15 m, three quarters of the surface at 30 mper pixel and almost the entire surface at least at 100 m px–1. In addition, about 1%will be observed at about 2 m px–1. The images will allow surface distances, heightsand the colours of different rocks to be measured. During imaging, the camera is250 km or more above the martian surface. The camera processes internally up to 9million pixels per second; the output data rate (after on-line compression) to thespacecraft memory depends on the altitude and can reach up to 25 Mbit s–1, i.e.200 Mbit of memory are filled with compressed data within several minutes. Eachand every bit acquired by the camera is extremely valuable because most of thecovered regions will be overflown only once at the highest resolution.

Such data will not be acquired by any other current or planned mission. The HRSC image data have a high potential for unravelling the geologic and climatologichistory of Mars. It will also provide the required database for the preparation andplanning of future sample-return missions, as well as other robotic and humanexploration.

The HRSC directly addresses two of the main scientific goals of the Mars Expressmission (high-resolution photogeology and surface-atmosphere interactions) and signifi-cantly supports another two (atmospheric studies and mineralogical mapping). Inaddition, the imagery will make a major contribution to characterising the landing sitegeology and its surroundings for the Mars Express and other Mars missions (e.g. NASA’sMars Exploration Rovers). The scientific objectives and measurement goals have beenformulated by an international team of 45 Co-Investigators (Co-Is) from 10 countriesunder the leadership of the Principal Investigator (PI). The image data will focus on:

— characterisation of the surface structure and morphology at high spatial resolutionof ≥10 m px–1;

— characterisation of the surface topography at high spatial and vertical resolution;— characterisation of morphological details at super-resolution of up to 2 m px–1;— terrain classification at high spatial resolution by means of colour imaging;— refinement of the geodetic control network and the martian cartographic base;— characterisation of atmospheric phenomena;— characterisation of physical properties of the surface through multi-phase angle

measurement;— observation of Phobos and Deimos.

18

1. The Challenge

2. The Science


scientific instruments

These will dramatically increase our knowledge about the planet with specialemphasis on:

— the geologic evolution of the martian surface; — the evolution of volcanism and its influence on the martian environment;— information on the past climate, its variability and the role of water through

martian history;— the structure of the martian crust and the elastic response of the lithosphere; — surface-atmosphere interactions (variable features, frost) and aeolian processes

and phenomena;— analysis of atmospheric phenomena (dust devils, cloud topography, aerosol

content);— characterisation of past, present and future landing sites and support for lander

experiments;— support for exobiological studies.

Looking at the previous martian imagery and the expected performance of camerasand altimeters aboard current and planned missions, HRSC’s imaging data will closethe gap between medium- to low-resolution coverage and the very high-resolutionimages of the Mars Observer Camera (MOC) on Mars Global Surveyor, as well as thein situ observations and measurements by landers. It will substantially increase thevery high-resolution image coverage. Such data will not be provided by any otherinstrument on any other planned mission. The experiment will also contributesignificantly to the scientific objectives of past, current and future Mars landermodules (e.g. Mars Pathfinder; the lander missions of 2003 with the Mars ExplorationRovers; sample-return missions) by providing context information on the geologicalsetting of the landing sites. Landing site characterisation will address geological andtopographic mapping for scientific interpretation, as well as landing safety andmobility characteristics of future sites.

Orbital imagery in the 10 m px–1 range, as obtained by the HRSC, is an essentialprerequisite to detailed surface exploration and to solving many of the open questionssuch as volcanic evolution or the role of water throughout martian history. The

19

Fig. 1. Nirgal Vallis floor surface ages.Cratering counts on MOC data reveal thenear-recent aeolian activity at the floor ofNirgal Vallis, while the formation of the valleymore than 3.8 Gy ago can be roughlyconstrained based on Viking data. Note theobvious gap in spatial resolution to be closedby the HRSC. (counts by D. Reiss, DLR)


SP-1240

zoom-in capability of the SRC channel for targeted observations in the metre-rangewill follow-up these questions at even greater detail.

The ability to study morphologic surface features in more detail by photogeologyis complemented by the possibility of deriving ages even for small features like valleyfloors, surfaces of former lakes, and debris aprons from creep or lavaflows. High-resolution imagery enables the counting of craters much smaller than the featuresthemselves and is essential for reconstructing the geologic history and sequencing ofevents. The reconstruction of the martian cratering record requires the ability todetermine the crater-size frequency distribution at all scales. This is impossible at themoment because 10 m resolution is insufficient and there is little coverage availablein the metre-range (see Fig. 1). Closing this gap is a major objective for the HRSC.

The stereo and colour capabilities will both significantly enhance the interpretationof the imaging data (Figs. 1 and 2). For instance, the accurate determination oferosion rates, the modelling of various geologic processes such as water flow, ice-abetted creep, and emplacement of lava flows, is presently limited by the lack ofinformation on local elevation differences. The colour information will be importantfor terrain classification, detecting compositional layering, variations in surfacematerials and their composition, and recognising different surface processes.

A key aspect in the evolution of Mars is the role of water in the different epochs.Valley networks and outflow channels provide ample evidence of the existence ofliquid water or ice on or in the ancient surface of the planet. Small gullies discoveredin MOC images might indicate rather young or even recent erosional activity bywater. The present surface, however, is essentially water-free (with the exception ofthe small residual water ice caps on the poles), and the atmosphere contains onlyminor amounts of water vapour. Though some water might have escaped into space,the question of water on the surface and where it is now is one of the greatunanswered questions in the exploration of Mars.

Permafrost and ground water are considered as the most likely candidates for largewater reservoirs in the subsurface. The past or present existence of ground ice isindicated by various morphologic surface features, e.g. rampart craters, terrainsoftening, and features from the interaction of magma and permafrost. The latitudinalvariation of the depth of permafrost has been inferred from the minimum diameter of

20

Fig. 2. An example of the expected data return from the HRSC. During standard operations,the HRSC will provide stereo and colourinformation as shown in this example from theairborne HRSC experiment at the Aeolianisland of Stromboli. Here, spatial and verticalresolutions of 40 cm were obtained (mainimage). For Mars, resolutions in the 10 mrange are expected. For comparison, a DigitalTerrain Map (DTM) of Arsia Mons in theavailable DTM resolution of 1 km px–1, derivedfrom Viking data with a resolution of170 m px–1, is shown (top left).



craters with fluidised ejecta flows (rampart ejecta). Future topographic andmorphologic information must be detailed enough to map the exact distribution ofejecta and to determine precisely its volume. If a substantial amount of subsurface iceis present, a terrain can be degraded, or ‘softened’, by gravity-induced viscous creepof surface material. The degree of such terrain softening can be accurately determinedonly if the topographic data have spatial and vertical resolutions high enough todiscriminate between undisturbed and softened ground (e.g. sharp vs. broad slopeinflections; concave vs. convex slope segments). In a similar manner, the volume ofsurface features (e.g. thermokarst depressions) caused by the interaction of groundwater or ground ice with magma can be calculated only on the basis of sufficientlyprecise stereo information with horizontal and vertical resolutions better than that ofthe addressed features (typically of the order of tens or hundreds of metres).

A variety of mechanisms has been invoked to explain the origin of valley networksand outflow channels, including surface water runoff, glacial processes, groundwatersapping and mass wasting. Runoff implies a warmer, denser atmosphere, whichplaces important constraints on the evolution of the atmosphere as a whole. It is acornerstone not only for the development of Mars’ aqueous history but also for thequestion of life having ever existed on Mars. A critical unknown in the developmentof valleys and channels is the amount of water needed to create these features and themaximum discharge rates. These can be computed only if reliable cross-sectionalprofiles through the channels are available; the longitudinal slope of the channel flooralso needs to be known.

The existence of ancient palaeolakes and sedimentary basins in the northernlowlands of Mars is one of the most debated topics in martian geology. If ocean-sized bodies of water or mud ever persisted on Mars, they would have had asubstantial impact on the atmosphere and global climatic conditions. Even though alot of effort has been spent in trying to identify evidence for such terminal lakes, intowhich the outflow channels would have spilled their load of water and sediment, thework suffers from the lack of extended high-resolution imaging data. Lacustrinefeatures that would prove the existence of lakes are very subtle and only a few couldbe definitely identified in high-resolution Viking Orbiter images. MOC data showevidence for layered deposits in many impact craters, suggesting that standingbodies of water occurred in these locations. Such features are abundant andwidespread over the entire planet. If there were lakes, their extent will be determinedonly by continuous high-resolution coverage to trace faint wave-generatedshorelines surrounding them. Once a shoreline has been identified, the volume ofwater in a lake can be derived from topographic information only. This will help todecide whether lakes periodically covered as much as a quarter of the planet or werecomparable in size to the volumes discharged by individual floods. This, in turn, willsignificantly improve our understanding of the martian water inventory andpalaeoclimate.

Mars has had a long and varied volcanic history. Based on Viking data, theyoungest volcanic deposits were thought to occur at Olympus Mons. Evidence fromcrater counts and martian meteorites suggest that Mars could be volcanically activeeven today. MOC images then revealed a number of young lava flows (as young as afew million years) in several volcanic provinces such as Olympus Mons, Tharsis,Elysium and Amazonis Planitia. Models of the formation of Mars indicate that, at theend of heavy bombardment, the global heat flow was about five times the presentvalue and was even higher during heavy bombardment. Such high heat flows implyhigh rates of volcanism early in the planet’s history, yet available morphologicevidence for volcanic activity in this period is rather sparse because the older terrainsare highly modified and much of the earlier history is not visible in available images.A multitude of volcanic features reflecting a variety of volcanic processes has beenfound on the martian surface, which can be divided into central cones and volcanicplains. More than 60% of the surface is covered by plains units of all types. Some arecertainly volcanic and some are undoubtedly of other origin. In many cases, however,

21


SP-1240

their origin is interpreted controversially. Volcanic edifices were classified into threedifferent categories based on their morphologies: with shield volcanoes, domes (tholi)and composite cones, and highland paterae. Lava flow deposits are associated withmost of the volcanoes. Their morphology suggests high fluidity, which correspondsto a mafic to ultramafic composition by terrestrial analogy. This interpretation isconfirmed by the chemical analysis of the SNC meteorites. The results of MarsPathfinder indicate the presence of more silicic volcanic materials, which implies ahigher degree of crustal fractionation than previously thought. The differentenvironmental conditions on Mars, however, with lower gravity and loweratmospheric pressure, could be responsible for a larger amount of explosive activitythan on Earth, assuming similar mafic composition and similar volatile content. High-resolution imaging and topographic information is essential for a better understandingof the formation processes and the evolution of volcanic features. The volcanichistory is intimately tied to the climatic history and the history of internal processes.Volcanic activity, especially on the Tharsis bulge, could also explain the occurrenceof outflow events and the formation of thermokarst features. From Viking imagery weknow that a spatial resolution of about 10 m px–1 is sufficient to recognise single lavaflows within the complex flows found on the flanks and around the shield volcanoes.Quantitative models to estimate the diffusion rate, yield strength and composition oflavas are based on the length, width and volume of a single lava flow as well as onthe local topography. The recognition of explosive deposits requires the detailedanalysis of erosional features, while many small possible volcanic features like thedomes in the lowlands remain enigmatic without higher resolution imagery or havenot yet been discovered with existing data.

Wind has played a major role in shaping the martian surface and is still active. Botherosional and depositional landforms are widespread features. The most prominentfeatures are dunes occurring either in large dune fields or as isolated patches. Otheraeolian features are wind streaks, yardangs, pits and grooves. It is not clear if dunes

22

Fig. 3. HRSC orthoimage mosaic of Vulcano Island (I) with 50 m contour lines derived fromHRSC stereo data. Obtained during the HRSCflight campaign of May 1997 at an altitude of5000 m with a spatial resolution of 20 cm px–1

for the nadir and 40 cm px–1 for the stereolines.



are still active despite some hints in MOC data. High-resolution imagery and thepossibility of analysing the population and degradational state of small craters over alarge area are essential for a better understanding of dune formation and evolution.

Atmospheric studies are a prime objective for the cameras aboard the NASA MarsSurveyor missions, which will have increased our knowledge of atmosphericcirculation and the cycles of volatiles and dust before the launch of Mars Express. Ahigh-resolution, multicolour and multiphase stereo instrument, however, will make asignificant contribution to our understanding of atmospheric phenomena on Mars,especially of cloud properties, local wind regimes, dust devils, variations in aerosolcontent and the vertical structure of the atmosphere.

Detailed mapping (geology, morphology, topography, composition, etc.) is the pre-requisite for the proper characterisation and selection of areas of interest for landermissions, mobile surface activity and sample return. An imaging instrument gatheringhigh-resolution, stereo and colour imagery (Figs. 3 and 4) of large parts of the martiansurface will provide the required database. One of the surprising results from MOC/MGS was the discovery that the martian surface appears completely different inimages with different spatial resolution. Surfaces that seem smooth at typical Vikingscales (60-100 m px–1) show a rough morphology at the very high resolution of MOC(few m px–1) and vice-versa. MOC, however, is observing only a small fraction of themartian surface and much more image data at similar resolution are needed.

Finally, Mars Express will encounter Phobos several times during the nominalmission, when the node of its orbit on the equatorial plane is at the Phobos distancefrom Mars. There will be periods of about a week when close flybys will occurnaturally, with little impact on mission operations. At these times, the HRSC Co-ITeam is interested in imaging Phobos at high- and very high-resolution, as well as incolour and stereo. These images will be of higher resolution than the Viking imagesand will provide an excellent opportunity for detailed geological, compositional,regolith and orbital studies.

23

Fig. 4. Example of an HRSC data product.Vulcano Island in a perspective view based ona Digital Elevation Model from HRSC-A stereoand multispectral data. The resolution is 25 cmfrom 6 km flight altitude.


SP-1240

The HRSC instrument (Fig. 5; Table 1) consists of the camera unit containing theHRSC stereo colour scanner and the Super-Resolution Channel (SRC), and of thedigital unit. The unique capability of the HRSC stereo colour scanner is to obtainquasi-simultaneously high-resolution images in three-line stereo, in four colours andat five phase angles. The combination with the SRC makes it a five-in-one camera:

— the along-track acquisition of stereo imagery avoids changes in atmospheric andillumination conditions which so far have caused severe problems in thephotogrammetric evaluation of stereo images acquired at well-separated times;

— the triple stereo images permit robust stereo reconstruction, yielding DigitalTerrain Models (DTMs) at a vertical resolution similar to the high pixelresolution of the nadir sensor, with 10 m px–1 at 250 km altitude (periapsis);

— the colour images (Fig. 6) enable terrain classification and provide informationon compositional variations and surface weathering as a complement to the morespecific (but with lower spatial resolution) mineralogical information obtained bythe imaging spectrometer of Mars Express;

— the multiphase imagery will address the physical properties of the martian soil(roughness, grain size, porosity) via photogrammetric data evaluation byproviding a second stereo angle triplet (in essence quintuple stereo);

— the super-resolution imagery, nested in the broader swath of the scanner with aspatial resolution of 2.3 m px–1 at periapsis, will serve as the magnifying lens toanalyse surface morphology at even greater detail.

The HRSC stereo colour scanner is a multi-sensor pushbroom instrument, withnine CCD line sensors mounted in parallel delivering nine superimposed imageswaths. Originally, it was developed as the HRSC instrument for the Russian Mars-96mission. Two fully tested and calibrated Flight Models were prepared, and only minormodifications to the remaining version were required to satisfy the Mars Expressinterface requirements.

The stereo colour scanner comprises a baffle, optics, optical bench, spectral filters,

24

3. The Camera

Digital Unit

HRSC Stereo Colour Scanner

HRSC-SRC

Fig. 5. HRSC Flight Model.



25

Table 1. HRSC characteristics and performance.

HRSC stereo colour scanner SRC

Mechanical and Electrical Parameters

Camera Unit envelope 515 x 300 x 260 mm (height x width x length)

Digital Unit envelope 222 x 282 x 212 mm (height x width x length)

Mass 19.6 kg

Power consumptiona 45.7 W during imaging 3.0 W during imaging

Radiation shielding 10 krad

Electro-optical Performance

Optics, focal length Apo-Tessar, 175 mm Maksutov-Cassegrain, 975 mm

F number 5.6 9.2

Stereo angles –18.9°, 0°, +18.9° in-track FOV 0.543°

Cross-track field of view 11.9° 0.543°

Number of CCD lines 9: on 3 plates with 3 lines each 1 area array sensor

Detector type THX 7808B KODAK KAI 1001

Sensor pixel size 7 x 7 µm 9 x 9 µm

Pixel size on ground 10 x 10 m at 250 km altitude 2.3 x 2.3 m at 250 km altitude

Field of view per pixel 8.25 arcsec 2 arcsec

Active pixels per sensor 9 sensors at 5184 pixels 1024 x 1032

Image size on groundb 52.2 km x [# of lines] at 250 km 2.3 x 2.35 km at 250 km

Radiometric resolution 8-bit entering compression 14-bit or 8-bit selectable

Sensor full well capacity 420 000 e¯ 48 000 e¯

Gain attenuation range 10.5 dB to 62 dB in 3 dB steps –

Spectral filtersc 5 panchromatic and 4 colour –

Pixel MTF at 50 lp/mm at nadir: 0.40; at 20°off nadir: 0.33

SNR for panchromatic linesd >>100 (without pixel binning) >>70

SNR for colour lines >80, blue >40 for 2x2 macro pixels

Digital Features

On-line compression yes, DCT: table-controlled JPEG

Mean output data rate peak rate 25 Mbit s–1 after compression

Operations

Pixel exposure time 2.24 ms to 54.5 ms 0.5 ms to 8 s

Pixel binning formats 1 x 1, 2 x 2, 4 x 4, 8 x 8 –

Compression rates 2...20, nominal: 6...10, bypass possible

Typical data volume ≈1 Gbit/day (compressed data)

Duty cycle every orbit; several times/orbit

Internal data buffer no 8 x 8 bit or 4 x 14 bit images

Typical operations duration 3 – 40 min

Expected coverage ≥50% at about 15 m px–1 ≥1% at about 2.5 m px–1

Operational lifetime > 4 years

Notesa: including 12 W maximum heating power. b: image size is defined by the swath width times the number of acquired image lines, and depends on available downlink capacity. c: nadir, outer stereo (2), photometric (2) 675±90 nm; blue 440±45 nm; green 530±45 nm; red 750±20 nm; near-IR 970±45 nm. d: worst-case scenario (30° solar elevation angle and dark Mars region)


SP-1240

CCD sensors lines, sensor electronics and thermal control system. The technicaldesign is defined by:

— single-optics design;— CCD line arrays with 5272 pixels each;— nine detectors for simultaneous stereo and colour imaging, and for multi-phase

angle measurements;— CCDs and sensor electronics implemented in high-reliability hybrid, low-noise

and low-power technology;— implementation of the CCD-control unit in ASICs.

The SRC is a framing device and uses an interline CCD detector to cope with thevery short exposure and read-out times. It is based on an instrument development forthe Rosetta Lander and the design is characterised by:

— CCD area array interline detector with 1024 x 1032 pixels;— highly miniaturised and low-power detector and control electronics;— compact 3D multi-chip module technology using thin-film multilayer

metallisation, dycostrate, plasma-etching and chip-on-wire technology;— selectable dynamic range of 8- and 14-bit per pixel;— internal data buffer to store eight 8-bit (or four 14-bit) images;— lightweight Maksutov-Cassegrain telescope with a focal length of 975 mm.

The HRSC scanner and the SRC are boresighted and mounted in a commoninstrument structure. The common Digital Unit contains a power converter, spacecraftinterface, processor for instrument control, data compression unit and heater controlunit. It is based on the Digital Unit developed for the Mars-96 mission. Modificationsinclude a lighter housing box, a new camera control processor based on the Mars-96telemetry controller unit, and new spacecraft interfaces derived from existing parts.

The HRSC is operated in individual imaging sequences. A typical sequenceconsists of nine HRSC stereo colour scanner images covering the same area on theground. Image data will be taken during every orbit that offers sufficient illuminationconditions for 4-30 min. Data will be compressed on-line by JPEG-basedcompression hardware with an average (selectable) compression factor of 6-10 andwith throughput rates of up to 450 lines s–1 in four parallel signal chains (each serving

26

Fig. 6. The HRSC colour filter spectral characteristics.



27

Fig. 7. Above left: SRC optics (Maksutov Cassegrain, focal length 975 mm, optics length210 mm). Above right: the SRC electronics anddetector section.

Fig. 9. HRSC and SRC pixel resolution for thenominal Mars Express orbit with 258 kmperiapsis altitude.

Fig. 8. HRSC scanner and SRC footprints.


SP-1240

a part of the nine CCD lines). Bypassing the compression is possible. Datacompression techniques have been used successfully on previous planetary missions(e.g. on the US Clementine mission to the Moon based on hardware similar to theHRSC chip-set) and for current Earth remote-sensing and deep-space missions. Up todate, a specific implementation of the JPEG algorithm, namely the Discrete CosineTransform (DCT) compression, has been applied in most of the cases. Before itsimplementation in the HRSC, the DCT algorithm was thoroughly tested. Noappreciable loss of ‘science’ arising from this particular method could be detectedwithin the expected compression rates.

The SRC (Fig. 7) is used for targeted observations. It will operate mostly inparallel with the scanner to generate nested super-resolution images in order to avoidany location problems and to obtain the contextual information and the preciseposition (Figs. 8 and 9).

SRC imaging will be carried out in one of two modes. In the ‘internal’ mode, up toeight 8-bit images or four 14-bit images can be acquired during one session. Theimages are stored in an SRC internal buffer and transferred to the spacecraft memoryvia the digital unit after compression. There are no restrictions on scanner operationsfor this mode. In the ‘connected’ mode, one of the four HRSC signal chains is devotedto SRC. This means that, in addition to spot and raster images, contiguous imagestrips can be formed. However, this requires a reduction in resolution or in the numberof operated lines of the scanner.

The operational profile foresees imaging preferably near periapsis and at solarelevation angles of 15-90°. With the Mars Express reference orbit, this will bepossible during the first 3 months (January to March 2004) of the mapping phase andafter one year with the periapsis in the dark again starting in March 2005. However,high-altitude imaging is also envisaged and solar elevation angles down to a fewdegrees will be used for specific tasks. The high flexibility in instrument operations(e.g. pixel summation, compression ratio, windowing, integration time) allowsoptimisation of data acquisition with respect to the scientific goals, the availablespacecraft resources and orbital constraints. Multiple imaging sequences during oneorbit revolution are being considered for optimum coverage strategies.

28

Fig. 10. The Mars Express orbit, with HRSC’sfield of view near periapsis.



The highest image quality is attained by providing accurate spacecraft attitude andorbital data. Combined with geometrical calibration data, they allow the derivation ofdigital terrain models. Radiometric precision is maintained by thorough on-groundcalibration and by periodic in-flight verification over near-uniform targets such asdust storms.

The achievable surface coverage is not restricted by the HRSC instrument but hasto be traded-off between available telemetry rates, telemetry sharing and orbitcharacteristics (Fig. 10). During the nominal mission lifetime of 2 Earth years andwithin the given mission constraints, at least 50% of the surface will be covered at aspatial resolution of ≤ 15 m px–1 and about 1% at a spatial resolution of 2.5 m px–1.

The camera is designed to sustain an operational lifetime of more than 4 Earth yearsin orbit, consistent with the envisaged mission extension of another martian year.

The martian surface is ‘scanned’ by the nine CCD lines of the stereo colour scannerat frequencies of up to 450 Hz (Fig. 11). Single spot observations by the SRC aregathered at specific times from periapsis while continuous observations areperformed at a constant frequency. After internal signal processing and on-line datacompression, HRSC data are transferred to the spacecraft mass memory at outputrates of up to 25 Mbit s–1.

Instrument operations control (housekeeping and command echo monitoring, dataconsistency checks) is performed by the DLR Institute of Planetary Research inconcurrence with the PI and his project group at FU Berlin.

During the cruise phase, the camera will be operated only for internal health checks(i.e. no imaging will be provided, with the exception of looking back at the Earth-Moon system for a ‘farewell’ picture). During the approach to Mars, HRSC-SRCimages of Mars will be obtained for the first time.

For nominal imaging, camera operations focus on the configuration of the camerachannels (CCD lines, signal electronics, use of the SRC) and of the on-line datacompression. Various imaging strategies will be realised by setting differentresolutions for each of the nine CCD lines via pixel summation formats. Pixelsummation (or ‘macropixel’) formats of 1x1, 2x2, 4x4, 8x8 (first factor: in-flightdirection pixel summation, realised by exposure time variations; second factor:across-flight direction pixel summation, digitally realised by pixel summation/averaging in the Digital Unit) are possible independently for each line. Thus, undercertain restrictions it is possible to read out all nine CCD lines by three signal chains

29

Fig. 11. The HRSC operating principle andviewing geometry of the individual CCDsensors.

Neukem.qxd 7/7/04 12:00 PM Page 29

SP-1240

and to devote the remaining one to the read-out of SRC data. The number of possibleconfigurations has been grouped into 64 basic camera macro formats. The macroformat is selected by commands and remains constant during one imaging sequence.A number of internal parameters (e.g. sensor integration time for taking into accountimaging altitudes, sensor on/off delays for covering the same area on the ground, aswell as window size and compression parameters for reducing the data rate, timingfor SRC observations) are set depending on the selected imaging strategy. All of themare constant during one imaging sequence (except the sensor integration time, whichis automatically adopted according to the orbit profile) but may be changed viacommands for subsequent sessions.

The HRSC is a standalone instrument – it does not require operational interactionswith other instruments. There are no restrictions regarding simultaneous operationswith other instruments except probably the electric ambient field of MARSIS.

The surface- and atmosphere-oriented instruments of Mars Express are highlycomplementary. DTMs and images derived from the HRSC will allow registrationand map projection with the results of the OMEGA IR mapping spectrometer and theMARSIS subsurface radar to a common reference surface. The combined evaluationof HRSC images and topographic data with the gravity measurements obtained by theMaRS radio science experiment will allow an improved investigation of the martiancrust. The HRSC will also produce improved spacecraft orbit and attitude informationfrom high-precision stereo models, which will be shared with the Mars Expressproject and the other instruments for their data reduction.

While OMEGA will provide surface mineralogy at about 100 m resolution,HRSC’s colour capability will detect compositional variations in the OMEGAsubpixel range, leading to a better understanding of terrain boundaries and spectralmixing characteristics. The topographic information derived from MARSIS can beused to verify or calibrate the HRSC terrain models and vice-versa.

In order to better understand and validate the achievements and scientific returnexpected from the HRSC, the instrument has to be placed in a broader context of former,current and planned missions. Almost every planetary mission carries an imagingsystem for observing planetary surfaces and atmospheres (Fig. 12). In addition, MarsGlobal Surveyor is carrying a laser altimeter (MOLA) around Mars for the first time.

What will HRSC achieve in comparison with other Mars missions?The Viking missions provided near-global (95%) coverage at 200 m px–1 and 28%

coverage at ≤ 100 m px–1, but only 0.3% was observed at ≤ 20 m px–1. The MarsObserver Camera (MOC, initially developed for the failed Mars Observer mission,now on Mars Global Surveyor) provides global coverage with its wide-angle cameraat a spatial resolution of 225 m px–1. The MOC narrow-angle camera yields a spatialresolution of up to 1.4 m px–1, but only for a small amount of the martian surface evenafter the extension of the MGS mission. The spatial resolution of the SRC iscomparable to MOC and it will be possible to increase the 2 m-resolution coveragesignificantly, which is especially important for future lander missions.

Mars Climate Orbiter (MCO) aimed at covering about 80% of the surface at40 m px–1, but its loss resulted in a major gap in martian imagery. HRSC can fill thatgap. Mars Odyssey arrived in orbit in October 2001 and provides a spatial resolutionof 20 m px–1. However, the number of images that can be transferred to Earth isseverely limited and no more than about 7% of the surface will be covered. The MarsSurveyors carry single-line sensors that lack intrinsic geometrical control. Only MarsExpress and HRSC data will close the gap in the high-resolution reconnaissanceimagery and provide the link between MOC’s small images at very high-resolutionand the medium- to low-resolution data of former missions.

Moreover, the HRSC is the only dedicated stereo camera planned for flight. Some

30

4. Relation to Other MarsExpress Instruments

5. Relation to Other Missions



high-resolution stereo imagery has been obtained but only by multiple coverage atdifferent times and for a very small part of the surface. From Viking data, a global DTMwith 1 km resolution was obtained; better resolution was achieved only locally. MGShas provided stereoscopic coverage with its wide-angle camera at 225 m px–1. MarsOdyssey is focusing on colour imagery and has no dedicated plans for stereo coverage.

A second source for topographic information is the MOLA laser altimeter on MGS.It has produced global topographic coverage with a spatial resolution of about 300 x1000 m at the equator, and better near the poles. The HRSC with a (nominal) resolutionof 10 m is a significant improvement. Furthermore, the individual laser return points(though these cannot be seen in images) can be entered as control information in theHRSC image adjustment procedures to calibrate for absolute heights. The MOLAaltimeter and the HRSC stereo information are thus highly complementary.

The Viking cameras were sensitive only in the visible wavelength range. Near-global coverage with 2-3 colours was achieved at 900 m px–1 and only a small amountof the surface at 100 m px–1 (~1%). The MGS/MOC instrument has only a 2-colourcapability for the wide-angle camera, while the narrow-angle camera has no coloursat all. The THEMIS camera of Mars Odyssey has five colours, with a maximumresolution of 20 m px–1. With the ability to transfer 15 000 images in total, no morethan about 7% of the surface can be covered. The HRSC colour capability willdrastically improve the multispectral coverage of the martian surface. Owing to itshigher spatial resolution (ratio ~1:5), it will support the spectrometer data obtained byMars Express and Mars Odyssey.

Furthermore, the HRSC is the only instrument with the ability to obtain near-simultaneous images with multiple phase angles of the surface. Similar informationby other cameras/missions has and will be obtained only by multiple coverage withlarge time differences, producing severe problems in photometric modelling arisingfrom variations of atmospheric conditions, variable surface features etc. The uniquemulti-angle capability of the HRSC will also support its stereo capability by providingnot only a stereo triplet but also a stereo quintuplet.

In conclusion, the orbital reconnaissance of the martian surface is not met by anyother instrument or set of instruments. The HRSC is a unique instrument in the inter-national Mars exploration effort and will close the existing gaps and provide therequired imaging and cartographic products for future missions.

31

Fig. 12. Best spatial resolution and surfacecoverage for past, present and planned Marsmissions.


SP-1240

The HRSC instrument and its ground data system were extensively tested in March1995 at Lake Constance (Fig. 13), as well as during airborne experiments near MountEtna (Fig. 14), Stromboli and Vulcano, Sicily, in May 1997. The tests included theHRSC Flight Model and demonstrated the resolving power and the radiometricquality of the instrument, as well as the reliability of the fully operational software.The airborne campaign verified the entire system in an end-to-end test, including theground data system. The HRSC Qualification Model was mounted on a stabilisingplatform and the volcanoes were covered from a flight altitude of 10 km with a spatialresolution of 40 cm px–1, in triple stereo, in colour and at multiple phase angles. Thesetargets were selected specifically for their relevance to comparative planetology.Comparative analysis of volcanic morphologies will shed important light on theorigin and mechanisms of volcanic activity on both planets. Images from Etna(Fig. 14) were analysed for their potential to recognise and map surface featurestypically associated with volcanoes, such as lava flows.

The dataset of the Stromboli airborne test is available in Planetary Data System(PDS) standard format on CD-ROM along with stereo processing software andcalibration data.

A further result of this test and other multiple airborne flight campaigns with theQualification Model was the demonstration of the robustness of the camera systemunder severe environmental conditions. During these tests, the camera producedexcellent imagery which allowed the qualitative and quantitative validation of thecamera performance parameters. Since 1997, the HRSC airborne camera has beenwidely used for Earth remote-sensing applications.

Additional tests have been conducted in order to identify ageing and degradationeffects; none has been found. For Mars Express, the HRSC instrument underwentcomprehensive and full-scale tests before integration on the spacecraft.

32

Fig. 13. This test image, looking across Lake Constance in March 1995, illustratesHRSC’s resolution. The cable car rope (diameter 10-15 cm) is imaged from a distance of40 km. The pixel resolution at this range is 1.6 m.

Fig. 14. HRSC test image of Mount Etna lava flows froma flight altitude of 10 km. Resolution is 40 cm px–1.

6. The Test Campaign



Mars Express scientific data will be transmitted to Earth daily. After receipt in Perth,Australia (or at station of the NASA Deep Space Network) and primary decoding andformatting, the image data will be processed at the DLR Institute of PlanetaryResearch, Berlin (D) to a certain level.

The data reduction will be performed in consecutive steps consisting of systematicand scientific data processing. For Mars-96, a fully operational software package forscanning instruments was developed. A modified version of this software that takesinto account framing camera characteristics (SRC) has been applied and tested foranalysis of Viking Orbiter, Clementine and Galileo images. Only minor modificationsto Mars Express-specific needs are necessary.

The results of the systematic data processing step are radiometrically andgeometrically calibrated and map-projected images. These data will be transferred tothe database of the PI at FU Berlin. After validation by the PI, they will be releasedelectronically to the Science Team at the individual home institutes of the Co-Is. Theywill be distributed to the Science Team members and the science community. Thescientific data processing by the Science Team involves chiefly the photogrammetricand cartographic processing and colour image production, and will result in higherlevel products, including DTMs, orthoimages, image mosaics, cartographic products(e.g. image maps, topographic maps, thematic maps) and a refined geodetic controlnetwork.

After the processing phase, the data will be released as individual images inelectronic version or through hardcopy, as offset-printed maps and CD-ROM archivesin PDS formats for further use by the general planetary science community and thepublic. The stereo images are expected to have a great potential for public relationsactivities.

The processing software was tested and refined as an additional result of the HRSCairborne campaigns. Data handling and data management were also exercised. Theamount of data processed for airborne projects since 1999 exceeds the expected Marsdata volume by a factor of 10-100.

The HRSC experiment organisation is divided into three functional teams (ScienceTeam, Instrument Team, Operations Team) under the direction and responsibility ofthe PI, supported by his project team at FU Berlin (Fig. 15; Table 2). The ScienceTeam (Fig. 16) is subdivided into working groups by discipline to meet the

33

7. The Data Processing Tasks

Fig. 15. The HRSC project team structure. Fig. 16. The Science Team structure.

8. The Team


SP-1240

34

Table 2. HRSC Co-Investigators.

J. Albertz1, G. Bellucci6, J.-P. Bibring32, M. Buchroithner3; E. Dorrer4, H. Ebner5, E. Hauber2, C. Heipke7, H. Hoffmann2, W.-H. Ip8, R. Jaumann2,H.-U. Keller8, P. Kronberg19, W. Markiewicz8, H. Mayer4; F.M. Neubauer10, J. Oberst2, M. Pätzold10, R. Pischel2, G. Schwarz11, T. Spohn12,B.H. Foing13, K. Kraus14, K. Lumme15, P. Masson16, J.-P. Muller17, J.B. Murray18, G. Gabriele Ori19, P. Pinet20, J. Raitala21, A.T. Basilevsky22,B.A. Ivanov23, R. Kuzmin22, M.H. Carr24, T.C. Duxbury25, R. Greeley26, J.W. Head27, R. Kirk28, T.B. McCord29, S.W. Squyres30, A. Inada31

1. TU Berlin, Photogrammetry and Cartography, EB 9, Straße des 17. Juni 135, D-10623 Berlin, Germany

2. DLR Berlin, Institute of Planetary Research, Rutherfordstrasse 2, D-12489 Berlin, Germany

3. TU Dresden, Institute of Cartography, Helmholtzstr. 10, D-01062 Dresden, Germany

4. Universität der Bundeswehr, Institut für Photogrammetrie und Kartographie, Werner-Heisenberg-Weg 39, D-85577 München, Germany

5. TU München, Photogrammetrie und Fernerkundung, Arcisstr. 21, D-80290 München, Germany

6. Istituto di Fisica Spazio Interplanetario (INAF), I-00133 Rome, Italy

7. Universität Hannover, Institut fuer Photogrammetrie und Ingenieurvermessungen (IPI), Nienburger Str. 1, D-30167 Hannover, Germany

8. Max-Planck-Institut für Aeronomie, Postfach 20, D-37191 Katlenburg-Lindau, Germany

9. TU Clausthal, Leibnizstr. 16, D-38678 Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Germany

10. Universität Köln, Institut für Geophysik und Meteorologie, A.-Magnus-Platz, D-50923 Köln, Germany

11. DLR Oberpfaffenhofen, Institute of Remote Sensing Methods, D-82234 Wessling, Germany

12. Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Institut für Planetologie, Wilhelm-Klemm-Str. 10, D-48149 Münster, Germany

13. ESA Research & Scientific Support Department, ESTEC, P.O. Box 299, NL-2200 AG Noordwijk, The Netherlands

14. TU Wien, Institut für Photogrammetrie und Fernerkundung, Gußhausstraße 27-29, A-1040 Wien, Austria

15. University of Helsinki, Observatory and Astrophysics Lab., PO Box 14, FIN-00014 Helsinki, Finland

16. Lab. de Géologie Dynamique de la Terre et des Planétes (ERS CNRS 0388), Univ. Paris-Sud (bât. 509), F-91405 Orsay Cedex, France

17. Department of Geomatic Engineering, University College London, Gower St., London WC1E 6BT, UK

18. Department of Earth Sciences, The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire MK7 6AA, UK

19. Dipartimento di Scienze, Universita’ d’Annunzio, Viale Pindaro 42, I-65127 Pescara, Italy

20. GRGS, Observatoire de Midi-Pyrénéés, 14 Avenue Edouard Belin, F-31400 Toulouse, France

21. Astronomy Space Institute, University of Oulu, FIN-90401 Oulu, Finland

22. Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry, Russian Academy of Science, Kosygin Street 19, Moscow 117975, Russia

23. Institute of Dynamics of Geospheres, Russian Academy of Science, Leninskij Prospect 38, Moscow 117979, Russia

24. US Geological Survey, Branch of Astrogeology, 345 Middlefield Rd., Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA

25. Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, MS 301-429, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA 91109, USA

26. Department of Geology, Arizona State University, Box 871404, Tempe, AZ 85287-1404, USA

27. Department of Geological Science, Brown University, Box 1846, Providence, RI 02912, USA

28. Astrogeology Team, US Geological Survey, 2255 N. Gemini Dr., Flagstaff, AZ 86001, USA

29. Planetary Science Division/SOEST, University of Hawaii, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA

30. Center for Radiophysics and Space Research, Space Sciences Building, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853-6801, USA

31. Graduate School of Science and Technology, Kobe University, 1-1 Rokkodai Nada, 657-8501, Kobe, Japan

32. Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale, CNRS, F-91405 Orsay, France

Table 3. HRSC Experiment Team.

FU Berlin: T. Denk, O. Fabel, S. van Gasselt, C. Georgi, S. Huber, G. Mygiakis, G. Neukum (PI), S. Preuschmann, B. Schreiner, S, Werner, W. Zuschneid;

DLR: T.Behnke, U. Carsenty, K. Eichentopf, J. Flohrer, B. Giese, K. Gwinner, E. Hauber,H. Hirsch, H. Hoffmann, A. Hoffmeister, R. Jaumann, D. Jobs, U. Köhler, K.-D. Matz,V. Mertens, J. Oberst, S. Pieth, R. Pischel, C. Reck, E. Ress**, D. Reifl, T. Roatsch,F. Scholten, G. Schwarz, I. Sebastian*, S. Sujew*, W. Tost, M. Tschentscher, M. Wählisch,I. Walter, M. Weiss, S. Weifle, M. Weiland, K. Wesemann;

Subcontractors: A. Zaglauer, U. Schönfeldt, K. Eckhardt, J. Krieger, D, Tennef, S. Govaers,A. Kasemann, M. Langfeld (DLR/Anagramm), E. Rickus (Levicki microelectronic), J. Schöneich (Jena-Optronik)

*left project, **retired



experiment objectives (Geosciences, Photogrammetry/Cartography, Spectrophoto-metry, and Atmosphere). The Instrument and Operations Teams, led by theExperiment Manager, include engineers and scientists from the DLR Institute ofPlanetary Research. The industrial contractor is Astrium (D), who built, assembled,tested and verified the HRSC for Mars-96.

The DLR Institute of Planetary Research provides a competent Instrument Teamthat was especially trained for a similar task in the Mars-96 HRSC experiment,covering the development of the sensor electronics, compression, electrical andoptical ground support equipment, mission planning, instrument operations, targetacquisition, calibration, data processing and data management. The DLR Institute isin charge of the assembly, verification and testing, for the system integrationqualification, testing and calibration, and of the camera system integration with thespacecraft. Astrium (D) was responsible for the development of the Digital Unit andthe integration and testing of the instrument subunits.

The PI and Co-Is are responsible for the scientific outcome of the experiment, andthe Co-Is have individual responsibilities in areas such as calibration support, dataprocessing, assessment of imaging scenarios, and photogrammetric data processing.All public relations efforts are a primary responsibility of the PI, who also has theprimary data rights. The PI will actively support ESA in PR matters.

The Instrument Team includes engineers and scientists from the DLR Institute ofPlanetary Research and industry (all of whom have built and flown space instruments)and was recruited from the former HRSC Mars-96 Team. Similarly, the OperationsTeam from the DLR Institute of Planetary Research has extensive experience inrunning planetary missions and processing, archiving and the delivery of dataproducts; it originally developed the HRSC ground data system on Mars-96.

35


The OMEGA visible and near-IR mapping spectrometer will reveal the mineral-ogical and molecular composition of the surface and atmosphere of Marsthrough the spectral analysis of the diffused solar light and surface thermalemission. It will provide global coverage at medium resolution (2-5 km) foraltitudes from 1500 km to 4000 km, and high-resolution (< 350 m) spectralimages of selected areas.

OMEGA (Observatoire pour la Minéralogie, l’Eau, les Glaces et l’Activité) is avisible and near-IR mapping spectrometer, operating in the spectral range 0.38-5.1 µm. Combining imaging and spectrometry, it will study the mineralogical andmolecular composition of the surface and atmosphere of Mars through the spectralanalysis of the diffused solar light and surface thermal emission. OMEGA willprovide global coverage at medium-resolution (2-5 km) for altitudes from 1500 km to4000 km, and high-resolution (< 350 m) spectral images of selected areas, amountingto a few percent of the surface, when observed from near-periapsis (< 300 kmaltitude). OMEGA will:

37

OMEGA: Observatoire pour la Minéralogie, l’Eau, les Glaces etl’Activité

J-P. Bibring1, A. Soufflot1, M. Berthé1, Y. Langevin1, B. Gondet1, P. Drossart2, M. Bouyé2, M. Combes2,P. Puget2, A. Semery2, G. Bellucci3, V. Formisano3, V. Moroz4, V. Kottsov4 and the OMEGA Co-I team:G. Bonello1, S. Erard1, O. Forni1, A. Gendrin1, N. Manaud1, F. Poulet1, G. Poulleau1, T. Encrenaz2, T. Fouchet2,R. Melchiori2, F. Altieri3, N. Ignatiev4, D. Titov4, L. Zasova4, A. Coradini5, F. Capacionni5, P. Cerroni5,S. Fonti6, N. Mangold7, P. Pinet8, B. Schmitt19, C. Sotin10, E. Hauber11, H. Hoffmann11, R. Jaumann11,U. Keller12, R. Arvidson13, J. Mustard14 & F. Forget15

1Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale (IAS), Bâtiment 121, F-91405 Orsay Campus, FranceEmail: [email protected]

2Laboratoire d’Etudes Spatiales et d’Instrumentation en Astrophysique (LESIA), Observatoire deParis/Meudon, F-92195 Meudon, France

3Istituto di Fisica dello Spazio Interplanetario (IFSI-INAF), I-00133 Rome, Italy4Institute for Space Research (IKI), 117810 Moscow, Russia5Istituto di Astrofisica Spaziale (IASF-INAF), I-00133 Rome, Italy6Department of Physics, University of Lecce, I-73100 Lecce, Italy7Orsay Terre, F-91405 Orsay Campus, France8Observatoire de Midi-Pyrénées, F-31000 Toulouse, France9Laboratoire de Planétologie de Grenoble, F-38400 Grenoble, France10Laboratoire de Planétologie et de Géodynamique, Université, F-44322 Nantes, France11DLR Institute of Planetary Research, D-12489 Berlin, Germany12Max-Planck-Institute für Aeronomie, D-37191 Katlenburg-Lindau, Germany13Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Washington Univ., St. Louis, MO 63130, USA14Department of Geological Sciences, Box 1846, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA15Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique (LMD), IPSL, Université Paris 6, F-75252 Paris, France

1. Introduction

Bibring.qxd 7/7/04 12:06 PM Page 37

SP-1240

— characterise the composition of surface materials, identifying the compositionand the spatial and temporal distributions of the various classes of silicates,hydrated minerals, oxides and carbonates in soils and rocks, and of ices andfrosts;

— study the spatial and temporal distributions of atmospheric CO2, CO, H2O andaerosols.

OMEGA will therefore address major questions concerning internal structure,geological and chemical evolution, past activity and present surface variegation. Itwill greatly contribute to understanding the evolution of Mars, ranging fromgeological timescales to seasonal variations. In particular, it will provide unique cluesfor understanding the H2O and CO2 cycles over martian history. It will play a majorrole in identifying areas of interest for future in situ exploration.

OMEGA was developed for the Russian Mars-96 mission. A spare unit was fullyintegrated and calibrated for that mission, and served as the basis for the Mars Expressflight unit (Fig. 1). The major change was the complete redesign of the MainElectronics. OMEGA is managed as it was for Mars-96, between France, Italy andRussia, involving the following Institutions: IAS (Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale,Orsay, France), LESIA (Laboratoire d’Etudes Spatiales et d’Instrumentation enAstrophysique, Observatoire de Paris/Meudon, France), IFSI (Istituto di Fisica delloSpazio Interplanetario, Rome, Italy) and IKI (Institute for Space Research, Moscow,Russia). The Principal Investigator and the Experiment Manager are both from IAS.

The highly inclined (86°) and eccentric (0.6) orbit of Mars Express offers variableground-track spatial sampling and latitude drift of the periapsis to produce near-globalcoverage. Consequently, OMEGA will achieve global coverage at medium resolutionfrom medium altitudes, and will acquire high-resolution spectral images, for afraction of the surface, with full selection flexibility, when operating close toperiapsis. With its instantaneous field of view (IFOV) of 4.1 arcmin (1.2 mrad),global coverage should be attained in one martian year, at 2-5 km resolution, fromaltitudes of 1500-4000 km, while the highest resolution at periapsis should reach afew hundred metres.

2.1 MineralogyOMEGA will map the surface in order to identify the minerals of the major geologicalunits. The goal is to study the evolution of Mars caused by internal activity, meteoriticimpacts and interaction with the atmosphere.

38

Fig. 1. The Flight Model of OMEGA.




Viking Orbiter and Mars Global Surveyor images indicate strong albedo variationsdown to subkilometre scales. Spectral images from the ISM mapping spectrometer onthe Phobos mission in the near-IR also show large compositional variations atkilometre scales. Although large amounts of transported soil with uniform propertiescover parts of the surface, all geological units exhibit part of their uncovered bedrockat these scales. OMEGA should therefore reveal the diversity of the global surface,inferring compositional variations directly related to planetary evolution.

In addition, OMEGA’s high-resolution observations close to periapsis will:

— increase the sensitivity for detecting constituents with restricted geographicalextension. For example, the continuing failure to detect carbonates might bedirectly linked to limited instrumental resolution. High-resolution snapshots ofareas more likely to have accumulated sedimentary carbonates might lead to apositive detection of fundamental value;

— map mineralogical boundaries between geological units, in particular recentplains and older regions with a high density of impact craters, thus helping tounderstand Mars’ hemispherical asymmetry;

— identify the composition of deposits and reveal possible gradients in the hydrationminerals near features associated with fossil water flows;

— monitor features associated with wind transportation.

As for the spectral range and spectral sampling, OMEGA will operate within 0.38-5.1 µm using 352 contiguous spectral elements (spectels), 7-20 nm wide. It willidentify, through their diagnostic spectral features, the major classes of silicates andother important minerals (such as carbonates), oxides and hydrates. Moreover,OMEGA is capable of measuring the content of OH radicals within the surface soiland rocks, so as to identify possible genetic relationships of hydrated minerals withmajor structural units such as volcanoes or canyons. In addition, fluidised ejectaaround impact craters is likely to indicate that the underlying bedrock contains icemixed with rocks. It is then plausible that ejecta experienced hydration. The spectralfeatures of hydrated minerals (clays) are readily observable in the near-IR.

Alteration processes transformed martian mafic rocks into ferric-bearing minerals.In order to understand when this process took place (via volcanic activity, interactionwith the atmosphere or flooding water), it is essential to relate these minerals withgeological structures. OMEGA will detect these altered minerals through theirsignatures at 0.5-0.8 µm.

It is plausible that the martian CO2 reservoir is dominated by carbonates. Thedetection and localisation of these minerals would be of key importance for under-standing the past activity of the planet. OMEGA should unambiguously detect them,even at very low concentrations, through their absorption features at 3.4-4.0 µm.

2.2 Polar caps and frostsOMEGA will determine the spatial evolution of the two polar caps, by observing CO2and H2O, and the layered deposits. It will enable discrimination between thepermanent (residual) ice, at both poles, and the seasonal frosts. It will thus monitorthe cycle of sublimation/condensation, and identify the relative contributions of thetwo major atmospheric constituents as a function of time and location. OMEGA willalso identify dust within the polar ices; its composition indicates its origin and thusreveals the transportation processes.

At lower latitudes, the condensation of frost will be mapped over time, for bothCO2 and H2O. In addition, OMEGA is capable of detecting minor species containingcarbon or nitrogen; no such molecules have yet been observed, and their discoverywould be of major interest for understanding the overall chemical evolution.

If there are permafrost layers, they may appear at the surface in a few regions.OMEGA would detect such icy-rich rocky sites. By identifying the borders of theseunderlying permafrost layers, the global distribution of ice within the crust can beevaluated, complementing the subsurface sounding by the MARSIS radar instrument

39


SP-1240

of Mars Express. Identification of the sites and phases where most of the water residesis a major goal, in particular when searching for the most favorable sites for possiblepast organic activity, and assessing water resources for future exploration.

2.3 Atmospheric evolutionary processesOMEGA is well-suited for monitoring some of the atmospheric parameters with keyroles in martian meteorology: total pressure, column densities of the H2O and COminor constituents, content of aerosols, and, in some cases, vertical temperaturedistribution. It complements the PFS and SPICAM investigations, with lower spectralsampling but at much higher spatial resolution. The ISM/Phobos imaging spectro-meter, which mapped part of the martian surface in February-March 1989,demonstrated the ability of IR spectroscopy, even at low spatial sampling (21 km), toretrieve the altimetry of Mars (100 m vertical resolution) accurately. The observationsof CO2 absorption bands with OMEGA will provide, as did ISM/Phobos, a measure-ment of the ground pressure. As the altimetry of Mars is now of higher quality, thanksto continuing MOLA/Mars Global Surveyor measurements, OMEGA will study localpressure variations, as induced by baroclinic wave pattern at mid-latitudes, by passingover the same regions at different times. The expected variations of a few percent inatmospheric pressure will be measured easily by OMEGA (the design goal is 1% inaccuracy), in the absence of global dust storms.

OMEGA will monitor the CO and H2O partial pressure for each resolved pixel.The spatial distribution of these minor constituents is still a field of great interest,following the ISM/Phobos discoveries of unexpected variations in their mixing ratiosfrom volcano areas and surrounding plains.

OMEGA has four major advantages over ISM/Phobos for atmospheric studies:

— about double the spectral resolving power. This is important for improvedretrieval of the H2O and CO total column densities;

— extension of the spectral range up to 5.1 µm. The 3.2-5.1 µm range accesses thethermal emission of the martian disc for most of the dayside regions (surfacetemperature higher than about 240K). It will be possible to infer the thermalprofile from the inversion of the strong CO2 ν2 band at 4.3 µm. In addition, newinformation, complementing that obtained from the diffuse solar spectrum, willbe obtained on the CO abundance from its absorption bands at 4.7 µm;

— an IFOV 2.9 times higher, leading to a spatial sampling 70 times higher atperiapsis;

— greatly extended planetary coverage, because of the near-polar orbit instead of theequatorial orbit of the Phobos mission.

Another important atmospheric parameter is the aerosol content. It has a key rolein the general circulation, because the dust modifies the radiative properties of theatmosphere through its heating and cooling rates. As the atmospheric dust contentshows very strong variations, both on a local scale and over a seasonal cycle,continuous monitoring is as necessary as knowing the local thermal profile. Theanalysis of ISM/Phobos data has shown that the aerosol abundance can be estimatedfrom the slope of the reflected component of the spectrum. The same information willbe derived by OMEGA over the whole martian disc. Moreover, OMEGA will be ableto identify the aerosols through their composition (silicate and/or icy-rich particles),and assess their distribution with altitude and time, in addition to their opticalproperties. In particular, these measurements can be correlated with surface andclimatic seasonal properties, towards an integrated (surface, atmosphere, aerosols)database of unique meteorological value.

Observations by the Short Wavelength Spectrometer (SWS) of ESA’s InfraredSpace Observatory (ISO) provided a high-quality IR spectrum of Mars, which ishelping to prepare for OMEGA observations. In particular, it demonstrated thefeasibility of retrieving dust opacity from the strong 2.7 µm CO2 band. The detection

40



of faint fluorescence emission in CO2 at 4.3 µm by ISO provides another objective:OMEGA will confirm and study the spatial variation of these emissions, which giveinformation on the highest part of the stratosphere.

The capabilities of OMEGA can be summarised as:

— imaging: 128 contiguous IFOVs of 1.2 mrad (4.1 arcmin) each, corresponding to< 350 m surface sampling at periapsis;

— spectral: 352 (or 400, depending on the summing mode chosen for the visiblechannel) contiguous spectels to acquire the spectral range 0.38-5.1 µm for eachresolved pixel, with 96 (or 144) spectels to cover the 0.38-1.05 µm range, with aspectral sampling of 7 nm (or 4.5 nm), 128 spectels to cover 0.93-2.73 µm, with13 nm spectral sampling, and 128 spectels to cover 2.55-5.1 µm, with 20 nmsampling;

— photometric: S/N > 100 over the full spectral range, allowing the identification ofabsorptions and thermal variations to the percent-level.

The high sensitivity of OMEGA and its high spectral and spatial samplingcapabilities should allow the unambiguous detection and compositionalidentification, on each resolved pixel, of the surface minerals and their OH/H2Ocontent, the atmospheric major and minor constituents, and the aerosols. For example,if there are carbonates at concentrations of a few percent, they should be readilydetected. At the same spatial scale of a few hundred metres, the surface temperaturewill be mapped with an accuracy of better than 1K.

Such performance will provide an unprecedented harvest of results in a wide varietyof Mars and planetary science fields such as: geology, tectonic and chemical planetaryevolution, climatology and meteorology, atmospheric processes and exobiology.

4.1 Instrument conceptOMEGA is a mapping spectrometer, with coaligned channels working in the 0.38-1.05 µm visible and near-IR range (VNIR channel) and in the 0.93-5.1 µm shortwavelength IR range (SWIR channel). The data products constitute three-dimensional(x, y, λ) ‘image-cubes’, with two spatial and one spectral dimensions.

The VNIR channel uses a bi-dimensional CCD detector, operating in a pushbroommode. The telescope’s focal plane provides one cross-track line corresponding to theentire 8.8° FOV, defined by an entrance slit; the second dimension of the image isprovided by the motion of the spacecraft. Each line is spectrally dispersed along thecolumns of the array, the slit being imaged through a concave holographic grating.

The SWIR channel operates in the whiskbroom mode. Each imaged pixel isfocused by an IR telescope on a slit, followed by a collimator. The beam is then splittowards two separated spectrometers, to acquire the IR spectrum of each resolvedpixel on to two InSb linear arrays of 128 spectels each, working at 0.93-2.73 µm and2.55-5.1 µm. A scanning mirror in front of the telescope provides cross-track swaths16-128 pixels wide, for a maximum FOV of 8.8° (matching the VNIR FOV). Thespacecraft motion provides the second spatial dimension. The images are built asshown in Fig. 5. Each array is cooled to 70K by a dedicated cryocooler, while theentire spectrometer is cooled to 190K by a conductive link to a passive radiator.

The typical IR integration time, defined by the spacecraft ground-track velocity andthe spatial sampling chosen, is 2.5 ms or 5 ms. The corresponding VNIR integrationtimes are 50-200 ms, depending on the swath width (and hence the altitude). With suchintegration times, an S/R of > 100 is specified over the entire spectral range.

OMEGA comprises two distinct units, coupled by a 0.7 kg electrical harness:

— a Camera unit (OMEga Camera, or OMEC), carrying the VNIR and SWIR

41

3. OMEGA Performance

4. Instrument Description


SP-1240

spectrographs, their associated electrical devices, and an electronics assembly forcontrolling the camera. All units are integrated on a common baseplate. The massand size of OMEC are, respectively, 23.5 kg, and 290x180x150 mm;

— a Main Electronics module (OMEga-Me, or OMEM), for the data processing andthe general management of the instrument. Mass is 4.6 kg.

OMEGA’s power requirement is 27.4 W during the ~2 h cooling of the focalplanes, and 47.6 W peak power during observation.

4.2 VNIRVNIR comprises two optical subsystems: a focusing telescope with its focal plane ona slit, and a spectrometer to spread the slit image in the spectral dimension. It providesimage data in the spectral range 0.38-1.05 µm, achieving a maximum spatialsampling of 0.4 mrad and a maximum spectral sampling of 50 Å.

The optical layout and major components of VNIR are summarised in Fig. 2 and

42

Fig. 3. VNIR electronics.

Fig. 2. VNIR optical layout.



Table 1. A refractive telescope focuses the image on to a slit placed on the Rowlandcircle of an aberration-corrected concave holographic grating mirror. This elementreflects and disperses the light on a CCD detector tangent to the Rowland circle. Thedetector used is the TH7863 frame-transfer CCD produced by Thomson. The gratingmirror creates a flat image at the focal plane, matching the flat detector matrix to thegrating without other optical components. Each row of the CCD frame contains animage of the slit at a given wavelength, while each column contains the spectrum ofa point along the slit. The bi-dimensional image of the surface is obtained by thepushbroom technique, in which the spacecraft’s movement along its orbit scans theslit across the planetary surface. The electrical signal from the detector is amplifiedand then digitised by a fast 12-bit analogue/digital converter (ADC). Followingconversion, all data are processed within the OMEGA Main Electronics module.

In order to decrease the detector noise, the VNIR channel is cooled to 190K byconduction to the SWIR mechanical unit.

Refractive optics are preferred over reflective because of the large (8.8°) field ofview requirement. The telescope has a 6-element objective similar to that of a moderncommercial photographic camera. The shape of the elements and the types of opticalglass were chosen to obtain the best chromatic aberration corrections over the entirespectral range. The last element serves as a field lens which matches the entireobjective with the grating to avoid light losses. To avoid stress in the lenses at theworking temperature, the two doublets are not cemented. The two glasses, FK54 andfused silica, have very different expansion coefficients of 8×10–6 K–1 and 0.55×10–6 K–1

at room temperature. The entrance aperture of 15.6 mm is defined by a diaphragmbetween the two doublets.

An aberration-corrected concave holographic grating is placed 142.7 mm fromthe entrance slit (which is in the focal plane of the telescope). The grating is tiltedto form the spectrum at an angle of roughly 6° from the optical axis. This angle doesnot allow CCD insertion near the entrance without beam obscuration, so a foldingmirror deflects the beam toward the side of the assembly, where the CCD can bemounted with ample clearance. The zero-order spectrum, at 4.5° from the foldedoptical axis (lying in the y-z plane), is directed into a light trap to preventdegradation of the image. The first-order spectrum ranges in angle from 6° at0.35 µm to 10° at 1.05 µm. The second- and higher order spectra can, in principle,also degrade the data. Their contributions depend both on the grating efficiency andthe spectral distribution of the incident radiation. For this reason, a dedicated filteris mounted in front of the detector. The concave, spherical, holographic grating ina Rowland mounting – where the entrance slit and the spectrum are on radii ofcurvature of the grating – makes the spectrometer compact, light and simple. In

43

Table 1. OMEGA’s VNIR characteristics.

Element/Parameter Description/value

Telescope Double Gauss objective

Field of view 8.8°

Spectrometer concave holographic grating mirror

Detector CCD Thomson TH 7863 384×288 pixels

Detector size 8.8×6.6 mm

Pixel size 23×23 µm

Spectral range 0.38-1.05 µm

Spectral resolution 70-200 λ/∆λ

Dynamics 12-bit

Table 2. VNIR telescope and spectrometer optical parameters.

Aperture 15.6 mm

Focal length 57.6 mm

Field of view 8.8°

F number 3.7

Scale factor 1°/ mm

Entrance slit width 50 µm

Grating type concave holographic grating mirror

Grooves/mm 65

Dispersion 1071Å/mm

Wavelength range 0.38-1.05 µm

Grating size 40 x 10 mm

Material Silica

Manufacturer Jobin Yvon


SP-1240

fact, no collimator or camera lens is required and the spectrometer has only oneelement. Moreover, the focal plane image is flat, matching the planar CCD sensors.Since the concave holographic grating is obtained by recording a perfect opticalpattern with groove spacing absolutely constant, it has no ghosts. Stray light is alsoat a much lower level than the best ruled gratings. Therefore, concave holographicgratings generally have a much higher signal to noise ratio than classically ruledgratings.

The optical performances were computed by ray tracing. In the focal plane, the spotdiagram is about the pixel size (23×23 µm). For off-axis propagation (4.4°), the totalspot size is about 2 pixels in the sagittal direction (the z direction, see Fig. 2). Moreprecisely, on axis and at 0.7 µm, 98.8% of the energy falls within a 23×23 µm pixel;at 4.4° off-axis and 0.4 µm, 74% of the energy falls within a CCD element. When thelight propagates off-axis, the spot size is smaller for the shorter wavelengths.

The block diagram of the VNIR electronics is shown in Fig. 3. The PatternGenerator (PG) determines the CCD integration time, and generates the timingsignals necessary to transfer an image from the light-sensitive area to the masked zoneand then to the output shift register of the CCD. The output of the CCD is thenamplified and converted by a fast 12-bit ADC under control of the PG.

The timing of the instrument imposes a relatively high frequency for CCDoperation. In fact, depending on the distance from the planet and hence on thespacecraft speed, the time TR between consecutive frames can be chosen as: 50, 100,200, 400 or 800 ms. During the TR period the integration, readout and datatransmission processes must occur. To save time, integration and transmission of theprevious frame are overlapped. Because the maximum data value that can betransmitted during TR is limited to 12 288 bytes, it is not possible to read the totalframe of 384×288 pixels, corresponding to 110 592 bytes. We are forced to read onlya subframe, or to reduce the number of pixels by summing them on chip. Thecombination of different scientific requirements, integration times and hardwarelimitations led us to the definition of 40 operation modes, which can be selectedthrough commands sent to the spacecraft, ranging from the nominal (spatial ×spectral) mode (128×96 with summation of 3×3 pixels), to the high spectralresolution mode (64×144), to the high-speed mode (16×96). Summation alongcolumns and rows decreases the spatial and spectral resolution, but increases signal-to-noise ratio considerably. The implementation of mode 16×74 is the most criticalowing to the short time available to complete all the operations (TR = 100 ms). Forthis reason, the Pattern Generator provides two values for the pixel readoutfrequency: fslow = 500 kHz when the pixel voltage has to be digitised andffast = 4 MHz when the pixel is simply read from the CCD output register without anydigital conversion.

4.3 SWIRThe SWIR channel consists of a telescope and its fore-optics, a beam splitter and twospectrometers, each with its detector array actively cooled (Fig. 4).

The telescope is a Cassegrain of 200 mm focal length, an f/4 aperture, leading to a1.2 mrad (4.1 arcmin) IFOV and a 15 arcmin free FOV (including the positioningtolerances). The distance between the primary and secondary mirrors is 51 mm;between the secondary mirror and the image plane is 82 mm.

In front of the telescope, a fore-optics system has the primary goal of providing across-track scanning of the IFOV. It includes two mirrors, moving and fixed. The totalscanning angle is ±4.4° (FOV = 128 IFOV), and is adjusted to the OMEGA viewingdirection. The control of the scanning mechanism is performed by a dedicated FPGA-based electronic subsystem.

Focused by the telescope on an entrance slit, through a shutter, the beam is firstcollimated, then separated, by a dichroic filter with its cut-off wavelength at 2.7 µmtowards two spectrometers, operating at 0.93-2.73 µm and 2.55-5.1 µm. Eachspectrometer includes a blazed grating working at its first order, and an optical

44



reflective system, then a field mirror and a refractive refocusing system that gives alarge aperture on the detection block (f/1.6). It images the spectrum on to a 128-element InSb linear array, cooled to < 80K, and multiplexed by a charge transferdevice. Sets of filters are implemented in front of the detector to reject thecontribution of other orders from the grating.

The InSb photodiodes were manufactured by SAT (F). The dimensions of eachphotosensitive element is 90×120 µm, with a pitch of 120 µm. All elements of thefocal planes are hybridised on a ceramic with two electric circuit layers to connect theelements. The ceramic is glued to a titanium baseplate and covered by a titaniumframe that holds the filters.

An internal calibration source controls potential shifts of the overall spectrometertransmission and calibrates the relative response of each pixel. The tungsten lamp,operated as a black body, is heated to different temperatures. The calibration beam isreflected towards the spectrometer by diffusion on the back side of the entrance slit.

SWIR requires accurate thermal control, at three levels:

— the electronics and the cryocoolers heads are internally linked by heat pipes andcoupled to a 280K radiator.

45

Fig. 4. SWIR channel optical layout.

1: Cassegrain telescope of 200 mm focallength, f/4 aperture, 4 arcmin IFOVand 15 arcmin free FOV (including thepositioning tolerances).

2: entrance slit 800 µm high (spatialdimension).

3: collimator (off-axis parabolic mirrorR = 192.85 mm, offset 37.14 mm) tocollimate the beam from the slit to thedichroic and the gratings.

4: dichroic filter, separates the twochannels (short wavelength isreflected; long wavelength istransmitted).

5: folding mirror, reflects the shortwavelength channel to the grating.

6: blazed flat gratings working in thefirst order. Short wavelength: groovedensity 180/mm, incidence angle –6.5°and blazed wavelength 1.7 µm; longwavelength: groove density 120/mm,incidence angle –10.6° and blazedwavelength 3.8 µm.

7: spherical collector mirrors(R = 378.49 mm), re-image thediffracted image of the slit near thefield mirrors.

8: spherical field mirrors(R = 378.49 mm), image the gratinginside the objective.

9: objectives, four spherical ZnSe lenses,re-image the diffracted image of theslit.

10:sets of filters in front the detector.11:InSb detector linear arrays (128 pixels

of 90x120 µm photosensitive area andpitch of 120 µm.)

10:11:


SP-1240

— the spectrometer must be cooled to ≤ 190K, to minimise the thermal backgroundand to enable the detectors to reach their operational temperature (< 80K). This isachieved by copper links to a spacecraft radiator;

— the IR detectors must be cooled to < 80K, controlled with an accuracy of betterthan 0.1K. This is done by using copper heat links to two cryocoolers, one foreach array: Inframetrics 13000-series integral Stirling cycle coolers controlled bydedicated electronics. Their guaranteed lifetimes are > 2500 h;

4.4. OMEGA Main ElectronicsThe main electronics power and control the instrument, acquire and compress allscientific data on-line, and interface with the spacecraft telecommand/telemetrysystem. The entire system is cold-redundant. Within OMEga-Me, the Command andData Processing Unit (CDPU) has the following tasks:

— acquisition of all scientific data from VNIR and SWIR;— formatting for realtime data compression;— wavelet-based data compression, followed by formatting of processed data;— reception and formatting of housekeeping data;— forwarding of all data to the spacecraft telemetry system.

The CDPU is based on a TSC21020 Temic processor, and integrated, together witha 6 Mbyte SRAM, into a 3D-packaged highly miniaturised cube, inherited from theÇIVA instrument aboard the Rosetta mission.

OMEGA was fully calibrated before its delivery and integration with the spacecraft.The calibration plan included spectral, geometric, photometric, sample and functionaltests, with the following goals:

46

Table 3. Typical OMEGA observing sessions.

Maximum altitude (km) 300 1500 4000

True anomaly 0 60 95

Pixel size < 360 m < 1.8 km < 4.8 km

Track width (px) 16 64 128

Track width (km) 5-7 60-120 300-600

Track length (px) ~ 7500 ~ 2000 ~ 1000

Track length (km) ~ 3000 ~ 3000 ~ 3000

Session duration (min) ~ 12 ~ 12 ~ 24

Data volume (Mbit) ~ 200 ~ 200 ~ 200

Table 4. OMEGA total data budget.

Investigation Global Mapping High-Resolution Seasonal Variation(100% coverage) (5% coverage) (5% coverage)

Required number of 250 500 500non-overlappingcontiguous sessions

Total data volume ~ 50 Gbit ~ 100 Gbit ~ 100 Gbit

5. Ground Calibration



— spectral calibration: determination of the spectral centre position and width ofeach spectel, with an accuracy of better than 1/5 of the spectel width, within theentire FOV;

— photometric calibration: determination of the Data Number (DN) value of eachspectel for a given incident power. Accuracy: better than 1% spectel-to-spectel(relative) and better than 20% in absolute terms;

— geometric calibration: determination of the IFOV and FOV of each channel, theirspatial response in azimuth and declination, and their relative coalignment;

— sample calibration: determination of the actual response of OMEGA whenimaging targets with minerals and mixtures of known composition;

— functional calibration: determination of the instrumental response for allprogrammable parameters and modes.

A dedicated calibration facility was built at IAS, comprising two majorcomponents:

— an ultra-clean vacuum chamber, where OMEGA was installed on a stageremotely movable in two angular directions around the entrance pupil of theinstrument. The chamber’s thermal screens and regulated platforms cool thespectrometers to any temperature within the range 300-150K, while maintainingOMEga-Me at a different and higher temperature. The incident beam, from theoptical bench, passes through a large sapphire window to illuminate OMEGA;

— an optical bench, purged with dry nitrogen, containing a 4 m focal length and400 mm-diameter collimator, imaging one of the following four sources on toOMEGA: a monochromator, a black body with temperature stabilised up to1200°C, a point source (1/3-pixel) illuminated by a high-temperature (2500°C)ribbon black body, and a cold black body (down to 70K).

During calibration, OMEGA was operated through its Electrical Ground SupportEquipment (EGSE) and spacecraft simulator, while the facility (vacuum chamber andoptical bench) was controlled by a dedicated computer, acquiring all relevantparameters (monochromator wavelength, angular positions of the moving stage,temperatures), and acting as the slave in a master/slave configuration with the EGSE,ensuring synchronous acquisition with OMEGA scientific data.

47

Fig. 5. Whiskbroom building of the IR image, with contiguous swaths (a), undersampling (b) and oversampling (c).

a

spacecraft track velocity spacecraft track velocityspacecraft track velocity

cb


SP-1240

Given the global Mars Express orbital and downlink constraints within the nominal(one martian year) duration of operations, the OMEGA science goal of completeplanetary coverage cannot be achieved at the highest possible resolution, obtainedclose to periapsis. Thus, the OMEGA investigation is divided into three global modes:

— global (100% complete) coverage at 2-5 km spatial resolution, acquired fromaltitudes of 1500-4000 km;

— high-resolution (< 350 m) coverage of a fraction (> 5%) of the surface, with highflexibility of site selection (longitude and latitude), acquired close to periapsis;

— seasonal monitoring of surface and atmospheric composition at given locations,with wide flexibility of site selection (longitude and latitude).

These investigations will be conducted using different operational and instru-mental modes. With a fixed IFOV, OMEGA has the flexibility to accommodateoperations from a variety of altitudes, through a number of acquisition times, swathwidths and data compression modes. As the IR maps will be built by contiguouscross-track swaths (Fig. 5) in a wiskbroom mode, the displacement of the spacecrafttrack during the acquisition of a swath should be as close as possible to the pixel size(5a) in order to avoid both undersampling (5b) and oversampling (5c).

At periapsis, where the orbital ground velocity is about 4 km s–1, the nadir trackshifts by one IFOV in less than 100 ms. This duration corresponds to acquiring cross-track swaths 16 pixels wide, with a nominal integration time of 5 ms. Thus, thenominal OMEGA high-resolution mode, operated from altitudes of < 350 km, willbuild maps 16 pixels wide. For medium-resolution modes, 32-pixel swaths will bechosen when operating from altitudes of 350-700 km, and 64 pixels from altitudes upto about 1500 km. From 1500 km to 4000 km, OMEGA will provide global coverage:it will use the full 128-pixel FOV, for which one swath is acquired, with nominalintegration time, in 640 ms. However, at these altitudes, the ground-track velocity isless than 2 km s–1, and the spacecraft ground-track shifts by one pixel (one IFOV) in1-2.5 s. In order to avoid oversampling, OMEGA will sum several (up to 4)contiguous swaths. This is illustrated in Table 3, indicating three typical session sizes,with the assumption of a (pessimistic) compression factor of 3, and spatial summingof two contiguous swaths for the global coverage mode. The non-overlappingsessions required to achieve the three objectives quoted above are covered in Table 4.These budgets are based on building maps with non-overlapping sessions andperforming limb observations. These require the availability of dedicated spacecraftpointing modes:

— nadir pointing, either along the track, or with a constant off-track angle (up to30°), for all surface mappings;

— 3-axis inertial pointing, for a few atmospheric studies and some specific surfaceobservations.

The data, as soon as they are received at ESOC on the Data Distribution System(DDS) are transferred to IAS, on a dedicated server, where they are decompressed,PDS formatted and archived. Each cube of data is submitted to a quick-look analysis(for both scientific data and housekeeping) to validate its completeness and thequality of the downloaded data. In parallel, orbital and spacecraft attitude parametersare received from ESOC via ESTEC, out of which geometric cubes are built, first aspredicted values and then after proper reconstruction. These cubes are in-house PDS-formatted in a manner identical to the scientific ones, to enable a reconstruction of themapped areas on the martian surface.

The entire OMEGA team has direct, full and protected access to the data server atIAS, on which a variety of auxiliary files (such as calibration files) are available. Inaccordance with ESA policy, the data processing is restricted to the team during theproprietary period.

48

6. Operations



For the distribution and archiving strategy after this period, OMEGA will complywith the overall ESA scientific data policy. The goal is to prepare a final level of dataset, constituting: the raw compressed data, the decompression procedures, thedecalibrated data for each pixel at the surface of Mars, referred to a (latitude,longitude) frame, and the complete spectrum from 0.38 µm to 5.1 µm, in physicalunits. This geometric reconstruction will include the instrumental and spacecraftcorrections, thus allowing image-cubes to be generated. These calibrated image-cubeswill be formatted according to the Planetary Data System (PDS) standard fordistribution and archiving, through the ESA Planetary Science Archive. The actualstorage medium will depend on availability at the time of operations; at present,erasable/rewritable CD-ROMs and DVDs are being considered.

49


This paper describes the science background, design principles and the expectedperformance of the Mars Advanced Radar for Subsurface and IonosphereSounding (MARSIS), developed by a team of Italian and US researchers andindustrial partners to fly on the ESA Mars Express orbiter. The uniquecapability of sounding the martian environment with coherent trains of long-wavelength wide-band pulses, together with extensive onboard processing, willallow the collection of a large amount of significant data about the subsurface,surface and ionosphere. Analysis of these data will allow the detection and 3-Dmapping of subsurface structures down to several kilometres below the surface,the estimation of large-scale topography, roughness and reflectivity of thesurface at wavelengths never used before, and the production of global and high-resolution profiles of the ionospheric electron density (day and night). Finally,the MARSIS frequency-agile design allow the sounding parameters to be tunedin response to changes in solar illumination conditions, the latitude and otherfactors, allowing global coverage to be achieved within the Mars Expressbaseline orbit and mission duration.

The set of scientific objectives for MARSIS was defined in the context of theobjectives of the Mars Express mission and within the more general frame of the openissues in Mars studies. The primary objective is to map the distribution of liquid andsolid water in the upper portions of the crust of Mars (Carr, 1996). Detection of suchwater reservoirs will address key issues in the hydrologic, geologic, climatic andpossible biologic evolution of Mars, including the current and past global inventoryof water, mechanisms of transport and storage of water, the role of liquid water andice in shaping the landscape of Mars, the stability of liquid water and ice at the surfaceas an indication of climatic conditions, and the implications of the hydrologic historyfor the evolution of possible martian ecosystems.

Three secondary objectives are also defined for MARSIS: subsurface geologicprobing, surface characterisation and ionosphere sounding. The first is to probe thesubsurface of Mars, to characterise and map geologic units and structures in the thirddimension. The second is to acquire information about the surface: to characterise thesurface roughness at scales of tens of metres to kilometres, to measure the radarreflection coefficient of the upper surface layer, and to generate a topographic map ofthe surface at approximately 10 km lateral resolution. The final secondary objectiveis to use MARSIS as an ionosphere sounder to characterise the interactions of the

51

MARSIS: Mars Advanced Radar for Subsurface and Ionosphere Sounding

G. Picardi1, D. Biccari1, R. Seu1, J. Plaut2, W.T.K. Johnson2, R.L. Jordan2, A. Safaeinili2, D.A. Gurnett3,R. Huff 3, R. Orosei4, O. Bombaci5, D. Calabrese5 & E. Zampolini5

1Infocom Department, ‘La Sapienza’ University of Rome, Via Eudossiana 18, I-00184 Rome, ItalyEmail: [email protected]

2Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA 91109, USA3Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IW 52242-1447, USA4CNR/IAS, Planetology Department, Via del Fosso di Cavaliere, I-00133 Rome, Italy 5Alenia Spazio S.p.A., Via Saccomuro 24, I-00131 Rome, Italy

1. Introduction

Picardi.qxd 7/8/04 1:02 PM Page 51

SP-1240

52

2. Composition Modelsof the Upper Layers

solar wind with the ionosphere and upper atmosphere of Mars. Radar studies of theionosphere will allow global measurements of the ionosphere electron density andinvestigation of the influence of the Sun and the solar wind on the ionosphere.

In this section, models of the composition of the upper layers of Mars are described,based on the recent literature and classical Mars studies.

The state and the distribution of H2O in the martian megaregolith are a function ofcrustal thermal conductivity, geothermal heat flow, ground-ice melting temperatureand the mean temperature at the surface (this last is the only quantity varyingsystematically with latitude). These factors determine the thickness of the cryosphere,which is the layer where the temperature remains continuously below the freezingpoint of H2O. Although the mean annual surface temperatures vary from about 220Kat the equator to about 155K at the poles, the annual and secular surface temperaturevariations determine periodic freezing and melting of any H2O present down to adepth of about 100 m. The cryosphere extends below this ‘active layer’ to the depthwhere the heat flux from the interior of the planet raises the temperature above themelting point of ground-water ice. Below the cryosphere, H2O in the pore space canonly be in liquid form.

Estimates of the depth of the melting isotherm range from 0 km to 11.0 km at theequator, and from 1.2 km to 24 km at the poles, according to different values of theparameters found in the literature. Liquid water may persist only below such depths;moreover, liquid water would diffuse towards the bottom of the regolith layer andthus could lay further below, although local conditions may still offset the aboveconsiderations. A nominal depth in the range 0-5000 m is assumed.

Estimates of the desiccation of the martian megaregolith, via ice sublimation in thecryosphere, yield values of the depth at which ice is still present ranging from zero toseveral hundred metres. A nominal depth in the range 0-1000 m is assumed.

The interfaces most likely to be detected by MARSIS, being closer to the surface,are the contact between the desiccated regolith and the permafrost, and the interfacebetween a subterranean reservoir of liquid water and the cryosphere. These are thebasic scenarios for the detection and identification of water-related interfaces in themartian subsurface.

The structure of the martian crust is the result of many different processes, given thecomplex geological history of the planet. However, it appears that the most significanton a global scale are impact processes, which have played a major role in the structuralevolution of the crust by producing and dispersing large quantities of ejecta, and byfracturing the surrounding and underlying basement. It is estimated that, over the courseof martian geologic history, the volume of ejecta produced by impacts was sufficient tohave created a global blanket of debris up to 2 km thick. It is likely that this ejecta layeris discontinuously interbedded with volcanic flows, weathering products andsedimentary deposits, all overlying a heavily fractured basement.

A 50% surface porosity of the regolith is consistent with estimates of the bulkporosity of martian soil as analysed by the Viking Landers. A value this high requiresthat the regolith has undergone a significant degree of weathering. A lower bound forthe surface porosity can be taken at 20%, derived from the measured porosity of lunarbreccias. An equation of the decline of porosity with depth owing to the lithostaticpressure can be obtained by adapting a similar equation devised for the Moon, basedon seismic data unavailable for Mars. The equation is of the form:

(1)

where Φ(z) is the porosity at depth z, and K is a decay constant that, for Mars, canbe computed by scaling the measured lunar decay constant for the ratio between thelunar and martian surface gravitational acceleration, under the assumption ofcomparable crust densities. The resulting value for Mars is K = 2.8 km.

£ 1z2 � £ 102 e�z

K



It appears almost certain from morphologic and chemical evidence, as well as fromSNC meteorites, that the martian surface is primarily basaltic. However, it could havea thin veneer of younger volcanics overlying a primitive crust. Whether this primitivecrust is basaltic, anorthositic like the Moon, granodioritic like the Earth’s continentsor some other kind of composition, is unknown. The NASA Pathfinder APXSanalyses of rocks and soils confirm the basaltic nature of Mars’ surface. Chemicalclassifications of lavas show that the Barnacle Bill and Yogi rocks are distinct frombasaltic martian meteorites. These rocks plot in or near the field of andesites, a typeof lava common at continental margins on Earth. Although a multitude of differentchemical compositions is present at the surface of Mars, it is necessary to select a fewrepresentative materials as most meaningful for electromagnetic studies. Given theabove considerations about the nature of the martian crust, andesite and basalt werechosen because their dielectric constants are end-members of the range within whichthe martian surface materials may vary.

The dielectric properties of the crust end-member materials, together with those ofthe water and ice filling the pores, are listed in Table 1.

To summarise, the reference models representing the two most likely detectionscenarios for a Mars orbital sounder at km depths are (Fig. 1):

Ice/water interface detection. According to the model, the porosity of the martianmegaregolith is maximum at the surface and its decay with increasing depth isgiven by the exponential law in Eq. (1). The pores are filled with ice from thesurface down to a depth below which liquid water is stable and becomes the pore-filling material. The change causes a discontinuity of the overall dielectricconstant, which can be detected by the radar sounder. The ice/water interface isbelieved to be at a depth of between 0 m and 5000 m.

Dry/ice interface detection. This model is based on the same assumptions as theice/water model with respect to the megaregolith properties. However, the pore-filling material here is considered to be gas or some other vacuum-equivalentmaterial up to a certain depth below which ice fills the pores. Hence the interfaceto be detected is between dry regolith and ice-filled regolith, expected to be at adepth of between 0 m and 1000 m.

These models will be used to estimate the penetration performance under typicalMARSIS operating conditions.

53

Table 1. Dielectric properties of the subsurface material.

Crust Material Pore-Filling Material

Andesite Basalt Water Ice Liquid Water

εr 3.5 7.1 3.15 88

tan δ 0.005 0.014 0.00022 0.0001

Table 2. Value ranges of the surface geometric parameters.

Large-Scale Model Small-Scale Model

rms slope correlation length rms slope rms height

0.01-0.1 rad 200-3000 m 0.1-0.6 rad 0.1-1 m

(0.57-5.7°) (5.7-34.3°)


SP-1240

Images of the surface from the Viking Landers and Mars Pathfinder depict a gentlyundulating surface strewn with rocks ranging in size from a few centimetres tometres. Although these images cover only a minute portion of the planet, Mars’thermal and radar properties have prompted extensive modelling of a rockpopulation scattered over the entire surface. The surface geometric structure is thuscharacterised in terms of a large-scale morphology on which a small-scale geometricstructure, of rocks, is superimposed. It is assumed that the surface can be describedas a random distribution of heights, characterised by a variance σh, a correlationlength L and a local surface rms slope ms. By assuming that the height distributionis Gaussian, then ms = √2 σh / L, so that the distribution is completely determinedonce the values of two of these parameters are known. The terms large-scale andsmall-scale refer to different approximations in the modelling of the radarbackscattering coefficient; the divide between large-scale and small-scale isessentially the radar wavelength.

Topographic data can be used to derive the large-scale geometry of the surface. Theglobal topographic maps of Mars currently available were compiled from severaltypes of measurements with different resolutions and sources of uncertainties. Thesedata do not provide a complete, global picture of Mars’ topography, but allow theinference that elevation changes, although relevant in magnitude, do not involveaverage slopes greater than 5° (0.1 rad), and often much less. Also, the correlationlengths for the topography appear to be rather large, perhaps of the order of tens ofkilometres.

To characterise the surface geometry at scales smaller than the radar resolutions, itis necessary to use proper data sets: measured values for Mars are in the range 0.7-13°, averaging 2°, with a remarkable diversity from place to place over the surface.Such values refer to scales that, according to model interpretations, range from a fewtens to a few hundred metres.

To summarise, plausible ranges for the parameters describing the surface geometryare listed in Table 2.

Recent attempts to describe the structure of planetary surfaces by means of fractalshave also been taken into account. Tests on MGS/MOLA data have shown that theHurst exponent (H) with very high probability lies in the range 0.7-1 and the rmsslope (s(∆x)) extrapolated with a lag ∆x = 166 m is lower than 0.05.

The study of the martian ionosphere is important not only as a topic in its own right,but also because the ionosphere has a strong influence on the subsurface and surfacesoundings. Electromagnetic radiation cannot propagate through an ionised gas atfrequencies below the electron plasma frequency, given by fp = 8980 √Ne Hz, where

54

Fig. 1. Martian crust stratification models.Simple 2-layer structures are proposed. Thediscontinuity is created by a change in thepore-filling material. a: ice/water interfacedetection; b: dry/ice interface detection.

3. Surface Characterisation

4. Characterisation of the Ionosphere



Ne is the electron number density in cm–3. A typical profile of the electron plasmafrequency in the dayside martian ionosphere is shown in Fig. 2a, based on plasmadensity measurements from the Viking Landers (Hanson, 1977). Usually the electronplasma frequency on the dayside of Mars has a single, well-defined maximum, at analtitude of 125-150 km. Radio waves incident vertically on the ionosphere arereflected at the point where the wave frequency is equal to the electron plasmafrequency. Transmission through the ionosphere is possible only at frequencies abovethe maximum electron plasma frequency in the ionosphere, fp (max). Figure 2b showsa plot of fp (max) versus solar zenith angle. The solid dots give the plasma frequencyobtained from radio occultation measurements (Zhang et al., 1990a; 1990b), and thesolid lines give extrapolations using the Chapman theory of planetary ionospheres.

Subsurface soundings are possible only at frequencies greater than fp (max). Sincethey require frequencies as low as possible, the global distribution of the ionosphericelectron density (hence plasma frequency) becomes an important factor in selectingthe operating frequency of the sounder and the optimal orbital strategy for datacollection. The lowest frequency that can penetrate the martian ionosphere variesfrom about 4 MHz on the dayside to somewhat below 1 MHz on the nightside.Clearly, the best region for carrying out subsurface soundings is on the nightside, atsolar zenith angles greater than 90°. Unfortunately, very little is known about theionosphere on the nightside. A typical nightside maximum plasma frequency appearsto be about 800 kHz. From our knowledge of the ionosphere of Venus, for whichbetter nightside electron density measurements are available, it is likely that there areisolated regions on the nightside of Mars where the plasma frequency extends wellbelow 800 kHz.

Even when the sounding frequency is above fp (max), the ionosphere still has aneffect on the radar signal. As is well known (Stix, 1964), the index of refraction foran electromagnetic wave propagating through an unmagnetised plasma is given byn = [1-(fp/f )2]1/2. Even at frequencies several times the plasma frequency, the index ofrefraction has a noticeable deviation from the free-space value of n = 1. Thisdeviation causes a frequency-dependent time delay, called dispersion, that distorts theshape of the radar pulse. It is easily demonstrated that the phase shift induced by theionosphere over the ∆f = 1 MHz bandwidth of the radar chirp signal is substantial,approximately 200 rad for a centre frequency at f = 2 fp(max), and 5 rad at

55

Fig. 2. a (above): typical plasma frequencyvertical profile; b (left): plasma frequencybehaviour with solar zenith angle.


SP-1240

f = 10 fp(max). Since the sounder must almost certainly operate at frequencies below10 fp(max), it follows that we must be prepared to remove the dispersive effects of theionosphere, otherwise the signal-to-noise ratio and range resolution of the radar signalwould be severely degraded in the chirp compression process.

The baseline orbit for Mars Express has a periapsis distance of 250 km, apoapsisdistance of 10 142 km, inclination 86.35° and period of 6.75 h. Figure 3 shows thetangential and radial components of the satellite’s orbital velocity as a function ofaltitude above the equatorial radius. MARSIS is designed to perform subsurfacesounding during each orbit when the altitude is lower than about 800 km; for thebaseline orbit that means a period of about 26 min. This allows mapping of about100° on the surface on each orbit, allowing extensive coverage at all latitudes withinthe nominal mission duration. To achieve this global coverage, MARSIS is designedto support both dayside and nightside operations, although performances aremaximised during the night (solar zenith angle > 80°), when the ionosphere plasmafrequency drops off significantly and the lower frequency bands, which have greaterpenetration capability, can be used. Ionospheric soundings will be also carried out byMARSIS on certain passes when the orbiter is at an altitude up to 1200 km, bothduring day and night time.

6.1 Subsurface and surface sounding The sounder’s principle of operation is explained in Fig. 4. The electromagnetic wavetransmitted by the antenna impinges on the surface, producing a first reflection thatpropagates back to the radar, generating a strong return signal received at timet0 = 2H/c, H being the spacecraft height and c the speed of light in vacuum. However,thanks to the long wavelengths employed, a significant fraction of the energyimpinging on the surface is transmitted into the crust and propagates down with adecreased velocity v = c/n (n is the refractive index of ice related to the real dielectricconstant εr by n = √εr) and an attenuation proportional to the penetration depth (z), tothe wavelength (λ) and to the material loss tangent (tan δ, defined as the ratio of theimaginary part to the real part of the complex dielectric constant, tan δ = εi/εr). Shouldsubsurface dielectric discontinuities be present at depth z0 below the surface, additionalreflections would occur and the echoes would propagate back through the first layermedium and then to the radar, generating further echo signals, much weaker than thefront surface signal, with time delay t0 + 2z0/v. As a consequence, time-domainanalysis of the strong surface return, eventually after multi-look non-coherentintegration, allows estimation of surface roughness, reflectivity and mean distance, justas in classical pulse-limited surface radar altimeters. Moreover, the weaker signalsafter the first strong surface return will enable the detection of subsurface interfaces,while their time delays will allow measurement of the depths of those interfaces.

Detection performance will be limited by two main factors: the strength of thesurface clutter echoes and the noise floor entering the receiver. The surface clutterechoes originate by reflections from those surface areas (marked C in Fig. 4) that have2-way propagation path delays identical to that of the useful subsurface signal (pointB in Fig. 4). While this is not a problem for perfectly flat surfaces (the angularbackscattering law imposes a very high attenuation on such lateral reflections), mostnatural surfaces are not at all flat and surface clutter echoes can be very strong inpractical situations. As a direct consequence, when the competing subsurface echoesare highly attenuated by the propagation into the crust, the surface clutter echoes maymask the useful signal and limit the detection. Furthermore, even when the surfaceclutter power is lower than the competing subsurface echo, the detection performancecan be limited by the noise floor of the receiver. Such noise can be very high at thelow frequencies commonly used for radar sounding owing to the contribution of thecosmic noise temperature entering the receiver, which is many order of magnitudes

56

Fig. 3. Radial and tangential spacecraft velocity.

5. MARSIS Orbital Requirements

6. Measurement Concept and Experiment

Description



higher than receiver internal noise for typical noise figures of 3-4 dB and frequenciesof 1-10 MHz (Picardi et al., 1998a; 1999a).

In the standard subsurface sounding mode, MARSIS can transmit and receive anyof the following bands: 1.3-2.3 MHz (centred at 1.8 MHz), 2.5-3.5 MHz (centred at3 MHz), 3.5-4.5 MHz (centred at 4 MHz) and 4.5-5.5 MHz (centred at 5 MHz). Theinstantaneous bandwidth is 1 MHz for all the bands, and the transmitted waveform isa pseudo-linear frequency modulated pulse (chirp). Since, on the dayside of Mars, theionosphere will not allow the use of frequencies below ~3 MHz, only the two higherbands (4 MHz and 5 MHz) can be used for surface/subsurface sounding during theday. However, the best penetration is during nightside observations, when the longestwavelengths can also be used.

Transmitted pulses are radiated through a 40 m tip-to-tip dipole mounted normallyto the orbiter’s direction of motion, fed by a matching network that flattens the antennafrequency response over the full 1.3-5.5 MHz range. The reflected echoes are receivedboth from the primary dipole antenna and from a secondary receiving antenna. Thisshort monopole is mounted vertically, aligned with the nadir axis, and features a nullin the nadir direction and thus records off-nadir surface echoes alone (Picardi et al.,1999b). Received echoes on both channels are converted to a small offset frequencyand digitised for onboard processing and later downlink. The receiving windowaccommodates echoes from a maximum depth of 5-8 km, depending on the crustdielectric constant. Since the data rate of the digitised samples is on the order of a fewMbit/s, substantial data reduction is performed onboard to comply with the orbiter’sdata rate and volume constraints. Data reduction is performed by the onboardprocessor, which features adaptive range compression, azimuth compression andmulti-look non-coherent integration, depending on the operating modes. The rangecompression allows a range resolution equivalent to 150 m in vacuum and waveformsidelobes controlled to provide a system dynamic range in excess of 50 dB. Azimuthcompression is performed by coherent unfocused Doppler processing, to reduce along-track surface clutter and noise power; the along-track resolution after azimuthcompression is sharpened to 5-9 km, depending on the altitude. Cross-track surfaceclutter reduction by dipole/monopole signal combination is performed during groundprocessing. Non-coherent averaging with multiple Doppler filters (looks) can also beperformed before downlink to reduce statistical fluctuations of the final profiles.Finally, echo profiles collected at different frequencies can be processed to enhance thediscrimination of subsurface reflections, which are strongly dependent on thefrequency, from the surface reflections, which are mostly frequency-independent.

During ground processing, downlinked data will be analysed for time delay tosubsurface reflector(s), intensity of subsurface reflection(s), and a measure of‘confidence’ that a subsurface interface was detected. These parameters will beincorporated into a global map database, to allow interpretation of local and regionalbehaviour. Detailed analysis will be conducted for regions of interest. This will includemodelling of the electrical properties of the layers and interfaces. The modelling will

57

Fig. 4. MARSIS observation geometry andprinciple of operation.


SP-1240

result in estimates of thickness of layers, depth to interfaces, dielectric properties of thematerials, and an interpretation of the properties of the materials, includingcomposition. It is expected that the abrupt dielectric contrasts that should exist at amartian water table would allow an unambiguous identification of liquid water. Ifsmall (tens of km in lateral extent) aquifers are present, the resolution and processingscheme of MARSIS should allow their detection, unlike other systems that may requireextensive, uniform layer and interface conditions. Boundaries involving the presenceand absence of ground-ice will be more difficult to distinguish, but regional trends(with latitude and elevation) should allow discrimination of ground-ice boundaries.

The first surface reflection echoes of MARSIS operating as a sounder will beprocessed to give estimates of the average height, roughness and reflection coefficientof the surface layer, according to the classical altimetric approach. By measuring thetime delay of the echo, it will be possible to estimate the average distance of the radarfrom a reference flat surface level, while the duration of the waveform leading edgewill be proportional to the large-scale surface roughness averaged over the pulse-limited spatial resolution cell. Finally, the peak value of the average echo waveformwill be used to estimate the backscattering coefficient and, in conjunction with theroughness value, to estimate the Fresnel reflection coefficient of the surface. A furtherimprovement of the altimeter mode performance, in terms of resolution and accuracy,can be achieved by processing the return echoes collected over the same region duringdifferent orbits. During ground processing, surface reflection profiles will be analysedfor surface reflectivity at each frequency, echo dispersion at the surface (an indicationof surface roughness) and surface elevation. These parameters will be furtherincorporated into the global map database, to allow interpretation of local andregional behaviour, and for comparisons with other data sets.

6.2 Ionospheric sounding MARSIS ionospheric measurements employ both passive and active techniques. Thepassive technique uses the thermal emission line at the local electron plasmafrequency to make highly accurate measurements of the local electron density. Theactive technique uses radar signals (soundings) to measure the vertical range to theionospheric reflection point as a function of frequency. For active soundings, a simpleionospheric mode of operation is used in which sinusoidal pulses with a nominalduration of 91.4 ms are transmitted in 160 frequency steps from 0.1 MHz to 5.4 MHz.The time required to step through a complete frequency sweep is 1.23 s. Using thesemeasurements, the vertical profile of the plasma electron frequency (hence, electrondensity) can be determined, as in Fig. 2a. There are two modes of operation:continuous and interleaved. The continuous mode of operation provides a contiguousseries of ionospheric sounding sweeps, thereby providing the highest possiblehorizontal resolution. Since such a contiguous series of sweeps leaves no time forsubsurface soundings, this mode is used relatively infrequently. The more commonmode interleaves the subsurface soundings with the ionospheric soundings in aregular pattern. These will be particularly useful if ionospheric electron densityinformation is needed to interpret or optimise the subsurface soundings.

A functional block diagram of MARSIS is shown in Fig. 5; the principal character-istics are given in Table 3. There are three main subsystems:

— the Antenna Subsystem (AS), including the primary dipole antenna for trans-mission and reception of the sounder pulses, and the secondary monopoleantenna for surface-clutter echo reception only;

— the Radio Frequency Subsystem (RFS), including both the transmit channel andthe two receive channels for the dipole and monopole antennas, respectively;

— the Digital Electronics Subsystem (DES), including the signal generator, timingand control unit and the processing unit.

58




In nominal surface/subsurface sounding operations, MARSIS transmits in rapidsequence up to four quasi-simultaneous pulses at one or two different frequencies,selected from the four available bands, and receives the corresponding echoes on boththe dipole and monopole antennas. The whole transmit/receive cycle is repeated at arate fixed by the system Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF). The selection of the PRFis an important issue in the definition of the MARSIS timing scheme, since theantenna pattern is practically isotropic in the along-track direction. With this system,spectral aliasing of surface clutter echoes could occur if the Doppler bandwidth isunder-sampled. Considering that a folding localised into far-range cells can beaccepted at the highest frequency bands (because penetration to the correspondingdepths is unlikely) a fixed PRF of 130 Hz was selected as the baseline for surface/subsurface sounding. In fact, the risk of folding in useful range cells seems to be verysmall, while the implementation burden is significantly reduced. With such a PRF, thebasic transmit/receive repetition interval is 7.69 ms. Within this time frame, theMARSIS transmitter radiates through the main dipole antenna up to four chirps ofnominal duration 250 µs, waiting for about 100 µs between any two consecutivechirps. Two different frequency bands can be assigned to the four pulses, selectablefrom the four operating bands. After transmission is completed, MARSIS turns to thereceive mode and records the signals received from both dipole and monopolechannels for each transmitted pulse. The duration of the receiving window 350 µs,accommodating an echo dispersion of about 100 µs, which corresponds to about 5-8 km of penetration, depending on the propagation velocity in the crust. Uponreception, echoes are down-converted and digitised to a format suitable for theonboard processor. Four processing channels allow the processing of two frequencybands received from the dipole and monopole at each PRF. The digitised echo streamis processed by the digital electronics subsystem in order to reduce the data rate anddata volume, and allow global mapping of the observed scene within the allocatedamount of orbiter mass memory.

Starting from the desired along-track sampling rate of the surface, the basicazimuth repetition interval is identified and all the pulses received within such aninterval (frame) are processed to yield a single echo profile referring to one azimuthlocation. Range compression is performed on each pulse by classical matchedfiltering, although adaptive techniques are used to update the matched filter reference

59

Fig. 5. MARSIS functional block diagram.

Table 3. Principal parameters for the MARSIS subsurface sounding mode.

Centre frequenciesBand 1 1.8 MHzBand 2 3.0 MHzBand 3 4.0 MHzBand 4 5.0 MHzBandwidth 1.0 MHz

Irradiated powerBand 1 1.5 WBand 2 5.0 WBand 3 5.0 WBand 4 5.0 W

Transmit pulse width 250 µs(30 µs in mode SS5)

PRF 130/s

Minimum altitude 250 kmMax. altitude subsurface 800 km

soundingMax. altitude ionosphere 1200 km

sounding

Receive window size per 350 µschannel (baseline)

Analog to digital conversion rate 2.8 MHzAnalog to digital conversion 8 BitNo. processed channels 4 (max)Max. no. simultaneous 2

frequenciesRadiation gain 2.1 dB

Dipole antenna element length 20 mMonopole antenna length 7 mData rate output (min/max) 18/75 kbit/sData volume daily (max) 285 MbitMass 17 kgPower (max. incl. margins) 64.5 W


SP-1240

function at each frame in order to correct for the time-variant phase distortionsintroduced by the ionosphere propagation (Picardi et al., 1998a; 1999a; Picardi &Sorge, 1999). The information needed for this adaptive filtering is estimated by adedicated processing of the initial pulses of each frame, and is then used for all theremaining pulses of the same frame, thus assuming the fluctuation rate of thedistortion is slower than the frame duration. Alternative techniques for such adaptivefiltering are based either on using the front surface reflection for direct extraction ofthe propagation medium’s impulse response (Safaeinili & Jordan, 2000), on theestimation of some parametric model of the propagation medium using a contrastmaximisation technique (Picardi & Sorge, 1999; Biccari et al., 2001c).

By correctly sampling the surface and subsurface Doppler spectra, coherentintegration of the range-compressed echoes within each frame is possible, enhancingthe spatial resolution in the along-track direction and linearly reducing the cosmicnoise level (Picardi et al., 1998a: 1999a). For simplicity, unfocused Dopplerprocessing has been implemented, entailing an azimuth resolution of 5000 m ataltitudes below 300 km, increasing to 9000 m at higher altitudes. Coherent integrationis performed using a fixed number of phase-correction functions, thus synthesising abank of parallel Doppler filters around the zero Doppler point (or the Dopplercentroid). However, since the small amount of computational and memory resourcesavailable in the processor limits the number of Doppler filters that can be synthesisedto about five, the position and usage of these filters are optimised taking into accountthe behaviour of the observed surface. Specifically, if specular scattering from a flatsurface is dominant, the greatest portion of the echo power falls into the singleDoppler filter that contains the point of specular reflection (the central Doppler filterfor a non-tilted surface), leaving mostly noise to the lateral Doppler filters. Undersuch conditions, it is clear that the best choice is to use that single Doppler filter,eventually located by a Doppler-tracking algorithm, and discard the others. For thecontrary case of a rough layer, non-coherent scattering is dominant and the signalpower is distributed over several Doppler filters, so it is worth averaging echoes fromthe same zone processed by different Doppler filters to improve the signal-to-noise(S/N) ratio and reduce statistical fluctuations (speckle).

A primary indication of MARSIS’ capability for subsurface sounding is given by theS/N at the processor’s output (Picardi et al., 1999a). Under normal MARSIS operatingconditions, the contribution of the receiver internal noise to the system noise tempera-ture can be neglected, compared to the contribution of the external cosmic noise. Thisassumption is easily verified at low frequencies, where the cosmic noise temperatureis millions of K, which corresponds to receiver noise figures higher than 40 dB.

The maximum dynamic range of the sounder can be computed by evaluating theS/N in the case of a rough surface, where the surface echo can be evaluated accordingto the geometric optics approximation, and in the case of a perfectly specular surfacereturn, where the geometric optics approximation cannot be applied and we get ahigher echo from the surface.

Evaluating the radar equation in the two cases shows that, during nominalsounding operations, an S/N always better than 14 dB is available on the front surfaceecho. This allows precise positioning of the receiving window using a trackingalgorithm, and allows precise estimation of surface parameters with the surfacealtimetry mode, provided that sufficient averaging is performed to reduce statisticalfluctuations of the signal (speckle noise).

To assess the interface-detection performance of the radar sounder, the backscatteringcross-sections of concurrent echoes from the surface and subsurface layers (Fig. 4) asoperating conditions change need to be evaluated. These can be expressed asσs = Γs fs (σh,s, Ls, λ) and σss = Γss fss (σh,ss, Lss, λ), with Γs and Γss being the Fresnelreflectivity terms, which deal with the surface and subsurface dielectric properties,and fs and fss the geometric scattering terms, which deal with the geometric structure

60

8. Model Performance



of the surface and subsurface; Ls and Lss are the correlation lengths; λ is thewavelength. In the following sections, the Fresnel terms and the geometric scatteringterms are evaluated using the simplified reference crust models introduced inSections 2 and 3.

8.1 Modelling of Fresnel reflectivity termsAccording to electromagnetic theory, the Fresnel reflectivity for nadir incidence on asurface can be expressed as:

(2)

with εr1(0) the real dielectric constant of the crust evaluated at the surface (z = 0).The Fresnel reflectivity for the subsurface layer at depth z can be expressed as:

(3)

with R12,z2 the reflection coefficient of an interface located at depth z:

(4)

and α(ζ) the 2-way unit depth attenuation due to dielectric dissipation in the crust,expressed in dB/m:

α(ζ) = 1.8 x 10–7 f0 √ε tan δ (5)

The evaluation of the Fresnel reflectivity terms requires knowledge of the complexdielectric constants of the crust as a function of depth. This can be modelled startingfrom the dielectric constants of the basic elements contained in the martian crust(Table 1) and using the exponential law (Eq. 1) for the porosity decay against thedepth into well-known Host-Inclusion mixing formulae (Picardi et al., 1999a). Sinceporosity depends on depth, then so do the effective dielectric constants of themixtures. The Maxwell-Garnett model for spherical inclusions was adopted for thisanalysis. As a result, the real dielectric constant at the surface (a water-filled regolithis not considered to be possible at the surface) ranges between 4 and 6 for a basalt-like regolith, and between 2 and 4 for andesite-like regolith; the lower valuescorrespond to higher surface porosity and dry regolith. As the depth increases, the firstlayer’s dielectric constant increases because of the lower porosity and approaches thedielectric constant of the pure host material (basalt or andesite in our models). If aninterface among ice-filled and water-filled regolith or dry-regolith and ice-filledregolith occurs at a certain depth, there will be an abrupt change in the real part of thedielectric constant. The dielectric contrast will be higher for ice/water interfaces, forhigher surface porosity and, of course, for greater depths. This dielectric contrast isthe origin for the subsurface reflection process, and the subsurface reflectioncoefficient will be proportional to its intensity through Eq. 4. Moreover, theabsorption in the crust can be modelled using Eq. 5 and the obtained loss tangentprofiles and the total subsurface reflectivity can be computed by performingintegration over the depth according to Eq. 3. Figure 6 shows the resulting reflectivityof the surface and subsurface echoes for both ice/water and dry/ice interfacescenarios, assuming the different materials and surface porosity values listed inTable 1. It is clear from the figures that the surface reflectivity ranges between –7 dB

R12,z

2� ` 2er11z2 � 2er21z22er11z2 � 2er21z2 `

2

�ss,z � R12,z2 11 � R01

2 22 10�0.1�Z

0a 1z2 dz

�s � ` 1 � 2er11021 � 2er1102 `

2

� R01

2

61


SP-1240

and –15 dB, depending on the surface composition and porosity, and has a typicalvalue of –10 dB for most scenarios.

8.2 Backscattering modelAs mentioned in Section 3, backscattering from the martian surface can be modelledby considering two main terms: the large-scale scattering contribution results fromgentle geometrical undulations of the surface on a scale of many hundreds tothousands of metres, whereas the small-scale scattering contribution arises from therapid, slight variations of surface height over a horizontal scale of some tenths ofmetres. Both surface scales are modelled as Gaussian random processes with acircular symmetric correlation function, and are described by the rms height σh andcorrelation length L. A third non-independent parameter is introduced, called rmsslope, which for a Gaussian correlation function is given by ms = √2σh/L andrepresents the average geometric slope of the surface.

Simple approximate methods can be applied for surfaces that present a uniqueroughness scale, with either a large correlation length (gently undulating surface) ora very small rms height (slightly rough surface) compared to the incident wavelength.Specifically, the Kirchhoff method can be applied for gently undulating surfaces,which respect the tangent plane conditions, and the Small Perturbation Method can beapplied to slightly rough surfaces. The classical studies on the validity conditions ofthese two models have recently been updated, and regions of validity currentlydefined show that the Kirchhoff approximation can be used to evaluate the large-scalebackscattering contribution, whereas the Small Perturbation Method can be used forthe small-scale contribution. The approach here for modelling the total surface back-scattering is to consider the two roughness scales independently and to sum therespective backscattering cross-sections obtained with the Kirchhoff and SmallPerturbation Method approximations.

For the Kirchhoff term, an analytic model of the backscattering cross-section wasobtained by extending the electric field method followed by Fung & Eom (1983) tothe case of a generic Kirchhoff surface and pulsed radar. The expression found allowsprediction of the backscattering cross-section without restriction to the geometricaloptics approximation (pure diffuse scattering), but properly taking into account boththe coherent (specular) and non-coherent (diffuse) component of the scatteringprocess. Under the simplifying assumptions of a Gaussian surface correlationfunction and Gaussian (compressed) pulse shape, the expression of the Kirchhoffbackscattering cross-section is:

PK (τ) = ΓπH 2 (Pc + Pnc1 – Pnc2) (6)

where H is the altitude, Pc (τ) is the coherent (specular) scattering component,while Pnc (τ) = Pnc1 (τ) – Pnc2 (τ) is the non-coherent (diffuse) scattering component.

The maximum power is received when full coherent reflection occurs, i.e. whenthe surface is perfectly flat. In such a condition, it is easy to verify that Pnc1 = Pnc2 andthe non-coherent term Pnc reduces to zero, while the coherent term Pc approaches theshape of the transmitted pulse, which is maximum in the origin; the maximum cross-section of the large-scale contribution of the surface is then σK,max = ΓπH 2, which isa value consistent with that predicted by the image theorem for the reflectioncoefficient of perfectly flat surfaces. As the surface becomes rougher, the coherentcomponent goes towards zero and non-coherent scattering becomes dominant(geometrical optics model). By considering the fractal surface model (Section 3), thegeometric optics model (H = 1 in the fractal model) can be considered as the endmodel. Moreover, the Hagfors model (H = 1/2 in the fractal model) will be the otherend-model: the geometric optics model is considered as the worst case (Biccari et al.,2001a).

Turning to the small-scale contribution, the Small Perturbation Methodapproximation allows the backscattering coefficient to be expressed as:

62



σ0pp(θ) = 8k4 σ2

h2 |αpp(θ)|2 cos4q W(KB) (7)

where k = 2π/λ is the wave number, θ is the incidence angle, app(θ) is the FresnelReflection Coefficient for the pp polarisation, W(K) is the surface roughness small-scale spectrum and KB is the Bragg Frequency, given by KB = 2k sinθ.

Summarising, the surface backscattered power, σT(τ), can be obtained by summingthe large-scale and small-scale contributions:

σT(τ) = σK(τ) + σSP(τ) (8)

where σSP(τ) is the Small Perturbation term. Figure 7 shows the surface cross-section given by Eq. 8, assuming the worst-case small-scale contribution and a large-scale correlation length of about 2000 m, as a function of the depth of the competingsubsurface return (assuming a reference average εr = 4). The plots are normalised sothat the 0 dB axis indicates the maximum possible cross-section, which is given againby σK,max = ΓπH 2. As seen in the figure, the scattering cross-section is maximum atnadir and rapidly falls as the ‘equivalent depth’ increases, up to a level at which itbecomes practically a constant. This behaviour can be easily understood byconsidering the superposition of the two scale contributions. In fact, according toclassical random scattering theory, the large-scale Kirchhoff component dominatesthe backscattering around the nadir and determines the cross-section fall-off rate(owing to the small value of ms), while the small-perturbation component dominatesat high off-nadir locations and is responsible for the flat behaviour of the cross-sectionwhen the Kirchhoff contribution has vanished.

8.3 Surface clutter reduction techniquesAs apparent from Fig. 7, when sounding over rough areas of the martian crust (rmsslope > 2-3°) the detection depth will be severely limited by the surface clutter, ratherthan by the cosmic noise. In order to improve the sounding performance in theseregions, different methods of reducing the surface clutter contributions were includedin MARSIS: Doppler filtering of surface clutter; dual-antenna clutter cancellation;and dual-frequency clutter cancellation. Detailed descriptions and performanceassessment of the three methods can be found in Picardi et al. (1999a). Below is ashort review of the techniques and their cancellation performances.

Doppler filtering of the surface clutter is a direct consequence of the azimuthalsynthetic aperture processing performed by the MARSIS onboard processor to

63

Fig. 6. Surface and subsurface Fresnel reflectivity with medium surface porosity(35%) and (a) ice/water interface, (b) dry/iceinterface.


SP-1240

sharpen the along-track resolution and enhance noise suppression. In fact, if theDoppler spectrum at each specific range location is sampled using a proper PRF, thesurface clutter contribution from along-track off-nadir angles is mapped to the highend of the Doppler spectrum, while subsurface echoes from nadir are mapped to thelowest portion of the Doppler spectrum.

The amount of clutter reduction from this technique can be evaluated by simplegeometric considerations, taking into account the reduction of the scattering areas forthe nadir subsurface return and the off-nadir surface return, after Doppler filtering. Animprovement factor (IF) can be defined as the ratio of signal-to-clutter ratios beforeand after the cancellation technique. The Doppler filtering IF can be expressedapproximately by:

(9)

where z is the depth of the subsurface return and ∆ is the radar range resolution,and the condition z > ∆ is assumed to be verified. As clearly seen in Fig. 8a, an IF ofabout 12 dB can be obtained by this technique at large depths.

IF � B z

¢ a1 � B1 �

¢zb

64

Fig. 7. Surface scattered power according to the two-scale model. A Gaussian spectrum atlarge-scale and a 1.5-power law spectrum atsmall-scale are assumed. Large-scalecorrelation length is 2000 m, small-scale rmsheight is 1 m. H = 250 m (-) and 800 km (-.-.).a: 1.8 MHz; b: 2.8 MHz; c: 3.8 MHz;d: 4.8 MHz.



Since surface clutter echoes from off-nadir in the cross-track direction are notaffected by any Doppler modulation and cannot be eliminated by the previoustechnique, additional clutter suppression techniques were studied for MARSIS, basedon a dual-antenna or dual-frequency processing concept.

The dual-antenna cancellation technique (Picardi et al., 1998a; 1999a) uses aprimary antenna to transmit and receive the composite subsurface/surface signal, witha pattern maximum in the nadir direction (for MARSIS, a dipole mounted parallel tothe surface and normal to the motion direction) and a secondary antenna to receivesurface clutter only, with a pattern null in the nadir direction (for MARSIS, a shortmonopole oriented vertically under the spacecraft). The cancellation scheme is acoherent subtraction after correction for the antenna gain imbalance between the twochannels:

(10)

with V1 and V2 the complex signals at the dipole and monopole channels, and G1(θ)and G2(θ) the antenna gain patterns for the dipole and monopole, respectively. It issimple to show (Picardi et al., 1999a) that the surface clutter echoes are completelyremoved by the subtraction, leading to infinite IF, if we assume that:

— returns from the two antennas are totally correlated;— surface and subsurface return contributions to V1 and V2 are totally uncorrelated;— the antenna patterns G1(θ) and G2(θ) are perfectly known;— the monopole pattern null points exactly towards the nadir direction in both

along-track and cross-track directions;— the primary and secondary antenna channels have the same phase/amplitude

transfer function (perfectly amplitude-balanced and phase-matched channels).

Vtot � V1 � V2 BG11u2G21u2

65

Fig. 8. Improvement Factor (IF) of the surfaceclutter cancellation techniques. a: Dopplerfiltering; b: dual-antenna cancellation (1° rollangle and 10% antenna pattern knowledgeaccuracy); c: dual-frequency cancellation as afunction of number of averaged looks.


SP-1240

In practice, the dual-antenna cancellation IF is limited by imperfect knowledge ofthe antenna pattern, unknown antenna pointing errors (roll and pitch angles) andamplitude/phase mismatching between the two channels. In Picardi et al. (1999a),these effects were considered and it was concluded that the main limitation to the IFcomes from the antenna pattern knowledge and the cross-track pointing error of themonopole (roll angle).

Typical IF behaviour as a function of the antenna gain variance σg2 and the space-

craft roll angle α is shown in Fig. 8b. Values of 10% accuracy in the knowledge of theantenna patterns and ±1° roll angle result in a maximum IF of about 20 dB. Note thatthis clutter cancellation technique could also be performed on the square-law detectedsignals on the two dipole and monopole channels, but with reduced performance.

Another technique for clutter suppression, based on non-coherent processing ofechoes acquired simultaneously at different frequencies, has been proposed (Picardiet al., 1999a), in order to provide surface clutter cancellation if the dual-antennatechnique proves insufficient (for example, owing to problems in positioning themonopole null) or cannot be applied because monopole channel data are not availableon the ground. The dual-frequency technique uses the fact that the surface clutter

66

Fig. 9. Ice/Water interface detection charts. Subsurface attenuation (including absorptionand scattering loss) appears in black; surfaceclutter after coherent cancellation in red; noisefloor in blue. Altitudes are H = 250 km and800 km; frequencies are 1.8 MHz and 5 MHz.Surface correlation length is 1000 m.



power at two frequencies remains almost constant (or the changes can be easilypredicted by modelling), while the subsurface power is a strong function of frequency.As consequence, if the detected signals at both frequencies are subtracted, the surfacecontribution is significantly reduced while the subsurface contribution remainsunchanged. The main limitation of this technique arises from the speckle whichdecorrelates at the two frequencies, and represents a clutter residual after cancellation.If the mean powers of surface clutter at the two frequencies are assumed to be equal,IF can be shown to be linearly related to the number of averaged looks beforesubtraction of the signal (Picardi et al., 1999a). As clearly seen in Fig. 8c, an IF ofabout 5 dB can be obtained using five averaged looks.

8.4 Subsurface return signal-to-noise performanceFigures 9-10 summarise the predicted performance of the radar sounder in detectingthe ice/water and dry/ice subsurface interfaces, according to the simple modelsdescribed above and using the nominal MARSIS design parameters discussed inSection 6.1. Figure 9 refers to ice/water interface detection, and Fig. 10 to dry/ice.The four graphs in each figure present the detection at the two boundary frequency

67

Fig. 10. Dry/Ice interface detection charts. Subsurface attenuation (including absorptionand scattering loss) appears in black; surfaceclutter after coherent cancellation in red; noisefloor in blue. Altitudes are H = 250 km and800 km; frequencies are 1.8 MHz and 5 MHz.Surface correlation length is 1000 m.


SP-1240

bands (1.8 MHz and 5 MHz) from two altitudes (250 km and 800 km), whichrepresent the minimum and maximum heights of Mars Express during the portion ofthe orbit when MARSIS is active. Each detection chart contains the followingnormalised power levels as a function of the interface depth:

— subsurface return power, including effects of absorption and scattering. Absorptionis taken into account as in Section 8.1, assuming the two end-member hostmaterials (basalt and andesite) and porosities (20-50%). The backscattering iscomputed assuming a subsurface correlation length equal to 2000 m and twoextreme values of the subsurface layer rms slope (1° and 5°);

— surface clutter power after coherent clutter cancellation, including Dopplerfiltering and dual-antenna cancellation (dual-frequency cancellation is notconsidered because we want to evaluate single-look performance). Two values ofrms slope are used, between 1° and 5°, while the surface correlation length is alsoassumed to be 2000 m;

— noise floor level, computed to match the S/N values reported in Section 8.2, plusa little increment from the receiver internal noise amplification after the dual-antenna cancellation.

Based on a 0 dB detection threshold criterion, it is easily seen from the figure that,thanks to the surface clutter cancellation techniques and to the strong noisesuppression, penetration depths to several kilometres can be achieved under the mostlikely scenarios for the martian crust.

Since the ionosphere is a very good specular reflector, the S/N for active ionosphericsounding is expected to be good. The main difficulty is that, at frequencies below thehalf-wavelength resonance of the antenna (~3 MHz), the radiated power decreasesrapidly with decreasing frequency (approximately as frequency to the fourth power).This is compensated for to some extent by the fact that the range to the ionosphericreflection point decreases with decreasing frequency (Fig. 2a), which tends toimprove the S/N at low frequencies. Also, at frequencies below ~1 MHz, the cosmicnoise background falls with decreasing frequency, which also improves the S/N atlow frequencies. At a spacecraft altitude of 500 km, the resulting S/N for the daytimeionospheric model shown in Fig. 2a is expected to be 5.4 dB at 0.1 MHz, increasingto 8.6 dB at 0.3 MHz, 18.4 dB at 1.0 MHz and 21.3 dB at 3.0 MHz. These S/Ns areadequate to perform ionospheric sounding on the dayside of Mars under almost allconditions. On the night side, where the electron densities are expected to be muchlower, the S/N is likely to become marginal, since the plasma frequencies are muchlower, which increases the range to the reflection point for any given spacecraftaltitude. It is also possible that the ionosphere may be more disturbed on the nightsideof Mars, which could cause scattering from small-scale irregularities, thereby causinga further reduction in the S/N. Although the ionospheric sounding performance issomewhat marginal on the nightside, it is almost certain that useful information willbe obtained, particularly at low altitudes where the range to the reflection point is verysmall. Also, a very strong return signal is expected when the sounding frequencypasses through the local plasma frequency, which will give the local electron plasmadensity under almost all conditions.

68

9. Ionospheric Sounding Performance



Biccari, D., Picardi, G., Seu, R. & Melacci, P.T. (2001a). Mars Surface Models andSubsurface Detection Performance in MARSIS. In Proc. IEEE International Symp.on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, IGARSS 2001, Sydney, Australia, 9-13 July2001.

Biccari, D., Ciabattoni, F., Picardi, G.,Seu, R., Johnson, W.K.T. Jordan, R., Plaut, J.,Safaeinili, A., Gurnett, D.A., Orosei, R., Bombaci, O., Provvedi, F., Zampolini, E.& Zelli, C. (2001b). Mars Advanced Radar for Subsurface and IonosphereSounding (MARSIS). In Proc. 2001 International Conference on Radar, October2001, Beijing, China.

Biccari, D., Cartacci, M., Lanza, P., Quattrociocchi, M., Picardi, G., Seu, R.,Spanò, G. & Melacci, P.T. (2001c). Ionosphere Phase Dispersion Compensation,Infocom Technical Report N.002/005/01-23/12/2001.

Carr, M.H. (1996). Water on Mars, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.Fung, A.K. & Eom, H.J. (1983). Coherent Scattering of a Spherical Wave from an

Irregular Surface. IEEE Trans. on Antennas and Propagation, AP-31(1), 68-72.Hanson, W.B., Sanatani, S. & Zuccaro, D.R. (1977). The Martian Ionosphere as

Observed by the Viking Retarding Potential Analyzers. J. Geophys. Res. 82, 4351-4363.

Picardi, G. & Sorge, S. (1999). Adaptive Compensation of Mars IonosphereDispersion: A Low Computational Cost Solution for MARSIS, Infocom TechnicalReport MRS-002/005/99, October 1999.

Picardi, G., Plaut, J., Johnson, W., Borgarelli, L., Jordan, R., Gurnett, D., Sorge, S.,Seu, R. & Orosei, R. (1998a). The Subsurface Sounding Radar Altimeter in theMars Express Mission, Proposal to ESA, Infocom document N188-23/2/1998,February 1998.

Picardi, G., Sorge, S., Seu, R., Fedele, G., Federico, C. & Orosei, R. (1999a). MarsAdvanced Radar for Subsurface and Ionosphere Sounding (MARSIS): Models andSystem Analysis, Infocom Technical Rep. MRS-001/005/99, March 1999.

Picardi, G., Sorge, S., Seu, R., Fedele, G. & Jordan, R.L. (1999b). Coherent Cancella-tion of Surface Clutter Returns for Radar Sounding. In Proc. IEEE InternationalSymp. on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, IGARSS’99, Hamburg, Germany,28 June - 2 July 1999, pp2678-2681.

Safaeinili, A. & Jordan, R.L. (2000). Low Frequency Radar Sounding throughMartian Ionosphere. In Proc. IGARSS 2000, 24-28 July 2000, Honolulu, Hawaii,IEEE, pp987-990.

Stix, T.H. (1964). The Theory of Plasma Waves, McGraw-Hill, New York.Zhang, M.H.G., Luhmann, J.G., Kliore, A.J. & Kim, J. (1990a). A Post-Pioneer

Venus Reassessment of the Martian Dayside Ionosphere as Observed by RadioOccultation Methods. J. Geophys. Res. 95, 14,829-14,839.

Zhang, M.H.G., Luhmann, J.G., Kliore, A.J. & Kim, J. (1990b). An ObservationalStudy of the Nightside Ionospheres of Mars and Venus with Radio OccultationMethods. J. Geophys. Res. 95, 17,095-17,102.

69

References


The Planetary Fourier Spectrometer (PFS) for the Mars Express mission isoptimised for atmospheric studies, covering the IR range of 1.2-45 µm in twochannels. The apodised spectral resolution is 2 cm–1, while the sampling is 1 cm–1.The FOV is about 2° for the short wavelength (SW) channel and 4° for the longwavelength (LW) channel, corresponding to spatial resolutions of 10 km and20 km, respectively, from an altitude of 300 km. PFS will also provide uniquedata on the surface-atmosphere interaction and the mineralogical composition ofthe surface. It will be the first Fourier spectrometer covering 1-5 µm to orbit theEarth or Mars.

The experiment has real-time onboard Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) in orderto select the spectral range of interest for data transmission to ground.Measurement of the 15-µm CO2 band is very important. Its profile gives, via acomplex temperature-profile retrieval technique, the vertical pressuretemperature relation, which is the basis of the global atmospheric study. The SWchannel uses a PbSe detector cooled to 200-220K, while the LW channel is basedon a pyroelectric (LiTaO3) device working at room temperature. Theinterferogram is measured at every 150 nm displacement step of the corner cuberetroreflectors (corresponding to 600 nm optical path difference) via a laser

71

PFS: the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer for Mars Express

V. Formisano1, D. Grassi1, R. Orfei1, D. Biondi1, E. Mencarelli1, A. Mattana1, F. Nespoli1, A. Maturilli1, M. Giuranna1, M. Rossi1, M. Maggi1, P. Baldetti1, G. Chionchio1, B. Saggin2, F. Angrilli2, G. Bianchini2,G. Piccioni3, A. Di Lellis3, P. Cerroni3, F. Capaccioni3, M.T. Capria3, A. Coradini3, S. Fonti4, V. Orofino4,A. Blanco4, L. Colangeli5, E. Palomba5, F. Esposito5, D. Patsaev6, V. Moroz6, L. Zasova6, N. Ignatiev6,I. Khatuntsev6, B. Moshkin6, A. Ekonomov6, A. Grigoriev6, V. Nechaev6, A. Kiselev6, Y. Nikolsky6,V. Gnedykh6, D. Titov6, P. Orleanski7, M. Rataj7, M. Malgoska7, A. Jurewicz7, M.I. Blecka7, H. Hirsh8,G. Arnold8, E. Lellouch9, A. Marten9, T. Encrenaz9, J. Lopez Moreno10, S. Atreya11 & P. Gobbi12

1Istituto di Fisica dello Spazio Interplanetario CNR (IFSI), Via del Fosso del Cavaliere 100, I-00133 Roma, ItalyEmail: [email protected]

2Universita di Padova, Dipartimento Ingegneria Meccanica (DIUNP), Via Venezia 1, I-35131 Padova, Italy3Istituto Astrofisica Spaziale CNR (IAS), Reparto di Planetologia, Viale dell’Universita 11,

I-00185 Roma, Italy4Universita degli Studi di Lecce, Dipartimento di Fisica Via Arnesano, I-73100 Lecce, Italy5Osservatorio Astronomico di Capodimonte (OAC), Via Moiariello 16, I-80131 Napoli, Italy6Space Research Institute of Russian Academy of Sciences (IKI), Profsojuznaja 84/32,

117810 Moscow, Russia7Space Research Center of Polish Academy of Sciences (SRC PAS), Bartycka 18A, 00716 Warsaw, Poland8Deutsche Forschungsansalt fur Luft und Raumfahrt (DLR), Institut fur Planetenerforschung,

Rudower Chausse 5, D-12489 Berlin Adlershoft, Germany9Observatoire de Paris Meudon, Department de Recherch Spatiale (DESPA), Place J. Janssen 5,

F-922195 Meudon, France10Istituto de Astrofisica de Andalusia CSIC, p.o.b. 3004, E-18080 Granada, Spain11The University of Michigan, Planetary Science Laboratory, 2455 Hayward Ave.,

Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2143, USA12Istituto di Fisica dell’Atmosfera CNR (IFA), Via del Fosso del Cavaliere 100, I-00133 Roma, Italy

Formisano.qxd 7/9/04 12:23 PM Page 71

SP-1240

diode monochromatic interferogram (a sine wave), with the zero crossingscontrolling the double pendulum motion.

PFS will operate for about 1.5 h around the pericentre of the orbit. With ameasurement every 10 s, 600 measurements per orbit will be acquired,corresponding to 224 Mbit. Onboard compression will reduce it to 125 Mbit orless, depending on the allocated data volume per day. An important requirementis to observe at all local times in order to include night-side vertical temperatureprofiles. Total instrument mass is 31.2 kg.

1.1 Introduction In the past 30 years, ground-based observations and space missions have built animpressive body of information about Mars. Nevertheless, a large number ofquestions remain open. One of the most interesting problems is the evolution of theclimate and atmosphere in relation to water. It is widely believed that the youngerMars possessed a dense atmosphere and liquid water on the surface. However, carefulinvestigation of the recent atmosphere and surface is required for clarification.

The widespread use of IR spectroscopy in recent years for systematically studyingplanetary surfaces and atmospheres has detected molecular species in both major andminor quantities. Strong vibration-rotation bands in the 1-20 µm wavelength rangeare the fingerprints for unambiguous identification of chemical species. Manyspectral bands of CO2, H2O and CO come within the range of sensitivity of PFS. Theirdetection will help to solve a wide set of scientific problems concerning atmosphericcomposition, solid-phase surface components and atmospheric dust.

In the near-IR range, where the incident solar radiation is either absorbed orscattered by molecules and dust grains, molecular bands usually appear in absorption.In the far-IR, molecular bands appear in both emission and absorption because theobserved flux strongly depends on the thermal profile of the atmosphere.

However, even when the absolute intensities of the molecular bands are knownfrom laboratory studies, it can be far from simple to derive the abundance ofatmospheric constituents from a planetary spectrum. In the near-IR, a rough estimateof the absorber abundance can be obtained using the ‘reflecting layer model’. Thismodel assumes no scattering above a purely reflecting layer (cloud or surface). It isreasonable to apply it to the case of a tenuous atmosphere, such as that on Mars.Various methods can be used to determine the temperature-pressure T(P) relationship.In the cases of Mars, Venus and Jupiter, thermal profiles have been derived fromstrong absorption bands in the thermal-IR and also from radio occultationmeasurements by probes such as Mariner and Pioneer (Kliore et al., 1972; 1976).In situ measurements have been made on Mars and Venus.

Near-IR spectroscopy has greatly increased our knowledge of the surfacecomposition and structure of planetary bodies, moons and asteroids. For planets withatmospheres, the identification of surface spectral signatures is strongly related to thesimultaneous knowledge of the atmospheric structure. Electronic and moleculartransitions occur at definite energies associated with near-IR wavelengths and resultin the absorption of incident solar radiation by surface materials. In the visible andnear-IR range (up to approximately 2.5 µm), transition of d-shell electrons andelectron exchange between ions dominate. Particularly evident are the signaturesfrom iron ions (e.g. McCord & Cruikshank, 1981). At longer wavelengths, the crystalstructure and the nature of different rocks and minerals can be discriminated on thebasis of the strength and position of absorption bands (e.g. Bartholomew et al., 1990).

A number of mineralogically significant bands of silicates, carbonates, sulphates,nitrates, phosphates, oxides and hydroxile-bearing materials occur in the thermal-IR.A great amount of laboratory work has been devoted to the systematic study of therelative strengths and positions of diagnostic spectral signatures (e.g. Hunt et al.,1974). Experimental results are supported by theoretical models in which the relations

72




between IR spectral signatures and ion mass band strength and crystal structure wereinvestigated (e.g. Carr, 1974).

1.2 The atmosphere of MarsMars resembles the Earth much more than any other planet in the Solar System, andstudying its atmosphere provides a better understanding of our own. There is evidenceof an earlier denser martian atmosphere, warmer climate and free water on thesurface. However, explaining how warming was supported on the young Mars is noteasy. The history of water on Mars is one of the most interesting problems in SolarSystem studies, and it directly connects with the possible presence of life on ancientMars.

The investigations of Mars’ atmosphere have determined an average compositionof mainly carbon dioxide (95%), nitrogen (2.7%) and argon (1.6%) (Owen, 1992).About ten minor constituents have been identified. Of them, water vapour plays animportant role in atmospheric processes and surface/atmosphere interactions. Watervapour bands will be observed by both PFS channels; monitoring water vapourvariations (time, latitude, location) is an important task for PFS, and simultaneousobservations in the two channels will provide estimates of H2O vertical distribution.

The global annual average surface temperature of Mars is 210K (Arnold et al.,1993); the atmosphere is colder than Earth’s at all heights. In general, the verticalstructure of both can be divided into three main regions: low, middle (mesosphere)and upper (thermosphere). The middle atmosphere of Mars is its coldest region. Hereis the sink for the energy flux coming from the surface and troposphere (heated bysolar visible and near-IR) and the thermosphere. There are several importantqualitative differences with the terrestrial atmosphere:

— there is no temperature maximum in the mesosphere;— the lapse rate in the low atmosphere is less than on Earth;— there are strong daily variations near the surface because of the much lower

thermal capacity;— the strong influence of aerosols on atmospheric heating.

The computation of realistic General Circulation Models (GCMs) is a verydifficult task because it has to accommodate so many different effects. Horizontaldifferences in temperatures lead to differences in pressure, but they are smoothed bywinds. Winds transfer heat together with air masses, influencing local temperatureprofiles. Temperatures are also affected by dust being lifted from the surface.Condensation is another route to aerosol formation, and it also feeds back to

73

Table 1. PFS scientific objectives.

Atmospheric studies: global long-term monitoring of the 3-D temperature field in the loweratmosphere (from the surface up to 40-60 km); measuring the variations of minorconstituents (water vapour and carbon monoxide); searching for other minor components ofthe atmosphere; a new determination of the D/H ratio; studying the optical properties ofatmospheric aerosols (dust clouds, ice clouds, hazes) and determining their sizedistributions and chemical compositions; investigating the radiance balance of theatmosphere and the influence of aerosols on atmospheric energetics; studying globalcirculation, mesoscale dynamics and wave phoenomena.

Surface studies: monitoring the surface temperature; determining the thermal inertia obtainedfrom the daily surface temperature variations; determining the restrictions on themineralogical composition of the surface layer; determining the nature of the surfacecondensate and seasonal variations of its composition; measuring the scattering phasefunction for selected surface locations; determining local pressure and height (CO2altimetry) for selected regions; surface-atmosphere exchange processes.


SP-1240

temperatures. Winds vary with topography. However, a few groups of theoreticianshave made significant large progress in GCM modelling. They work mainly with datafrom Mariner-9/IRIS for Ls 290-350° and much less for Ls 45-55° (full profiles; Lsis the angle between the Sun-Mars line and the northern spring equinox) and the muchless informative Viking/IRTM atmospheric temperatures. PFS LW observations of the15 µm band will help to fill the gaps. Such measurements will strengthen theempirical base for checking the martian GCMs.

Aerosols play a major role in the formation and variations of 3-D temperature andwind patterns in the atmosphere. There are two aerosol types: dust lifted from thesurface, and condensates. A Global Dust Storm is the most pronounced manifestationof the influence of dust on martian meteorology, but aerosols are always present in theatmosphere and both kinds participate in heating/cooling processes. The chemicalnature (minerals/ices), size distribution and optical depth of the aerosol medium willbe estimated from PFS observations. Simultaneous observations by the two channelsshould be very helpful.

Previous data exhibited both seasonal and daily variations, and occasional climaticevents. During northern winter, two different regimes have been observed in differentyears. In the first case, one or more dust storms cover nearly all the planet; in thesecond, there is no global storm but high winds raise dust in confined regions. Bycontrast, summer weather appears to be more repetitive: winds are generally low andevolve on a diurnal timescale. Storms are very peculiar events and require moredetailed investigation. Pressure profiles, wind patterns and atmospheric dust-evolution must be carefully analysed to determine the effects on surface morphology.Surface changes produced by atmospheric activity have been revealed byobservations of albedo patterns, and suggest close coupling of surface morphologywith ambient evolution. In particular, chemical and physical processes at thelithosphere-atmosphere boundary must be better described and understood.

Temperature changes control the polar cap condensation rate and influence theformation and the evolution of clouds. Until now, white condensation (mainly water-ice) clouds have been observed; however, their evolution and detailed compositionare still uncertain.

Atmospheric data can also be helpful, in combination with surface compositionanalyses, in determining the:

— distribution, abundance and physical status of water on the planet; — volatile distribution and abundance in the atmosphere, on the crust, and at depth;— outgassing processes.

The spectrum of Mars (as for any planet) consist of two elements: shortwavelengths dominated by bireflected solar radiation, and long wavelengthsdominated by the planet’s thermal radiation. For Mars, the boundary between thesetwo regimes is near 4 µm. The PFS SW and LW ranges almost match these regimesof the martian spectrum. Bands of atmospheric gases in the SW range appear only asabsorption features; in the LW they can appear as absorption (if atmospherictemperature falls with height) or emission (if it rises), and occasionally the band mayhave a complicate shape.

1.3 Thermal sounding of the martian atmosphere1.3.1 Physical backgroundIn a strong absorption band, the thermal radiation emitted from the surface and loweratmospheric levels is absorbed by the higher regions and cannot escape to space.However, the strength of absorption bands usually varies by several orders ofmagnitude within a given spectral interval. If the outgoing radiation is measuredacross the entire band then different parts will bear information about the temperatureat different altitudes.

The thermal sounding needs several conditions to be satisfied. First, the gas must

74



have spectral bands in the thermal-IR region. Second, the gas must be abundantenough to give strong absorption in the centre of the band in order to maximise thealtitude range of sounding. Third, it is desirable that the gas is uniformly mixed withinthe bulk of the atmosphere and its abundance must not vary significantly with space,local time or season. Carbon dioxide meets these requirements rather well for theterrestrial planets. That is why CO2 fundamental bands are usually chosen forthermally sounding the atmospheres of Venus, Earth and Mars.

The solution of radiative transfer equation for the outgoing radiation takes theform:

(1)

where ν is the wavenumber, η = log (p) (p is pressure) is the vertical coordinate, εand Ts are the emissivity and temperature of the surface, respectively, B is the Planckfunction describing the blackbody radiation, T(η) is the vertical temperature profile,and

(2)

is the weighting function, where t (η, – ∞) is the transmittance between theatmospheric level η and space along the line-of-sight. The first term in Eq. (1)corresponds to the radiation from the surface attenuated by the atmosphere. Thesecond one describes the emission of the atmosphere. The weighting functionsK (ν, η) define the weight with which the atmospheric layer at pressure η contributesto the radiation measured at wavenumber ν. Eq. (1) is written under the followingassumptions:

— the atmosphere is plane parallel. This is valid until the emission angle is smallerthan ~80°;

— the scattering is neglected. This assumption is valid for almost all seasons onMars because the dust loading is small. Only during dust storms should thescattering by dust be taken into account and Eq. (1) modified;

— it is assumed that the local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) requirement is met.This assumption means that the scattering in spectral lines is negligible and theenergy of each absorbed photon is converted to the thermal energy of the gas viamolecular collisions. This provides the necessary coupling between the radiationand kinetic temperature of the emitting gas. Detailed studies showed that the LTEconditions are fulfilled in the martian atmosphere at least in the altitude region 0-60 km, which will be covered by PFS.

1.3.2 PFS temperature sounding capabilitiesThe positions of the absorption bands of CO2 gas in the PFS spectral region are shownin Fig. 1. The central wavenumbers and line intensities were taken from the HITRANdatabase (Rothman et al., 1992). Two very strong fundamental bands of CO2 are inthe thermal-IR region (200-2500 cm–1) and they can be used for thermal sounding.The first at 15 µm is in the region of maximum radiation from Mars and is optimalfor thermal sounding. The band at 4.3 µm falls in the spectral interval where thethermal radiation is already low and the contribution from reflected solar light is notnegligible. However, this band can be used at least at the night side to improve thequality of thermal sounding provided by the 15 µm band. PFS will be the firstinstrument to measure the outgoing radiation in these two bands simultaneously.

The altitude coverage and vertical resolution of the remote sensing are defined by

K1n, h2 � �0t 1h, �q 2

0h

I1n2 � e1n2 B1n, TS2 t 1hS, �q 2 � �� q

hs

B 3n, T1h2 4 K1n, h2 dh

75


SP-1240

the behaviour of weighting functions (Eq. 2). Examples of the weighting functions forPFS are shown in Fig. 2. The numbers on the curves designate the wavenumber: 550-668 cm–1 corresponds to 15 µm and 2360-2380 cm–1 to 4.3 µm. PFS weightingfunctions cover the pressure range from the surface up to ~10–3 mbar, correspondingto altitudes 0-70 km. However, the effectiveness of thermal sounding drops as theweighting functions decrease with altitude. The width of weighting functions isdefined by the scale height of the atmosphere (~10 km) and the band structure. FromEq. 1 it is clear that broad weighting functions smooth small-scale features of thetemperature profile. Nevertheless, practise shows that the features much smaller thanthe width of the weighting function can be retrieved from the emission spectrumbecause many spectral channels are used. The vertical resolution is estimated to be 3-5 km.

Additional use of the measurements in the 4.3 µm CO2 band can improve thequality of the sounding, especially above 30 km. At these altitudes, the weightingfunctions for 15 µm (667 cm–1 and 668 cm–1) are very broad. Those for the 4.3 µmband (2360 cm–1 and 2370 cm–1) have smaller widths. These channels can providebetter determination of the temperature profile above 30 km. The sounded region can

76

Fig. 1. Transmittance of gases in the atmosphere of Mars.

Fig. 2. Carbon dioxide weighting functions for the 4.3 µm and 15 µmabsorption bands.

Fig. 3. Synthetic spectra in the LW channel of PFS. Fig. 4. Test temperature retrievals from PFS spectra.



be extended upward by ~10 km in the off-nadir observations allowed by the PFSscanning capability. Fig. 2 (dashed lines) shows examples of weighting functions forslant geometry with emission angle of 80° for the 668 cm–1 and 2360 cm–1 channels.

1.3.3 Test temperature retrievals from PFS radiance spectraThe vertical temperature profile T(η) is the solution of the non-linear integral Eq. 1using the radiance measurements I(ν) in the CO2 band. The solutions of this problemare unstable with respect to small perturbations of the right hand side of the equation.The experimental errors in the measured radiance spectrum can result in a non-physical temperature profile. The procedures that can provide a stable solution of theill-posed problems are regularisation algorithms. They use various kinds of a prioriinformation about the solution in order to select physically meaningful functionsamong mathematically possible solutions.

Several methods were developed to solve the thermal-sounding Eq. 1. The Smithiterative (Smith, 1970) and Tikhonov regularisation (Tikhonov et al., 1990) methodswere used for testing temperature retrievals from PFS radiance spectra. First, usingthe MARSGRAM software (Justus et al., 1995), three ‘true’ temperature profiles wereselected, representing the variety of conditions on Mars: 1 equatorial day model;2 equatorial night model; 3 polar summer model. The synthetic spectra of theoutgoing radiation calculated for each temperature model and dust-free atmosphereare shown in Fig. 3.

Each retrieval algorithm organises its own process of iterative correction of theinitial profile. It is done in different ways but all the methods tend to reduce thedeviation of the synthetic profile from the ‘measured’ one.

The surface pressure is usually a free parameter in the retrieval procedures.However, the measurements in the 2.0 µm CO2 band simultaneously carried out in thePFS short wavelength channel will provide the necessary data on the surface pressure,at least for daytime observations. So it was assumed that the surface pressure wasknown in this set of test retrievals.

Temperature profiles retrieved by the Smith iterative and Tikhonov regularisationmethods are compared in Fig. 4 with the ‘true’ profiles. The retrieval error bars fordust-free tests are also presented in the right side of the figure. The followingconclusions about the PFS temperature-sounding capabilities can be drawn from thetest retrievals:

— in the dust-free atmosphere, the temperature profile can be retrieved from themeasurements in the 15 µm CO2 band with an accuracy of ~3K in the altituderegion 0-65 km. This value can be considered as the noise of the retrievalprocedures. The accuracy of the retrievals from the actual measurements willdepend on the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) achieved in the PFS measurements;

— the retrieval errors increase above 65 km because the weighting functionsdecrease with altitude (Fig. 2) and the radiance measurements are no longersensitive to atmospheric temperature;

— the retrieval accuracy at the surface is 2-3K by deriving the surface pressure fromthe 2.0 µm CO2 measurements. This was proved by several test retrievals with thewrong surface pressure;

— test temperature retrievals from the dusty spectrum without taking aerosols intoaccount resulted in ~10K errors in the lower 10 km of the atmosphere.

1.3.4 The influence of aerosolsDust is always present in the martian atmosphere. Its abundance varies significantlywith season and from year to year. Its optical depth changes from 0.2 to more thanunit in the visual range. The absorption features of palagonite dust were discovered inMariner-9 spectra. In the short wavelength wing of the 15 µm CO2 band, the water icefeatures have been found in Mars Global Surveyor/TES spectra. They were observedat high zenith angle, together with palagonite bands.

77


SP-1240

The influence of aerosols on martian spectra were modelled, assuming thepresence of palagonite aerosols (optical parameters were taken from Roush et al.,1993) with modified gamma particle size distribution (Pollack & Toon, 1982):

(3)

The modal radius rm = 0.4, effective radius reff = 1.6 µm and constants α = 1 andγ = 1 were used. In the spectral range favourable for temperature and aerosol retrieval,the single scattering albedo is less than 0.4; aerosol particles are black and non-scattering. In order to model the aerosol influence in the spectral range of temperatureretrieval, spectra were calculated for optical depth τ = 0.3, 1, 10, and scale heightHa = 10 km at zenith angles of observations 0° and 70°. The results are shown inFig. 5.

The aerosol influence on the spectra can be summarised as:— aerosol absorption increases the altitude of the effective emission level. So a

temperature profile retrieved with pure gaseous transmission functions relates tothe shifted levels;

— aerosol absorption can be asymmetrical in the wings of the 15 µm band. Theabsorption coefficient is doubled in the long wavelength wing. The measuredbrightness temperature in the short wavelength wing agrees with calculations,although in the long wavelength wing it is systematically lower.

1.4 The 3-D global atmospheric circulationDirect observations of winds in the martian atmosphere are very rare, available foronly a few landing sites. Wind direction and speed derived from cloud tracking andaeolian streaks correspond to the boundary layer and are often ambiguous (see Zureket al., 1992, and references therein). Remote sounding from orbit remains the mostvaluable source of information about the large-scale dynamics of the atmosphere.Long-term global monitoring by PFS of such atmospheric parameters as verticaltemperature profiles, aerosol optical depth, surface pressure and water vapour columndensity will provide an important insight into the following aspects of the atmosphericdynamics:

Global circulation. The fundamentals of atmospheric dynamics on rapidly rotatingplanets like Earth and Mars show that geostrophic winds derived from the remotelydetermined 3-D temperature field are a good approximation of the true large-scaleatmospheric motions in a non-equatorial zone (Pedlosky, 1979). So far, thermal windshave been retrieved only from the Mariner-9/IRIS observations taken during thenorthern winter (Zurek et al., 1992). Long-term global temperature sounding of themartian atmosphere by PFS will have complete latitude, longitude and seasonalcoverage in the altitude range from the surface up to about 60 km. This will allow usto determine systematically the wind pattern and to follow seasonal changes in globalcirculation. Simultaneous monitoring of the atmosphere’s dust content will providefurther insight into the role of dust in the atmospheric dynamics. PFS observationswill also help us to understand the mechanisms of polar warming, which is supposedto be of a dynamical nature.

Wave phenomena. The experience gained from the analysis of Mariner-9/IRIS andViking/IRTM data shows that similar observations of the atmospheric temperaturefield by PFS will allow us to study some important wave phenomena: thermal tidesand their interaction with large-scale topography, quasi-stationary waves probablygenerated by instabilities in the mid-latitude zonal jet, and large-amplitude waves athigh latitudes during the polar warming.

n1r2 r ra exp c � a

g 1r>rm2g d

78



Transport of atmospheric species. Mars is a unique planet, where the mainatmospheric component (carbon dioxide) is deposited on the polar caps in winter.This produces seasonal variations of up to 25% in surface pressure. Systematicmeasurements of this parameter by PFS will give an estimate of the mean meridionalflow from summer to winter hemisphere. Furthermore, the water vapour that sublimesfrom the polar cap in summer and is then transported to the lower latitudes can beused as a tracer of the large-scale atmospheric motions (Haberle & Jakosky, 1990).PFS observations of atmospheric water will impose additional constraints on thetransporting winds.

1.5 The minor constituentsMinor constituents identified in the atmosphere of Mars are H2O, CO, O2, O3, He, Ne,Ar, Kr and Xe. Their mixing ratios are less than 10–3. Four of these gases have bandsin the PFS spectral range: H2O, CO, O3, O2 (Fig. 1). The bands of isotopes such asHDO,13C 16O2,

12C, 16O and 18O are well separated from the bands corresponding to themain isotopes and may be used to re-estimate the isotopic ratios.

Synthetic spectra of Mars in the wide spectral range of 1.2-45 µm were computed

79

Fig. 5. Synthetic spectra of Mars’ atmosphere, including the 9 µmpalagonite absorption band. Fig. 6. Synthetic spectrum for the PFS SW channel.

Fig. 7. Synthetic transmittance spectrum in the 3.7 µm HDO band. Fig. 8. Synthetic transmittance spectrum in the 2.35 µm CO band.


SP-1240

in order to analyse the PFS capabilities in the investigation of minor constituents.Thegeneral view of the martian spectrum in the near-IR range is shown in Fig. 6.

The spectrum demonstrates sharp absorption features of the atmospheric CO2, H2Oand CO, and a broad spectral signature of surface minerals at ~3 µm. It also shows thecontribution from thermal emission at λ > 4 µm (dashed line). The computations wereperformed for the nominal temperature model (mid-latitudes, northern summer)elaborated on the basis of Viking landing data (Seiff, 1982). PFS measurements willprovide the H2O detection limit of ~1 µm. The transmittance spectrum of HDO is shownin Fig. 7. Fig. 8 presents the CO transmittance spectrum for the mixing ratio of 6x10–4.

The martian volcanoes are the highest in the Solar System. They cover more than2 atmospheric scale heights (~27 km in the case of Olympus Mons). Suchtopographical features offer the possibility of obtaining vertical profiles for tracegases and dust. PFS observations along the slopes will sound increasingly highaltitudes as the field of view moves towards the top. However, the analysis of suchobservations is not straightforward because the vertical profiles of the species in thevicinity of the slopes can be affected by the surface-atmospheric interactions and candiffer from those in the free atmosphere.

1.6 Water distribution and cycle in the martian atmosphereThe first detection of H2O on Mars was made by Earth-based spectral observations athigh resolution (about 0.1 Å) using the Doppler shift of weak lines with respect tomuch stronger telluric features in the band at 8200 Å (Spinrad & Richardson, 1963;Kaplan et al., 1964). If a telluric absorption line is not oversaturated, then a muchweaker planetary feature belonging to the same gas can be visible on its wing becauseof Doppler shift. Water vapour in the martian atmosphere have been studiedsystematically using this method, including average abundance and latitude, daily andseasonal variations. Average water abundance of about 10 µm ppw (precipitablemicrons water equivalent) is a typical value. However, the ground-based observationshad intrinsic limitations in spatial resolution and coverage.

Measurements of water bands in the atmosphere of Mars were also performed byseveral experiments onboard the orbiters Mars-3 (Moroz & Nadzhip, 1975),Mariner-9 (Hanel et al., 1972) and Viking-1 & -2 (Jakosky & Farmer, 1982). Theseexperiments provided much better spatial resolution (≤ 20 km) and detectionthreshold (1-3 µm ppw).

Mariner-9/IRIS detected atmospheric water vapour in the region from the SouthPole to the Equator, using rotational lines in the spectra between 250 cm–1 and500 cm–1. These features were not observed over the North Pole. The total amount ofwater vapour in the atmosphere was estimated from a quantitative comparison ofobserved and synthetic spectra in the range 10-20 µm ppw. It has been proposed (e.g.Pollack et al., 1979) that water vapour abundance in the atmosphere may be greatlyaffected by the adsorption of water vapour on dust particles. Suspended dust particleswould supply a large surface, producing rather efficient adsorption. Much of the watervapour would settle with dust and it would be released again into the atmosphere asthe temperature increases. There is a strong coupling between the temperature and thewater abundance fields, but there is still no clear understanding of all the possiblesources and sinks of atmospheric water.

Sublimation of water from the north polar cap certainly occurs, but the best modelis still uncertain on the quantity. Similarly the regolith is certainly capable ofadsorbing and desorbing water, thereby modulating to some degree the amount ofwater within the atmosphere. The efficiency of this process depends, however, on thecomposition of the regolith and on the ability of water molecules to diffuse throughthe uppermost centimetres of regolith, and both of these are very uncertain (Jakosky& Haberle, 1992). A set of experiments on future Orbiters and Landers is necessaryfor a real understanding of the seasonal cycle. First of all, long-term studies (manymartian years) of water vapour are necessary. Several missions are required and PFSwill make a crucial contribution.

80



The water vapour mixing ratio profile seems to indicate the existence of tworegions in the atmosphere: below 20-25 km there is relatively high water abundance;above this boundary, it is about 10 times lower (Rodin et al., 1997).

Three different spectral ranges could be used for remote measurements ofatmospheric water from orbit:

— near-IR: bands at 1.38, 1.87, 2.7 µm;— thermal-IR details of the pure rotational H2O band in the range 20-50 µm;— microwave lines of the pure rotational bands (1.63 µm, for instance).

The sensitivity curve of PFS is such that the 1.87 µm and 2.7 µm bands are morefavorable. The detection threshold of 1 µm ppw could be achieved in measurementswith an S/N of 100.

The 1.87 µm band appears to be the most convenient for H2O detection, as it isalmost free of overlap with the CO2 bands. However, the 2.7 µm band will be used tomake the H2O abundance determination more accurate.

The disadvantage of the thermal-IR range is the strong dependence of the waterspectral features on the temperature profile in the lowest 1-3 km of the atmosphere,which cannot be resolved directly by any remote-sounding experiment. In principle,we can observe H2O features in the thermal-IR range not only in absorption but evenin emission (in the case of the temperature inversion just above the surface). However,the joint analysis of the H2O spectral details observed simultaneously in the near-IRand in the pure rotational bands can impose constraints on the vertical distribution ofwater vapour. Fig. 9 shows the isolines of equivalent widths of the 1.87 µm band(solid lines) and 50 µm band (dots). This diagram is based on a set of calculations ofsynthetic spectra for various H2O vertical profiles. The abscissa shows the H2Ocolumn density and Z is the effective altitude of water location. Fig. 9 demonstratesthat simultaneous measurements in several water vapour bands will be able to give anestimate of vertical distribution.

PFS also provides an additional opportunity for detection of the 3.7 µm HDO band.It was observed in the martian spectrum by Owen et al. (1988) and the D/H ratio wasfound to be considerably higher than on Earth (about 6 times). PFS could provide anew, independent determination of this ratio.

In summary, PFS will perform long-term observations of atmospheric watervapour on Mars. This will provide further understanding of the behaviour of water onthe planet, its seasonal and diurnal cycles, and distribution of sources and sinks. Incomparison with other experiments that have measured martian H2O, PFS has severaladvantages:

81

Fig. 9. Simultaneous measurements of theequivalent width of two H2O bands givesinformation about the vertical distribution ofwater vapour.


SP-1240

— the uncertainties in temperature profile, which are usual for near-IR observationsof water vapour bands, will be minimised by simultaneous temperature-soundingin the 15 µm CO2band;

— high spectral resolution in the near-IR range will result in clear discriminationbetween the atmospheric and surface spectral features, making the quantitativeanalysis more reliable;

— simultaneous observations of the water vapour bands in thermal-IR and near-IRwill help the vertical distribution of H2O to be estimated.

1.7 The aerosol investigation1.7.1 IntroductionThe scientific objectives of PFS include:

— the determination of the optical properties, size distribution and chemicalcomposition of the atmospheric aerosols: dust clouds, ice clouds and hazes;

— the investigation of the influence of aerosols on energy exchanges in theatmosphere.

The surface-atmosphere interaction plays a role in the surface’s morphology andchemical composition and the atmosphere’s temperature, pressure and composition.It is well known that the CO2, water and dust cycles are strongly interconnected andwith the seasonal variations. Winds, erosion processes and global dust storms are theprincipal mechanisms for material exchange between aerosols and the surface andbetween different regions of the planet. Studying the atmosphere’s solid componentsis therefore an important task. Furthermore, the composition of the atmospheric dustprovides clues on the chemical composition of the surface, because the identificationof dust materials implies characterisation of the soil properties. Last but not least,correctly interpreting the atmosphere’s pressure and temperature behaviour mustinclude the role played by the aerosols.

1.7.2 The dust cycleAtmospheric dust has a role in determining the martian climate and it is clear that itis key for surface geology over a long time scale.

Suspended dust affects the thermal structure and atmospheric circulation with atypical seasonal evolution (Haberle, 1986). The increase of opacity in the northernhemisphere autumn and winter is consistent with global dust storms. This effect islinked to the planet’s perihelion, when heating and atmospheric circulation reachmaximum. Atmospheric opacity also depends on the form, dimension and composi-tion of the dust grains.

During local dust storms, the lifted materials are redistributed over contiguousareas, while global dust storms transfer dust from the southern hemisphere to thenorth and the polar cap. Beside the storm effects, dust can be transferred through theatmosphere by baroclinic and planetary waves (Kahn et al., 1992). The dust isprobably placed in suspension by strong winds and/or water and CO2 degassing fromthe regolith.

The continuous monitoring of the martian atmosphere by PFS in the IR will revealthe evolution of the aerosol composition and amount. Moreover, the dust cycle isstrongly linked to the water and CO2 atmospheric cycles. In fact, the presence of dustat the poles can significantly affect the energetic balance and, then, influence thewater vapour and CO2 fluxes. Dust grains in the atmosphere may becomecondensation nuclei for CO2 and H2O accretion on their surfaces. In particular, theCO2 condensed on the grain surface may act as a cold trap for atmospheric water. Inaddition, the transfer of dust from the surface to the atmosphere depends on thepressure and, therefore, on the CO2 abundance. These elements are further evidencethat dust and gas composition of the atmosphere are connected and cannot be treatedseparately.

82



1.7.3 Aerosol dust particlesAlthough spectral signatures of dust particles were clearly evident in Mariner-9/IRISspectra, it was difficult to define the bulk composition of solid grains with a highdegree of confidence. The content of SiO2 in the dust has been inferred from thecomparison of observations with laboratory data; it appears to be 60±10%. Phobos-2observations of the martian atmosphere using solar occultations in the UV and visiblerevealed absorption features, probably owing to aerosols (dust particles interpreted ashaematite-type) and ozone. A correlation seems to exist between the amount ofparticulate material in the atmosphere and ozone abundance. This evidence suggeststhe possibility of heterogeneous chemistry in martian aeronomy (Atreya, 1989) andconfirms that aerosols and dust particles play an important role in atmosphericevolution. However, the nature of the particles and their size distribution is not welldetermined. Atreya (1989) suggests that they could be ices covered by different typesof dust (haematite, magnetite and limonite). The PFS data will be helpful inidentifying the aerosol nature: the spectrum of light scattered by the atmosphericparticles and their thermal emission are sensitive to the chemical composition and sizedistribution. Additional restrictions could be imposed by the phase function measuredby PFS. The problem of separating contributions from the surface and atmosphericradiation should be solved when the aerosol optical depth is not very large. PFS willprovide the opportunity for simultaneous measurements of the spectra of the scatteredlight and the thermal emission of clouds and hazes in the wide range 1.25-45 µm.

1.7.4 The composition of dust The wavelength range of PFS over 5 µm can be diagnostic for the composition ofdust. Much observational evidence indicates the presence of silicate materials, butattribution to a specific class has not yet been achieved. The Mariner-9 data suggestedthat montmorillonite might be a major component (Hunt et al., 1973). While theobserved 10 µm silicate band is easily reproduced by laboratory spectra of crystallineclays, problems occur in simulating the 20 µm band: it does not exhibit any doublepeak, as is typical of many terrestrial silicate materials. Further observations by PFSat 10 µm and 20 µm could reveal spectroscopic details helpful for identifying thesilicate minerals in martian dust. Thermal emission spectra of Mars in the 5-10 µmrange have been obtained by a grating array spectrometer aboard the Kuiper AirborneObservatory (Pollack et al., 1989). The observations confirmed that the spectrum ofMars at > 5 µm has more features than previously believed (Roush et al., 1989).Features at 6.1, 7.8 and 9.8 µm are attributed to water and silicate minerals on thesurface. Weaker features appear atmospheric in origin: the CO3

2– anionic group cancontribute with bands at 6.7 µm and 7.05 µm, when included in distorted sites ofcomplicated crystalline structures; and SO4

2– and HSO4– in sulphates and bisulphates

produce resonances at 8.7 µm and 9.78 µm. Again, there are doubts about the relativeamount of carbonates and sulphates in the form of dust. PFS observations couldprovide details on cation composition in complex crystalline materials.

1.8 The soil of Mars1.8.1 IntroductionThe spectral studies of the martian surface indicate there to be different types of soiland rocks. They include drift soil, which is similar to the global dust and alreadyanalysed by remote spectral measurements from Mariner-9/IRIS, Viking andPhobos-2/ISM and directly at the Viking and Pathfinder landing sides by X-rayfluorescence (Toulmin et al., 1977). There is also sand – attributed to local weatheringprocesses – and more crystalline soil that could be a mixture of dust and localmaterial. The Pathfinder landing site is dominated by three rock types. Dark rockssuch as Barnacle Bill and Bambam seem to be fresh basalt or basaltic andesite (Riederet al., 1997). Bright rocks like Broken Wall and Wedge are attributed to weatheredbasalts or basaltic andesite. Pink rocks are thought to be chemically cemented driftformations. There is clearly a wide variety of chemical, mineralogical and

83


SP-1240

morphological characteristics in the surface material at the site. Global spectralstudies by PFS will add information on how representative these features are for thewhole surface, by comparing the PFS observations of the Pathfinder site with othermartian targets. Mapping the distribution of hydrated minerals and salts in the soil isimportant for understanding the weathering processes and the former role of water onMars.

1.8.2 The role of PFSTo study the surface of Mars, PFS observations will address the following objectives:

— thermal measurements and determination of the soil’s thermal inertia;— evaluate the local atmospheric pressure and the relative altitude of various

regions;— overview of generic areas of the surface in order to trace the overall distribution

of various materials (iron oxides, clays, palagonites, hydrates, sulphates, nitrates,igneous minerals, ices);

— study specific areas chosen to search for answers to fundamental questions on theevolution of the planet and the ancient paleoclimate, e.g. the past existence ofabundant liquid water on the surface (by searching for carbonates and otherevaporites);

— study the surface-atmosphere exchange processes.

IR spectroscopy in the range covered by PFS is a powerful tool for exploring thesurface composition. Different families of resonance fall within the IR spectral range:

— charge transition bands of electrons in the lattices of transition metal ions; — charge transfer bands due to electron exchange between ions in the material; — vibrational bands of radicals/molecules present in minerals.

In general, discriminating between atmospheric and surface contributions to thespectrum is rather difficult, requiring a combined study of surface and aerosol/dustconstituents. Correctly interpretating the gaseous atmospheric composition requiresthe subtraction of the solid material’s contribution from the recorded spectra.

Finally, a quantitative identification of materials must be based on a comparativeanalysis of the collected spectra with laboratory measurements on analoguecompounds representing martian materials.

1.8.3 Determination of the thermal inertia of the soilThermal inertia, which depends on thermal conductivity, mass density and specificheat, is a measure of the responsiveness of a medium to changes in its temperature.The dominant reason for variations in thermal inertia is generally grain-sizedifferences in the superficial material. Thus data on thermal inertia have the potentialfor telling us if the superficial material is relatively coarse- or fine-grained.

Using PFS measurements of the thermal spectrum from the martian surface in thewide spectral range 5-45 µm, it is possible to determine the pre-dawn temperature ofthe soil and, from this, its thermal inertia. This can be done by comparing the actualpre-dawn temperatures with those predicted by an idealised thermal model of thesurface layer (Kieffer et al., 1977).

1.8.4 Evaluation of the local atmospheric pressure and elevationThe depth of the carbon dioxide unsaturated absorption band measured at a specificsite depends on the local atmospheric pressure and, consequently, on the altitude . ThePFS SW channel (1.2-5.0 µm) could be used to acquire pressure and relative elevationdata and, finally, to map the surface relief. Such an approach was applied to theMars-3 and -5 and Phobos data.

84



1.8.5 The chemical and mineral composition of the surfaceAmong the prime unresolved and oft-debated questions of Mars is the structure andcomposition of its surface materials. Reflectance and emittance spectroscopy in thenear-IR and mid-IR is diagnostic of mineralogy, and hence provides usefulinformation on the surface composition. The spectra of minerals in terrestrialconditions show remarkable dependence on varying experimental situations,including the form of the material (which may be bulk or particulate with differentgranularity and packing), background temperature, uniformity of sample heating,pressure and insolation angle.

1.8.6 Iron oxidesCrystalline ferric oxides, such as haematite, have long been proposed as one of themajor components of the martian surface, in view of the planet’s colour and thesubstantial amount of Fe2O3 measured in the soil by the Viking Landers. The broadabsorption bands around 10 µm and 20 µm, observed in the spectra fromMariner-9/IRIS, appear inconsistent with crystalline ferric oxides. On the other hand,there is no evidence for such compounds at the Pathfinder site.

The comparisons performed so far with the spectra of Mars suggest that either onlya few percent of coarsely crystalline haematite or abundant but nanocrystallinehaematite are present in the studied areas (Morris & Lauer, 1990). However, a moresystematic research of spectral features typical of Fe3+ resonances on the martiansurface can be useful to clarify this point. Spectroscopic observations by PFS in bothSW and LW channels (where haematite shows narrow bands at 2.9, 6.1 and 7.8 µmand broad bands around 18.5 µm and 21.5 µm) can be a great help in determining themain allotropic form of haematite on Mars. The spectral resolution of PFS in this caseshould have a strong diagnostic power, since the spectral bands of samples with a highdegree of crystallinity are, in general, more structured than those of nanocrystalline oramorphous samples (which tend, instead, to be structureless).

1.8.7 Water in the martian soilPFS will also trace the distribution of hydrates on the surface, by analysing the H2Obands around 3 µm (due to O-H stretching) and around 6 µm (H-O-H bending).Although it is clear that hydration water is widespread on the surface, there is notmuch of it. Surface materials should, in fact, be dehydrated in comparison withterrestrial soils, with a water content of up to a few percent (Soderblom, 1992). PFScan improve, on a statistical basis, these evaluations by searching for regions with ahigher content of hydration water.

1.8.8 IcesMars has a dynamical seasonal cycle of CO2 and H2O exchange between the surfaceand atmosphere. The interplay between vaporisation and condensation of both CO2and H2O produces clouds and mists in the atmosphere and frost and ices on thesurface. We expect – apart from polar summers – that PFS observations of ice andfrost deposits may be hindered by clouds and mists.

As the role of H2O in the polar cycles remains to be clarified, searching for CO2and H2O ice and frost features in the spectra of the north polar region will be veryuseful. Unlike H2O ice, which strongly absorbs throughout the thermal-IR, CO2 iceabsorbs strongly in the bands at 2.7 µm, 4.3 µm in the SW channel of PFS and at15 µm in the LW channel. This difference could be a basis for distinguishing betweenthe two substances while observing the surface ice deposits. If, however, there areabundant particles of solid CO2 more than a few µm in size, as there probably are atthe polar caps, the reflectivity and emissivity of the surface deposits are also stronglyinfluenced by the weak absorption between the strong bands (Hansen, 1997). In suchconditions, a thorough examination of these spectral regions is important.

85


SP-1240

2.1 IntroductionPFS is a double pendulum interferometer working in two wavelength ranges (1.2-5 µm and 5-45 µm; Table 2). Martian radiation is divided into two beams by adichroic mirror. The two ranges correspond to two planes (one on top of the other)containing the two interferometers, so that the same motor can simultaneously movethe two pendulums and the two channels are sampled simultaneously andindependently. The pendulum motion is accurately controlled via a laser diodereference channel using the same optics as the martian radiation. The same laser diodealso generates the sampling signal for the analogue-digital converter (ADC),measuring the 600 nm displacements of the double pendulum mirror. Themeasurements are double-sided interferograms, so that the onboard FFT can becomputed without needing the zero optical path difference location.

2.2 Instrument organisationPFS is a Fourier spectrometer produced by the combined efforts of several groupsfrom Italy, Russia, Poland, Germany, France and Spain. The flight hardware was builtin Italy (the Interferometer Block with its controlling electronics, the digitalelectronics controlling the experiment, and the Ground Support Equipment with thespacecraft simulator) and Poland (power supply and pointing system). Special flightparts and subassemblies were built in Russia and Germany.

2.3 Technical descriptionThe flight hardware, totalling 31.2 kg, is divided into four modules (Fig. 10), withconnecting cables (0.8 kg):

— Module-O (PFS-O): the interferometer, with its optics and proximity electronics,is the core of PFS. 21.5 kg;

— Module-S (PFS-S): the pointing device, which allows PFS to receive radiationfrom Mars or from the inflight calibration sources, 3.7 kg;

— Module-E (PFS-E): the digital electronics, including a 32-Mbit mass memory anda realtime FFT. 3.0 kg;

— Module-P (PFS-P): the power supply, with the DC/DC converter, redundanciesand the separate power supplies for the 16-bit ADCs. 2.2 kg.

Power requirements are: 5 W thermal control, 10 W in sleep mode, 35 W fulloperational mode and 44 W peak.

2.4 Module-O (PFS-O)PFS-O is divided into the Interferometer Block (IB) and Electronics Block (EB).They are mechanically separated but electrically connected through six cables. Thehighly compact IB is a gas-tight box filled by dry nitrogen in order to preserve thehygroscopic optical elements.

2.4.1 Optical scheme of PFS-OThe optical scheme of PFS is shown in Fig. 11. The incident IR beam falls onto theentrance filter that separates the radiation of the SW channel from that of the LWchannel and directs each into the appropriate interferometer channel. The PFS-S infront of the interferometer allows the FOV to be pointed along and across theprojection of the flight path onto the martian surface. It also directs the FOV at theinternal blackbody sources diffusers and to open space for inflight calibration. EachPFS channel is equipped with a pair of retroreflectors attached by brackets to an axlerotated by a torque motor. The axle and drive mechanism are used for both channels,which are vertically separated. The optical path difference is generated by the rotationof the retroreflectors (Hirsch & Arnold, 1993). The motor controller uses the outputsof two reference channels, which are equipped with laser diodes. This interferometerdesign is very robust against misalignment in a harsh environment, in comparison

86




with the classical Michelson-type interferometer (Hirsch, 1997). The detectors are inthe centre of the parabolic mirrors. The optical path is changed by rotating the shaftof the double pendulum along its axis. In this way, the optical path is four times thatprovided by a single cube-corner displacement because two mirrors move at the sametime. The dichroic mirror acts as a fork that divides the two spectral ranges. Indeed,it reflects all the wavelengths below 5 µm and remains more or less transparent forlonger wavelengths. The band stop for wavelengths below 1.2 µm is provided by thesilicon window, with its cutoff at 1.24 µm and placed in the optical inlet of the SW

87

Table 2. PFS characteristics.

SW LW

Spectral range, µm 1.2 – 5.0 5 – 50

Spectral range, cm–1 2000 – 8200 250 – 1750

Spectral resolution, cm–1 1.5 1.5

FOV, deg 1.7 2.8

NEB, W cm–2 sr–1 5 x 10–9 4 x 10–8

Detector type photoconductor pyroelectric

Material PbSe LiTaO3

Temperature, K 220 290

Interferometer type double pendulum

Reflecting elements cubic corner reflectors

Beamsplitter CaF2 CsI

Max. optical path difference, mm 5 5

Time for motion, s 5 5

Reference source laser diode

SW/LW separation KRS-5 with a multi-layer coating reflecting SW radiation

Interferogram two-sided

Sampling number 16384 4096

Sampling step, nm 600 600 (over-sampled)

Dynamical range 215

Spectra (from onboard FFT), 8192 2048number of points

Fig. 11. PFS optical scheme.

Fig. 10. PFS Flight Model integrated on MarsExpress at prime contractor Alenia Spazio inTurin.


SP-1240

channel. This filter is tilted by 1.5° so that the radiation returning to the source is notpartially reflected on the detector.

The double-pendulum axis is rotated by a brushless, frictionless motor (two forredundancy). The shaft of the double pendulum is held only by two preloaded ballbearings so additional mechanical friction is required for stabilising the pendulumspeed.

Double-sided interferograms are acquired by placing the zero optical pathdifference in the centre of the mirror displacement. A double-sided interferogram hasseveral advantages, including a relative insensitivity to phase errors. Bilateraloperation is adopted in order to reduce the time-cycle of each measurement, butseparate calibration for each direction is recommended in order to maintain theradiometric accuracy.

The spectral reference beam is a diode laser (InGaAsP at 1.2 µm); its detector is anIR photodiode with maximum response at about 1.2 µm. The beam of the referencechannel is processed like the input signal so that its optical path coincides with that ofthe signal being studied. Each channel has its own reference beam and the differentlengths of the double-pendulum arms are fully compensated for. Because the LWbeam splitter is not transparent at the wavelength of the corresponding referencediode laser, a special small window was added in order to keep the attenuation of thelaser beams negligible through the beam splitter itself. The unused output beams ofthe two reference channels terminate into optical traps.

2.4.2 Electronics of PFS-OMost of the electronics inside PFS-O are analogue but the microprocessor-based On-Board Data Management (OBDM) board controls all the complex procedures duringacquisition of the interferogram, including communication with PFS-E. It includes32 kword of EPROM for software storage and 96 kword for data. The most importantelectronics block is the speed controller. The zero crossing of an interferogram of amonochromatic source that is very stable in wavelength can be used for sampling theinterferogram of the source under study. Ideally, the interferogram of themonochromatic source should be a pure sine wave but it is not simply because itsinterferogram is limited in time. The shorter the wavelength of the reference sourcemeans better sampling accuracy.

For PFS, 1.2 µm is the reference source because of the limited variety of diodelasers and it simplifies the optical design. The wavelength of a diode laser depends onits temperature and power, so great care has to be taken in their control.

The speed of the double pendulum is such that a frequency of 2 kHz is generatedfor the SW channel, so a train of 4 kHz pulses is produced from the electronics of theSW reference channel. Thermal control is also very important for an IRinterferometer; heaters and thermometers are positioned at eight locations.

A ‘locking system’ blocks the double pendulum during launch and manoeuvringfor orbital insertion and correction. The procedure of locking and unlocking takes aminimum of 3 min but using a paraffin actuator means it can be repeated hundreds oftimes. The launch acceleration vector will be along the axis of the double pendulumfor maximum robustness.

The photoconductor SW channel detector can work at temperatures down to 200K.It is passively cooled through a radiator and its holder is partially insulated from therest of the IB. For the LW channel, the pyroelectric detector can operate withoutperformance degradation even at ambient temperatures.

2.5 Module-E (PFS-E)PFS-E controls all the PFS modules: the communications to and from the spacecraft,memorising and executing the command words, and operating PFS and sending backthe data words to the spacecraft. Moreover, it synchronises all the proceduresaccording to the time schedule and to the clock time from the spacecraft.

88



2.6 Module-P (PFS-P)PFS combines many kinds of electrical energy consumers: standard digital andanalogue electronics, sensitive preamplifiers and ADCs, light sources andelectromechanical devices (motors and relays). All of them have different supplyrequirements and some need to be electrically isolated (to ensure extremely highstability) and/or individually controlled by Module E’s processor. This is why PFS-Pis more complicated than a simple DC/DC converter: there are three independentconverters, six different power outputs (totalling 13 independent voltages), onecommon input interface to satellite and one interface to DAM. All converters havecold redundancy. Switching between main/reserve +5 V is controlled by thespacecraft, while the other main/reserve converters are controlled by PFS itself.

2.7 Module-S (PFS-S)The previous version of the pointing system, for the Mars-96 mission, had twodegrees-of-freedom in pointing (two rotation axes), but was rather heavy (8.5 kg forthe system and 2.3 kg for the controlling electronics). The pointing system is certainlynecessary for generating a complete set of measurements, since we need to measurenot only the martian radiation but also the calibration blackbody and empty space.Mars Express provides nadir pointing so PFS itself needs only one degree of rotation,simplifying the PFS-S design and reducing mass considerably (to 3.7 kg).

2.8 Modes of operation, data-acquisition cyclePFS-S and PFS-O work in parallel during an observation session, while PFS-Ecoordinates operations of the other modules by sending commands and receivingmessages. During measurements, PFS-S must be motionless while PFS-O acquiresdata. This is the only synchronisation point in the data-acquisition cycle. Uponcompletion of acquisition, all the modules work asynchronously while PFS-Ecoordinates their operations:

— starts rotation of PFS-S;— receives LW and SW interferograms from PFS-O;— if spectra are required, PFS uploads previously acquired LW and SW interfero-

grams into the Fast Fourier Transform processor and downloads computedspectra;

— prepares the telemetry data pack i.e. splits information into frames and storesthem in the mass memory;

— upon completion of the PFS-S rotation gives a command to PFS-O to start newacquisition.

After each data-acquisition cycle, PFS checks whether new telecommands havebeen received and, if any, executes them. Telemetry can be sent at any time on requestfrom the spacecraft.

2.9 Inflight calibrationDuring observation sessions, PFS periodically performs calibrations by sendingcommands to PFS-S to point sequentially at the calibration sources: deep space,internal blackbody and calibration lamp. The housekeeping information obtainedfrom PFS-O after each calibration measurement contains, in particular, thetemperatures of the sensors and the blackbody. These data are used for thecomputation of the absolute spectra for the LW channel.

3.1 What is measuredThe two detectors of the LW and SW channels measure the light intensity of the twointerferograms. The repetition of the measurement while the double pendulum movesat constant speed gives the interferogram. In order to compute the spectrum from the

89

3. Test and Calibration


SP-1240

interferogram, the measurements must be taken at constant optical path difference,information given by the zero crossings of the sine signal from the interferogram of amonochromatic light (the laser diode).

3.2 Responsivity and signal-to-noise ratiosThree PFS models passed through the laboratory ‘calibration’ process: PFS-06(Qualification), PFS-07 (Flight) and PFS-08 (spare FM, the refurbished PFS-06).‘Calibration’ in this context means laboratory studies of the instrument properties thatare necessary (although perhaps not sufficient) to extract spectra in absolute unitsfrom the observations of Mars by PFS. Ideally, calibrations should result in thealgorithm of transfer from telemetric information to spectra of Mars in absolute units.However, instrument properties are not constant with time and the problem iscomplicated by the differences between laboratory and space conditions. Additionalinformation, including inflight calibration and even models of martian spectra, isnecessary for processing actual data.

Having a set of n independently found Bν0(i) spectra, we can compute the averagespectrum Bνν00 and noise equivalent brightness (NEB)

(4)

A more detailed discussion of the processing procedure for IR spectrometer data isgiven in Hanel et al. (1992). Two blackbody-imitator sources (cooled by liquidnitrogen) were used to study the PFS LW channel properties; one blackbody at 1400Kwas used to study the SW channel. Sensitivity Dν and noise equivalent brightnessNEBν were then computed from these measurements. The spectral resolution wasmeasured with a mercury lamp and taking spectra with known features.

Fig. 12 shows the measured spectrum of the lamp used for calibrating bothchannels. The S/N is also computed from the measurements. Fig. 13 shows a CH4feature as measured in the LW and at maximum spectral resolution, to indicate that2 cm–1 was achieved.

Rough computations show that an S/N at Mars of about 100 or larger will beachieved in the vicinity of 15 µm bands with the detector at 220K. This is goodenough for retrieving the vertical temperature profiles of the atmosphere. Furtherstudies of the instrument’s thermal behaviour will be performed.

The responsivity for wavenumbers ν > 5000 cm–1 is rather poor, because thereflectivity of the semi-transparent mirror separating LW and SW radiation is too lowin this part of spectra. It is also this part of the spectrum where errors in opticalalignment have greater impact. The situation is improved by optimising the transferfunction of the SW channel filter.

3.3 Sample of performed measurementsLaboratory measurements were made on gases such as CO2 by using a gas cell, andstudying the transmission of radiation from a source. Fig. 14 shows the LW spectraaround 15 µm, obtained for different CO2 pressures inside the cell. Measurementswere made at room temperature. Figs. 15 & 16 show the SW CO2 band at 4.3 µm and2.7 µm. It is evident that the spectral resolution allows the observation ofrotovibrational features of the gas.

4.1 Data-transmission modesThe data-transmission mode (DTM) defines the kind of scientific data that PFS mustselect and store in the mass memory to be sent to Earth. PFS has 15 DTMs, numberedfor historical reasons, 0, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 17, 18, 27, 28, 9, 10, 15, 16. DTM 0 is forPFS operating in the autonomous test mode; the others are obtained in the science

NEBn2 � a

Bn01i2 � BN0

n � 1

90

4. Data-taking Along theOrbit



91

Fig. 14. CO2 15 µm transmission band measured in the laboratory withPFS at different gas pressures.

Fig. 16. CO2 2.7 µm band measured with PFS in the laboratory atdifferent gas pressures.

Fig. 15. CO2 4.3 µm band measured with PFS in the laboratory atdifferent gas pressures.

Fig. 12. Computed S/N for SW and LW using a single globar lampspectrum.

Fig 13. CH4 bands in the LW channel at different resolution (PFSmeasurements: triangles; laboratory spectrometer: squares).


SP-1240

mode, where PFS acquires both LW and SW interferograms. If spectra are required(DTM 9, 10, 15, 16), PFS makes Fast Fourier Transforms of the interferograms. Then,depending on the DTM, PFS selects the required data. Interferograms can be selectedcompletely or partially.

Of the 15 DTMs, 10 provide interferograms and four spectra:

— MODE 0: autotest of the interferometer (4096 points in the LW channel and 16384 pointsin the SW channel provide the sine wave shape and the monitoring of the speed during thedouble pendulum motion);

— MODE 2: full LW interferograms;— MODE 4: half-resolution interferograms, SW and LW;— MODE 5: half-resolution LW interferograms;— MODE 6: half-resolution SW interferograms;— MODE 7: full LW interferogram + one-sided SW interferogram (including the zero optical

path difference and right side);— MODE 8: one-sided LW and SW interferograms (right side);— MODE 17: full LW and SW interferograms;— MODE 18: full SW interferograms;— MODE 27: full LW interferogram + one-sided SW interferogram (including the zero

optical path difference and left side);— MODE 28: one-sided LW and SW interferograms (left side);— MODE 9: modules of LW and SW spectra; — MODE 10: modules of LW spectra;— MODE 15: full modules of LW spectra and SW spectra with reduced range (2000 points

in the SW channel between 2000 and 4000 cm–1);— MODE 16: modules of SW spectra (6144 points).

4.2 Data-taking along the orbit.PFS will perform measurement when the spacecraft is below 4000 km. PFS will wakeup from its sleep mode about 1 h before and follow the scheme:

— apocentre: PFS is in sleep mode, telecommands can be received;— pericentre minus 60 min: wake-up, wait for warm-up, start autonomous test,

calibration LW, calibration SW, calibration deep space. PFS-S in nadir direction.Give data to the spacecraft;

— pericentre minus 40 min: start martian observations. Give data to the spacecraft;— pericentre plus 48 min: stop martian observations. Give data to the spacecraft;— pericentre plus 53 min: calibration LW, calibration SW, calibration deep space,

autonomous test. Give data to the spacecraft. Go into sleep mode;— up to apocentre in sleep mode.

In total, 600 measurements per orbit are taken, of which 60 are calibrations. Thiscorresponds to 1200 measurements per day (the third orbit per day being fordownlink) and 823 440 spectra in a martian year. The footprint from 4000 km is ofthe order of 109 km for the SW channel and 188 km for the LW channel; at pericentre(250 km) they become respectively 6.8 km and 11.8 km (perpendicular to the groundtrack, but 20 km along it) .

92



Arnold, G., Hirsch, H., Formisano, V. & Moroz, V. (1993). Studies of MartianAtmosphere and Surface by the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer on Board of theMars-94 Mission. Proc. SPIE 2089, 284.

Atreya, S.K. (1989). The Martian Upper Atmosphere. In Colloque International,Premiere Resultats de la Mission Phobos et Future Missions d’exploration deMars, CNES, Paris, France, p42.

Bartholomew, M.J., Cruikshank, D.P. & Roush, T. (1990). Asteroid and MeteoriteSpectral Analogs for Phobos. Bull. Amer. Astro.Soc. 22, 1115.

Carr, M.H. (1974). The Geology of Mars. In A Primer in Lunar Geology, NASAAmes Research Center, pp459-460.

Haberle, R.M. (1986). The Climate of Mars. Sci. Am. 254, 54-62.Haberle, R.M. & Jakowsky, B.M. (1990). Sublimation and Transport of Water from

the North Residual Polar Cap on Mars. J. Geophys. Res. 95, 1423.Hanel, R.A., Conrath, B.J., Jennings, D.E. & Samuelson, R.E. (1992). Exploration of

the Solar System by Infrared Remote Sensing, Cambridge University Press, UK.Hanel, R., Conrath, B., Howis, W., Kunde, V., Lowman, P., Maguire., W., Pearl, J.,

Pirraglia, J., Prabhakara, C. & Schlachman, B. (1972). Investigation of the MartianEnvironment by Infrared Spectroscopy on Mariner-9. Icarus 17, 423-442.

Hansen, G.B. (1997). The Infrared Absorption Spectrum of Carbon Dioxide Ice from1.8 to 333 µm. J. Geophys. Res. 102, E9, 21569-21588.

Hirsch, H. & Arnold, G. (1993). Fourier Transform Spectroscopy in Remote Sensingof Solid Planetary Surfaces. Vib. Spectrosc. 5, 119-123.

Hirsch, H. (1997). Optical Design and Performance of the Planetary FourierSpectrometer (PFS). Mcrochimica Acta [Suppl.] 14, 571-574.

Hunt, G.R., Logan, L.M. & Salisbury, J.W. (1973). Mars: Components of InfraredSpectra and Composition of the Dust Clouds. Icarus 18, 459.

Hunt, G.R., Salisbury, J.W. & Lenhoff, C.J. (1974).Visible and Near Infrared Spectraof Minerals and Rocks: IX. Basic and Ultrabasic Igneous Rocks. Modern Geology5, 15-22.

Jakosky, B.M. & Haberle, R.M. (1992). The Seasonal Behavior of Water on Mars. InMars (Eds. H.H. Kieffer, B.M. Jakosky, C.W. Snyder & M.S. Matthews), TheUniversity of Arizona Press, Tucson, USA, pp969-1016.

Jakosky, B.M. & Farmer, C.B. (1982). The Seasonal and Global Behavior of WaterVapor in the Mars Atmosphere – Complete Global Results of the Viking Atmo-spheric Water Detector Experiment. J. Geoph. Res. 87, 2999-3019.

Justus, C.G., James, O. & Johnson, A. (1995). Mars Global Reference AtmosphericModel (Mars-GRAM 3.34): Programmer’s Guide. Computer Sciences Corp., USA.

Kahn, R.A., Martin, T.Z., Zurek, R.W. & Lee, S.W. (1992). The Martian Dust Cycle.In Mars (Eds. H.H. Kieffer, B.M. Jakosky, C.W. Snyder & M.S. Matthews), TheUniversity of Arizona Press, Tucson, USA, pp1017-1053.

Kaplan, L.D., Munch, G. & Spinrad, H. (1964). An Analysis of the Spectrum of Mars.Astrophys. J. 139, 1.

Kieffer, H.H., Martin, T.Z., Peterfreund, A.R., Jakosky, B.M., Miner, E.D. &Palluconi, F.D. (1977). Thermal and Albedo Mapping of Mars during the VikingPrimary Mission. J. Geoph. Res. 82, 4249-4291.

Kliore, A.J., Cain, D.L., Fjeldbo, G., Seidel, B.L., Sykes, M.J. & Rasool, S.I. (1972).The Atmosphere of Mars from Mariner 9 Radio Occultation Measurements. Icarus17, 484-516.

Kliore, A.J., Woiceshyn, P.M. & Hubbard, W.B. (1977). Pioneer 10 and 11 RadioOccultations by Jupiter. In Symposium on Minor Constituents and Excited Species,Philadelphia, Pa., USA, 9-10 June 1976 (A78-18101 05-42), p703-710.

McCord, T.B. & Cruikshank, D.P. (1981). Spectrophotometric Remote Sensing ofPlanets and Satellites. In Infrared Astronomy; Proceedings of the Symposium,Kona, HI, USA, 23-27 June 1980 (A82-33729 16-90), p57-87.

Morris, R.V. & Lauer, H.V. (1990). Matrix Effects for Reflectivity Spectra of

93

References


SP-1240

Dispersed Nanophase (Usuperparamagnetic) Hematite with Application to MartianSpectral Data. J. Geophys. Res. 95, 5101.

Moroz, V. & Nadzhip, A.E. (1975). Measurements of Water Vapour Densities onMars 5 Orbiter: Preliminary Results. Cosmic Res. 13, 28.

Owen, T. (1992). The Composition and Early History of the Atmosphere of Mars. InMars (Eds. H.H. Kieffer, B.M. Jakosky, C.W. Snyder & M.S. Matthews), TheUniversity of Arizona Press, Tucson, USA, pp818-834.

Owen, T., Maillard, J.P., de Bergh, C. & Lutz, B.L. (1988). Deuterium on Mars: TheAbundance of HDO and the Value of D/H. Science 240, 1767.

Pedlosky, J. (1979). Geophysical Fluid Dynamics, Springer-Verlag, Germany.Pollack, J.B. & Toon, O.B. (1982). Quasi Periodic Climate Changes on Mars: A

Review. Icarus 50, 259.Pollack, J., Roush, T., Witteborn, F., Bregman, J., Wooden, D., Stoker, C., Toon, O.,

Rank, D., Dalton, B. & Freedman, R. (1989). Thermal Emission Spectra of Mars(5.4-10.5 mm): Evidence for Sulfates, Carbonates and Hydrates. In ColloqueInternational, Premiere Resultats de la Mission Phobos et Future Missionsd’exploration de Mars, CNES, Paris, France, p93.

Pollack, J.B., Colburn, D.S., Flasar, F.M., Kahn, R., Carlston, C.E. & Pidek, D.G.(1979). Properties and Effects of Dust Particles Suspended in the MartianAtmosphere. J. Geoph. Res. 84, 2929-2945.

Rieder, R., Wänke, H., Economou, T. & Turkevich, A. (1997). Determination of theChemical Composition of Martian Soil and Rocks: The Alpha Proton X-raySpectrometer. J. Geoph. Res. 102, E2, 4027-4044.

Rodin, A.V., Korablev, O.I. & Moroz, V.I. (1997). Vertical Distribution of Water inthe Near-Equatorial Troposphere of Mars: Water Vapor and Clouds. Icarus 125,N1, 212-229.

Rothman, L.S., Gamache, R.R., Tipping, R.H., Rinsland, C.P., Smith, M.A.H.,Benner, D.C., Devi, V.M., Flaud, J.-M., Camy-Peyret, C. & Perrin, A. (1992). TheHITRAN Molecular Data Base – Editions of 1991 and 1992. J. Quan. Spect. &Rad. Transfer 48, N5-6, 469-507.

Roush, T.L., Blaney, D.L. & Singer, R.B. (1993). The Surface Composition of Marsas Inferred from Spectroscopic Observations. In Remote Geochemical Analysis:Elemental and Mineralogical Composition, (Eds. C.M. Pieters & P.A.J. Englert),Cambridge Univ. Press, UK, pp367-393.

Roush, T.L., Pollack, J.B., Stoker, C., Witteborn, F., Bregman, J., Wooden, D. &Rank, D. (1989). CO32 and SO42–-bearing Anionic Complexes Detected in MartianAtmospheric Dust. Lunar Planet. Sci. Conf. XX, p928.

Seiff, A. (1982). Post-Viking Models for the Structure of the Summer Atmosphere ofMars. Adv. Space Res., 2, N2, 3-17.

Smith, W.L. (1970). Iterative Solution of the Radiative Transfer Equation for theTemperature and Absorbing Gas Profile. Appl. Optics 9, N9,1993-1999.

Soderblom, L.A. (1992). The Composition and Mineralogy of the Martian Surfacefrom Spectroscopic Observations: 0.3 mm to 50 mm. In Mars (Eds. H.H. Kieffer,B.M. Jakosky, C.W. Snyder & M.S. Matthews), The University of Arizona Press,Tucson, USA, pp557-593.

Spinrad, H. & Richardson, E.H. (1963). High Dispersion Spectra of the Outer Planets.II. A New Upper Limit for the Water Vapor Content of the Martian Atmosphere.Icarus 2, 49.

Tikhonov, A.N., Goncharskij, A.V., Stepanov, V.V. & Jagola, A.G. (1990). NumericalMethods of Solving the Ill-posed Problems. Nauka, Moscow (in Russian).

Toulmin, P., Baird, A.K., Clark, B.C., Keil, K., Rose, H.J., Christian, R.P., Evans, P.H.& Kelliher, W.C. (1977). Geochemical and Mineralogical Interpretation of theViking Inorganic Chemical Results. J. Geophys. Res. 82.

Zurek, W.R., Barnes, J.R., Haberle, R.M., Pollack, J.B., Tillman, J.E. & Leovy, C.V.(1992). Dynamics of the Atmosphere of Mars. In Mars (Eds. H.H. Kieffer,B.M. Jakosky, C.W. Snyder & M.S. Matthews), The University of Arizona Press,Tucson, USA, pp799-817.

94


The SPICAM (SPectroscopy for the Investigation of the Characteristics of theAtmosphere of Mars) instrument consists of two spectrometers. The UVspectrometer addresses key issues about ozone and its H2O coupling, aerosols,the atmospheric vertical temperature structure and the ionosphere. The IRspectrometer is aimed primarily at H2O abundances and vertical profiling ofH2O and aerosols. SPICAM’s density/temperature profiles will aid thedevelopment of meteorological and dynamical atmospheric models from thesurface up to 160 km altitude. UV observations of the upper atmosphere willstudy the ionosphere and its direct interaction with the solar wind. They will alsoallow a better understanding of escape mechanisms, crucial for insight into thelong-term evolution of the atmosphere.

1.1 SPICAM goalsSPICAM (Fig. 1), a lightweight (4.7 kg) UV-IR spectrometer on the Mars Expressorbiter, is dedicated to recovering most of the atmospheric science that was lost withMars-96 and its set of SPICAM sensors. The new configuration of SPICAM includesa 2-channel optical sensor (3.8 kg) and an electronics block (0.9 kg). The UVspectrometer (118-320 nm, resolution 0.8 nm) is dedicated to nadir viewing, limbviewing and vertical profiling by stellar and solar occultation. It addresses key issuesabout ozone and the H2O coupling, aerosols, atmospheric vertical temperaturestructure and the ionosphere. The near-IR spectrometer (1.0-1.7 µm, resolution 0.5-1.2 nm) is aimed primarily at nadir measurements of H2O abundances, and at verticalprofiling of H2O and aerosols by solar occultation. A simple data processing unit(0.9 kg) provides the interface with the spacecraft.

For nadir observations, SPICAM UV is essentially an ozone detector, measuringthe strongest O3 absorption band at 250 nm in the solar light scattered from theground. In its stellar occultation mode, the UV sensor will measure the verticalprofiles of CO2, temperature, O3, clouds and aerosols. The density/temperatureprofiles will constrain and aid in developing the meteorological and dynamicalatmospheric models from the surface and up to 160 km in the atmosphere. This is

95

SPICAM: Studying the Global Structure and Composition of the Martian Atmosphere

J.-L. Bertaux1, D. Fonteyn2, O. Korablev3, E. Chassefière4, E. Dimarellis1, J.P. Dubois1, A. Hauchecorne1,F. Lefèvre1, M. Cabane1, P. Rannou1, A.C. Levasseur-Regourd1, G. Cernogora1, E. Quemerais1, C. Hermans2,G. Kockarts2, C. Lippens2, M. De Maziere2, D. Moreau2, C. Muller2, E. Neefs2, P.C. Simon2, F. Forget4, F. Hourdin4, O. Talagrand4, V.I. Moroz3, A. Rodin3, B. Sandel5 & A. Stern6

1Service d’Aéronomie du CNRS, F-91371, Verrières-le-Buisson, FranceEmail: [email protected]

2Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy, 3 av. Circulaire, B-1180 Brussels, Belgium3Space Research Institute (IKI), 84/32 Profsoyuznaya, 117810 Moscow, Russia4Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique, 4 place Jussieu, F-75252 Paris Cedex 05, Paris, France5Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, 901 Gould Simpson Building, Univ. of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA6SouthWest Research Institute, Geophysics, Astrophysics and Planetary Science, 1050 Walnut Ave.,

Suite 400, Boulder, CO 80302-5143, USA

1. Introduction

Bertaux.qxd 7/7/04 1:13 PM Page 95

SP-1240

essential for future missions that rely on aerocapture and aerobraking. UV observa-tions of the upper atmosphere will allow studies of the ionosphere through theemissions of CO, CO+ and CO2

+, and its direct interaction with the solar wind. Also,it will allow a better understanding of escape mechanisms and estimates of theirmagnitude, crucial for insight into the long-term evolution of the atmosphere.

SPICAM’s near-IR sensor, employing the pioneering technology of an acousto-optical tunable filter (AOTF), is dedicated to the measurement of water vapourcolumn abundance in the IR simultaneously with ozone measured in the UV. It willbe achieved with a much lower telemetry budget than the mission’s Planetary FourierSpectrometer. In solar occultation mode, this channel will study the vertical structuresof H2O, CO2 and aerosols.

1.2 BackgroundObservations during the 18th century showed that light from the star Spica decreasedabruptly during occultations by the Moon. It was concluded that the Moon has noatmosphere because, otherwise, refraction would have produced a progressivedimming of the star. The SPICAM acronym is a tribute to this early use of stellaroccultation.

In the Earth’s atmosphere, the occultation technique has been used to measure O3since the 1970s. Only one or two wavelengths were observed at a time in the earlyattempts, making identification of the absorber species uncertain. With the advent ofmulti-pixel detectors, the absorbing species can be safely identified by their spectralsignatures. It also offers the potential to discover new, unexpected species in theatmosphere. The method of absorptive occultation spectroscopy is reviewed inRoscoe et al. (1994) and Smith & Hunten (1990). For terrestrial stratosphericresearch, it has become the most advanced method for long-term monitoring of ozone.In the IR, the most remarkable results are those of the ATMOS/Atlas Space Shuttleexperiment, which provided a set of high-resolution IR spectra of the terrestrial

96

Fig. 1. Flight Model Sensor Unit of SPICAM viewed from above. The IR AOTFspectrometer is at top; the UV spectrometer isat bottom. The common optical axis points tothe left. For the UV spectrometer, the lightenters the mechanical baffle (black), is focusedby a parabolic mirror (bottom right) through aslit, then dispersed by the grating (middle left),to be refocused on the intensified CCDDetector (at centre).



atmosphere. In the UV-visible, NASA’s SAGE-3 is using full-wavelength coverage ofthe Sun. Onboard Envisat, SCIAMACHY (Scanning Imaging Absorption Spectro-meter for Atmospheric Chartography) is performing solar occultation and nadirobservations, and the GOMOS (Global Ozone Monitoring by Occultations of Stars)instrument is dedicated to the monitoring of ozone and other species by stellaroccultations. SPICAM’s methodology is clearly in line with the most advancedinstrumentation for studying Earth’s atmosphere.

The only solar occultation measurements so far of Mars from spacecraft wereperformed during the Phobos mission using the Auguste instrument (Blamont et al.,1989; Krasnopolsky et al., 1989). Though the Phobos mission was not fullysuccessful, the solar occultation observations lasted more than a month, resulting inan important improvement of our knowledge of the martian water vapour profile(Krasnopolsky et al., 1991; Rodin et al., 1997), aerosol vertical distribution(Chassefière et al., 1992; Korablev et al., 1993) and ozone distribution (Blamont &Chassefière, 1993).

The promising results from the Phobos mission were not fully developed becauseof the failure of the Mars-96 mission, where the SPICAM set of sensors (total 46 kg)was dedicated to studying the martian atmosphere. The 4.7 kg SPICAM ‘Light’ ofMars Express will recover most of the science of SPICAM/Mars-96. Theconsiderable mass saving was achieved by sacrificing all the visible part of thespectrum and by suppressing all redundancy between the two sensors. Also, using thespacecraft for pointing removes the need for pointing platforms and devices. Theproposal for this SPICAM included a separate solar occultation IR sensor (SOIR),inherited from the solar package of SPICAM/Mars-96. This 3.8 kg sensor consistedof a grating spectrometer (1.2-4.8 µm, resolution 0.4-1 nm) for vertical profilingduring solar occultations of H2O, CO2, CO and aerosols and exploration of carboncompounds (Bertaux et al., 2001). Owing to the severe mass constraints of MarsExplorer, this sensor was deleted at the development stage, and replaced by theextremely lightweight near-IR spectrometer based on AOTF technology. Theconsequences for the scientific return are discussed below.

The tenuity of the CO2 martian atmosphere and the partial transparency to solar UVresults in intense photochemical activity, possibly including photocatalytic processesat the surface or on aerosols. Although the global mechanism of atmospheric chemicalstability proposed at the beginning of the 1970s (Parkinson & Hunten, 1972) isgenerally accepted, no substantial progress in modelling has been made in the last20 years. Understanding martian atmospheric chemistry is of fundamental importancefor characterising the history of Mars (escape of species to space, atmosphere/surfaceinteractions such as oxidation) as well as for comparison with terrestrial processes(chemistry/dynamics coupling, possible role of heterogeneous chemistry). Besideschemical processes, addressing the key problems of the martian climate includesunderstanding the transport of radiatively active aerosols, microphysics of clouds,regolith/atmosphere water exchange and wave activity in the atmosphere. So far, mostof the data on the composition and structure of the martian atmosphere relate to thetotal content of the species, with very little information on the vertical profiles ofaerosols, ozone, water vapour and other trace gases. SPICAM focuses on thedetermination of atmospheric characteristics from the surface up to 160 km altitude.SPICAM’s main objectives are defined in the following five subsections.

2.1 Three-dimensional studies related to atmospheric chemical stabilityAn important step in improving our knowledge of martian photochemistry is thevalidation of the currently accepted scheme of chemical atmospheric stability,originally proposed by Parkinson & Hunten (1972). To explain the CO2 stability, thisscheme invokes odd-hydrogen photochemical species that catalyse the recombinationof CO and O. These catalytic reactions are so efficient that O2 and CO appear in the

97



SP-1240

atmosphere only in very small amounts – the observed quantities are around 0.1%.The photochemistry scheme is complicated by the amount of water, which is highlyvariable. The ozone density is directly connected to HOx radicals, which are theproduct of water vapour dissociation. Early photochemical theories (McElroy &Donahue, 1972; Parkinson & Hunten, 1972) are confirmed by more recent photo-chemistry models (Nair et al., 1994; Krasnopolsky, 1993). SPICAM provides theopportunity to validate the stability scheme through simultaneous measurements ofwater vapour, ozone and temperature with a good vertical resolution, as well as oftheir diurnal, seasonal and latitudinal variations.

Since the water vapour cycle is one of the three important atmospheric cycles (theothers being the dust and CO2 cycles), the present distribution and annual variabilityof water reflect both current and past climate processes. In the 1970s, the MarsAtmosphere Water Detector (MAWD) on the Viking orbiters mapped for the first timethe column abundance of water, for 1.5 martian years. Maximum water content isobserved above the North Pole in summer as a consequence of the sublimation of thepolar cap. In addition, the exchange of water between the atmosphere and the regolithis likely on both diurnal and seasonal bases. The pore volume of the martian regolithis substantial and implies that a large part of it can act as a water reservoir. Using solaroccultations, the IR channel will accurately measure the vertical structure of watervapour in the atmosphere, allowing these important water-exchange processes to beassessed.

The key processes controlling the vertical distribution of water vapour on Mars arelikely to be large-scale transport, turbulent mixing, the microphysics of nucleation,growth and sedimentation of ice crystals, and photochemical reactions. Moreover, thewater vapour profile is closely connected to the temperature structure (both dynamicand radiative) through saturation water pressure. However, the available data do notallow an adequate determination of the detailed spatial and seasonal variations in thevertical distribution of water.

Observations of other trace species will also be important in understanding thebehaviour of atmospheric water. One of these trace gases is ozone. The ozone verticalprofile is governed mainly by the abundance of water vapour and it is widelyacknowledged that there is a strong anti-correlation between water vapour andatmospheric ozone (Barth et al., 1973). Even if the atmospheric ozone content is low,this constituent is important for characterising the physico-chemical structure of theatmosphere. Only marginal information is available about the vertical distribution ofozone: a layer has been tentatively detected in the middle atmosphere by solaroccultation (Blamont & Chassefière, 1993). SPICAM will fill this gap by measuringozone profiles using stellar occultations in the UV.

Finally, SPICAM’s nadir-viewing capability will allow the mapping of ozonecolumn density. In conjunction with the column density of water vapour, as measuredby SPICAM’s IR channel or other Mars Express instruments, this will permit detailedglobal scale correlation studies. It should be emphasised that, so far, there is no directexperimental correlation between H2O and ozone distributions, owing to the lack ofsimultaneous measurements. Some correspondence of high ozone near the poles withH2O derived from temperature-dependent water pressure was found from Mariner-9ozone (Barth et al., 1973) and temperature measurements (Barth et al., 1992).SPICAM offers the first possibility of firmly establishing this correlation.

2.2 Atmospheric escapeThe efficiency of atmospheric escape is strongly mass-dependent, and it is quitesignificant for hydrogen and deuterium. The geological evidence for running water onthe martian surface in the distant past is well established, but the total amount of waterand the periods of activity are still controversial (Carr, 1996). Observation of D/H isthus particularly important for reconstructing the history of water on Mars. For this,the fundamental 3.7 µm HDO band was to be studied with the SOIR solar occultationchannel.

98



An important goal of atmospheric studies is the characterisation of escapeprocesses, which are believed to have played an important role in climate evolution.The main processes of removing mass from the atmosphere are the sputtering ofatmospheric species by oxygen pick-up ions at the exobase level, and photochemicalescape (Kass & Yung, 1995; Jakosky et al., 1994). The close coupling of all theatmospheric layers makes it interesting to measure the profiles of hydrogen, carbonand oxygen species in the lower ionosphere, where strong vertical fluxes of thesespecies are supposed to take place. SPICAM will observe resonant scatteringemissions of H, C and O in the altitude range 100-200 km, as well as somefluorescence bands of CO and major ions (CO2

+, CO+). This altitude range, anessential interface region between the low atmosphere and the upper ionosphere(where escape occurs through direct interaction with the solar wind), cannot bestudied with in situ measurements because of the pericentre altitude of 300 km. UVglow measurements by SPICAM should provide information about thermosphericion-neutral chemistry and related vertical fluxes of chemical species at the top of theatmosphere, as well as about their diurnal and seasonal variations.

2.3 Surface/atmosphere chemical interaction; mapping of the atmospheric andsurface oxidant

The level of biologically lethal UV arriving at the surface of Mars is controlled by thevertical column of ozone, which is itself controlled by H2O, according to presentphotochemistry models. These models also predict the presence of O, H2O2, HO2, OHmolecules and radicals, which are extremely reactive with the surface. Together withozone, they are the main factors destroying any organic molecule that could bepresent on the surface (Stoker & Bullock, 1997). This radiative-chemical environmentof exobiological significance will be evaluated at a variety of locations, latitudes andseasons, thanks to the polar orbit of Mars Express and its martian-year lifetime. Aphotochemistry model validated by the consistency of various measurements makesit possible to extrapolate back in time and to assess more safely the conditionsconstraining the development of life on Mars.

More than 25 years ago, the Viking life detection experiments proved that themartian soil is extraordinarily oxidising. The evolution of CO2 from the labelledrelease experiment is consistent with the presence of a thermally labile oxidant.Detection and characterisation of the chemical and physical nature of this powerfuloxidant is therefore of great interest not only from an exobiological point of view butalso for studying exchanges between the atmosphere and the regolith on Mars. In thethin and cold atmosphere, photochemical reactions between traces of water and solarUV probably lead to the production of H2O2 which, in turn, can condense onto soilgrains and airborne dust. Hydrogen peroxide has not yet been detected in the Martianatmosphere. A tentative detection/upper limit experiment in millimetric waves wascarried out using the Interferomètre Radio Astronomique Millimétrique (IRAM)telescope (Moreau et al., 1998). Estimating the total abundance of this constituentmight be feasible using SPICAM’s UV channel.

2.4 Wave activity in the middle atmosphere and thermosphereTheory predicts that the temperature structure of the thermosphere above 120 km isdominated by the balance between EUV heating, non-LTE cooling and moleculardiffusion. In the middle atmosphere (40-120 km), the vertical structure is determinedprimarily by non-LTE solar heating and radiative cooling in the absorption bands ofCO2, and by solar EUV heating at higher levels. The thermal structure is modified bythe circulation driven by this force, and by tides and gravity waves that propagate fromthe lower atmosphere, break and deposit their energy in this region. Lower and uppercirculation models (including General Circulation Models) have recently been extendedinto the middle atmosphere, and need adequate temperature/density data to be validated.

Until recently, there were few temperature profiles measured in the upperatmosphere: Viking lander entry profiles (Seif & Kirk, 1977) and an indirect deriva-

99


SP-1240

tion above 120 km from Mariner-9 airglow (Stewart et al., 1972). New profiles werederived from Mars Pathfinder (MPF) entry accelerometry (Magalhaes et al., 1999)and Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) aerobraking data (Keating, 1998). The ThermalEmission Spectrometer (TES) on MGS produces 3-D temperature fields up to 35 kmin its nadir mode and up to 65 km in the limb-viewing mode (Conrath et al., 1998;1999). Radio occultation studies from Mars probes result in profiles below 20 km (seeHinson et al., 1999 for recent MPF radio profiles). Ground-based microwaveobservations based on CO-line profiling (Clancy et al., 1990) constrain temperatureprofiles on large (planetary) scales up to ~50 km. The thermal structure andcirculation of this part of the atmosphere is of primary importance on Mars: unlike onEarth, where the circulation in the troposphere is somewhat decoupled from that inthe stratosphere, the vertical extension of meteorological phenomena appears to beconsiderable. In some cases, this extension probably reaches the top of the neutralatmosphere around 120 km (e.g. the Hadley cell during northern winter). Thecirculation there may even affect the meteorology at much lower altitude (Forget etal., 1996). For instance, the strong warming of the polar-night atmosphere during duststorms is thought to result from an enhancement of the meridional wind between60 km and 100 km (Wilson, 1997). In fact, this behaviour of the martian atmospheremay limit the performance of the general circulation models and thus ourunderstanding of martian meteorology. How can we account for these upperatmospheric processes? Is the lower thermosphere circulation of importance?Because of their limited vertical coverage (< 65 km), TES and similar instrumentswill not solve the problem, leaving SPICAM as the single optical spectrometercovering this altitude range.

Gravity waves have small vertical wavelengths relative to their horizontal scales,which makes them well adapted for detection by SPICAM. In addition, SPICAM willallow us to observe the propagation and the breaking of these waves up to highaltitude for the first time.

2.5 Impact of aerosols on the martian climate Dusty and volatile aerosols are important components of the martian atmosphere. Thestrong involvement of the aerosols in basic climate fields means that the loweratmosphere may be considered as a ‘dusty climate’ system. A permanent haze existswith a column optical depth from 0.1 to 1 depending on season, with sporadicincreases up to several units during great dust storms. It is known to controltemperatures in the troposphere and lower stratosphere. Heating and cooling byaerosols drive dynamical phenomena, varying on scale from general circulation tolocal waves that give rise to atmospheric turbulence. The contents and distribution ofaerosols in the atmosphere are, in turn, controlled by atmospheric motion, beingincluded in the complex feedback that makes the current climate of Mars extremelyvariable. Volatile aerosols also affect the thermal field by changing the opticalproperties and settling rates of particles, and therefore provide strongly non-linearthermal feedback determined by the saturation curve. This effect is expected to bemost significant during aphelion (Clancy et al., 1996; Rodin et al., 1999).

Exploring the phenomena described above implies detailed studies of the vertical,lateral and size distribution of mineral and volatile aerosols, as well as water vapour,in the lower atmosphere. SPICAM’s large wavelength range (0.12-1.7 µm) providesa unique opportunity to study micron-sized aerosols at high spatial resolution.Simultaneous high-resolution measurement of the water vapour profile yields data onmicrophysical condition of cloud formation, e.g. the degree of supersaturation in thestratosphere and water eddy transport rates in both gaseous and condensed phases.Comprehensive modelling of thermal balance, turbulent transport and microphysicsof water vapour, ice and dust interaction with a self-consistent 1-D model (Rodin etal., 1999) will support these measurements.

The components of the martian atmosphere to be measured by SPICAM are givenin Table 1.

100



3.1 OverviewSPICAM (Figs. 2-5) consists of two blocks: a sensor unit (SU) that includes UV(SUV) and near-IR (SIR) spectrometers, and a simple data processing unit (DPU).The SOIR solar occultation package (Bertaux et al., 2001) was excluded because ofmission mass constraints, but the UV and IR channels have solar occultationcapability in their limited wavelength ranges. The instrument’s mechanical layout isshown in Fig. 1. Mass, power and telemetry budgets are summarised in Table 2.

101

Table 1. Components of the martian atmosphere measurable by SPICAM.

Species Scientific objective Mode Spectral range Accuracy Altitude range

O3 concentration vertical profile stellar/solar occultation 220-300 nm 2-10% 10-50 km, ∆z < 1 km

O3 total abundance nadir 220-300 nm 5% (> 0.15 µatm) ground res 4×4 km

CO2 atmospheric density and solar/stellar occultation 180 nm 2-10% 20-160 km, ∆z < 1 kmtemperature vertical profile 5K

CO2 surface pressure, tides nadir 200 nm 0.2 mbar n/a

1.43 µm 0.1 mbar

H2O total abundance nadir 1.38 µm 0.2. pr. µm ground res 5×5 km(detectable)

H2O concentration/vertical profile solar occultation 1.1, 1.38 µm see text 5-30 km (clear atm.) 20-50 km (dusty atm.)

∆z = 2-3km

D, H isotope ratios limb emission 121 nm 20%

Aerosols vertical profile of characteristics solar/stellar occultation UV-IR 10–3 (photometry) 5-60 km, ∆z = 2-3 kmmapping of characteristics nadir spectropolarimetry 1.0-1.7 µm polarisation exploratory

rejection 10–4

O2 concentration vertical profile stellar occultation 200 nm 20% 35-90 kmnever done before

O2 concentration limb emission 1.27 µm tentative

H2O2 total abundance nadir 210 nm never done before

SO2 total abundance nadir 220 nm tentative

H, C, O, vertical profiling limb emission 118-320 nm 20% 80-400 km, ∆z ~ 2 kmCO2

+,CO of aeronomic emissions

Soil contribution to surface studies nadir spectropolarimetry 1.0-1.7 µm 10–3 (photometry) ground res 5×5 km

Table 2. SPICAM mass, power and telemetry budgets.

Mass Electronics block (DPU) 0.9 kg

Sensor unit (SU) 3.8 kg

Total 4.7 kg

Power DPU+SUV 13 W

DPU+SUV+SIR 18 W

Data volume

per measurement SUV 3.1 kB

SIR 1.05 kB

per orbit ~ 5 MB

3. The Instrumentation


SP-1240

3.2 UV spectrometer (SUV)The characteristics of the UV spectrometer are summarised in Table 3. For better UVefficiency, SUV includes only two reflective surfaces (Fig. 2). The light flux iscollected by an off-axis parabolic mirror, which reflects the light towards the entranceof the spectrometer. At the focal plane, a mechanical slit system provides twoconfigurations: no slit for stellar occultations, and with a slit for extended sources.The slit is divided into two parts, with different widths allowing two spectralresolutions when observing an extended source. The first (50 µm width) gives goodresolution with lower flux; the second (500 µm) gives more sensitivity at the expenseof a coarser spectral resolution. The slit can be completely retracted, creating a holecorresponding to the total useful field of view of 2×3.16°. This configuration is usedin the stellar occultation mode at dark limb when the spectrum of the star is recordedon a few lines of the CCD. The required pointing accuracy is 0.2°.

A holographic concave toroidal grating from Jobin-Yvon, ion-etched for higher

102

Fig. 2. Optical scheme of SPICAM’s UV andIR channels. 1: aperture blend of the UVchannel; 2: off-axis parabolic mirror; 3: slit(can be changed from wide to narrow, by amechanical actuator, see text); 4: concave UVgrating; 5: intensifier; 6: CCD; 7: IR channelobjective; 8: IR FOV diaphragm; 9/11:collimating lens; 10: AOTF crystal; 12: lighttrap for undiffracted light; 13: detectorproximity lenses; 14: ‘extraordinary’ beamdetector; 15: ‘ordinary’ beam detector; 16:solar opening (closed by shutter when notlooking at Sun); 17/21: flat mirror; 18: IRsolar entry; 19: optical fibre; 20: fibrecollimator.

Fig. 3. Breadboard instrument (June 2000; SIRis the prototype), seen from the same vantagepoint as in Fig. 1. In the final configuration, theparabolic mirror is rectangular, and notcircular.



103

Table 3. Characteristics of the SPICAM UV channel (SUV).

Primary mirror Off-axis parabola 40×40 mm, coated MgF2, f = 120 mm

Slit 50 µm × 4.6 mm; 500 µm × 2.2 mm

FOV of a pixel 0.7×0.7´2×3.16° no slit (stellar occultation)0.24×0.95º with double slit

Spectral range 118 - 320 nm

Grating holographic, concave, toroidal coated MgF2, 290 lines/mm,blazed 170 nm

Spectral resolution per pixel 0.51 nm

Resolving power (occultations) 120-300 stellar; small slit

Resolving power 120-300 small slit,~20 large slit(extended source)

Pointing accuracy < 0.2º

Detector CCD Thomson TH7863 TE cooled at 270K, useful 288×384 pixels, 23×23 µm

Intensifier Hamamatsu 200M, solar blind CsTe photocathode, input window MgF2 + sapphire

Vertical resolution < 1 km (occultations), ~10 km (limb)

Fig. 4. SPICAM Qualification Model seen fromthe side of the UV spectrometer. Theintensified CCD is placed at the centre. Themirror is at left, the grating is at right.

Fig. 5. The AOTF IR channel. From right:entrance lens, AOTF crystal and the twodetectors, with the electronics board on top.


SP-1240

efficiency, feeds the detection block. The image ratio is ~1, which means that amonochromatic image in the entrance of the spectrometer is conserved in the plane ofthe detector. The spectral resolution for a point source determined by aberrations isabout 1 nm. The CCD detector is a Thomson TH7863 with 288×384 useful pixels anda masked zone of equivalent size. Pixel size is 23×23 µm. The detector is electricallycooled to ~0°C, where the dark current equals 800 electrons per pixel per second, or afew ADU (Analogue to Digital Unit) only. By means of custom-made fibre optics, theCCD is coupled with the output window of the image intensifier (from Hamamatsu,type 200M). A solar blind CsTe photocathode has zero quantum efficiency beyond320 nm. The input window is made of MgF2 in order to reach down to Lyman-α (atarget of SPICAM). An additional sapphire filter is glued above the window and coversit in part, preventing overlapping of diffraction orders and Lyman-α stray light.

3.2.1 Expected performancesTaking into account the optical characteristics of the UV spectrometer components,quantum efficiency of the photocathode, star spectrum and its reddening owing tointerstellar dust absorption, the S/N ratio of SUV in stellar occultation mode can beestimated. Adopting the equation of Henry, it was found that there are nine starsemitting more than 104 phot. s–1 cm–2 nm–1 at 220 nm, and 86 stars emitting 103-104

phot. s–1 cm–2 nm–1. For these two thresholds, S/N is respectively > 91 and > 29 perpixel. There are ~100 pixels that may be used to determine the CO2 or ozoneabsorption, and this gives an idea of the likely accuracy achieved on the retrieval ofline density of CO2 and O3. Simulation exercises show that the accuracy should be ofthe order of 2-10% for CO2 (20-160 km) and ozone (below 50 km).

For an extended source observation, the whole slit is illuminated, and it is possibleto integrate over several lines of the CCD. When looking at nadir (dayside), theexpected number of photoevents that yield S/N ~ 500 for 1 s integration is2.5×105 nm–1 at 270 nm.

For limb observations, a typical airglow emission of 8 kR nm–1 (as recorded at thebright limb by Mariner-9) results in ~ 4000 photoevents per pixel at 220 nm, yieldinga S/N of 62. At wavelengths longer than 300 nm, the large slit would be used forbetter S/N if necessary. Along the large slit, where the spectral resolution is about

104

Fig. 6. Longitude from the Sun aroundpericentre (spacecraft altitude below 800 km)during the first martian year of the mission.(Figure adopted from Hechler & Yanes, 1999).



5 nm, there is 10 times more flux on each pixel than along the narrow slit. It ispossible again to integrate over several lines of the CCD. For 50 lines, it yields ~104

photoevents per nm at 270 nm, or a S/N of 100 for 1 s integration.For solar occultations, a 0.2 cm2 mirror looking 90º from the main optical axis is

positioned at the entrance pupil, and the detector operates at the lowest gain andintegration time of 10 ms.

3.3 Near-IR spectrometer (SIR)A single-pixel detector of InGaAs, associated with an AOTF, will allow themeasurement of the H2O column at nadir for an instrument mass of only 0.7 kg. Thenew AOTF devices are based on Bragg diffraction of an entrance beam by theultrasonic acoustic wave excited within a crystal. They offer the potential of reachinga resolving power, λ/∆λ, superior to 1000, amply sufficient to measure nadir H2O byscanning the absorption lines at 1.38 µm in the solar reflected spectrum. There are nomoving parts such as a chopper. This new concept for IR spectroscopy has not flownbefore on a civil spacecraft but it is now sufficiently mature for space researchapplication.

The AOTF near-IR spectrometer (SIR) is included alongside the UV package; theoptical scheme is shown in Fig. 2. The principal characteristics of SIR aresummarised in Table 4. A lens telescope 30 mm in diameter has a focal ratio of 1:1.9.A circular diaphragm 1 mm in diameter placed in the focal plane of the telescopeforms the FOV. A collimator with two small lenses forms a beam into a custom-madeTeO2 AOTF crystal with an active zone of 23 mm. The divergence of the beams insidethe crystal is limited to ±5.5°. The linear aperture has the minimal pupil of 3.12 mmin the centre of the crystal and is less than 3.5 mm at the edges. The output systemseparates the beams for different polarisations; it consists of two lenses, the firstcompensating for the divergence of the output beam, and the second focusing the lightat the detector. There are two detectors and two short-focus proximity lenses, for theordinary and extraordinary beams, to allow measurement of the polarisation of theincoming light.

For simplicity, SIR uses the same solar entrance as SUV. An optical fibre deliversthe light to the SIR objective. The entry optics of this fibre creates the angular FOVof about 4 arcsec. A collimator lens at the output of the fibre and a 45° flat mirrormounted at the baffle of the SIR objective complete the design of SIR’s solarentrance.

4.1 Nadir viewingSPICAM will obtain the first simultaneous measurements of water vapour and ozonefor the martian atmosphere. The vertical column of H2O and O3 will be obtained

105

Table 4. Characteristics of the SPICAM near-IR channel (SIR).

Spectral range 1.0-1.7 µm

Spectral resolution 0.5 nm at 1.0 µm; 1.2 nm at 1.7 µm or better than 4 cm–1

FOV 1º

Telescope Lens type, Ø 30 mm

AOTF TeO2, efficiency 70% (in polarised light), aperture 3.6×3.6 mm, ±3.5º

Detector 2 InGaAs PIN diodes (Hamamatsu G5832), Ø 1 mm,1 stage TE cooled to –15ºC, D ~ 3×1013 W–1 cm Hz

Transmission of optics 20%

S/N ~1000

4. Measurements


SP-1240

systematically along track, on the dayside, when the spacecraft is nadir-oriented, witha ground resolution of ~4 km at pericentre. The latitude-season coverage for the firstyear of the mission is presented in Fig. 6. SPICAM will operate up to 15 min beforeand after pericentre (attitudes up to 1500 km), and its coverage may be denser than isshown in Fig. 6.

4.1.1. Mapping of H2O total column abundance in the IRThe method of nadir sounding of water vapour in the near-IR bands continues theapproach of Mars 3 and MAWD on the Viking orbiters (Farmer & LaPorte, 1972). ForMars Express, the OMEGA instrument will perform spectral mapping in the samespectral range, but H2O retrievals from these data will be limited because of the muchcoarser spectral resolution. The principal contribution to water vapour mapping onMars-Express is expected from the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer (PFS). PFS offersa near-IR range similar to that of MAWD and a thermal-IR range similar to that ofMariner-9’s Fourier spectrometer (IRIS). The thermal-IR sounding of H2O requires aprecise knowledge of the temperature profile but it provides redundancy and can beused at night.

SPICAM’s observational principle in its nadir mode is the same as that of PFS.SIR’s optical axis is parallel to those of all the nadir-looking instruments on MarsExpress. SIR’s spectral range (1000-1700 nm) requires ~1900 points to be measured.Practically, the amount of data produced by the instrument (polarimetry measure-ments double the quantity) will be limited by the telemetry budget. The frequency ofthe AOTF ultrasonic excitation is selected by software, so only the most interestingparts of the spectrum will normally be measured with the desired sampling. The H2Oband could be characterised using only 20 well-chosen points per nadir viewing (FOV1º), instead of the several thousand for a complete PFS spectrum. The normalexposure time is expected to be within 4 s, allowing the measurement of two spectra(one for each polarisation) of ~300 points each.

Simulated spectra of the atmospheric transmittance in the nadir configuration areshown in Fig. 7. They were computed using the HITRAN-96 database, for amultilayered atmospheric model. The water vapour band at 1.38 µm is apparent. Thisband is highly suited to H2O detection because it is strong and almost free from CO2influence. For those reasons, it was used by MAWD/Viking (Farmer & LaPorte,1972). The spectral signatures of H2O are well resolved at the expected spectralresolution of 4 cm–1. Owing to this relatively high spectral resolution, the gaseousabsorption signatures are easy to distinguish from surface spectral features. Theestimated nadir S/N will be better than 500, so the minimal detectable amount of H2Ocolumn abundance is well below 1 pr. µm.

SIR is capable of measuring the column abundance of CO2 in the 1.43 µm band

106

Fig. 7. Line-by-line spectra of nadiratmospheric transmission. Spectra arecomputed for the water vapour abundance of15 pr. µm and 50 pr. µm (offset in H2O bands)and for surface pressures of 6 mbar and7 mbar (offset in CO2 bands).



and, therefore, the surface pressure. The pressure change from 6 mbar to 7 mbarresults in a very large modification of the spectrum (Fig. 7). Combined with the S/Nof 1000, it produces an accuracy of better than 0.02 mbar (at least on a relative scale)in the ground pressure. Owing to the AOTF wavelength selection capability, thesurface pressure will be measured simultaneously with H2O, at a very low telemetrybudget.

The ordinary and extraordinary beams at the output of an AOTF crystal can beanalysed simultaneously using two identical detectors, and the polarisation of theincident light can be measured with high accuracy (Glenar et al., 1994). The secondsingle-element detector does not significantly complicate the instrument. Polarimetrymeasurements enable a characterisation of grain size for the surface of Mars and ofthe properties of atmospheric aerosol components (Santer et al., 1985). In particular,it is possible to detect cirrus-like crystal clouds (Lee et al., 1990). With suchmeasurements at a very limited number (2-3) of wavelengths of atmosphericabsorption features (e.g. at 1.25 µm and 1.7 µm, see Fig. 7), important additionalinformation about the reflectivity of the surface and the aerosol extinction will beobtained. AOTF’s wavelength control means that these measurements will beperformed simultaneously with H2O detection.

Also, the spectral measurements by SIR could be used for cross-validation ofOMEGA and PFS data.

4.1.2 Mapping of ozone in the UV For nadir measurements of ozone, the most sensitive method will be used: the strongHartley band around 255 nm imprinted on the solar light scattered by the ground andlower atmosphere. This is the technique that discovered ozone on Mars, and it isextensively used on Earth, showing the Antarctic ozone hole. The reflectance UVspectrum results from several sources:

— light reflected by the surface, defined by an albedo A, and modified twice byextinction of dust and CO2 Rayleigh scattering (at λ > 200 nm);

— light produced by Rayleigh scattering of CO2;

— solar light reflected by aerosols, distributed vertically;— absorption by ozone, distributed vertically.

107

Fig. 8. Modtran computations for nadirgeometry. Solar zenith angle 60º, ozone totalabundance 5 µ-atm. A possible effect of H2O2is considered: no H2O2 (curve a); H2O2 columnof 2×1016 cm–2 (curve b) and 2×1017 cm–2

(curve c).


SP-1240

Wehrbein et al. (1979) were able to fit the Mariner-9 data with a simple singlescattering model, defined by four parameters: ozone optical depth (τ0), surface albedo(A, assumed to be constant in the UV range), optical depth of dust and Rayleigh (τc)and the scale height H0 of ozone, different from the fixed atmospheric scale height HS.Indeed, they found a better fit of the bottom of the spectral reflectance trough (Fig. 8)with a ratio H0/HS = 0.6 than with a fixed value H0 = HS, showing that ozone wasfound mostly near the cold surface where the air is dry in high-latitude regions.

A refined analysis scheme requires a more sophisticated algorithm than the oneused for the early interpretation of Mariner-7 and -9 data (Barth & Hord, 1971; Barthet al., 1973; Wehrbein et al., 1979) but such algorithms are already working for theEarth (the solar backscatter UV method, used by the Global Ozone MonitoringExperiment on ERS-2).

With SPICAM UV, which registers all wavelengths simultaneously, the S/N willbe much greater than for Mariner-9’s UV spectrometer (larger than 100 for eachnanometer of spectrum in 1 s integration time). This allows the aerosol distribution tobe disconnected from the air scale height and Rayleigh scattering. Either a discreteordinate method or codes similar to those used for interpreting solar backscatter UVspectra in the Earth’s atmosphere will be used.

Figure 8, computed for an ozone quantity of 5 µatm (1 µatm = 2.689×1015 mol cm–2

= 0.1 Dobson units), shows the trough of ozone centred at 255 nm. It is estimated thata trough of ~1% is detectable, corresponding to a vertical optical thickness at 255 nmof 0.5%, or a column density of N = τ0/σ = 4×1014 mol cm–2, or 0.15 µatm. This allowsmeasurements of ozone in all seasons and latitudes. Above this threshold (say,N > 2 µatm), the statistical noise will be a negligible source of error, while systematicerrors give an uncertainty of 5%.

SUV will be regularly calibrated in flight by observing standard stars and the Sun.The absolute solar spectrum outside the atmosphere is well known. The reflectancespectrum of Mars will therefore be obtained with a good absolute accuracy and at aspectral resolution of 1 nm. Then, in addition to the main features of the reflectionspectrum such as Rayleigh and aerosol scattering overlaid with ozone and CO2absorption, other unknowns can be retrieved:

108

Fig. 9. Variation of the UV nadir transmissionspectrum with surface pressure.



— for surface pressures of 6 mbar and 8 mbar (the total CO2 vertical column isdirectly connected to the surface pressure), the absorption edge varies in wave-length position at 210 nm (Fig. 9). Therefore, there is the promising possibility ofmeasuring the surface pressure from the position of the absorption edge in thereflected spectrum. An accuracy of half-a-pixel (easily achievable with such ahigh S/N) or 0.25 nm on the wavelength would translate into an accuracy of~0.2 mbar. These data will be used for cross-validation of more precise nadir SIRsurface pressure measurements and, combined with the known altimetry, willprovide a valuable source for meteorological studies.

— H2O2 presents continuous absorption in the UV around 200-220 nm (Yung &Demore, 1999). A simulation of the reflectance (Fig. 8) shows that even for caseb, which is not for maximum H2O2 conditions, there is a small difference. Thoughit is difficult to disentangle the continuous absorption by H2O2 from dust, it ishoped that a careful analysis with assimilation of aerosol data obtained at otherwavelengths will allow the first measurement of this important molecule.

4.2 Vertical profiling by stellar occultation in the UVSPICAM will measure the vertical distribution of CO2, temperature, O3, aerosols, O2and possibly H2O2 by using stellar occultation, as planned for SPICAM/Mars-96.

The principle is simple. Along the spacecraft’s orbit, stars are occulted one after theother by the planetary limb opposite the velocity vector. At a predetermined time, thespacecraft is oriented in such a way that the line of sight of SUV points towards agiven star. The stellar spectrum recorded above the atmosphere (say, at200 km), unaltered by atmospheric absorption, serves as a reference spectrum. Then,while the spacecraft is maintained in a 3-axis, inertial attitude, the line of sightintersects increasingly deeper parts of the atmosphere, down to total occultation.

The stellar occultation technique offers three decisive features:

— an absolute concentration derived from a relative measurement (self-calibrationmeans there is no need for instrument calibration);

— excellent vertical resolution, whatever the distance to the planet (because the staris a point source);

— the accuracy of altitude knowledge, in contrast with limb emission methods, isindependent of the spacecraft attitude. The line of sight is determined entirely bythe direction of the star in the sky (known) and the position of the spacecraft onits orbit.

Stellar occultations will be performed preferably on the night side of the orbit, andwill not affect the operation of dayside mapping instruments. The spacecraft iscommanded to direct the SUV line of sight towards a bright UV star and this fixedorientation is maintained within 0.5° (nominal spacecraft capability is better than0.05°, ensuring that the star remains within the 1° FOV of the instrument during theoccultation, which lasts typically 1-4 min). Several (3-5) occultations per orbit areforeseen, the limiting factor being the spacecraft orientation, which is a resource to beshared among the various investigations. Hot stars are preferred, because they arebrighter in the UV. Their spectra are flatter than the solar spectrum in the UV. Thisoccultation method offers other features:

— whatever the orbit, there will be numerous opportunities for stellar occultations;— when a star is occulted during one orbit, it will be occulted again during the

following orbits at about the same latitude, but at different longitudes;— the vertical profiling is not restricted to be along the ground track, in comparison

with other instrumental methods;— de-occultation (star rise) is also possible, since there is no closed-loop tracking

system.

109


SP-1240

Figure 10 shows the absorption cross-sections of CO2 and ozone in the UV as afunction of wavelength. O2 is absorbing (Schumann-Runge bands) between the peaksof CO2 and O3, offering the possibility of actually measuring O2. Other absorbers aredust (Mie scattering generalised to non-spherical particles) and possibly H2O2 andSO2. The atmospheric transmission simulations are presented in Fig. 11 for varioustangential heights. Besides CO2 and ozone, a dust profile was assumed, with a verticaloptical thickness τd = 0.2 at 300 nm. Rayleigh extinction by CO2 was also included inthe simulations.

Because the CO2 cross-section presents an enormous dynamic range in the UV,CO2 absorption may begin to be detected at an altitude of 150 km. For decreasingtangential heights, the CO2 manifests itself by a sharp cut-off that increases inwavelength, up to ~200 nm at z = 10 km. Longward of 200 nm, the transmissionspectrum is dominated by dust and CO2 Rayleigh extinction, with the additionaltrough at 255 nm due to ozone. The depth of this trough is a direct measure of ozoneline density. From the given S/N in stellar occultation mode (see above), the O3 linedensity Nh accuracy will depend on the UV magnitude of the star. It can be estimatedthat the accuracy on the O3 line density will be about 2% for about 20 stars in the skyand the measuring threshold corresponding to an absorption of ~1% corresponds toNh = 1015 mol cm–2 (horizontal) and local density of 3.5×107 cm–3 at all altitudesz > 15 km (Korablev, Bertaux & Dubois, 2001).

The Rayleigh extinction above 200 nm can be computed from the CO2 line densitydetermined below 200 nm. The remaining continuous absorption above 200 nm maybe attributed to dust/aerosols for a determination of its vertical distribution andspectral characteristics in the UV.

4.2.1 CO2 density and temperature profileOnce the line density of CO2 is determined from the transmission spectra, the localdensity n (z) is determined from an Abel inversion. Then, the hydrostatic equationallows temperature to be determined. As for O3, the accuracy on the CO2 line densitywill be about 2% for 20 stars. The accuracy of the retrieved temperature is estimatedto be ±5K in the whole range of altitude, starting at 130-160 km at the top level, whilethe lowest altitude achieved will depend on the absorption by aerosols or clouds, andwill most likely be 5-20 km.

110

Fig. 10. Absorption cross-sections of CO2 andozone in SPICAM’s UV spectral range.



There is a known dependence of the CO2 absorption cross-section on thetemperature T. The retrieval process begins by a first iteration with an a priori profileT(z) and corresponding choice of CO2 cross-section. Then, N and n are retrieved, andthe scale height is derived, independently of a wrong choice of the cross-section,providing a new guess for T(z). A few iterations allow convergence of the process. Asimilar retrieval procedure was developed and tested for the GOMOS/Envisat stellaroccultation experiment.

Though nighttime stellar occultations are preferred, it is important to keep in mindthat some daytime occultations should be performed on particularly bright stars on thebright limb. They could be combined with UV airglow limb observations to get abetter understanding of thermal structure, and to solve unambiguously thediscrepancy between Viking and Mariner-9 temperature profiles at z > 120 km. Inaddition, the day-night amplitude variation of the exospheric temperature (at the topof the thermosphere) is a crucial test for the validity of sophisticated ThermosphericGeneral Circulation Models (TGCMs), such as that developed by Bougher et al.(1990). The model predicts a dayside temperature of 270K at 170 km, and a night sideT = 160K at the same altitude, but it was impossible to validate this model owing tothe lack of measurements. SPICAM offers a wide coverage of density/temperatureprofiles (local time, season, latitude, geography and solar activity) with which theTGCM could be validated (or invalidated, and modified accordingly). Then, such amodel could be used as a predictive tool for managing aerocapture/aerobrakingoperations in future.

Finally, SUV has a unique ability to detect condensation clouds during the night.The Pathfinder camera detected fog, but was not able to determine the layer’s altitude.SUV will do this accurately.

4.2.2 The case for molecular oxygenMolecular oxygen is the result of CO2 photodissociation. Its mixing ratio wasmeasured to be of the order of 10–3, and is assumed to be constant. O2 provides in theSchumann-Runge bands (170-210 nm) an additional absorption that should bemeasurable. Calculations show that the difference of transmission between anatmosphere with O2 (O2/CO2 = 10–3) and an atmosphere without O2 amounts to 2%

111

Fig. 11. Simulated stellar occultationtransmission spectra for tangential altitudesfrom 150 km to 10 km in steps of 10 km.


SP-1240

between 80 km and 50 km, in a bandwidth of about 20 nm centred on 190 nm. Theabsorption decreases somewhat below, but is detectable down to 35 km. In principle,one expects a constant mixing ratio of O2, in altitude and over the planet, inasmuchas we understand the chemical reactions that control this molecule. There is, however,the special case of the polar winter, when the CO2 condenses on the martian surfacewhile the O2 remains, enriching the airmass. The O2 mixing ratio may be used as atracer of polar airmass circulation. Its exact value depends on how fast the non-polarairmasses flow to the pole to replenish the locally condensing CO2 atmosphere. TheUV occultation technique is the only way of accessing to this important molecule.

4.3 Solar occultation measurementsAs well as the SUV working in the stellar occultation mode, both SUV and SIR willbenefit from the advanced pointing capabilities of Mars Express for solaroccultations. A solar aperture below the sensor will be pointed towards the Sun byorienting the spacecraft. The angular diameter of the Sun as seen from Mars is 0.35º,but the variability in the brightness of the solar disc requires an attitude controlaccuracy of 0.1º, well within the spacecraft specifications.

In the case of a polar orbit, there is no precession of the orbital plane. Then, duringone martian year, there are two periods of solar occultations, centred on the two dateswhen the Sun is in the orbital plane (the angle between the solar vector and the orbitplane is zero). Therefore, the possibilities of solar occultation measurements areindependent of the other orbital elements.

For the nominal orbit during the mission lifetime, some 700 sunset-sunriseoccultation sequences are expected. The occultations occur within about 60 min ofpericentre. The two hemispheres are covered twice during spring and autumn(Fig. 12). The spacecraft-limb distance during these periods varies between 4000 kmand 11 500 km. The duration of each occultation sequence for the altitude range of 0-150 km is 2-3 min. During the second martian year, there will be fewer occultationscloser to apocentre (spacecraft-limb distance above 8000 km).

Solar occultation spectroscopic sounding of a planetary atmosphere offers severaladvantages. The radiation of the Sun is an incomparably powerful source and it

112

Fig. 12. Periods of solar eclipse for MarsExpress orbit G3A. (Figure adopted fromHechler & Yanes, 1999.)



traverses the largest possible atmospheric path (the airmass factor reaches 40-45 forMars). As for stellar occultations, the measured spectra are compared with theunattenuated signal above the atmosphere, which is measured in the same sequencebefore occultation to provide self-calibration. A disadvantage is that the atmospherecan be observed only when and where there is a sunset/sunrise.

Vertical resolution of the UV channel is determined by the slit width in onedirection and by the pixel height in the other. Assuming that the spectra will beintegrated over two lines of the CCD, the FOV will be 1.5×1.5 arcmin, leading to alinear resolution of 1.7-5 km. Using a single CCD line doubles the linear resolutionin one direction. The FOV of the IR channel will be better than 4 arcmin because ofthe fibre optics that deliver the solar light to SIR, limiting the vertical resolution at thelimb to 5 km under the best conditions.

The solar-mode SUV will target the same scientific objectives at the terminator asthe stellar occultation mode but with a better S/N. The Sun’s brightness allows deepersounding for dusty conditions. The solar mode SIR can measure water vapour verticalprofiles – extremely important measurements that cannot be done by any otherinstrument aboard Mars Express or any planned US mission.

4.3.1 Water vapour profiling by SIRThe efficiency of the solar occultation method for studying the vertical distribution ofwater vapour was proved during the Phobos mission, when measurements at 1.87 µmdetermined H2O vertical profiles in the altitude range 10-50 km (Rodin et al., 1997).

The simulated absorption spectrum of the martian atmosphere at the limb is shownin Fig. 13. It is similar to the nadir spectra, but the absorptions are much moreprofound. The same near-IR absorption band at 1.38 µm will be used for both. Theabsorption features of H2O in this band are deeper than 10%. The accuracy of water-vapour limb sounding depends on atmospheric conditions. Based on availableobservations (one of which comes from the solar occultation experiment on Phobos,Rodin et al., 1997) and modelling results (Rodin et al., 1999), two types of H2Oprofiles can be considered: ‘dry and cold’ and ‘warm and wet’. The dry verticalprofile of H2O constrained by a relatively cold temperature profile in a clean atmos-phere (Clancy et al., 1990; Rodin et al., 1997) can be described as 100 ppm below

113

Fig. 13. Simulated near-IR spectrum of the martian atmosphere at the limb (tangentialaltitude 10 km).


SP-1240

10 km, ~30 ppm at 15-20 km and 10 ppm above 25 km. In these conditions, thehighest sounding altitude is around 30-35 km, and the lowest, constrained by theaerosol absorption, is within 5-10 km. For ‘warm and wet’ conditions, the highestaltitude is 45-50 km (though the absorption at these altitudes is ~0.5%) but the lowestmay be 10-15 km because of the larger amount of dust in the atmosphere, whichlevitates to higher altitudes.

4.3.2 Profiling and characterisation of atmospheric aerosolsThe main component of martian aerosols is micron-sized dust, a product of soilweathering, and water ice. According to MGS data (Pearl et al., 1999; Smith et al.,1999), clouds composed of 2 µm particles with visible optical depths of up to 0.1 areformed at the water vapour condensation level, which, in equatorial regions, variesfrom lower than 10 km at aphelion to almost 50 km in the perihelion season.Occultation spectroscopy is probably the most sensitive remote-sensing technique fordirectly sounding the vertical structure of clouds and aerosols. In solar occultation, theinformation about the spectral continuum at distant spectral wavelengths is abyproduct of gaseous absorption retrievals. As soon as the slant atmospheric opacitiesat different wavelengths are obtained from occultation data, the aerosol extinction canbe retrieved by Abel inversion. Then, using the Mie theory (possibly adapted for non-spherical particles), a number of unknown parameters characterising the aerosolcomponent can be extracted, such as the size distribution, and the real and imaginaryparts of the refractive index. Also, the vertical variation of key parameters such as theeffective size and the number density can be retrieved.

SPICAM measurements are expected to be able to separate the mineral and volatileaerosol fractions. However, when both fractions are present, it will be difficult todetermine whether mineral dust particles are cloud condensation nuclei or two kindsof aerosols mixed along the optical path. To help the interpretation, these data will becompared with or assimilated into the 1-D cloud microphysics model mentionedabove. It is especially interesting that the vertical profiles of icy aerosols will beobtained in parallel with water vapour profiles. If the observed water vapour is farfrom saturation, we expect mostly mineral dust aerosols that can be verified byspectroscopic analysis. It is a general assumption that the mineral-dust profile iscontrolled by the vertical component of large-scale atmospheric circulation and eddymixing. Therefore, these phenomena can be constrained by the retrieved dust profiles(Korablev et al., 1993).

4.3.3 The consequences of deleting the dedicated solar occultation sensor (SOIR) The classical IR grating spectrometer for solar occultations (Bertaux et al., 2000)covers a broad spectral range (1.3-4.8 µm) at a relatively high spectral resolution (2-4 cm–1), almost the same as the spectral resolution and FOV of PFS. The AOTFspectrometer has the spectral range of 1.0-1.7 µm and the spectral resolution of~3.5 cm–1. The FOV in occultation mode is larger (4-5 arcmin) because of thesimplified entrance system.

Unfortunately, the mass constraints of Mars Explorer dictated the deletion ofSOIR. Apart from the vertical resolution, there is no significant degradation ofaccuracy for H2O profiling in solar occultation. No redundancy is lost; only the1.38 µm H2O band of the three main short-IR absorption bands (1.38, 1.87, 2.56 µm)will be measured, but the grating spectrometer could measure only one at a timeanyway. Reduced spectral resolution does not affect the accuracy drastically. Thenarrower spectral range makes the aerosol profiling less effective, losing the capacityto measure some interesting components:

— the HDO band at 3.7 µm, so the IR measurements of D/H in the loweratmosphere cannot be compared with the UV measurements in the thermosphere;

— exploratory studies of the carbonic compounds at 3.3-3.7 µm;— CO measurements in the fundamental CO band at 4.7 µm and in the 2.3 µm

114



overtone band. Photochemical models predict that CO with its long lifetimewould not show any significant altitude stratification, but geographical variabilityof CO in the lower atmosphere is worth monitoring;

— strong saturated CO2 bands (at 4.0 µm and 2.7 µm) fall outside of the AOTFspectral range. It was planned to use these bands for atmospheric density studiesat 80-120 km; the same sounding will be done in the UV. This redundancy, andthe possibility of independently measuring the rotational temperature in the CO2bands, is lost.

Conversely, an important advantage of the AOTF spectrometer over the gratingspectrometer is that all the interesting regions of the spectral range can be acquiredwith the desired sampling during the same occultation session using spectral micro-windows (for gaseous components) and distant points (for aerosol characterisation inthe spectral continuum). Thus full advantage will be taken of each occultation, whichare relatively infrequent events.

4.4 Airglow observations at the limb4.4.1 Study of the ionosphere in UVMost of the ionosphere lies below the planned pericentre altitude of Mars Express(300 km) so in situ measurements will be impossible. However, the natural UVairglow of the atmosphere allows remote studies of the ionosphere and its temporalbehaviour as a function of solar-wind parameters. Figure 14 shows the dayglowspectrum recorded by the Mariner-6 and -7 UV spectrometers (Barth et al., 1971).

The main ionisable neutral constituent is CO2. The CO2+ transition (B2Σu+ – X2πg)

at 289 nm is produced by photoionisation of CO2 from solar UV at λ < 69 nm. Theother band CO2

+ (A2Σu – X2πg), between 300 nm and 400 nm, is produced by acombination of photoionisation and fluorescence scattering on CO2

+ ions. TheSPICAM UV long-wavelength cut-off is at 320 nm, which is sufficient to measure the(4,0) and (3,0) transitions of the A-X band.

The intense Cameron band of CO a3π – X1Σ+ observed at 190-270 nm is producedby a combination of photodissociation of CO2 by solar UV (λ < 108 nm), electronimpact dissociation of CO2 and dissociative recombination of CO2

+. The variation of thisband intensity with altitude was used to determine the vertical profile of CO2 above120 km, and from the scale height the temperature of the thermosphere was derived(Stewart et al., 1972). This indirect method of determining CO2 could be validated withSUV, when a stellar occultation is performed on the dayside. The large slit of the FOVwill be used to ease the pointing requirement; the bright stellar spectrum would showup, superimposed on the general airglow only on a few lines of the CCD, and the

115

Fig. 14. Mariner-6 and -7 UV spectrum of the upper atmosphere of Mars at a resolution of20 Å. Limb spectrum at altitudes between140 km and 180 km, including four individualobservations (figure adapted from Barth et al.,1971).


SP-1240

analysis of the spectro-image would provide information on CO2: direct measurementby absorptive occultation, and indirect CO Cameron band emission. Neutral O andneutral H vertical density profiles may be derived from the vertical variations of theirresonance lines at 130.4 nm and 121.6 nm (Lyman-α), respectively.

4.4.2 Hot oxygen corona, atmospheric escape and D/H ratioWhile CO2 + hν → CO2

+ is the main photoionisation source, it is the O2+ ion that is the

most abundant. As a result, a hot atomic oxygen corona around Mars (Ip, 1988),similar to that detected by Venera-11 (Bertaux et al., 1981) around Venus from theemission at 130.4 nm, can be easily detected with SPICAM’s better sensitivity. Thismay be an important source of O escape from the martian atmosphere, somewhatequilibrating the escape of H atoms responsible for the measured enrichment of D/Hratio (a factor of 6) detected in the IR in the lower atmosphere (Owen et al., 1988).

D atoms and H atoms both produce a Lyman-α resonant emission in the upperatmosphere, excited by the H solar Lyman-α line. Since the wavelength separation(H, 121.566 nm; D, 121.533 nm) is larger than the thermal width of each line, theradiative transfer of both types of Lyman-α are totally decoupled. Though SUV hasinsufficient spectral resolution, these two emissions could be tentatively separatedfrom the vertical distribution of the sum intensities. While the H emission shouldpresent a smooth variation around the CO2 absorption limb (around 120 km), becauseit is optically thick, the D Lyman-α emission is optically thin, and the intensitydoubles just above the limb. Any spike at the CO2 limb in the vertical distribution ofLyman-α total intensity limb (estimated to be ~300 R) would be due to D atoms.Therefore, both D abundance and H abundance could be determined in the upperatmosphere, and compared with HDO/H2O measurements in the lower atmosphere inthe IR. With Lyman-α measurements from the Hubble Space Telescope,Krasnopolsky et al. (1998) reported that the D/H ratio in the upper atmosphere waslower by a factor of 10 than the D/H ratio in the lower atmosphere. One possibleexplanation (Cheng et al., 1999) is that HDO is less photo-dissociated than H2O,because of a smaller cross-section. This effect is probably insufficient to explain thediscrepancy, and another explanation is known to be important (Bertaux &Montmessin, 2001): fractionation through condensation. HDO is more prone tocondense in ice crystals than is H2O from the vapour phase, decreasing the D/H ratiowith altitude in regions where the photo-dissociation rate is important. This effect isknown to play an important role in the Earth’s upper troposphere-stratosphere, whereHDO is severely depleted just above the tropopause.

4.4.3 O2 limb airglow in the IRA dayglow 1.27 µm O2 (1∆g) emission was observed from the ground at highresolution by Noxon et al. (1976). This emission was predicted just after the discoveryof ozone on Mars by Mariner-9 (Barth & Hord, 1971). The martian situation is similarto Earth’s, where a strong airglow arises from O2 (1∆g) production from ozonephotolysis. Latitude correlation of this emission with Mariner-9 O3 was reported byTraub et al. (1979). Mapping of this emission was reported by Krasnopolsky &Bjoracker (2000). Krasnopolsky (1997) argues that the O2 emission provides evenbetter insight to photochemistry than ozone, since it is more sensitive to the variationsof the water vapour saturation level (10-35 km) than total ozone, which remainsalmost constant.

The band intensity observed by different authors from the ground varies from1.5 MR to 26 MR; the limb intensity should be greater by a factor of 25 if the dayglowlayer is above dust. If, however, the dayglow and dust are uniformly mixed, this factoris approximately 3. A reasonable compromise of these factors is a mean value of ~10.Therefore, if pointed to a sunlit limb together with SUV, SIR could observe theO2 (1∆g) band intensity of 15-260 MR in a 30 km-thick layer at the limb. This heightcorresponds roughly to the FOV of the IR spectrometer, and the predicted S/N will bebetter than 20 in a single spectral bin, or 200-300 for the entire band.

116



Several measurements provided by SPICAM are unique, including:

— ozone measurements are not included on any flying or planned mission. Thevertical distribution of ozone will be measured during stellar occultations. H2O2will possibly be detected.

— the density/temperature profiles will provide important constraints for buildingmeteorological and dynamical atmospheric models, from the surface to theexosphere. TES/MGS overlaps up to 80 km altitude, but SPICAM will be theonly way to access up to 160 km, the region used for aerocapture and aero-braking. Stellar occultations provide a unique opportunity for detecting clouds onthe night side and for measuring O2.

— the remote sensing of the ionosphere from natural emissions is not included inany other planned mission. The measurements of D/H from UV limb emissionswill verify if this ratio is constant or if it varies according to condensation/evaporation processes (as around the terrestrial tropopause).

— after the loss of the Pressure Modulation IR Radiometer on the Mars ClimateOrbiter, the only instrument to provide water-vapour vertical profiling will beSPICAM (via solar occultations).

It is already clear that, as on Earth, the atmosphere of Mars has a strong interannualvariability. Atmospheric studies must be pursued at every opportunity. It is alsoessential that a variety of techniques be employed: SPICAM applies the mostsuccessful methods from terrestrial studies: backscatter UV spectroscopy andsolar/stellar occultation limb sounding.

AcknowledgementsThe authors wish to thank M. Richardson, T. Schofield and V. Krasnopolsky foruseful discussions. CNES and the Belgian government are financing SPICAM.

Atreya, S.K. & Z.G. Gu (1994). Stability of the Martian Atmosphere: Is Hetero-geneous Catalysis Essential? J. Geophys. Res. 99, E6, 13,133-13,145

Barth, C.A. & C.W. Hord (1971). Mariner Ultraviolet Spectrometer: Topography andPolar Cap. Science 173, 197-201.

Barth, C.A., C.W. Hord, A.I. Stewart, A.L. Lane, M.L. Duck & G.P. Anderson(1973). Mariner 9 Ultraviolet Spectrometer Experiment: Seasonal Variation ofOzone on Mars. Science 179, 795-796.

Barth, C.A., C.W. Hord, J.B. Pearce, K.K. Kelly, G.P. Anderson & A.I. Stewart(1971). Mariner 6 and 7 Ultraviolet Spectrometer Experiment: Upper AtmosphereData. J. Geophys. Res. 76, 2213-2227.

Barth, C.A., A.I.F. Stewart, S.W. Bougher, D.M. Hunten, S.J. Bauer & A.F. Nagy(1992). Aeronomy of the Current Martian Atmosphere. In Mars (Eds. Kieffer etal.), Univ. of Arizona Press, Arizona, USA, pp1054-1089.

Bertaux, J.L., J.E. Blamont, V.M. Lépine, V.G. Kurt, N.N. Romanova & A.S. Smir-nov (1981). Venera 11 and Venera 12 Observations of EUV Emissions from theUpper Atmosphere of Venus. Planet. Space Sci. 29, 149-166.

Bertaux, J.L., D. Fonteyn, O. Korablev, E. Chassefière, E. Dimarellis, J.P. Dubois,A. Hauchecorne, M. Cabane, P. Ranou, A.C. Levasseur-Regourd, G. Cernogora,E. Quemerais, C. Hermans, G. Kockarts, C. Lippens, M. De Maziere, D. Moreau,C. Muller, E. Neefs, P.C. Simon, F. Forget, F. Hourdin, O. Talagrand, V.I. Moroz,A. Rodin, B. Sandel & A. Stern (2000). The Study of the Martian Atmospherefrom Top to Bottom with SPICAM Light on Mars Express. Planet. Space Sci. 48,1303-1320.

Bertaux, J.L. & F. Montmessin (2001). Isotopic Fractionation through Water Vapor

117

References

5. Conclusion


SP-1240

Condensation: the Deuteropause, a Cold Trap for Deuterium in the Atmosphere ofMars. J. Geophys. Res. Planets 106, E 12, 32879-32884.

Blamont, J.E. & E. Chassefière (1993). First Detection of Ozone in the MiddleAtmosphere of Mars from Solar Occultation Measurements. Icarus 104, 324-336.

Blamont, J.E., E. Chassefière, J.P. Goutail, B. Mege, M. Nunes-Pinharanda, G. Sou-shon, V.A. Krasnopolsky, A.A. Krysko & V.I. Moroz (1989). Vertical Structure ofDust and Ozone in the Martian Atmosphere Deduced from Solar OccultationMeasurements. Nature 341, 600-603.

Bougher, S.W., C.G. Fesen, E.C. Ridley & R.W. Zurek (1993). Mars Mesosphere andThermosphere Coupling – Semidiurnal Tides. J. Geophys. Res. 98, 3281-3295.

Bougher, S.W., R.G. Roble, E.C. Ridley & R.E. Dickinson (1990). The Mars Thermo-sphere. II. General Circulation with Coupled Dynamics and Composition.J. Geophys. Res. 95, 14811-14827.

Carr, M. (1996). Water on Mars, Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, UK. Chassefière, E., J.E. Blamont, V.A. Krasnopolsky, O.I. Korablev, S.K. Atreya &

R.A. West (1992). Vertical Structure and Size Distributions of Martian Aerosolsfrom Solar Occultation Measurements. Icarus 97, 46-69.

Cheng, B.M., E.P. Chew, Ching-Ping Liu, M. Bahou, Yuan-Pern Lee, Yuk L. Yung &M.F. Gerstell (1999). Photo-Induced Fractionation of Water Isotopomers in theMartian Atmosphere. Geophys. Res. Lett. 26, 3657-3660.

Clancy, R.T., D.O. Muhleman & G.L. Berge (1990). Global Changes in the 0-70 kmThermal Structure of the Mars Atmosphere derived from 1975 to 1989 MicrowaveCO Spectra. J. Geophys. Res. 95, 14543-14554.

Clancy, R.T., A.W. Grossman, M.J. Wolff, P.B. James, D.J. Rudy, Y.N. Billawala,B.J. Sandor, S.W. Lee & D.O. Muhleman (1996). Water Vapor Saturation at LowAltitudes around Mars Aphelion: A Key to Mars Climate? Icarus 122, 36-62.

Conrath, B.J., J.C. Pearl, M.D. Smith & P.R. Christensen (1998). MGS TES Results:Characterization of the Martian Atmospheric Thermal Structure. DPS meeting #30,#11.P06

Conrath, B.J., J.C. Pearl, M.D. Smith & P.R. Christensen (1999). Mars GlobalSurveyor TES Results: Atmospheric Thermal Structure Retrieved from LimbMeasurements. DPS meeting #31, #49.08.

Farmer, C.B. & D.D. LaPorte (1972). The Detection and Mapping of Water Vapor inthe Martian Atmosphere. Icarus 16, 34-46.

Forget, F., F. Hourdin & O. Talagrand (1996). Simulation of the Martian AtmosphericPolar Warming with the LMD General Circulation Model. Ann. Geophys. 14,C797.

Fox, G.K., A.D. Code, C.M. Anderson, B.L. Babler, K.S. Bjorkman (1997). SolarSystem Observations by the Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photopolarimeter Experiment.I. The First Ultraviolet Linear Spectroscopy of Mars. Astron. J. 113, 1152-1157.

Glenar, D.A., J.J. Hillman, B. Saiff & J. Bergstralh (1994). Acouto-optic ImagingSpectropolarimery for Remote Sensing. Appl. Opt. 33, 31, 7412-7424.

Hapke, B. (1981). Bidirectional Reflectance Spectroscopy. I. Theory. J. Geophys.Res. 86, 3039-3054.

Hechler, M & A. Yanes (1999). Mars Express Mission Analysis: the Orbits aroundG3-A and G3-B. MAS working paper #413. ESOC, Darmstadt.

Hinson, D.P., R.A. Simpson, J.D. Twicken, G.L. Tyler & F.M. Flasar (1999). InitialResults from Radio Occultation Measurements from Mars Global Surveyor.J. Geophys. Res. 104, E11, 26997-27012.

Ip, W.H. (1988). On a Hot Oxygen Corona of Mars. Icarus 76, 135-145.Jakosky, B.M., R.O. Pepin, R.E. Johnson & J.L. Fox (1994). Mars Atmospheric Loss

and Isotopic Fractionation by Solar-wind-induced Sputtering and PhotochemicalEscape. Icarus 111, 271-288.

Kass, D.M. & Y.L. Yung (1995). Loss of Atmosphere from Mars due to Solar Wind-induced Sputtering. Science 268, 697-699.

Keating, G.M., S.W. Bougher, R.W. Zurek, R.H. Tolson, G.J. Cancro, S.N. Noll,

118



J.S. Parker, T.J. Schellenberg, R.W. Shane, B.L. Wilkerson, J.R. Murphy,J.L. Hollingsworth, R.M. Haberle, M. Joshi, J.C. Pearl, B.J. Conrath, M.D. Smith,R.T. Clancy, R.C. Blanchard, R.G. Wilmoth, D.F. Rault, T.Z. Martin, D.T. Lyons,P.B. Esposito, M.D. Johnston, C.W. Whetzel, C.G. Justus & J.M. Babicke (1998).The Structure of the Upper Atmosphere of Mars: In situ AccelerometerMeasurements from Mars Global Surveyor. Science 279, 1672.

Korablev, O.I., J.L. Bertaux & J.P Dubois (2001). Occultation of Stars in the UV:Study of the Atmosphere of Mars. J. Geophys. Res. 106, 7597-7610.

Korablev, O.I., V.A. Krasnopolsky, A.V. Rodin & E. Chassefière (1993). VerticalStructure of Martian Dust Measured by the Solar Occultation from PhobosSpacecraft. Icarus 102, 76-87.

Krasnopolsky, V.A. (1993). Photochemistry of the Martian Atmosphere (MeanConditions). Icarus 101, 313-332.

Krasnopolsky, V.A. (1997). Photochemical Mapping of Mars. J. Geophys. Res.(Planets) 102,13,313-13,320.

Krasnopolsky, V.A. & G.L. Bjoracker (2000). Mapping of Mars O2(1∆) Emission. AGU

2000 Spring meeting, Washington DC, USA.Krasnopolsky, V.A., O.I. Korablev, V.I. Moroz, A.A. Krysko, J.E. Blamont &

E. Chassefière (1991). Infrared Solar Occultation Sounding of the MartianAtmosphere by the Phobos Spacecraft. Icarus 94, 32-44.

Krasnopolsky, V.A., V.I. Moroz, A.A. Krysko, O.I. Korablev, V.S. Zhegulev,A.V. Grigoriev, A.Yu. Tkachuk, V.A. Parshev, J.E. Blamont & J.-P. Goutail (1989).Phobos-2: Solar Occultation Spectroscopic Measurements of the MartianAtmosphere at 1.9 and 3.7 µm. Nature 341, 603-604.

Krasnopolsky, V.A., M.J. Mumma & G.R. Gladstone (1998). Detection of AtomicDeuterium in the Upper Atmosphere of Mars. Science 280, 1576-1580.

Lee, P., S. Ebisawa & A. Dollfus (1990). Crystal Clouds in the Martian Atmosphere.Astron. Astroph. 240, 2, 520-532.

Lellouch, E., G. Paubert & T. Encrenaz (1991). Mapping of CO Millimeter Wave Linesin Mars’Atmosphere: The Spatial Variability of Carbon Monoxide on Mars. Planet.Space Sci. 39, 219-224.

Luhmann, J.G., R.E. Johnson & M.H.G. Zhang (1992). Evolutionary Impact ofSputtering of the Martian Atmosphere by O+ Pickup Ions. Geophys. Res. Lett. 19,2151-2154.

Magalhaes, J.A., J.T. Schofield & A. Seiff (1999). Results of the Mars PathfinderAtmospheric Structure Investigation. J. Geophys. Res. 104, 8943-8955.

Maguire, W.C. (1977). Martian Isotopic Ratios and Upper Limits for Possible MinorConstituents as Derived from Mariner 9 Infrared Spectrometer Data. Icarus 32, 85-97.

McElroy, M.B. (1972). Mars: An Evolving Atmosphere. Science 175, 443-445.McElroy, M.B. & T.M. Donahue (1972). Stability of the Martian Atmosphere. Science

177, 986.Moreau, D., A. Marten & Y. Biraud (1998). Meridional and Seasonal Distributions of

Trace Gases in the Lower and Middle Atmosphere of Mars. Lunar and PlanetaryScience Conference, 1998, Houston, TX, USA, Abstract #1369.

Nair, H., M. Allen, A.D. Anbar & Y.L. Yung (1994). A Photochemical Model of theMartian Atmosphere. Icarus 111, 124-150.

Noxon, J.F., W.A. Traub, N.P. Carleton & P. Connes (1976). Detection of O2 AirglowEmission from Mars and the Martian Ozone Abundance. Astrophys. J. 207, 1025-1035.

Owen, T., J.P. Maillard, C. de Bergh & B.L. Lutz (1988). Deuterium on Mars: TheAbundance of HDO and the Value of H/D. Science 240, 1767-1170.

Parkinson, T.D. & D.M. Hunten (1972). Spectroscopy and Aeronomy of O2 on Mars.J. Atm. Sci. 29, 1390.

Pearl, J.C., M.D. Smith, B.J. Conrath, J.L. Bandfield & P.R. Christensen (1999). MarsGlobal Surveyor TES Results: Observations of Water Ice Clouds. DPS meeting #31,#76.08.

119


SP-1240

Rodin, A.V., R.T. Clancy, R.J. Wilson (1999). Dynamical Properties of Mars WaterIce Clouds and their Interactions with Atmospheric Dust and Radiation. Adv. SpaceRes. 23, 1577-1585.

Rodin, A.V., O.I. Korablev & V.I. Moroz (1997). Vertical Distribution of Water inNear-equatorial Troposphere of Mars: Water Vapor and Clouds. Icarus 125, 21-29.

Roscoe, H.K., R.A. Freshwater, R. Wolfenden, R.L. Jones, D.J. Fish, J.E. Harries &D.J. Oldham (1994). Using Stars for Remote Sensing of the Earth’s Stratosphere.Appl. Optics. 33, 7126-7131.

Rosenqvist, J., P. Drossart, M. Combes, T. Encrenaz, E. Lellouch, J.P. Bibring,S. Erard, Y. Langevin & E. Chassefière (1992). Minor Constituents in the MartianAtmosphere from the ISM/Phobos Experiment. Icarus 98, 254-270.

Santer, R., M. Deschamps, L.V. Ksanfomaliti & A. Dollfus (1985). PhotopolarimetricAnalysis of the Martian Atmosphere by the Soviet MARS-5 Orbiter. I: WhiteClouds and Dust Veils. Astron. Astroph. 150, 2, 217-228.

Seif, A. & D.B. Kirk (1977). Structure of the Atmosphere of Mars in Summer at Mid-latitudes. J. Geophys. Res. 82, 4364-4378.

Smith, G.R. & D.M. Hunten (1990). Study of Planetary Atmospheres by AbsorptiveOccultations. Rev. Geophys. 28, 117.

Smith, M.D., J.C. Pearl, B.J. Conrath & P.R. Christensen (1999). Mars GlobalSurveyor TES Results: Observations of Atmospheric Dust during Mapping. DPSmeeting #31, #48.06.

Stewart, A.I. (1972). Mariner 6 and 7 Ultraviolet Spectrometer Experiment:Implication of CO2

+, CO and O Airglow. J. Geophys. Res. 77, 54-68. Stewart, A.I., C.A. Barth & C.W. Hord (1972). Mariner 9 Ultraviolet Spectrometer

Experiment: Structure of Mars’ Upper Atmosphere. Icarus 17, 469-474.Stoker, C.R. & M.A. Bullock (1997). Organic Degradation under Simulated Martian

Conditions. J. Geophys. Res. 102, 10881-10888. Traub, W.A, N.P. Carleton, P. Connes & J.F. Noxon (1979). The Latitude Variation of

O2 Airglow and O3 Abundance on Mars. Astrophys. J. 229, 846-850.Wehrbein, W.M., C.W. Hord & C.A. Barth (1979). Mariner 9 UV Spectrometer

Experiment: Vertical Distribution of Ozone on Mars. Icarus 38, 288-299.Wilson, R.J. (1997). A General Circulation Model Simulation of the Mars Polar

Warming. Geophys. Res. Lett. 24, 123-126. Yung, Y.L & W.D. DeMore (1999). Photochemistry of Planetary Atmospheres,

Oxford Univ. Press., UK, p.34.

120


121

ASPERA-3: Analyser of Space Plasmas and Energetic Ions for Mars Express

S. Barabash1, R. Lundin1, H. Andersson1, J. Gimholt1,a, M. Holmström1, O. Norberg1,b, M. Yamauchi1, K. Asamura2, A.J. Coates3, D.R. Linder3, D.O. Kataria3, C.C. Curtis4, K.C. Hsieh4, B.R. Sandel4,A. Fedorov5,c, A. Grigoriev5,d, E. Budnik5,c, M. Grande6, M. Carter6, D.H. Reading6, H. Koskinen7, E. Kallio7,P. Riihela7, T. Säles7, J. Kozyra8, N. Krupp9, S. Livi9,e, J. Woch9, J. Luhmann10, S. McKenna-Lawlor11,S. Orsini12, R. Cerulli-Irelli12, M. Maggi12, A. Morbidini12, A. Mura12, A. Milillo12, E. Roelof13, D. Williams13, J.-A. Sauvaud14, J.-J. Thocaven14, T. Moreau14, D. Winningham15, R. Frahm15, J. Scherrer15, J. Sharber15,P. Wurz16 & P. Bochsler16

1Swedish Institute of Space Physics, Box 812, S-98 128, Kiruna, SwedenEmail: [email protected]

2Institute of Space and Astronautical Science, 3-1-1 Yoshinodai, Sagamichara, Japan3Mullard Space Science Laboratory, University College London, Surrey RH5 6NT, UK4University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA5Space Research Institute, 117810 Moscow, Russia6Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Chilton, Didcot, Oxfordshire OX11 0QX, UK7Finnish Meteorological Institute, Box 503 FIN-00101 Helsinki, Finland8Space Physics Research Laboratory, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2143, USA9Max-Planck-Institut für Aeronomie, D-37191 Katlenburg-Lindau, Germany10Space Science Laboratory, University of California in Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720-7450, USA11Space Technology Ltd., National University of Ireland, Maynooth, Co. Kildare, Ireland 12Instituto di Fisica dello Spazio Interplanetari, I-00133 Rome, Italy13Applied Physics Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University, Laurel, MD 20723-6099, USA14Centre d’Etude Spatiale des Rayonnements, BP-4346, F-31028 Toulouse, France 15Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, TX 7228-0510, USA16University of Bern, Physikalisches Institut, CH-3012 Bern Switzerlanda now at Scania, Volvo Corporation, Södertälje, Swedenb now at ESRANGE, Swedish Space Corporation, Kiruna, Swedenc now at Centre d’Etude Spatiale des Rayonnements, Toulouse, Franced now at Swedish Institute of Space Physics, Box 812, S-981 28 Kiruna, Swedene now at Applied Physics Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University, Laurel, MD 20723, USA

Barabash.qxd 7/7/04 1:41 PM Page 121

SP-1240

The ASPERA-3 (Analyser of Space Plasma and Energetic Atoms) instrument ofMars Express is designed to study the solar wind-Mars atmosphere interactionand to characterise the plasma and neutral gas environment in near-Mars spacethrough energetic neutral atom (ENA) imaging and local charged-particlemeasurements. The studies address the fundamental question: how strongly dothe interplanetary plasma and electromagnetic fields affect the martian atmos-phere? This question is directly related to the problem of martian dehydration.The instrument comprises four sensors; two ENA sensors, and electron and ionspectrometers. The Neutral Particle Imager (NPI) measures the integral ENAflux (0.1-60 keV) with no mass and energy resolution but with high angularresolution. The Neutral Particle Detector (NPD) measures the ENA flux,resolving energy (0.1-10 keV) and mass (H and O) with a coarse angularresolution. The electron spectrometer (ELS) is a standard top-hat electrostaticanalyser of a very compact design. These three sensors are mounted on ascanning platform providing 4π coverage. The instrument includes an ion masscomposition sensor, IMA (Ion Mass Analyser). Mechanically, IMA is a separateunit connected by a cable to the ASPERA-3 main unit. IMA provides ionmeasurements in the energy range 0.01-40 keV/q for the main ion componentsH+, He2+, He+, O+, with 20-80 amu/q.

1.1 Scientific taskThe scientific objectives of the Mars Express Orbiter mission are to study thesubsurface, surface and atmosphere of Mars, as well as the interaction of the atmos-phere with the interplanetary medium. ASPERA-3 will fulfil the last objective by:

— remote measurements of energetic neutral atoms (ENAs) in order to (a)investigate the interaction between the solar wind and the martian atmosphere,(b) characterise quantitatively the impact of plasma processes on atmosphericevolution, and (c) obtain the global plasma and neutral gas distributions in thenear-Mars environment;

— in situ measurements of ions and electrons to (a) complement the ENA images(electrons and multi-charged ions cannot be imaged), (b) study local character-istics of the plasma (dynamics and fine structure of boundaries), (c) provide theundisturbed solar wind parameters required for interpreting ENA images.

As established by earlier missions, and confirmed recently by Mars GlobalSurveyor, Mars does not possess an intrinsic dipole magnetic field but only localcrustal magnetisations (Acuna et al., 1998). The local field plays a role in the solarwind interaction only over limited regions. For the overall interaction picture, thesolar wind interacts directly with the martian ionosphere, exosphere and upperatmosphere. As a result of the low gravity on Mars, the neutral density can reach 104-106 cm–3 in the interaction region where the main plasma boundaries, bow shock andmagnetopause, are located. The co-existence of these two components, the solar windplasma and the planetary neutral gas, produces a strong interaction. One of thefundamental collisional interactions is the charge-exchange process between theenergetic ion, A+, and the cold atmospheric gas, M:

A+(energetic) + M(cold) → A(energetic) + M+(cold),

which produces energetic neutral atoms, A, and an ionised gas particle. Directionaldetection of the ENA thereby yields a global image of the interaction, if the observeris at a remote location with respect to the plasma population (Wurz, 2000).ASPERA-3 will concentrate on studying the effects of the plasma-neutral coupling atMars via ENA imaging, complemented by the electron and ion observations.

122

1. The Science



1.2 The solar wind-atmosphere couplingNear-Mars space is strikingly different from Earth-space because of the absence of asubstantial intrinsic martian magnetic field. Without the magnetic cavity of a magneto-sphere to shield the upper atmosphere from the solar wind, Mars is subject to comet-like atmosphere erosion processes and solar wind-induced current systems that have noterrestrial counterparts. From previous missions to Mars (especially Phobos-2) andfrom Pioneer Venus Orbiter circling the similarly weakly magnetised Venus, ideas onhow the martian upper atmosphere and solar wind interact and the consequences forthe planet have been developed. In particular, the scavenging of planetary ions mayhave resulted in the removal of ~1 m of surface water over 4.5 Gyr (Lundin et al.,1991). More detailed studies (Perez-de-Tejada, 1992), taking into account the variabil-ity of the ionosphere throughout the planet’s history, give a much higher (~30 m)equivalent depth of water that has escaped owing to the solar wind interaction process.

The current atmospheric conditions on Mars indicate that water does not exist onthe surface in any significant amount: 15 mm equivalent water layer (Farmer et al.,1977). On the other hand, independent analyses of several features of the planetunambiguously indicate that water did exist in the past on the martian surface. Fig. 1shows the water inventory based on different approaches: geomorphologic features,analysis of the SNC meteorites, isotopic abundance and volcanic activity. The totalamount of past surface water results in an equivalent water layer of at least 100 m.This leads to the problem of martian dehydration. Where is the water? Is it lost orfrozen and buried? If the former, what could produce such an effective escapemechanism? If the latter, where is this tremendous amount of water stored? Asindicated above, the processes associated with the solar-wind interaction couldaccount for the escape of up to 30% of past surface water.

Another problem of the solar wind-atmosphere coupling that has not been exploredexperimentally is the energetic consequences for the atmosphere of the lack of asignificant dipole field. Kinetic and test-particle models of the Mars-solar windinteraction (Brecht, 1997; Kallio et al., 1997) suggest that solar wind absorption bythe atmosphere may be an important energy source for the upper atmosphere. TheENAs generated as a product of the solar wind interaction increase the deposition ofsolar wind energy (Kallio & Barabash, 2001) and, at the same time, provide a meansof ‘imaging’ the solar wind interaction. The atmosphere, although thin, alters theincoming energetic solar wind by:

— generation of ionospheric currents that partially deflect the ion flow around theionosphere;

— ‘mass loading’ the solar wind with planetary ions produced mainly byphotoionisation, and solar wind electron impact ionisation of the atmosphericgases;

— undergoing charge-transfer or charge-exchange interactions with the solar windions.

123

Fig. 1. Martian water inventory derived fromdifferent approaches. The present Earth is alsoshown for reference (adapted from McKay &Stoker, 1989).


SP-1240

According to the models, some of the solar wind ions (mainly protons and alphaparticles) directly impact Mars’ upper atmosphere near its exobase (~180 kmaltitude) because their gyroradii are too large to behave as a deflected ‘fluid’ in thesubsolar magnetosheath (Brecht, 1997; Kallio & Janhunen, 2001) or because they arepartially thermalised by the bow shock (Kallio et al., 1997). Others undergo charge-exchange reactions with ambient exospheric and thermospheric neutrals, particularlyhydrogen, and then impact the exobase as ENAs (Kallio et al., 1997). In both cases,solar wind energy is ‘directly’ deposited into the upper atmosphere, increasingionisation rates and UV emissions. Kallio & Barabash (2000, 2001) have studied theeffects of such ENA precipitation using Monte Carlo simulations and estimated that,under typical solar wind conditions, the precipitating hydrogen atoms increase theionisation rate by about 1% in comparison with ionisation rates owing to extreme UVradiation. This effect is comparable to, or even stronger than, similar effects causedby the O+ and H+ precipitation (Luhmann & Kozyra, 1991; Brecht, 1997; Kallio &Janhunen, 2001). The results also indicate that a substantial part of the incomingparticles is scattered back from the atmosphere, resulting in an ENA hydrogenalbedo. Imaging these particles would visualise the spots or regions of the mostintense ENA precipitation.

While the energy transfer associated with the proton or ENA precipitation exceedsthat from the O+ precipitation, it is the oxygen ions that cause massive sputtering ofthe atmosphere (Luhmann & Kozyra, 1991; Luhmann et al., 1992). Luhmann &Bauer (1992) estimated that the O+ sputtering results in the escape of 0.1-0.5 kg s–1 ofoxygen atoms. This is on the same level as the non-thermal escape of the hot oxygenatmospheric component. For comparison, the direct solar wind pick-up, excluding thebulk ionospheric scavenging, removes 0.01 kg s–1 at most.

1.3 Sources of energetic neutral atoms at MarsBarabash et al. (1995), Kallio et al. (1997), Holmström et al. (2002), Mura et al.(2002), Lichtenegger et al. (2002) and Barabash et al. (2002) considered the ENAproduction at Mars. ENAs are produced by charge-exchange between the exospherecontaining H, H2, He and O, and the different plasma populations such as:

124

Fig. 2. ENA spectra along the Mars Expressorbit. The ENAs originate in the shocked solarwind. The arrows mark ENA flux produced inthe upstream solar wind. The energy resolutioncorresponds to that of ASPERA-3.



— the supersonic solar wind (Holmström et al., 2002);— the shocked solar wind (Holmström et al., 2002);— accelerated planetary ions (Barabash et al., 2002; Lichtenegger et al., 2002);— the tiny Phobos atmosphere can also interact with both the supersonic and the

shocked solar wind, resulting in ENA generation (Mura et al., 2002);— the energetic O+ ions picked up by the plasma flow incident on the atmosphere

are backscattered and sputter oxygen, CO2 and its fragments (Luhmann &Kozyra, 1991; Luhmann et al., 1992). The backscattered and sputtered atomshave energies up to few hundred eV and form an oxygen ENA albedo. Theintensity of these emissions directly determines the efficiency of the atmosphericerosion;

— the precipitating protons and hydrogen ENAs can also be scattered back, forminga hydrogen ENA albedo (Kallio & Barabash, 2001; Holmström et al., 2002).

The supersonic solar wind upstream of the bow shock can experience charge-exchange with the hydrogen exosphere over very long distances, producing a narrow(≈ 10°) anti-Sunward beam of ENAs with the energy of the bulk flow of the solarwind (the spectrum marked by arrows in Fig. 2). These ENAs can be detected only atthe beam edges because they are superimposed on the intense flux of the solarradiation.

The shocked solar wind is the strongest source of ENAs because the protonsflowing around Mars can interact with dense neutral gas. The detailed modelling ofthe ENA production from this source was performed by Kallio et al. (1997),Holmström et al. (2002) and Mura et al. (2002). Using these models, ENA images thatwould be observed from the Mars Express orbit were simulated for solar maximumconditions. The spacecraft will reach Mars during the moderate solar activitycharacteristic of the decline of the solar cycle. The ENA emissions are weaker duringsolar maximum so the calculations give lower limits for the ENA fluxes. Fig. 2 showsthe ENA spectra integrated over the unit sphere for several locations along the Mars

125

Fig. 3. Model ENA images for four locationsalong the Mars Express orbit (three marked inthe inset of Fig. 2); position 4 (not shown inFig. 2) corresponds to the orbit apocentre. Thepolar axis looks towards the Sun. The polarangle is the azimuth at the vantage point andthe radius is the polar angle to the Sundirection. The solar wind ENAs are blocked.


SP-1240

Express orbit. The estimated ENA fluxes are well above 104 cm–2 s–1 keV–1 and,therefore, easily detectable. The directional fluxes to be measured well exceed105 cm–2 s–1 sr–1.

Fig. 3 shows the directional ENA flux integrated over energy as a function of twospherical angles (ENA images) for several positions along the Mars Express orbitmarked in Fig. 2. Position 4 corresponds to the apocentre. In this fish-eye projection,the polar axis is looking towards the Sun. The polar angle is the azimuth at thevantage point and the radius is the polar angle to the Sun direction. The imagesdisplay the entire interaction region and can be converted into global distributions ofthe proton flow and neutral gas using extracting diagnostic methods similar to thatdeveloped for the Earth’s conditions (Roelof & Skinner, 2000). Holmström et al.(2002) showed that the ENA fluxes generated from the shocked solar wind are mostsensitive to the neutral hydrogen distribution controlled by the exobase temperatureand the position of the boundary separating the solar wind and planetary plasmas.

Some of the ENAs produced by the shocked solar wind and ENAs originating inthe solar wind can precipitate onto the ionosphere. Fig. 2 (position 1 inside themagnetosphere) gives a typical spectrum of precipitating ENAs at the 45° solar zenithangle. The spectrum is rather flat at the level 7x105 cm–2 s–1 keV–1. The peak corre-sponds to the solar wind energy. The planetary protons originating from ionisation ofthe hydrogen corona can charge-exchange with the exospheric gas as well, resultingin planetary hydrogen ENA emissions. These emissions, investigated in detail byLichtenegger et al. (2002), differ from the shocked solar wind ENAs in energybecause the pick-up protons can gain an energy up to four times that of the solar wind.

The ASPERA/Phobos observations of the plasma energisation inside the martianmagnetosphere (Lundin et al., 1993) showed the existence of two basic ionpopulations: the tail beams of H+ and O+ of energy 1-3 keV, and outflowingionospheric ions of energy 10-100 eV near the tail flanks. Barabash et al. (1995)estimated the related ENA flux to be 103 cm–2 s–1 keV–1 for the energy range 1-10 keV,and up to 105 cm–2 s–1 keV–1 for 10-100 eV. The ENA signal associated with thepick-up oxygen was investigated in detail by Barabash et al. (2002). Using the

126

Fig. 4. Model ENA images of the pick-upoxygen ions for two vantage points in the tailand at the pole. The vantage points are in theplane perpendicular to the ecliptic. The polaraxis is towards the planetary centre. The imageprojection is similar to that of Fig. 3. Theenergy range is 0.1-1.65 keV. The electric andmagnetic field vectors in the solar wind areshown for reference.



empirical model of the solar wind plasma flow near Mars developed by Kallio &Koskinen (1999), Barabash et al. (2002) numerically solved the kinetic equation andobtained the global distribution of oxygen ions. This distribution was then convertedto the corresponding ENA flux. It was found that the fluxes of the oxygen ENAs couldreach 104 cm–2 s–1 keV–1 and fully reflect the morphology of the oxygen population.This provides a way to determine the instantaneous oxygen escape rate. One of thesimulated images for the energy range 0.1-1.65 keV is reproduced in Fig. 4. Theprojection is similar to that used for hydrogen ENA images but the polar axis in thevantage point points towards the centre of the planet. The image shows a strong ENAjet from the subsolar point, where the electric and magnetic field configurationeffectively accelerates newborn planetary ions. The tailward flow is also clearlyreproduced. The corresponding vantage points are shown below the images.

Several experiments on the Phobos mission observed brief plasma disturbanceswhen the spacecraft crossed that moon’s orbit (Barabash, 1995). They could berelated to a hypothetical neutral gas torus resulting from the moon outgassing. Thesolar wind plasma can experience charge-exchange with the Phobos ‘atmosphere’ andthe neutral torus, resulting in ENA emissions. Assuming an outgassing rate of 1023 s–1,Mura et al. (2002) calculated the associated ENA flux to be of the order of 103-104 cm–2 s–1 keV–1 for the shocked solar wind plasma, and up to 106 cm–2 s–1 keV–1 forthe solar wind beam. Because of solar radiation, the Phobos ENAs and the Phobostorus ENAs can be observed only when the moon is in the magnetosheath and theplasma flow deviates strongly from the anti-solar direction.

1.4 ENA imaging of the martian environmentASPERA-3 will image all of the above ENA sources. The images provide two-foldinformation. Firstly, they reveal morphological features of the ENA sources, such asthe location of boundaries and their relative sizes. ENA images are useful, inparticular, for investigating different types of asymmetries expected for the plasmaflow near Mars (Dubinin et al., 1996). The ENA images of the escaping plasmadisplay globally and instantaneously the size and geometry of the outflowing plasmaregion. These characteristics are particularly important for calculations of the totalnon-thermal plasma outflow. For instance, the local ion measurements made using theASPERA and TAUS instruments during the Phobos mission gave comparable ionfluxes. However, different assumptions made regarding the outflow region geometry(mass-loading boundary, plasma sheet) resulted in significant differences in the totaloutflow rate estimations, 0.5-1.0 kg s–1 (Lundin et al., 1989) and 0.15 kg s–1 (Veriginet al., 1991). One of the reasons for this was ambiguity in separating spatial andtemporal variations, which is typical for local plasma measurements. Global andinstantaneous observations of the outflowing plasma region morphology to be madevia ENA imaging would help to resolve this issue, which is important forunderstanding the planetary atmosphere evolution.

Secondly, ENA images carry ample quantitative information about both theplanetary plasma and neutral environments. By applying extraction techniques to theimages of the shocked solar wind, quantitative models will be obtained giving theneutral gas profiles (exobase densities and temperatures) and global proton plasmadistributions (flow geometry, bulk velocity, density and temperature).

Aerobraking measurements from Mars Global Surveyor (Dornheim, 1997)indicate that the atmospheric density at 150 km altitude varies by 30% in one out ofthree passes. Estimated scale heights of ~8 km implies that the densities in theinteraction region higher up will also be much more variable with time than had beenexpected. Global ENA imaging of the interaction offers the greatest promise ofseparating the spatial and temporal variations of the atmosphere-solar windinteraction. Apart from imaging, the measurements of ENA flux from certaindirections provide a diagnostic tool for plasma-atmosphere coupling studies.Precipitating ENAs and ENA albedo (backscattered oxygen) are direct manifestationsof such an interaction.

127


SP-1240

1.5 Scientific objectives and measurements requirementsThe studies of martian ENAs resulting from the solar wind-atmosphere interactionaddress the fundamental question: how strongly do the interplanetary plasma andelectromagnetic fields affect the atmosphere? This question is directly related to theproblem of martian dehydration as described in Section 1.2. What happened to themartian water that once flowed in numerous channels? As we know from terrestrialexperience, together with an inventory of organic compounds and external energysources, liquid water is a fundamental requirement for life as we know it. Therefore,a clear understanding of the fate of the martian water is crucial for resolving whetherlife has ever existed on Mars.

The general scientific task of studying the solar wind-atmosphere interactionthrough ENA imaging can be subdivided into specific scientific objectives. These arelisted in Table 1, together with the corresponding instrument requirements.

1.6 Relation to other missionsASPERA-3 will perform the first ENA imaging of another planet in the low energy

128

Table 1. ASPERA-3 scientific objectives.

Scientific objective Associated Measurements Measurement Requirements

Determine the instantaneous global ENAs originating from Measure the ENA flux in the energy range tens eV - few keV distributions of plasma and neutral the shocked solar wind with 4π coverage. ENA flux >104 cm–2 s–1 keV–1. Measure the gas near the planet upstream solar wind parameters

Study plasma-induced atmospheric ENAs originating from inside Mass-resolving (H/O) ENA measurements in the energy range upescape the magnetosphere to tens keV. ENA flux >103 cm–2 s–1 keV–1

Investigate the modification of the ENA albedo Mass-resolving (H/O) ENA measurements in the energy range atmosphere through ion bombardment down to tens eV from the nadir direction.

ENA flux >106 cm–2 s–1 keV–1 (100 eV)

Investigate the energy deposition from Precipitating ENAs ENA measurements in the energy range tens eV - few keV.the solar wind to the ionosphere ENA flux >104 cm–2 s–1 keV–1

Search for the solar wind- ENA originating from Phobos ENA measurements in the energy range tens eV - few keV Phobos interactions with 4π coverage. ENA flux 104 cm–2 s–1 keV–1

Define the local characteristics of the Ion and electron measurements Ion and electron measurements in the energy range main plasma regions of hot plasma few eV - tens keV with 4π coverage

Fig. 5. The ASPERA-3 configuration: the Main Unit (left) and IMA (right). Fig. 6. The ASPERA-3 mechanical model during vibration testing.



range. No instruments with similar scientific objectives and capabilities are foreseento fly to other planets. The only similar experiment, ASPERA-C, was carried by thefailed Mars-96 mission. However, it did not have the ENA energy-analysing NeutralParticle Detector.

2.1 OverviewASPERA-3 is designed for the analysis of ENAs, electrons and ions, with completespherical coverage. Mechanically, ASPERA-3 (Figs. 5 and 6) consists of two units,the Main Unit (MU) and the Ion Mass Analyser (IMA). The MU comprises threesensors: NPI, NPD and ELS, with a digital processing unit, all located on a scanplatform. All mechanical and electrical interfaces are made through the scan platform.The instrument’s total mass is 8.2 kg and its power consumption 13.5 W. The MUenvelope is 359x393x234 mm, and for IMA 255x150x150 mm.

2.2 Measurement principles and capabilitiesTo fulfil its scientific objectives, ASPERA-3 comprises four sensors; two ENAsensors (NPI, NPD), an electron spectrometer (ELS) and an ion mass analyser (IMA).The two ENA sensors are optimised for some of the scientific objectives, while beingcomplementary. This approach offers the necessary redundancy as well as theindependent cross-checking necessary for such ground-breaking measurements atanother planet. The charged particle sensors not only characterise the local plasmaenvironment but also support ENA measurements in terms of charged particlesbackground and inter-calibrations.

The Neutral Particle Imager measures the integral ENA flux with no mass andenergy resolution but with 5x11° angular resolution. The intrinsic field of view is9x344°. The sensor uses a graphite surface to suppress the UV background. ENAsincident on the surface at a grazing angle of 20° are reflected and/or cause ionsputtering. A micro-channel plate (MCP) stack detects the reflected particles andsputtered fragments with a discrete anode. The NPI head is a replica of the NPI-MCPsensor developed for ASPERA-C on Mars-96 (launch failure) and successfully flownon the Swedish Astrid microsatellite, launched in 1995 (C:son Brandt et al., 2000).

The Neutral Particle Detector measures the ENA differential flux over the energyrange 100 eV to 10 keV, resolving H and O with a coarse 5x30° angular resolution.The sensor consists of two identical detectors, each with a 9x90° intrinsic field ofview. The measurement technique is based on a principle similar to that of NPI. ENAsincident on a surface at a grazing angle of 15° are reflected and generate secondaryelectron emission. The secondary electrons are transported to an MCP assembly,which gives the START signal. The reflected ENAs hit the second surface and againproduce the secondary electrons used to generate the STOP signal. The time-of-flight(TOF) electronics give the ENA velocity. The pulse-height distribution analysis of theSTOP signals provides a rough determination of the ENA mass.

The Electron Spectrometer measures electrons in the energy range 0.01-20 keV.The intrinsic field of view is 10x360°. The 360° aperture is divided into 16 sectors.The sensor is a standard top-hat electrostatic analyser in a very compact design. ELSis a reduced version of the MEDUSA experiment for the Astrid-2 and Munin missionslaunched in 1998 and 2000 (Norberg et al., 2001).

The Ion Mass Analyser is an improved version of the ion mass spectrographsTICS/Freja, IMIS/Mars-96 and IMI/Nozomi (Norberg et al., 1998) and a copy ofRosetta’s ICA instrument. The IMA sensor is a separate unit connected by a cable toASPERA-3. It measures ions in the energy range 0.01-30 keV/q for the main ioncomponents H+, H2+, He+, O+ and for the group of molecular ions 20 < M/q < ~80.Mechanically, IMA is a separate unit with a 4.6x360° field of view. Electrostaticsweeping performs elevation (±45°) coverage. The IMA sensor is a sphericalelectrostatic analyser followed by a circular magnetic separating section. A large-diameter MCP with a discrete anode images the matrix azimuth x mass.

NPI, NPD and ELS are mounted on a scanning platform. The combination of the

129

2. The Instrument


SP-1240

360° field of view and the scans from 0° to 180° give the required 4π maximumcoverage. The actual coverage depends on the instrument location on the spacecraft.Table 2 summarises the instrument performance.

2.3 Neutral Particle Imager (NPI)The NPI head is a replica of the NPI-MCP sensor developed for ASPERA-C/Mars-96and flown successfully on Astrid (Barabash, 1995). In NPI, the charged particles,electrons and ions are removed by the electrostatic deflection system, which consistsof two discs separated by a 3 mm gap (Fig. 7). The 5 kV potential between thegrounded and biased discs produces a strong electric field, which sweeps away allcharged particles with energies up to 60 keV. Since the integral ENA fluxsubstantially exceeds the charged particle flux for energies greater than 60 keV, thisrejection energy provides satisfactory performance. The discs also collimate theincoming beam in the elevation angle. Apart from being ‘on’ or ‘off’, the deflectionsystem can be operated in two other modes: ‘alternative’ and ‘sweeping’. In thealternative mode, the deflection system is turned on and off for one sampling time.This mode will be used for more accurate separation between charged and neutralparticles entering the system. The deflection system is connected to the high-voltagesupply via an optocoupler. Regulating the optocoupler reference voltage changes thedeflection voltage performing the sweeping and alternating. In order to reduce thetime for discharging the deflection system discs to 1 ms, a second parallel optocoupleris used.

The space between the deflection system discs is divided into 32 sectors by plasticspokes forming 32 azimuthal collimators with an aperture of 9x18° each. Neutralspassing through the deflection system hit a 32-sided conical target at a grazing angleof 20°. The interaction with the target generates secondary particles, both electronsand ions, and/or reflection of the primary neutrals. An MCP stack in a chevronconfiguration, followed by a 32-sector anode, detects the particles leaving the target.The signal from the MCP gives the direction of the primary incoming neutral. TheMCP operates in ion mode with a negative bias of –2.6 kV applied to the front sideand thus detects (a) sputtered positive ions of the target material, (b) positive ionsresulting from ionisation of the primary neutrals, and (c) neutrals reflected from thetarget surface. In order to improve the angular resolution and collimate the particlesleaving the interaction surface, 32 separating walls are attached to the target, forming

130

Table 2. Baseline performances of the NPI, NPD, ELS and IMA sensors.

Parameter NPI NPD ELS IMA

Particles to be measured ENA ENA electrons ions

Energy range, keV per charge ≈ 0.1 - 60 0.1 - 10 0.01 - 20 0.01 - 30

Energy resolution, ∆E/E No 0.8 0.08 0.07

Mass resolution No H, O – m/q = 1, 2,4, 8, 16, >20

Intrinsic field of view 9 x 344° 9 x 180° 10 x 360° 90 x 360°

Angular resolution (FWHM) 4.6 x 11.5° 5 x 30° 10 x 22.5° 4.5 x 22.5°

G-factor*/ pixel, cm2 sr 2.5 x 10–3 6.2 x 10–3 5 x 10–4 3.5 x 10–4

(ε not incl.) (ε not incl.)

Efficiency, ε, % ~ 1 0.1-20 inc. in G inc. in G

Time resolution (full 3D), s 32 32 32 32

Mass, kg 0.7 1.3 0.3 2.2

Power, W 0.8 1.5 0.6 3.5

*G-factor is the instrument geometrical factor



a star-like structure. This configuration allows the entering particles to experiencemultiple reflections and reach the MCP. NPI covers 4π in one instrument scan andproduces an image of the ENA distribution in the form of an azimuth x elevationmatrix. The direction vector of 32 elements can be read out once every 31.25 µs. Twosectors centred around the spin axis and looking toward the spacecraft body areblocked to monitor the MCP assembly dark counts. This space is also used for theELS sensor harness.

An important issue in designing the NPI was the target coating for suppressing UVphoton fluxes, which produce the UV background in the measurements. NPI uses thesame coating as in the PIPPI/Astrid and ASPERA-C experiments: DAG 213, a resin-based graphite dispersion. This is similar to Aquadag, which is a graphite dispersionin water. The coating demonstrated satisfactory performance in the PIPPI experiment

131

Fig. 7. Cutaway of the NPI sensor.

Fig. 8. ENA images expected from NPI for thelocations along the Mars Express orbitspecified in Fig. 2 (position 4 corresponds tothe orbit apocentre). The images weregenerated assuming the instrumentcharacteristics given in Table 2. The Sun is inthe centre of the image. The solar wind ENAscoming from the Sun direction are not shown.The projection is similar to that in Fig. 3.


SP-1240

flown in the Earth’s magnetosphere (C:son Brandt et al., 2000). Fig. 8 shows ENAimages expected from NPI for the locations along the Mars Express orbit specified inFig. 2.

2.4 Neutral Particle Detector (NPD)The NPD contains two identical sensors, each a pinhole camera. Fig. 9 provides aconceptual view of one sensor. In each sensor, the charged particles, electrons andions are removed by the deflection system, which consists of two 90° sectorsseparated by a 4.5 mm gap. In the normal operational mode, the 10 kV potential(±5 kV) applied to the sectors results in a strong electric field that sweeps away allcharged particles with energies up to 70 keV. The deflector also collimates theincoming beam in the elevation angle. The collimated ENA beam emerging from the3.0x4.5 mm pinhole hits the START surface under the 15° grazing angle and causessecondary electron emission. By a system of collecting grids, the secondary electronsare transported to one of two MCP assemblies, giving the START signal for the TOFelectronics. Depending on the azimuth angle, the collection efficiency varies from80% to 95%. The incident ENAs are reflected from the START surface near-specularly. Since charge-state equilibrium is established during the interaction withthe surface, the emerging beam contains both the neutral and ionised (positive andnegative) components. To increase the total efficiency, no further separation by thecharge is made. As proved by the ion tracing, there is very little disturbance to thereflected atomic ions leaving the START surface with energies above 80 eV,introduced by the START electron optics. Fig. 10 shows the results of electron ray-tracing in the START assembly electron optic.

Therefore, particles of all charge-states (negative, neutral and positive) will impactthe second surface, the STOP surface, and again produce secondary electrons, whichare detected by one of the three MCP assemblies giving the STOP signal. The TOFover a fixed distance of 8 cm defines the particle speed. The STOP MCPs also givethe azimuthal direction. Since the secondary electron yield depends on mass for agiven velocity, the pulse height distribution analysis of the STOP signals provides theestimation of ENA mass. Each event is stored in the array STOP MCP charge x TOFx direction. The content of the array is accumulated over the sampling time of31.25 µs. Fig. 11 shows one of the NPD Flight Model sensors.

The selection of the START and STOP surfaces was the most difficult part ofNPD’s development. Extensive studies were performed at the University of Bern

132

Fig. 9. NPD’s principal components.

STOP surfaces

START surfaces

START MCPs

collecting gridENA

STOP MCPs

deflector



(Jans, 2000) and Brigham Young University (USA) to optimise the performance ofthe surfaces, which must satisfy a number of requirements: high secondary-electronyield, high UV absorption even at grazing angles, high particle reflection coefficient(START surface), low angular scattering of ions, and low photoelectron yield. For theSTART surface, a multi-layer coating composed of a thin layer of Cr2O3 covered bya thicker layer of MgF and topped with a thin layer of WO2 was chosen. The coatingis optimised for the absorption of the 121.4 nm line at the 15° incident angle. Thereflection coefficient reached was about 30%, a factor of 2 lower than the uncoatedsurface. The coating is applied on a titanium substrate polished down to 100Åroughness.

The STOP surface is graphite (roughness around 100 nm) covered by a MgO layerabout 500 nm thick. This combination has a very high secondary electron yield, low

133

Fig. 11. Flight Model of the NPD sensor.

Fig. 10. The ray-tracing of the electrontrajectories in the START assembly optics.


SP-1240

photoelectron yield and high UV absorption. Considerable effort was made toincrease the stability of the MgO coating against moisture. It was established thatpolishing the graphite substantially improves the stability, and that possible increasesin air humidity during storage and pre-launch operations do not present any problemsfor the surface performance. Both surfaces are stable and do not require specialmaintenance. Fig. 12 presents the expected count rates for different ENA and UVfluxes (Lyman-α) and a TOF window of 1.56 ms defined by the slowest (300 eV)oxygen atoms travelling the TOF distance. The valid count rates are given fordifferent species and energies because of the secondary electron yield and reflectioncoefficient variations. An energy window of 1 keV is taken and the coefficients

134

Fig. 14. The time-of-flight measurements for different massesas a function of energy. The dashed lines give the theoreticaldependence corresponding to the 34% energy loss.

Fig. 15. Pulse-height distribution of the valid (START-STOP) signals obtainedfrom the STOP MCP under a beam of 15 keV H2O+ ions.

Fig. 13. NPD TOF spectra for 2 keV beams of different masses.Fig. 12. The UV (Lyman-alpha) background and valid ENA count ratesexpected for different energies and species for a 1 keV energy window.



describing the interaction with the surface are assumed to be constant. In reality, ofcourse, the instrument measures over the entire energy range 0.1-10 keV. Therefore,Fig. 12 gives count rates for a narrow (in energy terms) beam of oxygen and hydrogen atoms. The expected UV flux is about 4 kR close to the martian limb (Anderson, 1974); that gives fluxes, corresponding to a signal-to-noise ratio of 1, of2x105 cm–2 s–1 sr–1 keV–1 (H, 140 eV), 3x104 cm–2 s–1 sr–1 keV–1 (H, O, few keV) and4x103 cm–2 s–1 sr–1 keV–1 (O, 10 keV).

The initial tests with the NPD technology model gave results fully correspondingto the specified performance. Fig. 13 shows TOF spectra for 2 keV beams of differentmasses. Fig. 14 summarises TOF measurements. The dashed lines show thetheoretical dependence corresponding to the 34% energy loss in the START surface.The water molecules produced in the ion source break up during the impact but theresidual components carry the same initial velocity corrected for the energy loss in thetarget. Fig. 14 shows that, within 1-10 keV, the TOF measurements give reliable massidentification. The other independent way of mass identification is based on the massdependence of the number of electrons produced from the STOP surface. Fig. 15shows a pulse-height distribution of the valid (START-STOP) signals obtained fromthe STOP MCP when a beam of 15 keV H2O

+ ions was used. The different peakscorrespond to different numbers of secondary electrons released from the STOPsurface.

2.5 Electron Spectrometer (ELS)ELS represents a new generation of ultra-light, low-power, electron sensors (Fig. 16).It is formed by a spherical top-hat electrostatic analyser and a collimator system.Particles enter the aperture at any angle in the plane of incidence. Electrons are thendeflected into the spectrometer by applying a positive voltage to the inner sphericalelectron deflection plate. The electrons hit an MCP after being filtered in energy bythe analyser plates. The plates are stepped in voltage to achieve an energy spectrum.

Electrons with energies up to 20 keV/q will be measured, with a maximum timeresolution of one energy sweep per 4 s. There are 16 anodes behind the MCP, eachanode defining a 22.5º sector and connected to a pre-amplifier. ELS is mounted on theASPERA-3 scan platform, on top of the NPI sensor, so that the full 4π angulardistribution of electrons is measured during each platform scan.

2.6 Ion Mass Analyser (IMA)IMA (Fig. 17) is an improved version of the ion mass spectrographs TICS (Freja,1992), IMIS (part of ASPERA-C/Mars-96, 1996) and IMI (Planet-B, 1998) (Norberg

135

Fig. 16. The ELS sensor.


SP-1240

et al., 1998). It is a copy of the ICA instrument to be launched on Rosetta to CometWirtanen in 2003. Particles enter the analyser through an outer grid. Behind the gridis a deflection system to divert particles coming from between 45° and 135° withrespect to the symmetry axis into the electrostatic analyser (ESA). Ions within a sweptenergy pass band pass the ESA. They are then deflected in a cylindrical magnetic fieldset up by permanent magnets. The field deflects lighter ions more than heavy ionsaway from the centre of the analyser. The ions finally hit an MCP and are detected byan anode system. Ions are simultaneously analysed for direction and mass per charge.The magnet assembly can be biased with respect to the ESA to post accelerate ions,enabling a selection of both mass range and mass resolution.

The electrons from the MCP are detected by an ‘imaging’ anode system. A systemof 32 concentric rings behind the MCP measures the radial impact position(representing ion mass) and 16 sector anodes measure the azimuthal impact position(representing ion entrance angle). The read-out system is based on discrete pre-amplifiers. Six MOCAD (Monolithic Octal Charge Amplifier/Pulse Discriminator)chips provide 48 independent channels, 32 rings and 16 sectors. Each chip containseight channels including a charge-sensitive pre-amplifier, shaper and discriminator.The transistor-transistor logic (TTL) outputs are fed to a field-programmable gatearray FPGA device for decoding, addressing and coincidence analysis. Fig. 18demonstrates the achieved mass resolution at 6 keV ion energy.

The ASPERA-3 experiment team is a large consortium that includes 15 groups from10 countries in Europe, the USA and Japan. Table 3 shows the primary hardwareresponsibilities of the different groups.

Acuna, M.H., Connerney, J.E.P., Wasilewski, P., Lin, R.P., Anderson, K.A.,Carlson, C.W., McFadden, J., Curtis, D.W., Mitchell, D., Reme, H., Mazelle, C.,Sauvaud, J.A., d’Uston, C., Cros, A., Medale, J.L., Bauer, S.J., Cloutier, P.,Mayhew, M., Winterhalter, D. & Ness, N.F. (1998). Magnetic Field and PlasmaObservations at Mars: Initial Results of the Mars Global Surveyor Mission.Science 279, 1676.

Anderson, D.E. (1974). Mariner 6, 7, and 9 Ultraviolet Spectrometer: Analysis ofHydrogen Lyman alpha Data. J. Geophys. Res. 79, 1513-1518.

136

Fig. 17. Cross-section view of the IMA sensor.

3. The Team

References



137

Fig. 18. IMA mass resolution at 6 keV.

Table 3. ASPERA-3 groups and primary hardware responsibilities.

Species Scientific objective

Swedish Institute of Space Physics, Kiruna, S PI-institute, NPI, NPD, IMA, scanner

Institute of Space and Astronautical Science, Collaboration with Nozomi, NPI Sagamichara, JPN calibrations

University of Bern, Physikalisches Institut, CH NPD surfaces, NPD mechanics

Instituto di Fisica dello Spazio Interplanetari, EGSE, NPI mechanics, Rome, I NPD electronics

Mullard Space Science Laboratory, UCL, UK ELS calibrations

University of Arizona , Tucson, Arizona, USA START surface, NPD UV calibrations

Space Research Institute, Moscow, Russia NPD design

Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, USA ELS, IMA imaging detector

Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, UK NPD MCPs

Finnish Meteorological Institute, Helsinki, FIN DPU, theory

Space Physics Research Lab/University of TheoryMichigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA

Max-Planck-Institut für Aeronomie, NPD electronicsKatlenburg-Lindau, D

Space Science Lab/University of California Theoryin Berkeley, Berkeley, California USA

Space Technology Ltd., National University Hardware supportof Ireland, IRL

Applied Physics Lab/Johns Hopkins University, TheoryLaurel, Maryland, USA

Centre d’Etude Spatiale des Rayonnements, NPI MCPs, IMA calibrations, Toulouse, F DC/DC board, scanner drivers


SP-1240

Barabash, S., Lundin, R., Zarnowiecki, T. & Grzedzielski, S. (1995). Diagnostic ofEnergetic Neutral Particles at Mars by the ASPERA-C Instrument for the Mars-96Mission. Adv. Space Res. 16, (4)81.

Barabash, S. (1995). Satellite Observations of the Plasma-Neutral Coupling nearMars and the Earth. IRF Scientific Report 228.

Barabash, S., Holmström, M., Lukyanov, A. & Kallio, E. (2002). Energetic NeutralAtoms at Mars IV: Imaging of Planetary Oxygen. J. Geophys. Res. 107(A10), doi:10.1029/2001JA000326.

Brecht, S.H. (1997). Solar Wind Proton Deposition into the Martian Atmosphere.J. Geophys. Res. 102, 11,287.

C:son Brandt, P., Barabash, S., Wilson, G.R., Roelof, E.C. & Chase, C.J. (2000).Energetic Neutral Atom Imaging at Low (< 10 keV) Energies from Astrid:Observations and Simulations. J. Atmos. & Solar Terrestrial Phys 62, 901-910.

Dornheim, M.A. (1997). Mars Atmosphere Thicker than Expected. Av. Week & SpaceTech. (29 September), 36.

Dubinin, E., Sauer, K., Lundin, R., Norberg, O., Trotignon, J.-G., Schwingen-schuh, K., Delva, M. & Riedler, W. (1996). Plasma Characteristics of theBoundary Layer in the Martian Magnetosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 101, 27,061.

Holmström, M., Barabash, S. & Kallio, E. (2002). Energetic Neutral Atoms at MarsI: Imaging of Solar Wind Protons. J. Geophys. Res. 107(A10), doi:10.1029/2001JA000325.

Jans, S. (2000). Ionization of Energetic Neutral Atoms for Application in SpaceInstrumentation, Diplomarbeit der Philosophisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultätder Universität Bern, CH.

Farmer, C.B., Davies, D.W., Holland, A.L., LaPorte, D.D. & Downs, P.E. (1977). Mars:Water Vapour Observations from the Viking Orbiters. J. Geophys. Res. 82, 4225.

Kallio, E. & Barabash, S. (2000). On the Elastic and Inelastic Collisions between thePrecipitating Energetic Hydrogen Atoms and the Martian Atmospheric Neutrals.J. Geophys. Res. 105, 24973-24996.

Kallio, E. & Barabash, S. (2001). Atmospheric Effects of Precipitating EnergeticHydrogen Atoms to the Martian Atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 106, 165-177.

Kallio, E. & Janhunen, P. (2001). Atmospheric Effects of Proton Precipitation in theMartian Atmosphere and its Connection to the Mars-Solar Wind Interaction.J. Geophys. Res. 106, 5617.

Kallio, E. & Koskinen, H. (1999). A Test Particle Simulation of the Motion of OxygenIons and Solar Wind Protons near Mars. J. Geophys. Res. 104, 557-579.

Kallio, E., Luhmann, J.G. & Barabash, S. (1997). Charge Exchange near Mars: TheSolar Wind Absorption and Energetic Neutral Atom Production. J. Geophys. Res.102, 22,183.

Lichtenegger, H., Lammer, H. & Stumptner, W. (2002). Energetic Neutral Atoms atMars III: Flux and Energy Distribution of Planetary Energetic H Atoms.J. Geophys. Res. 107(A10), doi: 10.1029/2001JA000326.

Luhmann, J.G. & Bauer, S.J. (1992). Solar Wind Effects on Atmospheric Evolution atVenus and Mars. In Venus and Mars: Atmospheres, Ionospheres, and Solar WindInteractions, AGU Monograph, 66, 417-430

Luhmann, J.G. & Kozyra, J.U. (1991). Dayside Pickup Oxygen Ion Precipitation atVenus and Mars: Spatial Distributions, Energy Deposition and Consequences.J. Geophys. Res. 96, 5457.

Luhmann, J.G., Johnson, R.E. & Zhang, M.H.G. (1992). Evolutionary Impact ofSputtering of the Martian Atmosphere by O+ Pickup Ions. Geophys. Res. Lett. 19,2151.

Lundin, R., Zakharov, A., Pellinen, R., Borg, H., Hultqvist, B., Pissarenko, N.,Dubinin, E.M., Barabash, S.W., Liede, I. & Koskinen, H. (1989). First Measure-ments of the Ionospheric Plasma Escape from Mars. Nature 341, 609.

Lundin, R., Dubinin, E., Koskinen, H., Norberg, O., Pissarenko, N. & Barabash, S.

138



(1991). On the Momentum Transfer of the Solar Wind to the Martian TopsideIonosphere. Geophys. Res. Lett. 18, 1059.

Lundin, R., Dubinin, E., Barabash, S. & Norberg, O. (1993). ASPERA Observationsof Martian Magnetospheric Boundaries. In Plasma Environments of Non-magneticPlanets (Ed. T.I. Gombosi), Pergamon Press, UK, p311.

McKay, C.P. & Stoker, C.R. (1989). The Early Environment and its Evolution onMars: Implications for Life. Rev. of Geophys. 27, 189.

Mura, A., Milillo, A., Orsini, S., Kallio, E. & Barabash, S. (2002). Energetic NeutralAtoms at Mars II: Energetic Neutral Atom Production near Phobos. J. Geophys.Res. 107(A10), doi: 10.1029/2001JA000328.

Norberg, O., Winningham, J.D., Lauche, H., Keith, W., Puccio, W., Olsen, J., Lundin, K.& Scherrer, J. (2001). The MEDUSA Electron and Ion Spectrometer and the PIAUltraviolet Photometers on Astrid-2. Ann. Geophys. 19, 593.

Norberg, O., Yamauchi, M., Lundin, R., Olsen, S., Borg, H., Barabash, S., Hirahara, M.,Mukai, T. & Hayakawa, H. (1998). The Ion Mass Imager on the Planet-BSpacecraft. Earth, Planets and Space 50, 199-205.

Perez-de-Tejada, H. (1992). Solar Wind Erosion of the Mars Early Atmosphere.J. Geophys. Res. 97, 3159.

Roelof, E.C. & Skinner, A.J. (2000). Extraction of Ion Distributions from Magneto-spheric and EUV Images. Space Sci. Rev. 91, 437-459.

Verigin, M., Gringauz, K.I., Kotova, G.A., Shutte, N.M., Rosenbauer, H., Livi, S.,Richter, A.K., Riedler, W., Schwingenschuh, K. & Szegö, K. (1991). On theProblem of the Martian Atmosphere Dissipation: PHOBOS 2 TAUS SpectrometerResults. J. Geophys. Res. 96, 19,315-19,320.

Wurz, P. (2000). Detection of Energetic Neutral Particles. In The Outer Heliosphere:Beyond the Planets (Eds. K. Scherer, H. Fichtner & E. Marsch), CopernicusGesellschaft, Katlenburg-Lindau, Germany, pp251-288.

AcknowledgmentThe authors are grateful to A. Balogh and C. Carr (both Imperial College, London,UK) for providing the IEEE-1355 link chip developed for the Rosetta mission.

139


The Mars Express Orbiter Radio Science (MaRS) experiment will employ radiooccultation to (i) sound the neutral martian atmosphere to derive verticaldensity, pressure and temperature profiles as functions of height to resolutionsbetter than 100 m, (ii) sound the ionosphere to derive vertical ionosphericelectron density profiles and a description of the ionosphere through its diurnaland seasonal variations with solar wind conditions; MaRS will also (iii) determinethe dielectric and scattering properties of the martian surface in target areas bya bistatic radar experiment, (iv) determine gravity anomalies for theinvestigation of the structure and evolution of the martian crust and lithospherein conjunction with observations of the High Resolution Stereo Camera as a basefor 3D topography, and (v) sound the solar corona during the superior conjunctionof Mars with the Sun.

The radio carrier links of the spacecraft Telemetry, Tracking and Commandsubsystem between the Orbiter and Earth will be used for these investigations.Simultaneous and coherent dual-frequency downlinks at X-band (8.4 GHz) andS-band (2.3 GHz) via the High Gain Antenna will permit separation ofcontributions from the classical Doppler shift and the dispersive media effectscaused by the motion of the spacecraft with respect to the Earth and thepropagation of the signals through the dispersive media, respectively.

The investigation relies on the observation of the phase, amplitude,polarisation and propagation times of radio signals transmitted from thespacecraft and received with antennas on Earth. The radio signals are affectedby the medium through which they propagate (atmospheres, ionospheres,interplanetary medium, solar corona), by the gravitational influence of theplanet on the spacecraft and, finally, by the performances of the various systemsaboard the spacecraft and on Earth.

141

MaRS: Mars Express Orbiter Radio Science

M. Pätzold1, F.M. Neubauer1, L. Carone1, A. Hagermann1, C. Stanzel1, B. Häusler2, S. Remus2, J. Selle2, D. Hagl2, D.P. Hinson3, R.A. Simpson3, G.L. Tyler3, S.W. Asmar4, W.I. Axford5, T. Hagfors5, J.-P. Barriot6, J.-C. Cerisier7, T. Imamura8, K.-I. Oyama8, P. Janle9, G. Kirchengast10 & V. Dehant11

1Institut für Geophysik und Meteorologie, Universität zu Köln, D-50923 Köln, GermanyEmail: [email protected]

2Institut für Raumfahrttechnik, Universität der Bundeswehr München, D-85577 Neubiberg, Germany3Space, Telecommunication and Radio Science Laboratory, Dept. of Electrical Engineering, Stanford

University, Stanford, CA 95305, USA4Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA 91009, USA5Max-Planck-Institut für Aeronomie, D-37189 Katlenburg-Lindau, Germany6Observatoire Midi Pyrenees, F-31401 Toulouse, France 7Centre d’etude des Environnements Terrestre et Planetaires (CETP), F-94107 Saint-Maur, France8Institute of Space & Astronautical Science (ISAS), Sagamihara, Japan9Institut für Geowissenschaften, Abteilung Geophysik, Universität zu Kiel, D-24118 Kiel, Germany10Institut für Meteorologie und Geophysik, Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz, A-8010 Graz, Austria11Observatoire Royal de Belgique, B-1180 Bruxelles, Belgium

Patzold.qxd 7/7/04 3:48 PM Page 141

SP-1240

Initially conceived as an exploratory tool, radio-science techniques have providedconsiderable knowledge of the atmospheres and gravity of the planets – much of itunexpected. Previous experiments at Mars have demonstrated accuracies inmeasurements of martian atmospheric surface pressure and temperature thatsurpassed those of in situ measurements made with the Viking Landers (Hinson et al.,2001). This performance can be matched or possibly improved for occultationimmersion measurements with Mars Express.

Radio-science techniques are applied to the study of planetary and cometaryatmospheres, planetary rings and surfaces, gravity and the solar corona. Much of ourcurrent knowledge of these subjects is based on radio-science observations. Earlyinvestigations include the Mariner, Pioneer and Viking missions, as well as Sovietprojects. Recent and current experiments involve Voyager (Eshleman et al., 1977;Tyler, 1987), Ulysses (Bird et al., 1994; Pätzold et al., 1995), Giotto (Pätzold et al.,1991a; 1991b; 1993), Galileo (Howard et al., 1992), Magellan (Tyler et al., 1991) andMars Global Surveyor (Tyler et al., 2001). Planned experiments include Cassini(Kliore et al., 2002), Cassini-Huygens (Bird et al., 1995), Rosetta (Pätzold et al.,2000) and Mars Express.

Radio-science investigations fall into three broad categories: propagation, bistaticradar and gravity. First, when the trajectory of the spacecraft takes it behind the planetas seen from Earth, there is occultation by the planet’s atmosphere. A radio signalpropgating from the spacecraft to a ground station travels through the ionosphere andneutral atmosphere before being blocked by the planetary surface. This sequency isreversed upon emergence of the spacecraft. During an occultation event, the refractiveindex of the gases in the ionosphere and atmosphere alter the characteristics of thepropagating radio wave. The method can be extended to any one of several separable‘atmospheres’, including planetary rings and magnetospheres, as well as therelativistic gravitational effects of stars (Eshleman, 1973). In conducting suchobservations, the geometry and other experimental conditions must be controlled sothat the only significant unknown factors are the properties of the medium along theradio path.

Second, oblique incidence scattering investigations using propagation pathsbetween spacecraft, planetary surface and Earth station can be used to explore thesurface properties through the microwave scattering function. The technique was firstdescribed by Fjeldbo (1964). It is referred to as ‘bistatic radar’ because the transmitterand receiver are separated by significant angular distances or ranges. The first suchexperiment in space was conducted with Luna-11 in August 1966 to study the Moon’ssurface (Yakaovlev & Efimov, 1966). The oblique scattering geometry afforded byLunar Orbiter-1, in October 1966, provided the signal source for the first USexperiment (Tyler et al., 1967). Signals from Explorer-35 also contained echos fromthe lunar surface (Tyler, 1968a). Fortuitously, the plane of the spacecraft spin axis andthe antenna polarisation made it possible to measure the Brewster angle of the lunarcrust, leading to an unambiguous value for the relative dielectric constant of lunar soilof between 2.9 and 3.1, confirming that landers would be on firm ground.

Third, when the radio path is well clear of occulting material, the spacecraft can betreated as a classical ‘test particle’ falling in the gravity field of the planetary system.This type of experiment is optimised when the component of its velocity is along theline-of-sight to the tracking station, thus allowing a measurement of the Dopplereffect. The spacecraft motion causing the Doppler shift is in response to the variationsin mass distribution within a planet or its satellites. This is a classical physicslaboratory experiment carried out at planetary-scale. Our global knowledge of Earth’sgravity field comes from such studies. The only information on the gravity field ofMercury is based on the two flybys of Mariner-10 (Anderson et al., 1987). Similarly,recent observational inferences on the internal structures of the Galilean satellites (forexample, that there is an ocean on Europa) are based on the perturbations of Galileo’strajectory during close flybys (Anderson et al., 1992; 1997). A precise determinationof the total mass of Uranus and Neptune from the Voyager-2 flybys (Tyler et al., 1986)

142

1. Introduction



has led to the conclusion that there is no need for a ‘Planet X’ to explain the orbits ofthese bodies (Standish, 1993). The method has been extended to small bodies, suchas the mass determination of asteroid Mathilde (Yeomans et al., 1997) and the gravityfield of asteroid Eros (Yeomans et al., 2000), and is planned for the Rosetta flyby atasteroid Siwa in 2008 (Pätzold et al., 2001). For Mars Express, these asteroidtechniques can be applied to precise determinations of the masses of Phobos andDeimos during close encounters.

2.1 Radio sounding of the neutral atmosphere and ionosphereThe modern value for the surface pressure of Mars was first determined in 1965 byusing the radio occultation method with Mariner-4 (Kliore et al., 1965). Prior to that,the literature indicated a consensus that the surface pressure was of the order100 mbar (about 10% of Earth’s), based on spectroscopic observations from theground, with many believing that oxygen was a likely major constituent.

A more accurate value was needed in support of martian landers being studied byNASA teams lead by Wehrner von Braun. At the time of the Mariner-4 launch andcruise, new ground-based observations of the atmosphere had begun to cast doubt onthe 100 mbar value, suggesting that the true value could be substantially lower. As aresult, Mariner-4 was directed to fly behind Mars to perform radio occultationmeasurements. Initial results showed the surface pressure at the occultation point wasapproximately 4 mbar (Fig. 1). Further, since spectrographic studies indicated that thepartial pressure of CO2 on Mars was in this range, the atmosphere was almost entirelycarbon dioxide with little, if any, oxygen. Radio occultation measurements have beenincluded on almost all planetary missions flown since.

143

Fig. 1. Refractivity profiles at S-band obtained from the Mariner-4 occultation.Profiles 1-5 were taken prior to the occultation and represent the zero level after biasesand trends owing to effects not connected with the martian atmosphere were removed.Profile 6 shows the refractivity of the martian atmosphere at S-band probed duringoccultation entry. Negative refractivity represents the ionosphere, positive the neutralatmosphere (from Fjeldbo & Eshleman, 1968).

2. Science Objectives

Fig. 2 (right). Operational sequence for the use of the two-way link for sounding the atmosphere/ionosphere as seen from the Earth. The sequence isseen projected on to the plane of the sky. The two-way radio ray slices through the atmosphere from the top to the surface during occultation entry andis then shadowed by the planet. After leaving occultation, the now one-way ray slices through the atmosphere from the surface to the upper levels ofthe ionosphere, where the two-way radio link may be reestablished.


SP-1240

Sounding by radio occultation of Mars Express (Fig. 2) will contribute to theunderstanding of the structure of the martian atmosphere, its circulation and dynamicsthrough the day and seasons. Vertical profiles of density, pressure and temperaturewith height resolutions better than 100 m can be derived. Observations of the verticalstructure below 30 km altitude have been made by several spacecraft duringoccultations. In situ measurements of three atmospheric profiles during the descentsof the two Viking landers and Pathfinder are available below 200 km altitude. Dustand haze in the atmosphere do not hinder the propagation of the radio carrier waves,but the local heating by entrained dust is observed in several occultation temperatureprofiles. The Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) radio occultation experiment (Tyler et al.,1992) retrieved vertical profiles of pressure and temperature extending from thesurface to the 10 Pa level, with surface uncertainties of 2 Pa and 1K (Hinson et al.,1999).

Radio occultation also provides a measure of the ionosphere’s vertical structureand an averaged large-scale electron density profile as a function of height andplanetary latitude at each occultation point. One of the goals is to understand theglobal behaviour of the martian ionosphere with the effects of the magnetic field,solar activity and solar wind interaction through the day and seasons.

Photochemical processes control the behaviour of the main ionospheric layer in amanner similar to the terrestrial F layer (Barth et al., 1992). The electron densitydistribution of a weakly magnetised body like Mars is controlled by solar radiationand the solar wind interaction with the planet. A typical value of the daytimeionospheric peak density is of the order of 1011 electrons m–3 at altitudes of 110-135 km (Fig. 3).

Observations by MGS have revealed highly variable and localised magnetic fields(Acuna et al., 1998). Strong fields at the spacecraft orbit below the ionosphere were

144

Fig. 3. X-band refractivity profile obtainedwith Mars Global Surveyor on 11 March 1999.Note that the positive refractivity iscomparable to that shown in Fig. 1 at S-band.The inset shows on a larger scale the negativerefractivity of the ionosphere. The peakrefractivity translates into a peak electrondensity of 8.7x1010 electrons m–3. Ionosphericrefractivity at X-band scales by a factor of(3/11)2 relative to that at S-band in Fig. 1.



observed locally. At other locations, much weaker magnetic fields were found.Therefore, the possibility of a sufficiently strong global magnetic field involved in thesolar wind interaction might no longer be supported. However, only a narrow latituderange was covered by MGS observations owing to the low pericentre altitude duringaerobraking.

On the other hand, the radio occultation data from Mariner-9 and Viking (Kliore,1992) suggest the presence of a global magnetic field in the formation of theionosphere. With its better resolution (about 100 electrons cm–3), Mars Express mayaddress the question of whether the Mariner/Viking profiles reflect only their lowresolution or if a global magnetic field is indeed involved. The height of the ionopauseis not well defined at Mars. At Venus, the ionopause has been defined as that altitudewhere the electron density falls below 500 electrons cm–3 (Kliore & Luhmann, 1991),while the density in the martian profiles never drops below that limit. Mars Expressneeds to solve the question of which physical processes define the ionopause altitude.

Either the entry or the exit of the Mars Express occultations will be at nighttime,providing the opportunity to investigate the nightside ionosphere. Viking resolved anighttime ionosphere in only 40% of the measurements, which also showed a highvariability in shape, peak density and height. The anticipated accuracy of MarsExpress will help to solve the question of whether the nighttime ionosphere ismaintained by horizontal transport from the dayside or by impact ionisation owing toelectron precipitation from the tail, which should provide insights into the directionof the magnetic field on the nightside.

During occultation ingress, the Telemetry, Tracking and Command (TT&C)subsystem will operate in the two-way mode. The spacecraft downlink frequenciesare derived from the uplink, stabilised by a hydrogen maser in the ground station.Changes in the received radio frequency (RF) to a fractional frequency stability of10–14 over 3-100 s integration times correspond to a change in the angle of refractionof radio rays in occultation experiments of the order 10–8 rad (Tyler, 1987).

The signal-to-noise limitations of previous experiments limited the detectability ofthe atmosphere to below 30 km. Mars Express should improve this altitude to 50 kmbecause of the high signal-to-noise ratio at X-band (transmitted RF power 65 W). Theeffective vertical resolution through use of the Abel transform is determined by thefirst Fresnel zone radius (λ D)1/2, which is about 300 m for X-band and 600 m forS-band, respectively, (D is the distance of the spacecraft to the closest approach of theray path to the planet). This resolution is far superior to what can be achieved by otherpassive sounding instruments, which are limited to typically one atmospheric scaleheight (order of km).

Marouf et al. (1986) developed a procedure to improve the resolution beyond thenatural diffraction limit, applying it to the Voyager occultation by Saturn’s rings.Gresh et al. (1989) applied the procedure to occultation data from the rings of Uranus.This resulted in a resolution of 100 m, about an order of magnitude improvement onthe Fresnel diffraction limit, for flyby conditions at the outer planets. The techniquewas also applied in the first direct determination of Triton’s surface pressure (Tyler etal., 1989). Karayel & Hinson (1997) applied a similar approach to atmospheres denserthan Triton’s and produced a resolution of about 40 m for simulated martianconditions. These results justify the expectation that it is feasible to derive verticalprofiles in the martian atmosphere with a height resolution better than 100 m.

Separating the effects from the ionosphere and neutral atmosphere on the radio linkis feasible by using (a) a dual-frequency downlink, (b) the opposite sign of therefractive index if the radio signal propagates in ionised or neutral media, and (c) thefact that the peak heights of the ionosphere and the detectable neutral atmosphere arewell separated. This is demonstrated in Figs. 1 and 3 which show the refractivityprofile derived from Mariner-4 occultation data (profile 6) at S-band and a refractivityprofile from MGS at X-band, respectively, as a function of height. Negativerefractivity results from the ionised plasma in the ionosphere and is proportional tothe electron number density; positive refractivity is a property of the neutral

145


SP-1240

atmosphere which is linearly related to the mass density of the atmosphericconstituents (Fjeldbo & Eshleman, 1968). The refractivity µ of free electrons is givenby

which allows conversion of refractivity into electron number densities (Ne inelectrons m–3 is the electron density, f in Hz is the radio carrier frequency).

It is feasible to retrieve two refractivity profiles with Mars Express for each radio

m � � 40.31 � 106 Ne

f 2

146

Fig. 4a. Duration of Mars Express occultations(in minutes) over the mission. There will be sixoccultation seasons (OCP1 to OCP6), with anEarth occultation in each orbit over theexpected mission duration of two Martianyears.

Fig. 4b. Duration of occultations by the planetbody during the first season OCP1 (blue dots)and the duration of occultation by theatmosphere between 500 km altitude to thesurface (red triangles). The end of the firstoccultation season is affected by the start ofthe superior solar conjunction of the planet atyear day 238, 2004.



carrier frequency at S-band and X-band. S-band is expected to be more sensitive tothe negative refractivity (ionosphere) by a factor (11/3)2 compared with X-band, whilethe positive refractivity (neutral atmosphere) is essentially independent of thefrequency. Under favourable geometric conditions it will be possible to investigatethe solar wind-magnetic anomalies-ionospheric interaction region.

Computing the differential Doppler from the received S-band and X-band residualDoppler shifts yields the dispersive media effects associated with free electrons in allionised media (martian ionosphere, interplanetary medium, Earth ionosphere) alongthe downlink and can be used for calibration, inversion and correction of the classicalDoppler shift. The spacecraft-Earth radio ray path will cross through the sensible

147

Fig. 5. Spacecraft position along the orbit atoccultation entry (red) and occultation exit(blue) for OCP1 expressed as true anomaly.True anomaly of 0 deg is the pericentreposition. The red area marks ±60 deg trueanomaly when the spacecraft is nominally innadir pointing. Occultation can be observedonly when ground coverage is available,typically every third occultation.

Fig. 6. Planetary latitude of occultation ingressand egress locations during OCP1. Effectively,all planetary latitudes are covered during allsix occultation seasons.


SP-1240

ionosphere quickly (in minutes) before entering occultation. The variation in theEarth ionosphere and the interplanetary medium is assumed to be slow for time scalesshorter than a minute, so the observed changes in radio carrier properties are assumedto be dominated by the martian ionosphere.

Earth occultations will occur in six ‘seasons’ in the expected 4 years (two martianyears) of operation, with one occultation in each orbit or three to four occultations perday. The mission baseline calls for one ground station tracking pass per day, whichwould cover typically one occultation (two under favourable operational conditions).The duration of the occultation and the entry and exit position of the spacecraft in itsorbit expressed in true anomaly are shown in Figs. 4a/4b and Fig. 5, respectively. Theoccultation entry and exits will cover all planetary latitudes of the northern andsouthern hemispheres (Fig. 6).

2.2 Determination of the dielectric properties of the surface (bistatic radar)The bistatic radar configuration (Fig. 7) is distinguished from the monostatic byspatial separation of the transmitter (on the spacecraft) and the receiver (in the groundstation on Earth). It may be used to derive information about surface roughness andslope at scales of the incident wavelength (a few cm). Bistatic radar may also be usedto determine properties of the surface material, such as dielectric constant, throughdifferential reflection of orthogonal polarisations. The bistatic radar geometry of anorbiting spacecraft is well suited to probing the surface of planets at a variety oflatitude, longitude and incidence angles. Bistatic radar experiments have beenconducted at the Moon (e.g. Tyler & Howard, 1973; Nozette et al., 1996), Mars(Simpson & Tyler, 1981; Simpson et al., 1984) and Venus (Pettengill et al., 1997;Kolosov et al., 1979).

The objectives at Mars focus on the polar regions and caps, the volcanic regionsand the famous ‘Stealth’ area south-west of Tharsis (Muhleman et al., 1991; Edgett etal., 1997). The bistatic geometry is well-suited to probing icy surfaces, which arepoorly understood on Mars. The fact that the residual south polar cap on Mars hasanomalously high backscatter when viewed from Earth, while the northern cap(presumably much more massive) does not stand out, is a continuing mystery. TheStealth region is anomalous in the sense that it yields very weak backscatter whenprobed from Earth. In both cases, the unique geometry of a bistatic experimentpromises a better understanding of both the scattering processes and the underlyingsurface geology. Selected targets in other areas, such as volcanic plains, will also bestudied. Despite similar appearances in orbital images, some plains do not necessarilyhave the same radar behaviour, again suggesting differences in the underlying surfacegeology.

For a typical bistatic radar experiment, the radio signal is transmitted from thespacecraft High Gain Antenna (HGA) towards the surface of Mars and is scatteredfrom the surface. Optimising the performance of these bistatic radar experimentsrequires accurate prediction of the orbiter trajectory in order to formulate antennapointing strategies as well as to predict signal parameters such as Doppler shift andsignal amplitude. In a quasi-specular experiment, the antenna is programmed tofollow the locus of points for which surface reflection would be specular if Mars weresmooth. From the data recorded along these specular point paths, surface roughnesscan be inferred from Doppler dispersion of the echo signal; the dielectric constant εof the surface material can be inferred from echo amplitude and/or polarisationproperties. Dielectric properties of a lunar basin were obtained by measuring theBrewster angle tan2φB = ε (Tyler, 1968b). Similarily, a more general Stokes parameteranalysis led to detection of a tellurium-like material in the Venus highlands (Pettengillet al., 1996).

In a spotlight experiment, the antenna is programmed to track a fixed point on thesurface, viewing it from a variety of angles. When the configuration passes throughthe backscatter geometry, coherent backscatter enhancements can be sought in theecho amplitude and polarisation (Hapke, 1990). Clementine spotlight data have been

148



interpreted as suggesting the presence of water ice near the lunar south pole (Nozetteet al., 1996; 2001), although that conclusion is not universally accepted (Simpson &Tyler, 1999). Strong backscatter enhancements are the salient features of backscatterfrom the icy Galilean moons of Jupiter (Eshleman, 1987) and have also been observedin the terrestrial environment of Greenland. Both the mechanism and its expectedsignature from real targets remain the subjects of active debate (Hagfors et al., 1985;Eshleman, 1987; Peters, 1992). Careful measurement of any observed enhancementmagnitude and its angular variation are not available but would be useful.

The radio echo signal is received in the open-loop mode (see below) in twoorthogonal polarisations (e.g. Left Circular Polarisation, LCP, and Right CircularPolarisation, RCP)), down-converted, sampled and stored for further processing at theinvestigator’s home institution. Fig. 8 shows a typical frequency spectrum of thereceived radio signal. The direct signal, leaking out from the side lobes of the HGAand reduced accordingly in power, is on the right. The echo signal is on the left andit is Doppler shifted relative to the direct signal according to the change in spacecraft-to-surface-to-Earth distance as a function of time. It is broadened according to theroughness of the surface and the motion of the specular point over the surface(Simpson, 1993).

It is required that the HGA points towards the martian surface. To ensure maximumsignal-to-noise ratio in the echo signal received at Earth, the transmission of anunmodulated carrier at the highest feasible power level is also required. Transmissionof linear (or elliptical) polarisation offers advantages in detecting differential quasi-

149

Fig. 7. Bistatic radar configuration isdistinguished from the monostatic by thespatial separation of the transmitter(spacecraft) and the receiver (ground stationon Earth).

Fig. 8. Typical bistatic radar spectrum showingseparation of the echo signal from the directsignal leaking out from the HGA side lobestoward the receiver. The broadening of theecho signal is caused by motion of the specularpoint over the surface and is related to surfaceroughness (from Simpson, 1993).


SP-1240

specular polarisation reflections from volcanic plains, while circular (or elliptical)polarisation is preferred for spotlight observations of ice deposits.

2.3 Geophysics: gravity anomalies The gravity field of a planet is the result of its its internal mass distribution androtational state. Rapidly rotating planets bulge at the equator as a result of centrifugalforces. Consequently, the associated redistribution of mass to the equatorial planeresults in a stronger gravitational acceleration of a spacecraft when it is near the polethan when it is at the same altitude located over the equator. Similarly, anomalies inthe internal distribution of mass are expressed as departures of the externalgravitational field from that of a uniform sphere or a stratified spherical distribution.Space probes in the vicinity of planetary bodies follow trajectories that deviate fromthe ideal orbits described by Kepler’s two-body laws in response to these gravityanomalies.

Precision two-way radio tracking provides an accurate measurement of spacecraftvelocity along the line-of-sight to the tracking station, with variations attributed togravitational acceleration owing to mass distribution in the planetary body. The utilityof data for studying mass variations depends on the sensitivity of the radio system, thedetails of the geometry, and the characteristics of the overall spacecraft trajectory. Themethod is capable of detecting accelerations of the order of 10–3 Gal(1 Gal = 10–2 m s–2; Earth surface gravity is 982 Gal). Such data, through theconnection between mass and gravitational force, are used to study planetaryinteriors. From low altitudes, even relatively minor variations in the mass density ofsurface and near-surface features are detectable. For example, a reduction in densityof about 300 kg m–3 (or about a 10% change in the average martian crustal density) ofa 50-km cube of rock near the surface is readily measurable.

Combining data from a large number of orbits from the Mariner, Viking and MGSmissions has allowed construction of a complete gravity map, with resolutionelements of about 2° on the martian surface. Large-scale variations in the strength ofgravity correspond to the overall distribution of mass, mostly in the deep interior ofMars, and are relevant to the interpretation of the early history and evolution of theplanet. Smaller scale variations, on lateral distances of a few thousand km or less,correspond to mass variations relatively close to the surface. Both large- and small-scale variations must be interpreted in light of the known overall shape of the planetand the variations in the surface elevation since, as in the examples above,topographic and mass density variations can play a similar role in the raw gravitydata. Mars Express, as a result of its low periapsis altitude, can improve the presentmaps by a factor of about two in linear resolution in areas scanned by the evolutionof the orbit.

Two gravity field models of degree and order 50 have been derived from radiotracking data of the Viking and Mariner-9 missions (Smith et al., 1993; Konopliv &Sjogren, 1995). The same teams collaborated on a derivation of a gravity field modelof degree and order 60 and higher using the Mars Global Surveyor tracking data(Smith et al., 1999; Yuan et al., 2001).

The highly eccentric orbit of Mars Express is not best-suited for a globalinvestigation of the gravity field. The investigation proposed here focuses on specifictarget areas for the determination of local gravity anomalies. Observations with theHRSC stereo camera will yield the high-resolution 3D topography of the target area.Three data sets (radio science, camera, radar) will be combined to study the state andevolution of the martian crust and lithosphere, with implications for studying thetectonic evolution of Mars.

The targets of investigations are the hot spot areas of Tharsis and Elysium, largesingle volcanoes, large impact craters and basins, and the highland-lowland boundary.The investigation of impact basins must be seen in the context of similar studies onother planetary bodies, including the Earth, in the sense of comparative planetologyand studies of the impact mechanism, which is not fully understood (particularly for

150



large basins). Studies of the highland-lowland boundary will contribute to the openquestion of this dichotomy.

Topographic data provide digital terrain models (DTMs) which, in combinationwith the gravity data, are the basis for crustal density models. The measured line-of-sight free-air gravity anomaly at spacecraft altitudes amounts up to 70 mGal (Janle &Erkul, 1991). A complete density model consists of a topographic model (DTM) anda density model of the subsurface structures (e.g. undulations of the crust/mantleboundary, mantle plume). Variations in gravity of up to about 500 mGal are associatedwith topography and drive the need for precise and high-resolution topographic data.DTMs are also necessary for bending-stress models of the lithosphere, asdemonstrated by Janle & Jannsen (1986) for Olympus Mons.

Precise DTMs are required for the lithospheric load of bending-stress models, inparticular for the correlation of the lineament distribution with the topography andcalculated stresses. The combination of radar altimeter data and stereo images fromHRSC will provide DTMs with vertical resolutions of 12-18 m and linear groundresolutions of 20-30 m, which are perfectly suited for bending stress models andgeologic interpretations of the lineament distribution.

The expected accuracy of the Mars Express X/X-band two-way radio link is of theorder «100 mm s–1 at 10 s integration time. This translates into an accuracy of gravityaccelerations of the order of several mGal, depending on the size and extension of thelocal topographic features (Tyler et al., 1992).

2.4 Radio sounding of the solar coronaMars will move into superior conjunction with the Sun in the autumns of 2004 and2006. Within about 10° elongation with respect to the solar disc in the plane of thesky (Fig. 9), the dispersive effects on the radio signals (propagation time, Dopplershift and Doppler noise) are dominated by the solar corona. It is therefore proposedthat this valuable time be used for a thorough investigation of the solar corona toderive electron density profiles in the structured corona, solar wind speed, turbulencespectra in the source regions of fast and slow solar wind streams from coronal holesand streamers, respectively, and to detect, identify and describe the spatial and

151

Fig. 9. Superior solar conjunction geometry of Mars in the plane-of-sky. Each tick markrepresents one day. Mars is within 40 solarradii (circles) from 14 August 2004 to18 September 2004 (left panel), and from21 September 2006 to 25 November 2006 (rightpanel). Within 12 solar radii, telemetryreception will be degraded. No telemetry canbe expected within 4 solar radii. An adequatesignal-to-noise radio carrier can be received atany time, however.


SP-1240

temporal evolution of the shockfronts of coronal mass ejections (Bird et al., 1994;Pätzold et al., 1995; 1996; 1997; Karl et al., 1997). It is highly desirable to carry outthese observations simultaneously with SOHO or other solar space observatories toenhance and compare the observations.

The technique of coronal sounding is well established and has been performed bymembers of the Mars Express team during the superior solar conjunctions of Ulysses(1991, 1995), Magellan (1992), Voyager and Viking (Bird et al., 1992; 1994; 1996;Pätzold et al., 1995; 1996; 1997; Tyler et al., 1977). For Mars Express, a two-wayradio link and dual-frequency downlink at S-band and X-band allow separation of thecoronal dispersive effects from the classical Doppler shifts. The two-way link is apowerful tool for the derivation of electron density models from observed electroncontent when propagation time delay, ranging data and dispersive Doppler shifts arecompared (Pätzold et al., 1997). Furthermore, it provides the basis for thedetermination of solar wind speed by correlating uplink and downlink signals(Wohlmuth et al., 1997) and detection of fast outward-propagating density enhance-ment originating from solar events.

152

Fig. 11. Mars Express at the time of the releaseof the Beagle 2 lander descent capsule, showingthe fixed HGA, a parabolic dish of 1.60 mdiameter. (ESA)

Fig. 10. The Mars Express radio subsystem.The transponder is redundant and each unitcontains an S-band and X-band receiver andtransmitter. X-band is amplified by TWTAs toan RF power output of 65 W. The RFdistribution unit (RFDU) connects thereceivers and transmitters with the antennas.It also contains the S-band amplifiers (5 W RFpower output). The HGA receives uplink ateither X-band or S-band and radiatessimultaneously X-band and S-band downlink.The LGAs receive and transmit at S-band only.



3.1 Mars Express radio subsystemMars Express can receive and transmit radio signals via either of two dedicatedantenna systems:

— High Gain Antenna (HGA), a fixed parabolic dish of 1.60 m diameter, antennagains 40 dBi and 28 dBi at X-band and S-band, respectively;

— two Low Gain Antennas (LGAs).

A block diagram of the characteristic features of the radio subsystem is shown inFig. 10. Each of the two redundant transponders consist of an S-band and X-bandreceiver. The X-band transmitter output is amplified by a redundant 65 W TravellingWave Tube Amplifier (TWTA) and the S-band downlink by a Solid State Amplifierof 5 W RF output. The spacecraft can receive and transmit at S-band (2.1 GHz) viathe LGAs, or receive non-simultaneously at either X-band (7.1 GHz) or S-band viathe HGA. The right-hand circular polarised downlink signals at S-band (2.3 GHz) andX-band (8.4 GHz) are transmitted via the HGA simultaneously (see an overview offrequencies in Table 1). The HGA (Fig. 11) is the primary antenna for receivingtelecommands from and transmitting high rate telemetry in the operational phase. TheLGAs are used during the commissioning phase and emergency operations.

MaRS uses two radio link modes (Fig. 12). The coherent two-way radio link isestablished by transmitting an uplink radio signal either at S-band or X-band to thespacecraft. A received S-band uplink carrier frequency is transponded to downlinks atS-band and X-band upon multiplication by the constant transponder ratios 240/221and 880/221, respectively, in order to guarantee a ratio of the two downlinks of880/240 = 11/3. A received X-band uplink is multiplied by 880/749 and 240/749 toarrive at X-band and S-band downlink frequencies, respectively. Here again, the ratioof both frequencies is 880/240 = 11/3. The two-way radio mode takes advantage ofthe superior frequency stability inherent to the hydrogen maser oscillator at theground station on Earth. This mode is used for sounding the atmosphere andionosphere, the gravity science applications and the sounding of the solar corona.

The one-way link mode is established by transmitting the X-band and S-banddownlink simultaneously and phase coherently. It is used for the bistatic radarexperiment.

3.2 Ground segment Ground stations (Fig. 13) include antennas, associated equipment and operatingsystems in the tracking complexes of Perth, Australia (ESA, 35 m) and NASA’s DeepSpace Network (DSN, 34 m and 70 m) in California, Spain and Australia. A tracking

153

3. Technical Description

Table 1. Carrier frequencies.

Uplink Downlink

S-band 2.1 2.3 GHz

X-band 7.1 8.4 GHz

Fig. 12. Radio links between the Orbiter andthe Earth station. Upper panel: one-wayX-band and S-band downlink for bistaticradar. Lower panel: two-way radio link wherethe uplink is transponded phase-coherentlywith dual-frequency downlinks at X-band andS-band. Frequency stability is governed by ahydrogen maser at the ground station.


SP-1240

pass consists of typically 8-10 h of spacecraft visibility and communication at therespective ground station site. Measurements of the spacecraft range and carrierDoppler shift can be obtained whenever the spacecraft is visible and its HGA ispointed towards Earth. The baseline calls for one communication pass at the ESAground station per day, summarising approximately 1700 tracking passes for radioscience (630 gravity passes, 750 occultations, 120 corona soundings, 200 bistaticradar observations). The use of the DSN antennas in California and Spain are underdiscussion and would usefully increase the number of tracking passes and experimentperformance.

In the two-way mode, the ground station transmits an uplink radio signal at eitherS-band or at X-band and receives the dual-frequency ownlink at X-band and S-band.Information about signal amplitude, received frequency and polarisation is extractedand stored as a function of ground receive time.

ESA’s new 35 m ground station at New Norcia, Australia, about 200 km north ofthe older tracking complex in Perth, became operational in summer 2002 (Fig. 14). Itsfirst deep space test with Ulysses was planned for September 2002. The stationequipment consist of three identical new receiving systems designated as theIntermediate Frequency and Modem System (IFMS; Fig. 15). One is dedicated forradio science open-loop data recording of the Mars Express radio science

154

Fig. 13. ESA and NASA ground stationnetworks. The 15 m ESA antenna at Kourouwill be used for the commissiong phase, whilethe new 35 m antenna near Perth will be theprimary antenna. NASA will support specificmission phases and the radio scienceexperiment with its Deep Space Networkantennas at Goldstone (California), Canberra(Australia) and Madrid (Spain).

Fig. 14. ESA’s new 35 m antenna at NewNorcia, Australia.

DSN Goldstone34 m / 70 m

DSN Madrid34 m / 70 m

DSN Canberra34 m / 70 m

Perth35 m

ESOCOCC

Kourou15 m



investigations and the Rosetta Radio Science Investigations experiment (Pätzold etal., 2000). This open-loop system will be used specifically for the radio sounding ofthe atmosphere/ionosphere, bistatic radar and solar corona investigations whereclosed-loop tracking receivers would typically lose lock. The IFMS operates on a17.5 Msps 24-bit complex baseband stream (containing 12-bit words each for the Iand Q channels) and resulting from filtering and decimating the 280 Msps 8-bitstream output data from the Common Front End Analogue-to-Digital Converter.These channels are provided for both RCP and LCP polarisations. The radio scienceraw data can be directly transferred to a mass storage device and/or processed by aFast Fourier routine.

The DSN stations (Fig. 16) also provide uplinks at S-band or X-band. Dedicatedradio science equipment functionally similar to the IFMS is available at all DSNstations (Asmar & Renzetti, 1993).

Radio science measurements in the ground stations can be done simultaneously ona non-interference basis with the transmission and/or reception of telecommands.However, since the signal-to-noise ratio of the carrier signal is considerably reducedwhen transmitting telemetry, a non-modulated downlink radio carrier is required inthat case.

3.3 Observed quantitiesThe two data types (closed- and open-loop) can be generated simultaneously

155

Fig. 15. Intermediate Frequency Modem System (IFMS) open-loop digital processor for radio science. This slightly modified third IFMS wasinstalled in 2002 along with two ESA standard IFMS at the New Norcia antenna in support for the radio science experiments on Mars Expressand Rosetta. This IFMS will allow the recording of received radio carrier parameters at specific radio science settings. AGC: automatic gaincontrol. FFT: Fast Fourier Transform. IF: intermediate frequency. LO: local oscillator.

Fig. 16. NASA’s 70 m (foreground) and 34 m(background) deep space antennas at theGoldstone complex in the Mojave desert.(NASA)


SP-1240

regardless of the radio link configuration (one- or two-way). The received carrierfrequencies, the signal strengths (received total power) and the polarisation of the radiosignals are monitored at the ground station. Ground-based radiometric data arerecorded using closed-loop receivers:

— amplitude and phase (Doppler) measurements (two- and one-way modes);— ranging measurements (two-way mode only);— full polarisation measurements (primarily one-way mode).

3.3.1 Doppler shiftThe transmission of dual-frequency phase-coherent downlinks at S-band and X-bandwith the constant ratio of 11/3 makes it feasible to separate the dispersive from the non-dispersive Doppler effects on the radio link.

The frequency of the radio carrier is shifted according to the relative radial velocitybetween the transmitter and the receiver (classical Doppler shift). Furthermore, arelative phase shift is experienced when the radio wave propagates through an ionisedmedium (ionosphere, interplanetary medium, solar corona). Excluding oscillator driftsand instabilities, the frequency shift for a one-way (spacecraft-to-Earth) radio link dueto plasma is:

(1)

where ds/dt is the rate of change of the distance between transmitter and receiver(relative velocity), c is the speed of light and f0 is the carrier frequency. The integral ofthe electron density Ne(s) along the propagation path ds of the radio wave from thespacecraft (s/c) to Earth is also called the columnar electron content, or column density.

The first term on the right hand side of (1) is the classical Doppler shift (linear in f0)and the second term is the dispersive propagation effect of radio waves in ionisedmedia, which is inversely proportional to f0. A larger classical Doppler shift ismeasured on the X-band, but the lower S-band frequency is more sensitive todispersive frequency shifts. A change in relative velocity of 2 cm s–1 yields a classicalDoppler frequency shift of 0.6 Hz at X-band. A dispersive frequency shift of 0.6 Hz atS-band is produced by a change in electron content by one hexem (1016 electrons m–2)within 1 s.

It is not possible to separate classical and dispersive frequency shifts from theobserved total change in frequency ∆f at either fs or fx, the S-band or X-band carrierfrequency, respectively, alone. However, using Eq. 1 for the two phase-coherentdownlinks at X-band and S-band with a constant transponder ratio of 880/240 = 11/3and calculating the differential Doppler

(2)

where ∆fs and ∆fx are the observed Doppler shifts at S-band and X-band,respectively. According to Eq. 1, it is possible to isolate the dispersive frequency shift:

(3)�40.31

c fs a 1

fs2

�1

f 2x

b d

dt �Earth

s>cN ds

¢fs � 311¢fx � �

ddt

s

c fs �

40.31

c 1

fs

d

dt �Earth

s>cN ds � 3

11 ddt

s

c fx � 3

11 40.31

c 1

fx

d

dt �Earth

s>cN ds

¢fs � 311¢fx ,

¢f � f � f0

� �f

0

c ds

dt�

40.31

c 1

f0

d

dt �Earth

s>cNe ds

156



The ‘differential Doppler effect’ (Eq. 3), calculated from the observed frequencyshifts, is used to determine the changes in electron content. All oscillator drifts andrelative velocities are eliminated in this process. This result can further be used tocorrect each single classical frequency shift for the dispersive propagation effects .

The example above was derived for a one-way link. It can be shown that thecalculation of the differential Doppler of a two-way radio link, when the spacecrafttransmitted carrier frequencies are derived coherently from the received (andDoppler-shifted) uplink frequency, leads to exactly the same relation. In either case,Eq. 3 can be used to determine the electron content along the downlink path.Integration of Eq. 3 with respect to time yields the differential phase, which isproportional to changes in electron content along the downlink from the beginning ofthe tracking pass.

3.3.2 Ranging (propagation delay)The absolute value of total electron content can be determined from the differentialpropagation delay by two-way ranging at S-band and X-band:

(4)

Typically, the Doppler or phase measurements are more sensitive than the rangingmeasurements by about two orders of magnitude (Bird, 1982).

3.3.3 Ray bending in atmospheresRadio occultation studies of atmospheres can be understood in terms of ‘geometric’or ‘ray’ optics refraction of signals travelling between spacecraft and ground stations.In a spatially varying medium where the wavelength is very short compared with thescale of variation in refractive index, the direction of propagation of anelectromagnetic wave always curves in the direction of increasing refractivity.Consequently, in a spherically symmetric atmosphere with gas refractivityproportional to number density constantly decreasing with height, the radio pathremains in a plane and bends about the centre of the system. The degree of bendingdepends on the strength of the refractivity gradient. This simple model approximatesa real atmosphere and is useful for understanding the basic phenomena of radiooccultation (Fjeldbo, 1964).

The geometry is illustrated in Fig. 17, where the atmosphere is represented by the

ts � tx �40.31

c a 1

fs2

�1

f 2x

b �Earth

s>cN ds

157

Fig. 17. Radio ray bending in a planetaryatmosphere. Refractivity is represented as afunction of radius. The bending can bedescribed by the total bending angle α, and thedistance of the ray asymptotes, a. In aspherically symmetric atmosphere, the radiopath remains in a plane and bends about thecentre of the system. The closest approachdistance of the bended ray is r01. The plane isdefined by the geometry of the constellation(distance to Earth vector, velocity vector ofEarth, distance vector to spacecraft, velocityvector of spacecraft with respect to Mars).


SP-1240

refractivity as a function of radius from the centre, µ(r0), and the bending can bedescribed in terms of a total bending angle, α, and a ray asymptote, a. The variationof the bending angle, ray asymptote and refractivity are linked through an Abeltransform (Fjeldbo & Eshleman, 1964),

(5)

where is the ray periapse and,

(6)

with .

In this last expression, a1 represents the asymptotic miss distance for a ray whoseradius of closest approach is r01. Thus, for spherical atmospheres, if α(a) is known,then the corresponding refractivity profile can be found exactly. For non-sphericalgeometry, alternative numerical solutions are available. The bending angle and the rayasymptote can be determined accurately by radio occultation to create anexperimentally derived table of α versus a, or α(a).

In order to interpret the refractivity in terms of gas parameters, the pressure andtemperature are calculated assuming hydrostatic equilibrium, for example, from

(7)

and

(8)

where p(h) and T(h) are the pressure and temperature as a function of height h,respectively, g is the acceleration of gravity, kB is Boltzmann’s constant, <m> is themean molecular mass, and N(h) is the molecular number density. Formal use of theseequations requires a priori knowledge of the atmospheric composition.

T1h2 �p1h2

kB N1h2

p1h2 � 6 m 7 �q

h

g1h2 N1h2 df

r0 �a

m1r012

m1r012 � exp• �1

p �a�q

a�a1

ln • a

a1

� Ba a

a1

b2

� 1 ¶ da

da da¶

r0 �a

m1r02

a1a2 � � 2a �q

r�r0

1

m 0m0r

0r21mr22 � a2

158

Table 2. Doppler velocity error σv (mm s–1) for 1 s integration time.

0.8 AU 2.5 AU

S-band X-band S-band X-band

Thermal noise (ground station) 0.9 0.01 2.00 0.03

Transponder phase noise 0.42 0.26 0.42 0.26

Total error (two-way coherent mode) 0.99 0.26 2.04 0.26



3.4 Error budgetThe major noise sources contributing to the Doppler velocity error are the thermalnoise of the radio receiver on the ground for one-way observations, and both on theground and aboard the spacecraft for two-way observations. The velocity error σvcontributed by the ground station is given by

(9)

and the transponder phase noise σφ by

(10)

where B is the receiver bandwidth, C and N0 are the received carrier power and thenoise power density, respectively. The transponder phase noise σφ was experimentallydetermined by Remus et al. (2001) with a transponder electrical qualification modelon ground. The total velocity error σv is calculated in Table 2 for an integration time∆t of 1 s at S-band and X-band.

Typical integration times for practical observations are in the range 1-10 s, thusyielding 0.26-0.03 mm s–1 Doppler error, respectively, at X-band for 0.8 AU, largesolar elongation angles and quiet solar wind conditions. The sensitivity in the electroncontent from differential Doppler measurements (Eq. 2) at 1 s integration time iscomputed to be in the order of 0.02 hexem s–1.

Acuna, M.H., Connerney, J.E.P., Wasilewski, P., Lin, R.P., Anderson, K.A.,Carlson, C.W., McFadden, J., Curtis, D.W., Mitchell, D., Reme, H., Mazelle, C.,Sauvaud, J.A., D’Uston, C., Cros, A., Medale, J.L., Bauer, S.J., Cloutier, P.,Mayhew, M., Winterhalter, D. & Ness, N.F. (1998). Magnetic Field and PlasmaObservations at Mars: Initial Results of the Mars Global Surveyor Mission.Science 279, 1676-1680.

Anderson, J.D., Colombo, G., Esposito, P.B., Lau, E.L. & Trager, G.B. (1987). TheMass, Gravity Field, and Ephemeris of Mercury. Icarus 71, 337-349.

Anderson, J.D., Armstrong, J.W., Campbell, J.K., Eastabrook, F.B., Krisher, T.P. &Lau, E.L. (1992). Gravitation and Celestial Mechanics Investigations with Galileo.Space Sci. Rev. 60, 591-610.

Anderson, J.D., Lau, E.L., Sjogren, W.L., Schubert, G. & Moore, W.B. (1997).Europa’s Differentiated Internal Structure: Inferences from Two GalileoEncounters. Science 176, 1236-1239.

Asmar, S.W. & Renzetti, N.A. (1993). The Deep Space Network as an Instrument forRadio Science Research. JPL Publication 80-93, Rev. 1.

Barth, C.A., Stewart, A.I.F., Bougher, S.W., Hunten, D.M., Bauer, S.J. & Nagy, A.F(1992). Aeronomy of the Current Martian Atmosphere. In Mars (Eds. H.H. Kieffer,B.M. Jakosky, C.W. Snyder, M.S. Matthews), University of Arizona Press, Tucson,USA, pp1054-1089.

Bird, M.K. (1982). Coronal Investigations with Occulted Spacecraft Signals. SpaceSci. Rev. 33, 99-126.

Bird, M., Asmar, S.W., Brenkle, J.P., Edenhofer, P., Paetzold, M. & Volland, H. (1992).The Coronal Sounding Experiment. Astron. Astrophys. Suppl. Ser. 92, 425-430.

Bird, M.K., Volland, H., Pätzold, M., Edenhofer, P., Asmar, S.W. & Brenkle, J.P.

sv �c 22

4pft sf

sv �c

4pf ¢t B2BN0

C

159

References


SP-1240

(1994). The Coronal Electron Density Distribution Determined from Dual-Frequency Ranging Measurements during the 1991 Solar Conjunction of theUlysses Spacecraft. Astrophys. J. 426, 373-381.

Bird, M.K., Allison, M., Asmar, S.W., Atkinson, D.H., Edenhofer, P., Heyl, M.,Iess, L., Plettemeier, D., Tyler, G.L. & Wohlmuth, R. (1995). The HuygensDoppler Wind Experiment. In Huygens: Science, Payload and Mission (Ed.A. Wilson), ESA SP-1177, European Space Agency, pp139-162.

Bird, M.K., Paetzold, M., Edenhofer, P., Asmar, S.W. & McElrath, T.P. (1996).Coronal Radio Sounding with Ulysses: Solar Wind Electron Density near 0.1 AUduring the 1995 Conjunction. Astron. Astrophys. 316, 437-448.

Edgett, K.S., Butler, B.J., Zimbelman, J.R. & Hamilton, V.E. (1997). GeologicContext of the Mars Radar ‘Stealth’ Region in Southwestern Tharsis. J. Geophys.Res. 102, 21545-21567.

Eshleman, V.R., Tyler, G.L., Anderson, J.D., Fjeldbo, G., Levy, G.S., Wood, G.E. &Croft, T.A. (1977). Radio Science Investigations with Voyager. Space Sci. Rev.21(2), 207-232.

Eshleman, V.R. (1973). The Radio Occultation Method for the Study of PlanetaryAtmospheres. Planet. Space Sci. 21, 1521-1531.

Eshleman, V.R. (1987). The Radar-Glory Theory for Icy Moons with Implications forRadar Mapping. Adv. Space Res. 7, 133-136.

Fjeldbo, G. (1964). Bistatic Radar Methods for Studying Planetary Ionospheres andSurfaces. Stanford Electronics Laboratory, Stanford University, SU-SEL-64-025.

Fjeldbo, G. & Eshleman, V.R. (1968). The Atmosphere of Mars Analyzed by IntegralInversion of the Mariner IV Occultation Data. Planet. Space Sci. 16, 1035-1059.

Gresh, D.L., Marouf, E.A., Tyler, G.L., Rosen, P.A. & Simpson, R.A. (1989).Voyager Radio Occultation by Uranus’ Rings. Icarus 78, 131-168.

Hagfors, T., Gold, T. & Ierkic, H.M. (1985). Refraction Scattering as Origin of theAnomalous Radar Returns of Jupiter’s Satellites. Nature 315, 637-640.

Hapke, B. (1990). Coherent Backscattering and the Radar Characteristics of the OuterPlanet Satellites. Icarus 88, 407-417.

Hinson, D.P., Simpson, R.A., Twicken, J.D., Tyler, G.L. & Flasar, F.M. (1999). InitialResults from Radio Occultation Measurements with Mars Global Surveyor.J. Geophys. Res. 104 (E11), 29997-27012.

Hinson, D.P., Tyler, G.L., Hollingworth, J.L. & Wilson, R.J. (2001). Radio Occulta-tion Measurements of Forced Atmospheric Waves on Mars. J. Geophys. Res. 106(E1), 1463-1480.

Howard, H.T., Eshleman, V.R., Hinson, D.P., Kliore, A.J., Lindal, G.F., Woo, R.,Bird, M.K., Volland, H., Edenhofer, P., Pätzold, M. & Porsche, H. (1992). GalileoRadio Science Investigations. Space Sci. Rev. 60, 565-590.

Janle, P. & Erkul, E. (1991). Gravity Studies of the Tharsis Area on Mars. Earth,Moon & Plan. 53, 217-232.

Janle, P. & Jannsen, D. (1986). Isostatic Gravity and Elastic Bending Models ofOlympus Mons, Mars. Ann. Geophysicae 4, B, 537-546.

Karayel, E.T. & Hinson, D.P. (1997). Sub-Fresnel-scale Vertical Resolution inAtmospheric Profiles from Radio Occultation. Radio Sci. 32, 411-423.

Karl, J., Pätzold, M. & Bird, M.K. (1997). Coronal Radio Sounding: Non-GaussianTurbulence in the Source Regions of the Solar Wind. Geophys. Res. Lett. 24, 2881-2884.

Kliore, A.J. (1992). Radio Occultation Observations of the Ionospheres of Mars andVenus. In Venus and Mars: Atmospheres, Ionospheres, and Solar Wind Interaction(Eds. J.G. Luhmann, M. Tatrallyay & R.O. Pepin), Geophys. Monograph 66, 265-276.

Kliore, A.J. & Luhmann, J.G. (1991). Solar Cycle Effects on the Structure of theElectron Density Profiles in the Dayside Ionosphere of Venus. J. Geophys. Res.96, 21281-21289.

Kliore, A.K., Cain, D.L., Levy, G.S., Eshleman, V.R., Fjeldbo, G. & Drake, F.D.

160



(1965). Occultation Experiment: Results of the First Direct Measurement of Mars’Atmosphere and Ionosphere. Science 149, 1243-1248.

Kliore, A.J., Anderson, J.D., Armstrong, J.W., Asmar, S.W., Hamilton, C.L., Rappa-port, N.J., Walquist, H.D., Ambrosini, R., Bertotti, B., Flasar, F.M., French, R.G.,Iess, L., Marouf, E.A. & Nagy, A.F. (2002). Cassini Radio Science. Space Sci.Rev., in Press.

Kolosov, M.A., Yakovlev, O.I., Efimov, A.I., Pavelyev, A.G. & Matyugov, S.S. (1979).Radio Occultation of the Venusian Atmosphere and Bistatic Radar Location of theSurface of Venus using the Venera-9 and Venera-10 Satellites. Radio Sci. 14, 163-173.

Konopliv, A.S. & Sjogren, W.L. (1995). The JPL Mars Gravity Field, Mars50c, Basedupon Viking and Mariner 9 Doppler Tracking Data. JPL Publication 95-5.

Marouf, E.A., Tyler, G.L. & Rosen, P.A. (1986). Profiling Saturn’s Rings by RadioOccultation. Icarus 68, 120-166.

Muhleman, D.O., Butler, B.J., Grossman, A.W. & Slade, M.A. (1991). Radar Imagesof Mars. Science 253, 1508-1513.

Nozette, S., Lichtenberg, C.L., Spudis, P., Bonner, R., Ort, W., Malaret, E., Robin-son, M. & Shoemaker, E. (1996). The Clementine Bistatic Radar Experiment.Science 274, 1495-1498.

Nozette, S. (2001). Spudis, P.D., Robinson, M.S., Bussey, D.B.J., Lichtenberg, C. &Bonner, R. Integration of Lunar Polar Remote-Sensing Data Sets: Evidence for Iceat the Lunar South Pole. J. Geophys. Res. 106 (E10), 23253-23266.

Pätzold, M., Bird, M.K., Volland, H., Edenhofer, P. & Buschert, H. (1991a).Dynamics of the Giotto Spacecraft in the Inner Dust Coma of Comet P/Halley;Part 1: Observations. Z. Flugwiss. Weltraumforsch 15, 89-96.

Pätzold, M., Bird, M.K., Volland, H., Edenhofer, P. & Buschert, H. (1991b).Dynamics of the Giotto Spacecraft in the Inner Dust Coma of Comet P/Halley;Part 2: Interpretations. Z. Flugwiss. Weltraumforsch 15, 159-164.

Pätzold, M., Bird, M.K. & Edenhofer, P. (1993). The Change of Giotto’s DynamicalState during the P/Grigg-Skjellerup Flyby Caused by Dust Particle Impacts.J. Geophys. Res. 98, A12, 20911-20920.

Pätzold, M., Bird, M.K., Edenhofer, P., Asmar, S.W. & McElrath, T.P. (1995). Dual-frequency Radio Sounding of the Solar Corona during the 1995 Conjunction of theUlysses Spacecraft. Geophys. Res. Lett. 22, 3313-3316.

Pätzold, M., Karl, J. & Bird, M.K. (1996). Coronal Sounding with Ulysses: Phase Scin-tillation Spectra in Coronal Holes and Streamers. Astron. Astrophys. 316, 449-456.

Pätzold, M., Tsurutani, B.T. & Bird, M.K., (1997). An Estimate of Large-scale SolarWind Density and Velocity Profiles in a Coronal Hole and the Coronal StreamerBelt. J. Geophys. Res. 102, 24151-24160.

Pätzold, M., Neubauer, F.M., Wennmacher, A., Aksnes, K., Anderson, J.D.,Asmar, S.W., Tinto, M., Tsurutani, B.T., Yeomans, D.K., Barriot, J.-P., Bird, M.K.,Boehnhardt, H., Gill, E., Montenbruck, O., Grun, E., Hausler, B., Ip, W.H.,Thomas, N., Marouf, E.A., Rickman, H., Wallis, M.K. & Wickramasinghe, N.C.(2000). Rosetta Radio Science Investigations (RSI). Research Notes #4, Institut fürGeophysik und Meteorologie, Universität zu Köln.

Pätzold, M., Wennmacher, A., Häusler, B., Eidel, W., Morley, T., Thomas, N. &Anderson, J.D. (2001). Mass and Density Determinations of 140 Siwa and 4979Otawara during the Rosetta Flybys. Astron. Astrophys. 370, 1122-1127.

Peters, K.J. (1992). The Coherent Backscatter Effect: a Vector FormulationAccounting for Polarization and Absorption Effects and Small or Large Scatterers.Physical Review B 46, 801-812.

Pettengill, G.H., Ford, P.G. & Simpson, R.A. (1996). Electrical Properties of theVenus Surface from Bistatic Radar Observations. Science 272, 1628-1631.

Pettengill, G.H., Campbell, B.A., Campbell, D.B. & Simpson, R.A. (1997). SurfaceScattering and Dielectric Properties. In Venus II (Eds. S.W. Bougher, D.M. Hunten& R.J. Phillips), Tucson, University of Arizona Press, USA, p527.

161


SP-1240

Remus, S., Häusler, B., Pätzold, M. & Wennmacher, A. (2001). Ergebnisse der RadioScience Testmessungen an den ESA Satelliten Rosetta und Mars Express.Deutscher Luft- und Raumfahrtkongress, 17-20 September 2001, DGLR-2001-022.

Simpson, R.A. & Tyler, G.L. (1981). Viking Bistatic Radar Experiment: Summary ofFirst-order Results Emphasizing North Polar Data. Icarus 46, 361-389.

Simpson, R.A., Tyler, G.L. & Schaber, G.G. (1984). Viking Bistatic Radar Experi-ment: Summary of Results in Near-equatorial Regions. J. Geophys. Res. 89,10385-10404.

Simpson, R.A. (1993). Spacecraft Studies of Planetary Surfaces using Bistatic Radar.IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing 31, 465-482.

Simpson, R.A. & Tyler, G.L. (1999). Reanalysis of Clementine Bistatic Radar fromthe Lunar South Pole. J. Geophys. Res. 104, 3845-3862.

Smith, D.E., Lerch, F.J., Nerem, R.S., Zuber, M.T., Patel, G.B., Fricke, S.K. &Lemoine, F.G. (1993). An Improved Gravity Model for Mars: Goddard MarsModel 1. J. Geophys. Res. 98, 20871-20889.

Smith, D.E., Sjogren, W.L., Tyler, G.L., Balmino, G., Lemoine, F.G. & Kono-pliv, A.S. (1999). The Gravity Field of Mars: Results from Mars Global Surveyor.Science 286, 94-97.

Standish, E.M. (1993). Planet X – No Dynamical Evidence in the Optical Observa-tions. Astron. J. 105(5), 2000-2006.

Tyler, G.L. (1968a). Oblique-scattering Radar Reflectivity of the Lunar Surface:Preliminary Results from Explorer 35. J. Geophys. Res. 73, 7609-7620.

Tyler, G.L. (1968b). Brewster Angle of the Lunar Crust. Nature 219, 1243-1244.Tyler, G.L. (1987). Radio Propagation Experiments in the Outer Solar System with

Voyager. Proc. IEEE 75, No.10, 1404-1431.Tyler, G.L. & Howard, H.T. (1973). Dual-frequency Bistatic Radar Investigations of

the Moon with Apollos 14 and 15. J. Geophys. Res. 78, 4852-4874.Tyler, G.L., Balmino, G., Hinson, D.P., Sjogren, W.L., Smith, D.E., Simpson, R.A.,

Asmar, S.W., Priest, P. & Twicken, J.D. (2001). Radio Science Observations withMars Global Surveyor: Orbit Insertion through one Mars year in Mapping Orbit. J.Geophys. Res. 106, E10, 23327-23348.

Tyler, G.L., Balmino, G., Hinson, D.P., Sjogren, W.L., Smith, D.E., Woo, R.,Asmar, S.W., Conally, M.J., Hamilton, C.L. & Simpson, R.A. (1992). RadioScience Investigations with Mars Observer. J. Geophys. Res. 97, 7759-7779.

Tyler, G.L., Brenkle, J.P., Komarek, T.A. & Zygielbaum, A.I. (1977). The VikingSolar Corona Experiment. J. Geophys. Res. 82, 4335-4340.

Tyler, G.L., Eshleman, V.R., Fjeldbo, G., Howard, H.T. & Peterson, A.M. (1967).Bistatic-radar Detection of Lunar Scattering Centers with Lunar Orbiter I. Science157, No. 3785, 193-195.

Tyler, G.L., Eshleman, V.R., Hinson, D.P., Marouf, E.A., Simpson, R.A., Sweetnam,D.N., Anderson, J.D., Campbell, J.K., Levy, G.S. & Lindal, G.F. (1989). VoyagerRadio Science Observations of Neptune and Triton. Science 246, 1466-1473.

Tyler, G.L., Ford, P.G., Campbell, D.B., Elachi, C., Pettengill, G.H. & Simpson, R.A.(1991). Magellan – Electrical and Physical Properties of Venus’ Surface. Science252, 265-270.

Wohlmuth, R., Plettemeier, D., Edenhofer, P., Bird, M.K., Pätzold, M. & Asmar, S.W.(1997). Measurement of the Propagation Speed of Plasma Inhomogeneities in theSolar Corona using an Uplink/Downlink Cross-correlation Method. Radio Sci. 32,617-628.

Yakovlev, O.I. & Efimov, A.I. (1966). Studies of Reflection of Meter-length RadioWaves. Dokladi Akademii Nauk SSSR 174, 583-584.

Yeomans, D.K., Antreasian, P.G., Barriot, J.-P., Chesley, S.R., Dunham, D.W.,Farquhar, R.W., Giorgini, J.D., Helfrich, C.E., Konopliv, A.S., McAdams, J.V.,Miller, J.K., Owen, W.M., Scheeres, D.J., Thomas, P.C., Veverka, J. &Williams, B.G. (2000). Radio Science Results during the NEAR-ShoemakerSpacecraft Rendezvous with Eros. Science 289, 2085-2088.

162



Yeomans, D.K., Barriot, J.-P., Dunham, D.W., Farquhar, R.W., Giorgini, J.D.,Helfrich, C.E., Konopliv, A.S., McAdams, J.V., Miller, J.K., Owen, W., Jr.,Scheeres, D.J., Synnott, S.P. & Williams, B.G. (1997). Estimating the Mass ofAsteroid 253 Mathilde from Tracking Data during the NEAR Flyby. Science 278,2106-2109.

Yuan, D.-N., Sjogren, W.L., Konopliv, A.S. & Kucinskas, A.B. (2001). Gravity Fieldof Mars: A 75th Degree and Order Model. J. Geophys. Res. 106, E10, 23377-23402.

AcknowledgementsThe Mars Express Orbiter Radio Science (MaRS) experiment is funded by theDeutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR), Bonn, Germany, and theNational Aeronautics and Space Adminstration (NASA), Washington DC, USA.

163


In late 2003, the Beagle 2 lander component of the Mars Express mission isplanned to touch down in the Isidis Planitia region of Mars (265.0°W, 11.6°N).Once safely deployed on the surface, Beagle 2 will conduct an intensive andexhaustive programme of surface operations for about 180 sols (equivalent toabout 6 months on Earth). The principal objective is the detection of extinctand/or extant life, or at least to establish if the conditions at the landing site wereever suitable for life to have evolved in the planet’s history. To achieve this goal,a systematic set of experiments using a complementary suite of instruments willperform in situ geochemical, mineralogical and petrological analysis of selectedrocks and soils. Studies of the martian environment will also be conducted viachemical analysis of the atmosphere, local geomorphological assessment of thelanding site and measurement/monitoring of dynamic environmental processes,including transient events such as ‘dust devils’. Further studies, unique toBeagle 2, include analysis of the subsurface regime using a ground penetrationtool and the first attempt at in situ isotopic dating of rocks on another planet.

The complete experiment package weighs less than 9 kg and requires less than40 W of power. With a probe mass limit of 69 kg, imposed by mission constraints,and a landed mass of 33 kg, Beagle 2 thus aims to fly the highest mass ratio ofpayload-to-support systems of any mission to Mars. This is achievable only byadopting an integrated design approach and employing minimal or zeroredundancy.

Beagle 2 is named to honour the ship used in the epic voyage of Charles Darwin andRobert FitzRoy during 1831-1836, which led to publication of Darwin’s On theOrigin of Species. Nearly a century and a half after the publication of the first editionof this volume, Beagle 2 aims to discover whether the theory of evolution extends toa second planet in the Solar System. Darwin’s more famous biological works meansthat the contributions made by him to geology (and those of FitzRoy to meteorology)are often forgotten. Beagle 2, like its predecessor, addresses a wide range of subjects:the life question, of course, but also the geochemical and mineralogicalcharacterisation of the immediate landing site and the chemistry of the atmosphere.To fulfil these goals, Beagle 2 has the following remit:

— geological investigation of the local terrain and rocks, especially their light-element chemistry, composition, mineralogy, petrology and age;

— investigation of the oxidation state of the martian surface within rocks, soils andat protected locations beneath boulders;

— full characterisation of the atmospheric composition to establish the history of the

165

Beagle 2: the Exobiological Lander of Mars Express

D. Pullan1,4, M.R. Sims1,4, I.P. Wright2,4, C.T. Pillinger2,4 & R. Trautner3,4

1Space Research Centre, Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Leicester, Leicester, UKEmail: [email protected]

2Planetary and Space Sciences Research Institute, Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, UK3Research & Scientific Support Department, European Space Agency, ESTEC, Noordwijk, The Netherlands4on behalf of the Beagle 2 project

1. Introduction

Beagle.qxd 7/7/04 3:07 PM Page 165

SP-1240

planet and the processes involved in seasonal climatic changes and diurnalcycling;

— search for key criteria deemed to demonstrate that life processes could haveoperated in the past;

— determination of trace atmospheric gases, indicative of extant life at somelocation.

The above list, in many respects, exceeds what has been achieved by previousmissions. It goes far beyond the goals stated for other Mars landers underconsideration and transcends the Science Definition Team’s ambitions for MarsExpress itself. Rock dating, atmospheric characterisation, climatic change monitoringand the search for possible biologically-derived trace constituents are all among themost important aspects of the study of Mars, and are envisaged as firsts that could beachieved by Beagle 2. Presumably none of these was thought to be possible or withinthe scope of small landers, as envisaged at the conception of the Mars Express project.

In its original form, Beagle 2 was conceived as a ‘large’ (108 kg) lander thatcarried additional instruments to enable it to act as the third node in a geophysicalnetwork. Following the imposition of more stringent mass constraints (60 kg onlyavailable for a landing craft), a network of several stations was no longer feasible. Asa result, the additional elements of the Beagle 2 payload became redundant and weretherefore deleted. Likewise, the earlier version of Beagle 2 had provision for a smallrover to transport sampling devices some distance from the lander, but the discoverythat the subsurface sampler (the ‘Mole’) had inherent lateral mobility also allowedthat element to be discarded. It is encouraging to note that, throughout the challengingperiod from proposal to delivery, the scientific goals (reflected in the payload)remained intact. This has been achievable only through the skill and dedication of theBeagle 2 team of engineers and scientists.

1.1 BackgroundIn 1976, two Viking spacecraft landed on Mars with the prime objective of searchingfor evidence of life on a second planet in the Solar System. Results from a packageof biological activity experiments and a pyrolysis gas chromatograph-massspectrometer (GC-MS) were interpreted, by majority verdict rather than unanimousconsent, as negative. The one positive result that suggested operation of a martianmetabolism was subsequently interpreted as a chemical artefact. The intervention ofan oxidative surface chemistry on the planet rather conveniently explained theinability of the GC-MS to observe any organic matter above the detection levels, inspite of some theories that predict the presence of meteorite debris, and hence carboncompounds, even in a sterile environment.

Although the findings were disappointing, Viking provided the first close-upimages of the martian surface, major element chemical analyses of soil samples andmeteorological information, a feat duplicated at considerably less cost and withsimpler technology 20 years later by Pathfinder. An unexpected bonus of Viking wasthat an exploratory compositional and isotopic study of the atmosphere enabled a linkto be made with a previously poorly understood group of meteorites: the Shergotty,Nakhla and Chassigny association or SNCs (Bogard & Johnson, 1983; Becker &Pepin, 1984; Carr et al., 1985). The number of SNC-class finds has now grown tomore than 20 specimens; their genetic relationship has been confirmed byexceedingly precise oxygen isotopic measurements: δ17O, δ18O, where δ17O =[(17O/16Osample/17O/16Ostandard) – 1] x 1000, per mil, or ‰; and so on for other δ values.In detail on a plot of δ17O versus δ18O, the so-called ‘cap-’, ‘cap-delta-’, or ‘big-delta-’17O value (∆17O = δ17O – 0.52 x δ18O) for martian meteorites is 0.321±0.013‰(Franchi et al., 1999). The presence in some of the meteorites of six atmosphericspecies having the same abundance ratios and isotopic systematics (e.g. high δ15N) asvalues measured in the martian atmosphere, points indubitably to Mars as a

166



provenance (Pepin, 1985). The young geological age (1.3 Ga to 180 Ma) of all butone (4.5 Ga) of the SNC meteorites (Wood & Ashwal, 1981; McSween, 1985; 1994)provides circumstantial evidence of their being from a body sufficiently large(planetary-sized) to show recent volcanic activity. Although some scepticism remains,there is almost universal belief that SNCs are martian. Data from SNC research, inconjunction with Viking and Pathfinder results, guided the scientific goals ofBeagle 2, which are harmonised rather than being a series of uncoordinated effortsfrom a group of disparate investigators.

Although all the SNC samples are igneous in origin, Nakhla, EET A79001 andALH 84001 show good evidence of low-temperature hydrothermal alteration,producing carbonate and other mineral deposits (Carr et al., 1985; Gooding et al.,1988; Wright et al., 1988; Mittlefehldt, 1994). These discoveries have proved highlybeneficial to the study of the martian environment and to understanding thechronological sequence of events. For 75 years, however, petrologists failed torecognise the presence of carbonate in these igneous meteorites. In 1985 geochemicalanalyses (Carr et al., 1985) uncovered the existence of carbonates, a vital facet ofmartian meteorite research. Eventually, Gooding et al. (1991) demonstratedunequivocally the presence of inclusions microscopically. For a while it was arguedthat carbonate in martian meteorites must be a terrestrial artefact, but δ13Cmeasurements strongly suggest otherwise (Carr et al., 1985; Wright et al., 1988).Interpretations based on the 14C content of carbonates in EET A79001, that suchminerals were terrestrial (Jull et al., 1992), may be erroneous owing to experimentalproblems (Wright et al., 1997a).

Notwithstanding the above, carbonates in ALH 84001 are isotopically distinctfrom all similar species on Earth, and have δ13C values consistent with those expectedfor the martian atmosphere. Debates concerning their origin have now switched to theinterpretation of models used for calculating carbonate formation conditions (Wrightet al., 1992). Techniques that rely on major-element abundance, measured by electronmicroprobe in selected areas, invoke a high-temperature (600°C) formation event(Harvey & McSween, 1996). Bulk oxygen isotope and, to some extent, carbon studiesof carbonates by chemical dissolution require a scenario involving liquid water andtemperatures in the range 0-80°C (Romanek et al., 1994). Other studies, at highspatial resolution, indicate a mixture of origins at a variety of temperatures, fordifferent generations of carbonate, none of which exceeds 250°C (Valley et al., 1997;Leshin et al., 1998; Saxton et al., 1998).

The origin of the carbonates in SNC meteorites is of vital importance because theyare accompanied by organic matter (Wright et al., 1989). Also identified within themineral, at least in some samples, are features that are interpreted to be nm-sizedfossils (McKay et al., 1996). Thus it has been suggested that biological processes havebeen acting on Mars. A view that all the organics are a result of contaminants derivedfrom percolating Antarctic melt waters (McDonald & Bada, 1995; Bada et al., 1998)can be refuted on a number of grounds. For example, oxygen isotope and D/H results(Wright et al., 1997b) would have been disturbed by inundation; as these remainrecognisably different from Earth values, they must be very little affected byterrestrial water exchange. Although each of the martian meteorites contains someEarth-generated contamination, specimens where the organic matter is in excess of1000 ppm, e.g. EET A79001 (Wright et al., 1989), are considered to host some pre-terrestrial martian carbonaceous material.

Whether the existence of nanofossils or indigenous organic matter in martianmeteorites is genuine or not, the inescapable fact remains that conditions conduciveto life prevailed on Mars in the past. Furthermore, in the years since Viking,investigations into the viability of terrestrial organisms have demonstrated theiradaptability and tenacity. It has been shown that they can thrive and multiply in acid,alkaline and highly saline conditions, apparently unaffected by pressure, capable ofliving at temperatures ranging from –12°C to 113°C, with the simplest and mostancient forms being the most tolerant (ESA Exobiology Team, 1999). How long

167


SP-1240

organisms may lie dormant and survive at even greater extremes, particularly at thelow-temperature end of the scale, is unknown. Microorganisms have been shown toinhabit Antarctic dry valleys, the nearest equivalent on Earth to martian conditions. Itfollows that the decision to conclude that Mars is totally hostile to life, on the basisof the very preliminary results from Viking, was premature.

According to theories proposed after Viking, a problem that must be consideredwith respect to carbonaceous matter is its survival on the surface. The planet’s regolithis highly oxidised, a property believed to arise from hydrogen peroxide in theatmosphere. Models exist relating to this question (Bullock et al., 1994; Stoker &Bullock, 1997; Zent & McKay, 1994). One suggests penetration of the oxidant to lessthan a few metres in soil, the other assumes a vast turnover so that all material downto 150 m is oxidised. The martian rocks examined by the Alpha Proton X-raySpectrometer (APXS) on Pathfinder’s Sojourner rover showed evidence for aweathering rind (Rieder et al., 1997) but the depth of this layer was not ascertained,and the oxidation state was not recorded. One way to address this issue would bethrough an in situ investigation that determines the concentrations of certaincomponents (especially oxidation-sensitive organic compounds) with depth in theregolith.

Unfortunately, SNC meteorites, being of deep-seated mafic origin, are not able toelucidate directly the problem of oxidation within the regolith. However, we note herethat martian soils are sulphur-rich, possibly due to volcanic exhalations, and that SNCmeteorites contain sulphides and sulphates (Burgess et al., 1989) and even nitrates(Grady et al., 1995). Furthermore, from geochemical data it appears that SNCs andthe Viking and Pathfinder soils are related, possibly two-component mixing, with oneend-member being SNC-like and the other being andesitic.

It should be borne in mind that all the rocks investigated by Pathfinder wereigneous and of the same petrological type, with the exception of one ‘rock’ that waspossibly a soil clod. This was disappointing because it was thought that the Pathfinderlanding site (a washout area) would be a good place to find rocks of sedimentaryorigin. Perhaps Pathfinder was unlucky; future missions should continue to search forrock types from sedimentary formations. Note that the Pathfinder APXS attempted tomeasure carbon abundance, and hence recognise carbonates (widely thought to bepresent at, or near, the martian surface) but none was found. The problem with thisapproach is that atmospheric CO2 intervenes between the uneven rock surfaces andthe detector, resulting in a major background signal. Furthermore, although someclose-up images of rocks were taken by the camera on Sojourner (Smith et al., 1997),these were obscured by dust, which also affected the APXS data. As yet, nomicroscopic imaging studies have ever been made on Mars.

Although regions on the martian surface have been assigned relative ages derivedfrom crater counts, the only absolute dates available for martian rocks come fromSNC meteorites, and, of course, their exact provenance on Mars is unknown. In thisrespect, it should be noted that the APXS made measurements that revealed theaverage potassium content of the ‘soil-free rock’ to be 0.7±0.1%; the age of such arock could have been estimated from a knowledge of the 40Ar content had the noblegas abundance been measured.

While the abundance and isotopic compositions of martian atmosphericconstituents have been used to such good effect in identifying martian meteorites,these values, particularly the isotopic ratios, are not well constrained. The data quotedfor 14N/15N (165, δ15N = +650‰) and 12C/13C (88, δ13C = +11‰) were for a limitednumber of measurements, which were made using an instrument that was neverenvisaged as a dedicated isotope mass spectrometer or, indeed, calibrated in thisrespect. In consequence, there is a ±50‰ to ±100‰ (i.e. ±5% to ±10%) error attachedto the figures. Neither the ill-fated Mars Polar Lander (including the Deep Space 2microprobes) nor the Mars Surveyor mission carried a mass spectrometer that couldhave provided more precise data. A totally independent assessment of the full isotopiccomposition of carbon dioxide on Mars, both its carbon and oxygen, is still required

168



employing instrumentation designed for that purpose. The same applies to the crucialmeasurements of δ15N and δ∆.

The noble gas isotope ratios of martian atmospheric constituents are even less welldefined than those for carbon and nitrogen. A key value for argon, the third mostabundant constituent in the atmosphere of Mars, is 4 ≤ 36Ar/38Ar ≤ 7, described bysome authors as matching the terrestrial value, which happens to be 5.3, convenientlyaround the mean of the Viking measurements. Quite unaccountably, SNC meteoriteshave a 36Ar/38Ar of 4.1±0.2 (Wiens et al., 1986), a value distinct from all othermeteorites and hence a possible diagnostic indicator of a martian provenance. Otherintriguing noble gas results from Viking and the meteorite clan concern 40Ar/36Ar(3000±500, c.f. Earth 296) and 129Xe/132Xe (2.5±2, c.f. Earth 0.97). Both ratios implya much greater abundance of radiogenic elements (40K and 129I, respectively) in themartian surface than Earth, or that an early martian atmosphere was lost andreplenished from crustal outgassing.

Water is another intriguing trace constituent (volume mixing ratio 3.0 x 10–4 mol.)in the martian atmosphere. No D/H ratios were measured by Viking, but some havebeen afforded by astronomical observations at infrared wavelengths from ground andairborne telescopes, and the ratio is believed to be about 5.0±0.2 times the terrestrialvalue of 1.6 x 10–4. The quoted error, if applied to the Earth, would suggest allterrestrial D/H ratios were the same, which is not true; D/H on Earth varies in apredictable way and reveals much about the hydrological cycle. Measurement of theequivalent parameter on Mars has the potential to provide information on equivalentplanet-wide phenomena, including seasonal climatic effects, and addresses the issueof Mars’ warmer and wetter past.

Looking in greater detail at the effects of fluids on Mars, the oxygen isotopiccomposition of water released from the hydrated silicates of martian meteorites(Karlsson et al., 1992; Baker et al., 1998) do not fall on the Mars line defined by high-temperature minerals. The results predict that water in the martian atmosphere is notin equilibrium with the surface of the planet and has been, or is being, isotopicallyaffected by photolytic or exospheric loss processes. Clearly this needs to be studiedfurther by future space missions.

Quite apart from the major and minor constituents of the martian atmosphere (CO2,N2, Ar, O2, CO, H2O, Ne, Kr and Xe in abundance order) there are also likely to beimportant trace constituents. So far, only upper limits can be placed on these (Owen,1992; Owen et al., 1997). It is vital that the minor and trace species on Mars aremeasured. The abundance and, where possible, isotopic information for traceatmosphere gases could be the best possible indicators of contemporary biologicalactivity on the planet. The equilibrium composition of Earth’s atmosphere, forexample, is dictated by the delicate balance of biological production on the groundand chemical destruction above it. Sampling Earth’s atmosphere anywhere on theplanet will lead to the detection of species that could not be there but for biology. Thesame would probably be true for Mars if life exists; even a remote subterraneanlifeform might be recognised from the identification of a gaseous by-product of itsmetabolism, i.e. a species out of chemical equilibrium. The best chance in this respectwould appear to be methane: it is produced on Earth by a great variety of primitiveorganisms, is chemically short-lived, being destroyed by photolytic oxidation butstable to gas-solid degradation reactions, and detectable at high sensitivities. Sincebiological processes tend to impart large isotopic fractionations during methaneproduction from its precursors, this parameter may be useful in the preliminary huntfor extant life on Mars.

1.2 The Beagle 2 investigationThe main focus of the Beagle 2 scientific payload is to establish whether there isconvincing evidence for past life on Mars or to assess if the conditions were eversuitable. Beagle 2 also plans a globally responsive test to see if there is any present-day biological activity on Mars.

169


SP-1240

In 1996/97, ESA’s Directorate of Manned Spaceflight and Microgravitycommissioned a study into the search for life in the Solar System. The final report(ESA Exobiology Team, 1999) concluded that, despite Viking results, Marsrepresented the best immediate opportunity for searching for life beyond the Earth.The presence, or recognition, of any, or all, of the following were considered to beimportant indicators of biology:

— water;— appropriate inorganic minerals (e.g. carbonates);— carbonaceous debris;— organic matter of complex structure;— chirality;— isotopic fractionation between reservoirs (e.g. organics and carbonate).

170

Fig. 1. A fully deployed model of the Beagle 2lander showing the arrangement of solararrays (four petals plus the lid). The base unit(diameter ~66 cm) accommodates GAP and thelander systems, including batteries andtransceiver. The PAW is shown deployed andmaking contact with a sample underinvestigation. All Rights Reserved, Beagle 2



No other Mars mission yet plans such a comprehensive and completeinvestigation. Furthermore, martian sample-return missions, once the preserve ofNASA, but increasingly seen as likely to be driven by a European-led effort, areunlikely to yield results before 2015. However, none of the above tests provides anunambiguous answer alone. It is therefore the key objective of Beagle 2 to perform aprogramme of experiments using compatible and synergistic instrumentation capableof addressing five of the above six indicators.

At the centre of the Beagle 2 scientific payload is a miniaturised chemical laboratory,the Gas Analysis Package (GAP), designed to make quantitative and stable isotopicmeasurements of gases such as H2, N2, O2 and CO2. GAP includes a 6 cm-radiusmagnetic sector mass spectrometer, which can be operated in either static or dynamicmodes, and the supporting equipment to analyse atmospheric, rock and soil samplesfrom the surface of Mars. The system can process and determine some of the noblegases (Ne, Ar and Xe; including some isotopic measurements) as well as anticipatedtrace constituents such as CH4. The search for chirality was omitted from the Beagle 2programme on the grounds that the most interesting molecules require the complex stepof derivatisation; it would seem prudent to confirm their existence before including thenecessary processing steps that would complicate the instrumentation.

To assist in the primary mission objective and provide essential context, theBeagle 2 payload incorporates a set of deployable in situ instrumentation. Thepayload therefore incorporates an arrangement of imaging devices, fieldspectrometers, sampling tools and environmental sensors in order to characterise fullythe landing site in terms of geology and environment. By definition, this array ofdiverse yet complementary instrumentation provides a degree of scientificredundancy to a mission with minimal or zero engineering redundancy. Furthermore,even if the main exobiological objective of the mission proves inconclusive or thenegative results of Viking are confirmed, a wealth of novel science will be conductedwith the Beagle 2 payload.

The individual experiments on Beagle 2 are described in detail in later sections;here, the payload is considered in a general sense. The lander configuration is shownin Fig. 1; its mass breakdown is given in Table 1. Together, the GAP and the landerservice systems (electronics, batteries, transceiver etc) occupy two-thirds of thelander base. The in situ instruments and sampling tools are located on the PositionAdjustable Workbench (PAW), effectively the ‘hand’ at the end of a roboticmanipulator that unstows when the lander is unfolded on the surface. During transitto Mars, these items occupy the remaining recessed third of the lander base. Finally,the majority of environmental sensors are strategically located about the lander.

Other novel elements of the in situ payload include a ‘torch’: a cluster of LEDs forwhite-light illumination of surface materials to determine the true colour of themartian surface; and a ‘spoon’: a simple soil acquisition-device to act as a backup forthe Mole.

As with any lander-based mission, the camera system on Beagle 2 plays a crucialrole in both the engineering and the science. Shortly after the lander is deployed onthe surface, a panoramic view of the site will be provided by one of the cameras withthe aid of the Wide Angle Mirror (WAM), a device attached to the PAW. This willallow the mission planners to unstow the PAW safely subsequently and avoid anyobstacles that may be present. The complete scientific investigation of the landing sitewith the stereo cameras using the spectral filters will be accumulated systematicallyover the primary mission period because of the data volumes involved,communications constraints and other experiment requirements. However, an earlypriority for the cameras is to image the area within reach of the PAW and allow aDigital Elevation Model (DEM) of the surface to be constructed. Such a model is vitalfor planning the in situ analysis and sampling activities of candidate rocks and soils.In addition to assessing their morphologies and spatial distribution, rocks within reachof the PAW and the sampling Mole will be imaged through various filters todetermine their composition remotely. A set of candidate sites for detailed

171

Table 1. Beagle 2 mass budget (kg).

Scientific PayloadGAP and local electronics 5.74PAW 2.75BEEST 0.250ESS 0.156Subtotal 8.896

Lander EngineeringStructure (base and lid) 11.972

including main hinge, etcSolar panels including hinges 3.21ARM 2.11Transceiver 0.65Battery 2.63Electronics and memory 3.02Miscellaneous (cabling, 0.692

bracketry, MLI etc)Subtotal 24.284

Lander total (landed mass) 33.18

Probe EngineeringStructure (heatshield 17.81

and back cover)Parachutes 3.26Airbags and gas generator 14.59Subtotal 35.66

Probe total 68.84


SP-1240

investigation will be selected based on the remote-sensing data and engineeringparameters. The cameras also play an important role in understanding the absorptionproperties of the atmosphere, in particular with respect to dust and water vapour.

Close-up imaging of rocks and soils will be done initially using one of the stereocameras, configured to emulate a hand-lens by selecting the appropriate ‘secondaryoptic’ filter. Observations at higher magnification are achieved by the self-illuminating microscope, which requires contact to be made with the surface toestablish a fixed stand-off distance. Both activities will provide important data on thetexture of the rock/soil and nature of the particulates on the surface of the sampleunder investigation. Any remnant microstructures, if present (and visible) and notdestroyed by erosion or the sample preparation process, should be resolvable. Themicroscope will also provide spectral information on individual grains and identifyany fluorescing minerals or materials.

The in situ spectrometers will analyse specified areas of each candidate rock or soilpatch, previously imaged with the cameras, to determine elemental chemistry andiron mineralogy. A range of major and trace element abundances will be determinedby the X-ray spectrometer (XRS) and the iron-bearing minerals in the sample will beidentified by the Mössbauer spectrometer. Because the penetration depths of theanalysing fluxes for both these techniques are low, the true chemical andmineralogical nature of the fresh material can be determined only by removing anyweathering/alteration rind and adhering soil/dust veneers. Mechanical samplepreparation is therefore necessary by the PAW Rock Corer Grinder tool. The otherfunction of this tool is to acquire solid samples from rocks in the form of chippingsfor analysis by GAP.

There is much synergy between experiments in the payload. For example, GAP inconjunction with XRS will be the first to attempt to date rocks on the surface ofanother planet by radiometric means. To perform a crude radiometric age estimaterequires a precise measurement of potassium content in a sample made by XRS anda precise measurement of argon made by GAP from the same sample. GAP will alsoattempt to derive an exposure age of the surface material by analysing neon isotopiccompositions (20Ne, 21Ne, 22Ne).

In the search for organics, the philosophy adopted by Beagle 2 is that unoxidisedsoil material is most likely to be either at depth, below the superoxidised horizon, oralternatively located under relatively large (~1 m) boulders, which may have lainundisturbed for aeons. The strategy for retrieving such specimens uses the Mole, theprimary soil sampling tool deployed from the PAW. The device has the ability topropagate itself directly into the soil to depths up to 1.5 m or crawl across the surfaceand be deverted under boulders to acquire material from these protected regimes.Elemental chemical analysis performed by GAP (light elements) and XRS (major andtrace elements), together with Mössbauer analysis, of such material will provide aroute to testing the oxidation hypothesis and developing meaningful models ofmartian surface environmental conditions.

The quantity of organic matter in acquired samples, if present at all, could be smallor highly cross-linked, approximating to elemental carbon (as in some of Earth’s mostancient rocks) because of chemical processing. The search for organics will,therefore, be conducted by stepped combustion, a technique that distinguishes carbonspecies by the temperature at which they burn or degrade in oxygen. Similarexperiments have been performed on Earth using many hundreds of meteoritesamples and terrestrial rocks, all of which show some trace of organic matter eitherindigenous to the specimen or from terrestrial biogenic sources. This sort ofcontamination, which causes difficulties for some research on Earth, could beinvaluable on Mars. The stepped combustion method when applied to martian soilsand rocks will confirm whether there are any indigenous forms of carbon with theappropriate combustion temperatures for them to be organic. Combustion, of course,converts all carbon entities into CO2, each with 100% efficiency, unlike pyrolysiswhich represents only a partial conversion of some components.

172



The stepped combustion technique that converts organic carbon to CO2 also allowsthe measurement of the isotopic composition. Indigenous organic matter on Marsmight have a diagnostic δ13C; indeed, the δ13C values of organic matter in martianmeteorites hint that it might be slightly different from that on Earth, but allexperiments are confused by terrestrial contamination. If bulk organic matter andcarbonates are found adjacent in rocks on Mars, then measurement of the isotopicdifference between them will be essential. On Earth, at least, a 30‰ fractionationbetween inorganic and organic carbon is the most general signature of biosynthesisand has been observed in 10 000 examples all the way back in history, from presentday until 3.8 Ga (Schidlowski, 1997); only biology is able to impose such an effect.Such is the ubiquity of terrestrial biology that there is no such thing on Earth as a rockwithout organic material. Even rocks carefully collected on the Moon, protected andpreserved on Earth, show that Earth’s biological activity is impossible to exclude.Rocks collected and returned to Earth from Mars would almost certainly besusceptible to such effects. Therefore it is imperative that stepped combustion, withattendant isotopic measurements, be performed in situ on Mars to establish a truepositive or negative for the presence of organic matter.

Unlike organic matter, carbonates should be totally immune from degradation byoxidants. Given that soils are the weathering products of rocks, thoroughly mixed byaeolian processes, then fine particles represent the best route to locating martiancarbonates and measuring their geochemical parameters, e.g. isotopic compositions.GAP is able to measure the abundance of carbonate in soil and rocks at levels wellbeyond the capability of spectrometric methods.

Since the separation schemes needed for studying the constituents of rocks are thesame as those needed for the characterisation of the martian atmosphere, the gasanalysis package on Beagle 2 is admirably suited for direct analysis of the majormartian atmosphere component CO2 and for minor constituents, particularly CO,H2O, N2, the noble gases and minute amounts of hydrocarbons. Beagle 2 could thusbe expected to provide a detailed and comprehensive study of the constitution of theatmosphere with precise isotopic data for major, minor and trace components. Itwould follow some constituents during diurnal cycling and as a function of themission duration to investigate daily and longer-term climatic processes on Mars.

In respect of methods for separating trace components, procedures to extract andpurify methane, originally developed to provide isotopic information about thesources of this harmful greenhouse component in Earth’s atmosphere, are included aspart of GAP. A confident detection of methane on Mars, a species that would be outof chemical equilibrium, would have enormous repercussions for deciding if there isstill an active biology on the planet.

The payload (Fig. 2) on Beagle 2 can be divided into three categories:

— the Gas Analysis Package occupies about 33% of the lander base section andrequires samples, including atmospheric gases, to be delivered via an inletsystem. GAP is the primary science experiment on Beagle 2; its lead institute isthe Open University;

— a collection of in situ investigation instruments and tools located on the PAW, anintegrated structure attached to the end of the Anthropomorphic RoboticManipulator (ARM). The tools are used to prepare the surfaces of samples forstudy by the in situ instruments and to extract cores from these samples foranalysis by GAP. The Mole ground penetration tool is deployed from the PAW.The lead institute for the PAW is the University of Leicester; individualinstruments are supplied by various institutions (see later);

— a suite of sensors for dynamically monitoring the martian environment. These arelocated both on the PAW and about the lander. The lead institute for theenvironmental sensors is the Open University.

173

2. The Beagle 2 Scientific Payload

Fig. 2. Location of key elements of the Beagle 2lander. Thermal insulating foam is removed forclarity. The GAP (yellow) and lander supportsystems (pink) occupy complete 120° sectors ofthe base. The PAW (dark blue) houses all thein situ instrumentation and is manoeuvred bythe ARM (green). Some instruments on thePAW have associated electronics housed in thelander base (light blue). A few environmentalsensors are also visible (purple). All Rights Reserved, Beagle 2


SP-1240

2.1 Gas Analysis PackageGAP (Fig. 3) has three modes of operation: quantitative analysis, qualitative analysisand precise isotopic measurement. Instrument modes will be decided according to thetype of investigation required. There will be three main types of study:

— search for organic matter;— stepped combustion for total light element content and speciation;— atmospheric analysis.

In all cases of isotope ratio measurements, the principles of GAP are derived fromMODULUS (Methods of Determining and Understanding Light elements fromUnequivocal Stable isotopic compositions), a concept developed for the Rosettamission (Wright & Pillinger, 1998a) and expanded to include Mars (Wright &Pillinger, 1998b). Specific chemical reactions appropriate to martian species, e.g.CO2, CO, H2O have been worked out to afford full C, O and H isotopiccharacterisation without the necessity of having to resolve isobaric interferences. Thisphilosophy incorporates real-time calibration of the instrument using a variety ofreference gases, e.g. a reference CO2 used during 13C/12C measurements, etc. Inconsequence, stable isotope ratio measurements will be quoted to high precisionrelative to internationally accepted standards.

GAP is fed either by direct atmospheric sampling, or via one of 12 ovens mountedon a carousel. Material acquired by the sampling tools, in the form of soil or rockchippings, is deposited via an inlet system into one of the ovens, which is then rotatedto a tapping station to connect the oven to GAP. The ovens withstand temperatures upto 1000°C, although in practice 700°C will be adequate for most analyses. Only thesample container will be heated. This consists of a platinum liner heated by a Pt-Rhfilament directly wound on to the container. Electrical insulation between the linerand the filament is secured by a thin layer of aluminium oxide deposited on the outersurface. Thermal losses in the oven are reduced by means of an internal radiationshield, and conductive heat losses are cut down by using ceramic support structureswith low heat conductivity.

GAP is designed to make quantitative and stable isotopic measurements of gasessuch as H2, N2, O2 and CO2. The system can also process and determine some of thenoble gases (Ne, Ar and Xe) as well as anticipated trace constituents such as CH4. Itoperates in one of two ways, either analysing gases directly (such as those present inthe atmosphere, or which can be liberated from samples by heating), or producingappropriate analyte gases (e.g. CO2) by chemical processing (e.g. conversion oforganic compounds to CO2 by oxidation). In this way, GAP is tremendously flexible,being able to investigate processes of atmospheric evolution, circulation and cycling,the nature of gases trapped in rocks and soils, low-temperature geochemistry, fluidprocesses, organic chemistry, formation temperatures, surface exposure ages, assist inisotopic rock dating, etc.

At the heart of the GAP system is a 6 cm-radius magnetic sector massspectrometer, which operates in both dynamic and static modes, i.e. continuouslypumped and isolated, respectively. The mass spectrometer includes six ion beamdetectors. The main unit is a triple-collector array for the determination of N2 (m/z 28,29, 30), O2 (m/z 32, 33, 34), and CO2 (m/z 44, 45, 46). A spur in the flight tube of theinstrument includes a double-collector for measurement of D/H ratios (H2

+ and HD+ atm/z 2 and 3, respectively). A further detector mounted on the high-mass side of thetriple-collector comprises a pulse-counting electron multiplier for measurements oftrace gases. When operated dynamically, the mass spectrometer should be able tomeasure stable isotope ratios to high degrees of precision and accuracy (±0.1‰ whenexpressed as a δ-value). In contrast, static operation will allow high levels ofsensitivity albeit with some reduction in precision of the isotopic measurements.

As an illustration of instrument performance, note that when Viking test equipmentanalysed two different Antarctic soils, each containing 300 ppm carbon, they were

174



determined to have about 5 ppm and 0.01 ppm C as organic carbon. This probablyreflects the low yield of pyrolytic reactions from highly cross-linked carbonaceousmaterials. Had materials of equivalent character been analysed on Mars by Viking, thelatter of these would not have yielded any carbon above background, even though asignificant fraction of the 300 ppm total carbon may have been non-pyrolyticallydegradable organic matter. Laboratory analyses of carbon in SNC meteorites by asystem similar to GAP is regularly used to measure carbon contents of 250 ppm, orless, from a few milligrams of sample. Thus GAP should provide meaningful datafrom samples where Viking would have detected nothing. The mass spectrometer onGAP has been designed to measure, quantitatively and isotopically, nanogramquantities of carbon in any form. For a 50-100 mg sample (the target for Beagle 2operations on Mars), this translates to a detection limit for carbon of 0.02-0.01 ppm.

175

Fig. 3. The Gas Analysis Package, the primaryexperiment that occupies a complete 120°sector of the lander base. All the keycomponents are annotated. Below left: theFlight Model GAP in transportation casebefore final sterilisation. Below right: theSample Handing and Distribution System(SHADS), showing the carousel of ovens (lowerpart of assembly) and tapping station (to rear). All Rights Reserved, Beagle 2


SP-1240

This represents a very significant advance on previous in situ investigations of Mars,and opens up the possibility of a serious reappraisal of the presence of organicmaterials on the planet.

2.2 PAW subsystemThe PAW (Figs. 4 & 5) is a highly optimised and compact integrated suite of scientificinstruments, sample acquisition and preparation tools, deployed by the ARM forin situ investigation of the surface. All the lander imaging systems and fieldspectrometers are housed on the PAW and rely on the versatility of the ARM foressential categorisation of the landing site. In addition, GAP, as Beagle 2’s primaryscientific experiment, relies on the PAW-ARM to deliver solid samples for isotopicanalysis.

The majority of instruments and tools on the PAW are serviced by the PAWelectronics. Complex ARM harnessing between the PAW instruments and the landersupport systems is kept to a minimum by the inclusion of an FPGA within the PAWelectronics. The fully equipped PAW is 38 cm at its widest point and has a mass ofonly 2.75 kg.

During cruise and coast to Mars, the PAW-ARM is stowed within a recess in thelander base. The PAW is attached to the ARM via a right-angle bracket and is helddown to the lander base by three feet that secure the system during launch and otherextreme environmental conditions. The baseline release mechanism is to have oneFrangibolt actuator per foot; these are operated prior to initial deployment of the PAWand the beginning of surface operations. Once deployed, the PAW does not return tothe stowed configuration.

176

Fig. 4. The PAW FM, fully assembled andready for sterilisation, November 2002. Two ofthe three Frangibolt actuators are visibleunder the mounting feet. All Rights Reserved, Beagle 2



177

Fig. 5: The PAW Qualification Model (QM) and Back End Electronics Stack (BEEST) mounted on thecombined assembly plate. Note that the Rock Corer Grinder QM is equipped with a translation table, anassembly subsequently deleted from the Flight Model (see Section 2.2.6). All Rights Reserved, Beagle 2


SP-1240

The principal objectives of the PAW-ARM subsystem are:

— multispectral stereo imaging of the immediate area around the lander;— Digital Elevation Model (DEM) construction of the landing site (especially the

1 m2 PAW-ARM working zone);— multi-instrument in situ rock/soil analysis;— wind measurements at various heights about the martian surface;— acquisition of core samples from rocks;— acquisition of soil samples (Mole or spoon) from the subsurface;— delivery of solid (core or soil) samples to GAP via the inlet port;— dust-removal from lander surfaces, if possible;— pre-PAW-ARM deployment hazard mitigation via the WAM

In addition, the following are worthy of inclusion in extended operations:

— analysis of soil samples with in situ instruments, being considered for the primarymission because it provides for complete assessment of samples acquried fromthe subsurface. This applies to samples acquired by the Mole and spoon anddeposited on a suitable surface on the lander. Possible determination of super-oxidation depth if this is present within the top 2 m of the regolith;

— analysis of uncovered soil surfaces with spectrometers. This requires the top layerof soil to be scraped off by the PAW; this may also apply to semi-consolidatedblocks if there are any at the landing site. Measurements made in contact with thesoil surface (contamination issues);

— imaging of the Mole-hole. Examination of the hole left by the Mole afterpenetration will provide information on various geotechnical properties of thesurface and near-surface materials. The hole, if it remains intact, will also beuseful for imaging diurnal frost deposition and particle-settling processes.

Several lead institutes were involved in supplying hardware to the PAW:

— X-ray Spectrometer (XRS): University of Leicester, UK;— Mössbauer Spectrometer (MBS): University of Mainz, D;— Stereo Camera System (SCS): Mullard Space Science Laboratory, UK;— Microscope (MIC): Space Research and Planetary Sciences Div., Physikalisches

Institut, Bern, CH (PI formally at Max Planck Institute for Aeronomy, Lindau, D);— camera heads for SCS/MIC and primary optics and close-up lens for SCS:

Space-X (formerly a division of CSEM), CH;— Planetary Underground Tool (PLUTO) and the Sampling Mole: DLR, Cologne, D;— Rock Corer Grinder (RCG): Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China;— Wind Sensor: Oxford University, UK;— Wide Angle Mirror (WAM), torch, spoon: University of Leicester, UK.

All the other elements of the PAW, including the control electronics, mechanicalstructure and harnessing, were designed and supplied by the University of Leicesteras part of the PAW lead activity.

2.2.1 X-ray SpectrometerThe X-ray Spectrometer (XRS; Fig. 6, Table 2) is loosely based on the successfulAPXS experiment flown on Pathfinder Sojourner but favouring the excitation methodused by the Viking spectrometers. Like the APXS, the primary goal of XRS is todetermine, in situ, the elemental composition, and, by inference, the geochemicalcomposition and petrological classification, of the surface material at the landing site.Major elements (Mg, Al, Si, S, Ca, Ti, Cr, Mn, Fe) and trace elements up to Nb aredetectable with XRS. The exclusion of a proton mode offered by APXS is offset bythe greater sensitivity of GAP in determining light-element abundance. However, a

178



more ambitious and unique application of XRS is to use the precise measurement ofelemental abundance in conjunction with measurements made by GAP to attempt acrude radiometric age determination.

XRS employs X-ray fluorescence spectrometry to determine the elementalconstituents of rocks (Rieder et al., 1997). The principal components of the instrumentare a set of four radioisotope sources, two 55Fe and two 109Cd, to excite the sample viaprimary X-rays at 5.90, 6.49, 22.16 and 24.94 keV, arranged around a Si PIN diodeX-ray detector. A 7.5 mm-thick Be window over the diode permits detection offluorescent X-rays down to 1 keV. The energy resolution of the detector (~300 eV) issufficient to resolve all lines of interest. The lower energy cut-off of the Be windowtransmission is well matched to the X-ray opacity of a 6 mbar CO2 martian atmosphere.The instrumental resolution requirement is ~25 eV across a 24 keV range (1-25 keVdetector bandpass). Data are digitised using a 16-bit analogue-to-digital converter forgood differential non-linearity performance and binned to 12 bits for onboard storage.Further binning to 10 bits on the ground will provide ~23 eV resolution.

Crude radiometric dating of martian rocks in situ will be by the 40K→40Ar method.For this, XRS needs to make a precise measurement of K on a fresh sample of rock.Preparation of the surface for XRS is performed by the Rock Corer Grinder housed onthe PAW. It is essential that the surface for XRS is both flat and free from weatheredrind because both factors will compromise the performance and results. The Arcomponent is determined by GAP as part of a suite of experiments performed on a coresample extracted later from the same specimen. The target performance of XRS is toprovide a determination of K with a relative precision of better than ~5% in silicaterocks with K2O levels of 0.2% by weight or greater.

2.2.2 Mössbauer SpectrometerMössbauer spectroscopy is an extremely useful tool for quantitative analysis of Fe-bearing materials and is therefore particularly suited for in situ studies on the surface

179

Fig. 6. QM of the X-ray spectrometer. Above left: the Detector HeadAssembly is carried on the PAW. The conical carbon-fibre reinforcedplastic stand-off cone is gold-flashed and contains the excitation sourcesand the detector element. Left: the Back End Electronics is located at thebase of the ARM in the relatively warmer environment of the landerbase. All Rights Reserved, Beagle 2

Table 2. XRS engineering parameters.

Mass* 154 g (DHA 56 g; BEE 98 g)

Dimensions DHA 47 mm diam. x 47 mm; BEE 120 x 81 x 15 mm

Power PPS +6 V (BEE); TCS (BEE heaters). Nominal current 450 mA; current limit after switch-on for 5 s followed by 660-625 mA for ~12 s. BEE provides all power directly to DHA

Data volume 32 kb (MCA mode (default); histogram fixed size); <<1Mb (diagnostic mode; count rate and integration time dependent)

*excluding DHA housing, which is part of the PAW structure

PPS: Payload Power Supply. TCS: Thermal Control System.


SP-1240

of Mars. The Fe-rich nature of martian deposits enables relative proportions of Fe inolivine and pyroxene to be determined using the Mössbauer technique, together withmagnetite in basalts. In conjunction with the X-ray Spectrometer, the Mössbauercomplements the in situ geochemical and petrological work, and provides supportfor the measurements made by GAP. For example, a pure carbonate (other thansiderite) gives almost no Mössbauer signal because the technique is specific to Femineralogy; such a signal may favour a candidate rock over another worthy ofisotopic analysis.

The Mössbauer effect provides information about the iron content of mineralsamples by measurement of the Doppler shift in the velocity (or energy spectrum) ofgamma-rays emitted by a stationary target bombarded by an isotopically equivalentgamma-ray source (Klingelhöfer et al., 1996; Klingelhöfer, 1998). Thus the instru-ment uses gamma rays from the decay of 57Co to 57Fe. The electronic environment ofatoms in a sample dictates the absorption characteristics and thus they give spectradependent on their valence state and bonding. The strength of the signals isquantifiable, so the instrument can characterise the mineralogical makeup of the rocksand soils, and hence help to identify the petrological classification. Its ability tomeasure valence states provides important information about oxidation, and thereforerelative changes in the rocks and soils can provide a detailed understanding of theweathering environment.

The principal scientific objectives of the Mössbauer Spectrometer (MBS; Fig. 7,Table 3) are:

— identification of Fe-bearing phases with low detection limits;— determination of the oxidation state of iron-bearing minerals;— identification of Fe carbonates, sulphates, nitrates etc. that may provide

information on early martian environmental conditions;— determination of Fe oxides and the magnetic phase in martian soil;— detection of nanophase and amorphous hydrothermal Fe minerals that could

preserve biological materials.

The footprint of the instrument is circular, with a diameter of about 1.5 cm. Theaverage information depth is of the order 100-200 mm. The extent of dust layeringfound on rocks during the Viking and Pathfinder missions may exceed these values,and the thickness of weathering rinds may be even greater.

The Mössbauer parameters are temperature-dependent and under certaincircumstances the Mössbauer spectra may change drastically with temperature. This

180

Fig. 7. The Mössbauer spectrometer. Left: the Detector Head Assembly (DHA) is located onthe PAW and contains the radioactive sourcesand detectors. A mechanical shutter blocks theprimary beam when the instrument is not inuse. Right: the Back End Electronics (BEE;the larger circuit board to the left) is located atthe base of the ARM in the relatively warmerenvironment of the lander base. The image alsoshows the XRS BEE (top right) and Wind BEE(foreground). All Rights Reserved, Beagle 2

Table 3. MBS engineering parameters.

Mass DHA 438 g; BEE 102 g

Dimensions DHA: 45 x 50 x 90 mm;BEE: 100 x 160 x 30 mm

Power PPS +6 V; 3 W

Data volume 130 kbit



is particularly relevant for small particles exhibiting superparamagnetic behaviour(e.g. nanophase Fe oxides). The observation of such changes will help in determiningthe nature of the iron-bearing phases. Therefore, Mössbauer measurements will beperformed at different temperatures. Ideally, these should span both the highesttemperatures (during the day) and lowest temperatures (during the night).

2.2.3 Stereo Camera SystemThe Beagle 2 Stereo Camera System (SCS) is designed to perform a similar functionto the Imager for Mars Pathfinder (IMP). Indeed, IMP was the baseline for many ofthe SCS design features, including the spectral coverage, and operating procedures.The major design difference is that, while IMP created stereo images by using mirrorsto fold the light from two windows onto different halves of a single detector chip, SCSconsists of two identical CCD cameras and integrated filter wheels (Table 4). Anotherimportant difference is that IMP was mounted on a deployable mast 1.75 m above thesurface, while SCS is mounted on the PAW on the end of the ARM. The stereobaseline is 195 mm and each camera is mounted to provide a toe-in angle of 4.65° forthe required stereo coverage.

A primary engineering objective of SCS is the construction of a DEM of thelanding site, in particular the area within reach of the ARM, from a series ofoverlapping monochromatic (670 nm) stereo pair images. The DEM is reconstructedon Earth and used to position the PAW against target rocks and soils. In addition, awide range of other imaging studies of the landing site and atmospheric/astronomicalobservations is possible. The following studies are baselined:

— 360° panoramic imaging to characterise the landing site and, depending on thetopography, allow the location of the landing site to be determined with respectto orbital images;

— multi-spectral imaging of rocks and soils to determine mineralogy (if notcompletely obscured by aeolian dust);

— close-up imaging of rocks and soils using the right-hand camera (equipped withappropriate secondary optics as part of the filter set). This feature emulates thefield geologist’s hand-lens (Table 4);

— observations of the Sun to measure absorption of specific solar wavelengths bywater vapour;

— observations of the Sun and general sky brightness at several times during the day

181

Fig. 8: Left: FM stereo camera, showing the camera head and Filter Wheel Assembly(FWA). The filter wheel itself is driven via astepper motor shown protruding from theback of the FWA. Right: laboratory imageacquired with the Development Model cameraand filter R1 (close-up lens; see text andTable 4). The sample is a quartzose sandstonepreviously prepared with the QM Rock CorerGrinder (see Fig. 12). All Rights Reserved, Beagle 2.


SP-1240

to allow the determination of atmospheric optical density and aerosol (dust andwater ice) properties;

— astronomical observations of Phobos and Deimos (spectral characteristics) andbright stars to allow night-time optical density to be determined. There are also‘public awareness’ opportunities to image the Earth-Moon pair (maximum 3-pixel separation, at beginning of mission) from the martian surface;

— observations of lander surfaces and, if possible, air bags and landing scuff marksin soil to determine dust properties;

— if sufficient bandwidth is available, to return full-frame solar images (IMP solarimages were 31 x 31-pixel sub-frames), unique ‘Sun dogs’ and other halo effectsarising from CO2 ice crystals may be observable.

Additional possible observations include looking for transitory or seasonal changes(dune migration, surface frosts) at the landing site or in the sky (clouds, haloes, dustdevils?).

182

Table 4. The Stereo Camera System filter set.*

λ (nm)** Shape Application

R 1 CLOSE-UP LENS; x6.4 magnification Wide curved Geology

R 2 Ferric oxyhydroxide (local maximum) 600 flat Geology

R 3 Maghemite (local maximum) 800 flat Geology

R 4 Goethite, enstatite & hypersthene 900 flat Geology

R 5 Ferrous silicates 965 flat Geology

R 6 Diopside & fosterite 1000 flat Geology

R 7 NEAR STEREO; Ferric oxides/oxyhydrides & Fe Silicates 670 flat DEM/Geology

R 8 FAR STEREO; Ferric oxides/oxyhydrides & Fe Silicates 670 curved Stereo/Geology

R 9 BLUE; Ferric oxides/oxyhydrides 440 curved Colour/Geology

R 10 GREEN; haematite, d-FeOOH, goethite & lepidocrocite 530 curved Colour/Geology

R 11 Dust Opacity 450 flat Dust

R 12 HOME; Dust Opacity 670 flat Dust

L 1 Discriminate crystalline hematite, crystaline goethite 480 flat Geology& nanophase ferric oxide

L 2 BLUE; Ferric oxides/oxyhydrides 440 flat Colour/Geology

L 3 GREEN; haematite, d-FeOOH, goethite & lepidocrocite 530 flat Colour/Geology

L 4 Ferric oxides (local maximum) oxyhydroxide minerals 750 flat Geology

L 5 Haematite, Pyroxenes & Olivines 860 flat Geology

L 6 Low-Ca clinopyroxenes 930 flat Geology

L 7 NEAR STEREO; Ferric oxides/oxyhydrides & Fe Silicates 670 flat DEM/Geology

L 8 FAR STEREO; Ferric oxides/oxyhydrides & Fe Silicates 670 curved Stereo/Geology

L 9 Continuum Band 925 flat Water

L 10 Water Absorption 935 flat Water

L 11 Continuum Band; Dust Opacity 990 flat Water/Dust

L 12 HOME; Continuum Band; Dust Opacity 880 flat Water/Dust

*the majority of filters used on Pathfinder appear here, albeit shared between two cameras. A secondary optic for close-up work (R1) is included. The long-wavelength solar filters are selected during periods of non-use to minimise exposure of the CCDs to UV during the day.

**centre wavelength. Passbands vary per filter ranging from 17 nm to 42 nm for geology, 4nm to 6 nm for dust/water, and 560 nm for the close-up lens.



The camera system must focus over a wide range of distances to achieve thescientific objectives. To keep the design simple, a fixed objective lens is used. Thiswas designed to produce an optimum focus between 0.6 m and 1.2 m to support stereopair imaging/DEM generation for the surface within reach of the ARM. To focus outto greater distances, curved filters provide optimum focus at distances between 1.2 mand infinity. Each camera is equipped with 48° optics allowing for 100% overlap at1.2 m distance. The inclusion of a secondary optic in the filter set for the right-handcamera allows for inspection of materials at approximately 100 mm distance with thiscamera. The CCDs allow for an exposure range of 1 ms to 65 000 ms.

The imager on Pathfinder had a sufficiently large depth-of-focus to perform all thelanding site imaging at a single fixed focus The fact that the SCS has two workingdistances complicates filter selection for Beagle 2 somewhat. Potentially the size ofthe filter set would need to be doubled if it were required to do all science at eachworking distance. Given these constraints, two assumptions are made:

— imaging of the area within reach of the PAW is critical for DEM generation butstereo imaging of the rest of landing site is less important;

— best-resolution images are required of potential targets of interest for the in situinstruments. However, spectral properties of rocks and soils more than 1.2 mfrom the cameras can be retrieved from slightly out-of-focus images, albeit atreduced resolution.

All of the imaging systems used on the PAW (both stereo cameras and the micro-scope) use common camera head (CCH) technology consisting of a micro-integratedelectronics cube and a CCD detector (1k x 1k frame transfer device). These cameraheads were produced by Micro-cameras and Space Exploration SA (Space-X), formerlya division of Centre Suisse d’Electronique et de Microtechnique SA (CSEM) under aTechnology Research Programme (TRP) contract to ESA (11233/94/NL/FM(SC). Forthe SCS, this company also provided the primary optics and the close-up lens.

2.2.4 Microscope The microscopic imager (Fig. 9, Table 6) on Beagle 2 will investigate the nature ofmartian rocks, soils and fines at the particulate scale. Such studies will provideimportant data in support of the exobiological objective in the form of direct evidenceof fossils, microtextures and mineralisation of biogenic origin if these are present. Inaddition, the physical nature and extent of weathering rinds/coatings on rocks andsoils will benefit the in situ geological investigations. Atmospheric and globalplanetary studies will also benefit from detailed knowledge of dust morphology.

Given that the discovery of martian biota will be of major scientific, if notphilosophical, importance, minimisation of ambiguity is vital. Thus, several methodsof investigation of a sample are needed to corroborate that a martian deposit is indeedbiogenic. Therefore, in support of the exobiological objective, the microscope willseek evidential data in the form of preserved fossils in whatever form. Sedimentarypyrite and, in particular, framboidal textures are frequently observed in recent andancient sediments on Earth. Although examples exist for a purely inorganic origin, the

183

Table 5. SCS engineering parameters.

Mass 174.5 g (SCS-L); 175.5 g (SCS-R)

Dimensions (per camera) 79 x 63 x 75 mm

Power (per camera) PPS +15 V (CCH); PPS +5 V (CCH); PPS +15 V (FWA). Nominal currents: 70mA (CCH); 40mA (FW moving)

Data volume 10 Mb (uncompressed) or 1 Mb (compressed) per image


SP-1240

presence of framboidal pyrite in sedimentary systems is overall considered asevidence for a biological origin. In that respect, microscopic examination of themartian surface and, in particular subsurface material, for pyrite as a potentialbiogenic mineral might provide important evidence in the search for extinct life.

One of the major drawbacks of the Pathfinder mission was the uncertaintyconcerning the extent to which the APXS experiment was affected by a possiblesilicate-bearing weathering rind on the surface of sampled rocks. There is now noevidence that the APXS ever sampled unweathered material. The surfaces of manyrocks facing north-east at the Pathfinder landing site appeared less red in the initialpanorama. However, it has been recently shown that the remarkable brightness of thesky produced by airborne dust affects the illumination of the surface in such a waythat rocks appear redder when in shadow or oblique sunlight. The initial interpretationof the less red faces of rocks as dust-scoured (and hence unweathered) surfaces musttherefore be questioned and cannot be justified without a more sophisticated treat-

184

Fig. 9. The FM microscope, showing the camera head (detector and electronics), opticaltube and LED illumination system. Thestandoff ‘thumb’, part of the PAW structure, isat the right of the image; it provides a fixedstand-off distance of 12 mm. The point ofcontact of the thumb and the PAW orientationare optimised after SCS imaging. Upper right:a colour composite image acquired with themicroscope. The sample is a layered limestonefrom Piz Alv, Switzerland. A 3D reconstructionof the sample’s surface is shown below.Entropy analysis determined the depth of thescene from 60 images at different focuspositions. The layering is clearly evident in thisisometric view. All Rights Reserved, Beagle 2

Table 6. MIC engineering parameters.

Mass 151 g excluding focusing mechanism (53.7 g), which ispart of the PAW assembly

Dimensions 111.58 mm x 45.24 mm (max. dia. of optical head)

Power PPS +15 V (CCH); PPS +5 V (CCH); PPS +15 V (LEDs); PPS +15 V (Focusing mechanism)

Data volume 10 Mb (uncompressed) or 1 Mb (compressed) per image. Default mode is single best focused image plus depth map derived via onboard algorithm in LSW.



ment of the illumination. Argument about contamination of sampled materials willalways occur unless the sampling strategy provides a method of exposing fresh(unaltered and unweathered) material. Detailed microscopic study of rock and soilsurfaces will be an important factor in the in situ investigations.

Apart from being a potential barrier for in situ geological study, martian dust playsa key role in the atmospheric energy budget. Material in suspension in turn controlsthe global circulation and the present climate. It is also suspected that the martian dusthas had a major influence on the evolution of the surface and the long-term evolutionof the planet’s climate. To date, properties of the dust particles have been inferredfrom remote sensing from Earth, Mars orbit and landed craft. A major contributor tothe overall dynamic, thermal and radiative properties of the martian atmospheric dustis particle morphology. A thorough understanding of the physical nature of thismaterial has wide-reaching consequences for planetary scientists. The Beagle 2microscope will be the first attempt to image and assess individual particles directlyof sizes close to the wavelength of scattered light.

The microscope consists of a camera head identical to that used by the stereocameras and a 10-fold magnifying lens system of 20 mm focal length. The depth offield is 40 mm and the image size is 4.1 x 4.1 mm; thus the scale is 4 µm/pixel (at12 mm distance. Focusing is achieved by moving the whole assembly in and out (totaltravel 6 mm) with a stepper motor-driven translation table secured to the PAWstructure. Spectral information can be gathered by using an illumination systemconsisting of a concentric set of super-bright LEDs around the lens system, uniformlyilluminating the field of view. Four wavebands, each with a bandwidth of 30 nm, areaccommodated (642, 523, 466, 373 nm).

Materials exposed on the surface of Mars, including rocks, soils and drifts, areknown to be highly irregular at all scales. The microscope has a small depth of fieldso the acquisition of focused images of irregular surfaces ideally requires manyindividual images to be taken at various delta stand-off distances from the target.Single ‘snapshot’ images obtained with the microscope are likely to have littlescientific value. Arrays of images at coarse stand-off distances are undesirablebecause subtle morphological and textural features, which may be significant, wouldnot be resolvable. A complete set of individual images obtained at each stand-offposition is achieved via the focusing mechanism on the PAW.

Generally, individual images compress well because they are usually dominated byout-of-focus areas (although scene-dependent, estimated compression on Beagle 2 isabout 10:1). Unfortunately, the number of these ‘image layers’ can be as large as 60-100 per illumination configuration. By applying a focusing algorithm to a set, a singlein-focus image derived from all stepper motor positions plus a depth map for 3Dreconstruction map can be compiled. This process can either be done in situ or backon Earth. However, a single in-focus image plus map (i.e. two images) is much moreefficient in terms of data volume. For this reason, the onboard software includes afocusing algorithm.

2.2.5 PLUTO and the Sampling MoleIt is of prime importance to supply GAP with material from rocks and soils to realisethe mission’s primary objective. The Planetary Underground Tool (PLUTO; Fig 10,Table 7) subsurface soil sampling device provides samples of soil from depths downto 1.5 m and, depending on the terrain, from under a large boulder. Both activitieshave never been attempted on Mars. The Viking missions had access to depths of only20 cm in the surface soil, which proved to be still within a layer of presumably highlyoxidised material with no measured concentrations of organic matter. It is expectedthat the top metre of bulk soil on Mars has in the past been exposed by aeolian mixingprocesses to the atmosphere and UV flux, and thus subjected to oxidation andirradiation processes that destroyed any organic matter over a scale of decades. Ifbiological activity ever existed on Mars, then decomposition products in the form ofbiomarkers would best be preserved at depth in the bulk soil or within rocks.

185


SP-1240

PLUTO employs a self-penetrating sampling Mole tethered to a supportmechanism attached to the PAW. The Mole is the primary soil-sampling device. It isbased on a Russian self-burying penetrometer; a scaled-down version of the originaldevice was developed within an ESA TRP activity specifically for space applications(Re et al., 1997). It requires no reaction force from the lander once a small initialpenetration is achieved: the Mole proceeds into the subsurface, connected by a tetherfor power (for the inertial hammering mechanism) and can reach depths several timesthe length of its casing.

At the tip of the Mole is a sampling mechanism that can be commanded to open atthe appropriate sampling depth to acquire some 0.20 cm3 of soil. Once secured byclosing the mechanism, the sample is delivered to GAP by retrieving the Mole,retracting the tool into the ‘launch tube’ and moving the ARM back to the GAP inletport on the lander. Samples are released by opening the mechanism again once inposition, docked to the inlet. With one shock occurring every 5 s, it may take 30 minto 1 h to reach a vertical depth of 1 m under Mars gravity and the estimated soilresistance.

In addition to serving as a soil sample-acquisition device, the Mole provides aplatform for in situ temperature measurements as a function of time and depth whileembedded in the subsurface. Moreover, soil mechanical properties and layering willbe estimated from the ground intrusion behaviour.

For retrieval from the subsurface, the cable reel operates in reverse, pulling thedevice back into the launch tube on the PAW, the latter remaining in positionthroughout the entire operation. The Mole retraction manoeuvre has been extensivelytested on a variety of analogous materials. Retraction can also be aided by operatingthe hammering mechanism while rewinding the cable, an activity more likely to beconsidered for deep sampling. Once back inside its tube housing, the Mole is ready todischarge its cargo into the GAP sampling inlet.

The Mole can also be deployed laterally across the surface, away from the landerand towards a suitably sized boulder beyond the reach of the PAW, using the shocks

186

Fig. 10. The PLUTO FM mounted on the PAW FM. The Mole is just visible at the right,protruding from the launch tube (minus thesampling head, which is fitted as late aspossible to avoid biological contamination).The winch housing is the cylindrical object onthe left. All Rights Reserved, Beagle 2

Table 7. PLUTO engineering parameters.

Mass 340 g (Mole); 550 g (deployment unit); total 890 g

Dimensions approx. envelope ~380 x ~90 x ~80 mm (Mole = 280 mm long)

Power 3 W (17 W for pin-puller release after landing)

Data volume ~ kb (HK only)



from its hammering mechanism for forward motion, at a rate of about 10 mm travelfor each percussive stroke. Such hammering perpendicular to the local gravity vectorhad already been verified during an early ESA TRP activity. Once the Moleencounters a large rock with an overhang, it will be diverted downward to initiate soilpenetration under the rock, thereby allowing access to protected samples.

2.2.6 Rock Corer GrinderIt is a scientific requisite that all the PAW instruments have access to fresh,unweathered/unaltered material in order to avoid the effects of surface weatheringrinds thought to be prevalent on all exposed material on Mars. In addition, thespectrometers require a prepared flat area of optimum size to counter geometriceffects that can seriously compromise instrument performance. To address theserequirements, the PAW is equipped with a combined Rock Corer Grinder (Fig. 11,Table 8) tool.

The grinding action of the RCG removes as much weathering rind material aspossible, up to 6 mm, by producing individual or an array of flat, 10 mm-diameter

187

Fig 11. Upper left: the Rock Corer Grinder FM. Note the dual functionality and shape of the sampling tip. Right: results of coring intoa field sample of quartzose sandstone with a case-hardened thin (~1 mm)weathering rind (Planetary Science Sample Library 146/274). Lower left:the RCG QM equipped with the Translation Table (TT) for transcribingthe tool-head during grinding. The TT was not fitted to the FM followingan engineering and scientific assessment on the effectiveness of thedevice. All Rights Reserved, Beagle 2

Table 8. RCG engineering parameters.

Mass 348 g (FM without Translation Table)

Dimensions approx. envelope ~30 x ~60 x ~100 mm

Power 6 W

Data volume ~ kb (HK only)


SP-1240

fresh surfaces suitable for the spectrometer instruments. A translation tablemechanism was developed for the RCG QM to transcribe the tool-head over thesurface of a sample to produce a flat area of ~30 mm diameter. However, for mass andother reasons, this facility was not adopted for flight. After all in situ analyses havebeen completed, a sample from the ground patch is extracted by using the coringaction of the device and delivered to GAP via an inlet port on the upper part of thelander. Coring is achieved by a hammering/rotating action of the main drive wherematerial is retained within the Micro End Effector (MEE) jaw-type device. Cores, ormore precisely a collection of rock chippings, obtained by this tool are ofreproducible volume suitable for the GAP ovens.

2.3 Environmental Sensor Suite Beagle 2 is equipped with a complementary set of environmental sensors (Fig. 12) toassist in both the prime objective, characterisation of the landing site andmeteorological studies. Measurement of the UV and radiation flux (a RadFET withinthe lander electronics measures total dosage) at the surface together with the oxidisingcapability of the soil and air provides direct input into the astrobiological investiga-tions. In addition, measurement of atmospheric temperature, pressure, wind speed/direction, dust saltation and angle-of-repose will complement the in situ experiments.Dynamic studies such as dust devil profiling will also benefit assessments of aeolian

188

Fig. 12. The Environmental Sensor Suite (ESS)flight spares. A: oxidant sensor (note thespheres for angle-of-repose experiments).B: UV sensors (six photodiodes). C: pressuresensor. D: dust impact sensor. E: airtemperature sensor (one of two). The FM windsensor is shown in Fig. 13. All Rights Reserved, Beagle 2

A B C

D E



erosion rates, as will an understanding of the boundary layer wind regime using thewind sensor on the PAW.

The mass of the complete suite of sensors is 156 g. Each sensor is powered via thelander Auxiliary Power Supply (APS) and typically has a 0-5 V analogue output.Depending on the sampling rate adopted during operations, the environmental sensorscan generate between kilobytes of data (low rate typically one reading from eachsensor every 10 min) through to megabytes (high rate typically 4 Hz).

2.3.1 Oxidant sensorOne controversial issue arising from the Viking results is the postulated presence ofhydrogen peroxide or other oxidising compounds in the soil, used in several cases toexplain the results of the experiments designed to detect martian life. The Beagle 2oxidant sensor is a one-shot measurement, in which a sensitive titanium film isexposed to the atmosphere and its resistance is monitored as it oxidises. It is not,however, H2O2-specific but will also detect other oxidising species, such as O3. Bysimultaneously monitoring the UV and dust sensor, it is hoped to shed some light onthe processes generating any oxidants. At the end of the mission, the PAW will beused to deposit quantities of soil onto the film, and to monitor the response. Thesensor is located near the rim of the lander base.

2.3.2 Ultraviolet sensorShort-wavelength UV, such as UVB and UVC, are harmful to life and can directlydamage DNA. The UV environment on Mars is known to be harsh, and it is unlikelythat life can survive on the surface, but subsurface life may still be possible. Thissensor will produce a 5-point spectrum in the range of 200-400 nm, covering UVA(320-400 nm) and UVB (280-320 nm) over seasonal and daily time-scales. At wave-lengths below 204 nm, the CO2 atmosphere is strongly absorbing, partially blockingthe UVC band (100-280 nm). The sensor is located near the rim of the lander base.

The unit uses six photodiode sensors, each with a particular bandpass filter:.

— 210 nm: main TiO2 dust absorption band;— 230 nm: biologically damaging and rapidly time-varying regime;— 250 nm: secondary TiO2 band;— 300 nm: mid-UVB;— 350 nm: mid-UVA;— 200-400 nm (no filter): calibration channel.

2.3.3 Wind sensor A hot-film wind sensor (Fig. 13) was supplied by Oxford University (UK). It ismounted with an associated air-temperature sensor on the PAW. The difference in heattransfer coefficients between the three films can be used to calculate a 2D wind vectorperpendicular to the axis of the wind sensor. In its normal orientation, the sensormeasures a horizontal wind vector. The sensor is calibrated for the range 0.3-30 m s–1

though wind speeds above this range can also be measured. There are several sensor-specific goals and activities:

— obtain a long-term meteorological record of wind speed and direction, and airtemperature at the landing site;

— obtain higher frequency data (~1 Hz) at various times of the day to enablecharacterisation of boundary-layer turbulence and fluxes;

— detect and observe dust devils;— characterise the vertical profile of air temperature and wind speed at different

times of the day, by taking measurements with the sensor head at different heightsabove the surface.

At times, the top surface of the lander can be up to 80°C hotter than the surround-

189


SP-1240

ing surface, giving rise to a convective plume. This plume, which affects meteor-ological measurements made directly above it, will be studied by moving thetemperature and wind sensors into different positions above the lander. Such a plumewas seen by the Viking landers (Ryan & Lucich, 1983), and the effect should bestronger on Beagle 2 because of its geometry.

2.3.4 Air pressureThe Barobit pressure sensor was supplied to Beagle 2 by the Finnish MeteorologicalInstitute. It uses the same Barocap sensing element as in the Meteorology InstrumentSystem aboard the Mars-96 small stations and penetrators (Harri et al., 1998) andwithin the MVACS package on the Mars Polar Lander. Barocap is a capacitiveabsolute pressure sensor based on a thin silicon diaphragm. The Barobit design isbased on the EGA-P experiment flown aboard Mars Polar Lander. Barobitelectronics and Beagle 2 data-handling capability limit the measurement accuracydown to about 0.006 hPa and resolution to 0.003 hPa. The sensor is located in thelander base.

2.3.5 Air temperatureAir temperature will be monitored at two locations using commercial 0.3 mm-diameter bead platinum resistors. The sensor is optimised to give the highestsensitivity and accuracy of better than 0.01K over the range –10°C to –60°C. At theextremes of the operating temperatures (less than –100°C and greater than 10°C), theaccuracy is reduced to about 0.1K. One sensor is mounted at a fixed height of around0.05 m above the ground, on the edge of one of the solar panel sheets, in an attemptto isolate it thermally from the effects of the hot lander body. An identical sensor ismounted as part of the wind sensor assembly on the PAW, allowing air temperaturemeasurements at heights of up to 0.6 m.

2.3.6 Dust impact monitorA dust impact monitor, located near the rim of the lander base, will measure the

190

Fig. 13. Wind Sensor FM integrated with theWide Angle Mirror during final assembly ofthe PAW FM. For an alternative view, seeFig. 4. All Rights Reserved, Beagle 2



impact rate and magnitude of wind-blown dust, providing information about theregolith transport and mixing mechanisms on the surface. The sensor is mountedhorizontally, near the rim of the probe, and will listen continuously for dust impacts.It consists of a simple aluminium sheet, 0.25 mm thick, with a polyvinylidene fluoride(PVDF) piezoelectric film on the rear face. PVDF films such as this have been usedon several missions, most recently on the high-rate detector within the CDAinstrument aboard Cassini (Tuzzolino, 1995). Maximum sensitivity of the device is1 x 10–10 kg m s–1 (equivalent to a 0.2 mm glass bead dropped from 10 mm height onEarth); the sensor records the magnitude and time of an impact.

3.1 Anthropomorphic Robotic Manipulator (ARM) The Beagle 2 ARM (Fig. 14) is a 5-degree-of-freedom manipulator, with the PAWpermanently attached to the wrist. The fully extended ARM is 109 cm long, measuredfrom the centre of the body joint to the centre of the PAW wrist joint. Each jointcomprises a DC brushed motor driving through a 100:1 harmonic gearbox. Jointposition is detected by a potentiometer mounted directly onto the output shaft. Atypical joint speed is 0.6° s–1 (axes 1-3 only).

The ARM’s primary purpose is to position and orientate the PAW so that theinstruments and tools can perform their tasks. Requirements imposed on the ARM bythe PAW include:

— working zone DEM (0.6 m to 1.2 m near-stereo) requires PAW/ARM to view thescene from as many perspectives as possible – at least two or three – whilemaintaining targets of interest in focus;

— 360º multi-spectral panorama (including > 1.2 m far-stereo) requires PAW/ARMpointing straight up for maximum height advantage and rotation about this axis.The relative position of the Sun with respect to the viewing scene needs to beconsidered for optimal illumination and direct solar avoidance during geologicalimaging;

— close-up lens for imaging rocks, coarse detritus and large clasts at a workingdistance of ~80 mm requires optimum PAW orientation to avoid navigationalhazards, including contamination from the surface.

It is proposed that a number of positions be selected within the sphere of PAW/

191

Fig. 14: The ARM Development Model. All Rights Reserved, Beagle 2

3. Surface Operations


SP-1240

ARM operations that are deemed to be ‘safe points’. These are configurations that canbe returned to at any time without risk of collision and from which a series of pre-setmanoeuvres can be initiated.

Those operations requiring actual contact to be made with a sampling surface oractivities with the Mole need special attention and are discussed in the followingsections. Most imaging tasks do not require contact with the sample underinvestigation but some scenarios involving close-up work will require carefulnavigation to avoid local collisions with objects on the surface. A complete andaccurate DEM of the area reachable by the PAW/ARM and PLUTO sampling Mole,and an initial characterisation of potential sampling targets contained within the zone,is an early priority. Only when this has been done can the majority of PAW/ARMoperations commence.

3.2 Positioning During initial positioning, the location of the spot where the PAW comes into contactwith the candidate sample is not expected to be very precise. A suitable goal is toachieve initial contact within ±5 mm of a nominated position, based on the workingzone DEM and the capabilities of the ARM. Angular contact should be within 5° ofthe average normal to the chosen spot. Once initial contact has been made, then thispoint becomes the reference datum and subsequent positioning will be relative, andtherefore more accurate, albeit subject to surface roughness constraints.

The requirement for lateral positioning of the RCG for coring and the instrumentsis ±2 mm from the centre of ground patch. This is primarily to ensure that theinstruments view the same spot within the prepared area. Along with this tighterpositional alignment, it is required that the ARM can position a tool or instrumentwithin 1º of a nominal perpendicular to a face. This is required in particular forspectrometer positioning, because any angular misalignment alters the distancebetween the detectors and surface. It is expected that if this angle is achieved then theaction of applying a longitudinal force coupled with the compliance of the ARMwould remove any angular error anyway.

192

Fig. 15. The ARM FM equipped with a one-third mass PAW during calibration work. Theconfiguration shows the sampling Mole dockedto a representative (in terms of mechanicalinterface and location) GAP inlet. All Rights Reserved, Beagle 2



The only instrument that requires more precise positioning is the microscope, whichneeds to be positioned longitudinally to an accuracy of 40 µm for focusing. This meansthat some device is required to move the microscope over a range of ±3 mm to withinan accuracy of 40 µm. A separate actuator on the PAW provides this.

There is no precise positioning requirement for the PLUTO sampling Mole. It isexpected that positioning within ±3 mm in any axis and within 5° of a nominal‘launch’ angle will be acceptable.

For the wind sensor to be maintained horizontally with respect to the martiansurface requires the PAW/ARM subsystem to account for relative lander orientation.The latter will be determined via the onboard accelerometers if they survive thelanding shock. Alternatively, some estimate may be achieved via the stereo cameras.

3.3 Approach techniqueOnce a sampling spot has been identified on the candidate rock, the ARM willorientate the PAW to align the RCG as orthogonal to the sampling surface as possibleand advance the PAW along the RCG axis towards the surface (Fig. 16). The RCG isproposed for all initial contacts with candidate samples, because it is more robust thanother instruments, to establish a reference point from which all subsequentpositioning can be performed with more accuracy. Furthermore, the first operation inthe analysis cycle involves imaging the weathered surface with the close-up lens. Thisrequires a PAW reorientation anyway, so nothing is gained by placing one of thelongitudinal instruments against the sample first. Advancement in this way proceedsuntil contact has been detected or a predetermined timeout has expired. In the lattercase, some sort of corrective action will have to be applied that may involve abortingthe sequence and moving to a safe/default position, branching to another activity.

The final approach prior to making contact may be achievable by operating asingle joint other than the wrist. For example, if the elbow joint is considered, and theforearm/PAW length is 400 mm, then the PAW needs to sweep forward up to 5 mm inthe worst case, to prepare the surface with the RCG. This equates to an angle of about0.7° swept by the RCG during operation, compatible with the accuracy of surfacepreparation achievable by the RCG.

On the approach to the rock, if not during the whole of the movement, the ARMmovement will be stopped as soon as a sufficient contact force has been reached. This

193

Fig. 16. Sampling operations at the LanderOperations Control Centre, Univ. Leicester(UK) during early December 2003. The landerGround Test Model, equipped with the DMARM, is deploying the QM PAW andperforming a sampling operation with theRock Corer Grinder. The sample itself, in thiscase a fissile shale, is seated in a bed of coarsesand and within the working zone of thePAW/ARM defined by the raised area. All Rights Reserved, Beagle 2


SP-1240

is sensed by a piezoelectric force load washer (sensitivity 3 pC N–1) that generates anelectrical signal upon contact with a resistive surface: a rock, instrument calibrationtarget on the Calibration Target, GAP inlet or sample dish. Forces required by thevarious instruments and tools are determined from this point as a function of ARMvelocity, direction and time. Suitable choice of sampling site can utilise the weight ofthe PAW or vertical component thereof. A different contact strategy will be requiredfor investigations of rocks and unconsolidated materials.

The piezoelectric sensor will not normally give any charge output while the PAWis being moved around gently during normal ARM movements. The primary mode ofoperation is to use the sensor to detect the moment when the PAW comes into contactwith the rock. The ARM is then allowed to continue to drive for a given time aftercontact has been detected, determined by the stiffness of the arm joints. The ARM willstop advancing shortly (~102 ms) after contact has been detected. The exact length oftime depends on the instrument or tool being positioned and the anticipatedorientation of the PAW with respect to the contact surface.

The ARM must operate with a degree of autonomy owing to the limitedcommunication periods available with Earth. However, it is not intelligent but followspredetermined manoeuvres or strategies, which then allow it and the associated PAWto survey the martian surface and analyse the rocks.

3.4 Nominal rock analysis cycleGiven the constraints of the surface operations timeline and scientific requirements,only a small number of rocks (~3) are expected to be fully investigated in situ.Assuming that a number of appropriately sized rocks lie within reach of thePAW/ARM, each potential candidate for detailed analysis will have to be assessedbased on bulk spectral properties, morphology and PAW/ARM accessibility. Once acandidate has been chosen, the full suite of analysis will be performed in situ by thePAW instruments and by GAP on the same material. Of course, this modus operandimay change on arrival at Mars, especially if the landing site yields unexpected orscientifically interesting diversity.

The list below describes a typical analytical sequence after a candidate rock hasbeen selected for detailed study:

Assessment Image the candidate rock from various angles using geology and stereo filters.Select an area of rock for investigation (constrained by ARM, PAW access,

surface morphology and spectra).

Analysis (weathered surface)Obtain close-up images of the selected surface using hand-lens and microscope.Perform detailed measurements with the spectrometers.

Surface preparationGrind away the surface weathering rind and create a flat working surface.

Analysis (fresh surface)Obtain close-up images of the prepared surface using hand-lens and microscope.Perform detailed measurements with the spectrometers.

Sample acquisition and dispositionExtract a core from the centre of the sampling area.Obtain close-up images of sampling area using hand-lens and microscope.Deliver core (chippings) to GAP via the inlet port.

This sequence is based on fundamental field practice but may have to be modifiedas a result of surface operations and constraints.

194



3.5 PLUTO (Mole) and spoon operationsThe Mole (Fig. 17) is deployed in one of two ways. In the vertical mode, the samplingMole penetrates the regolith to a specified depth (maximum 1.5 m baselined), fromwhere a sample is retrieved. Temperature measurements are obtained at variousdepths (maximum 1.25 m). In the horizontal mode, the Mole crawls across the surfacetowards a candidate rock and is potentially deverted to retrieve a sample from asheltered zone under a boulder. The number of samples acquired by the Mole duringthe primary mission will be restricted to about three.

The uppermost zone of the martian regolith is probably heterogeneous and chaotic.Suspended rocks and pebbles may deviate (or impede) the Mole, thereby contributingto an error in the depth measurement. Mole operations will be progressively moreambitious during the course of surface activities in order to minimise the risk to thescientific objectives of all instrumentation dependent on the device.

The PAW is also equipped with a ‘spoon’ as a backup method of samplingunconsolidated soil. The design ensures that no more than 20 mm3 of material iscollected, thereby avoiding the risk of overfilling the sample ovens.

3.6 In situ calibration and validationOnce Beagle 2 has finally come to rest on the surface of Mars and fully deployeditself, the PAW is ready to obtain the first image of the landing site. This is achievedvia the Wide Angle Mirror, which moves into the FOV of the right-hand stereo camerawhen the pre-tensioned spring holding it down is released by the opening of the lidand solar panels. The figure of the WAM is designed to provide a 360º view of thelanding site that includes the horizon. Fig. 18 shows simulated and actual views usingthe WAM.

Immediately after PAW/ARM release and deployment, a programme of calibrationand verification will be initiated. Each instrument will undergo a predefined checkoutand in situ calibration sequence as soon as possible. This will avoid possibleerroneous effects caused by degradation of the data from the targets owing to dustaccumulation etc. Recalibration will also occur throughout the surface mission tomonitor any changes and, if necessary, for instrument diagnostic reasons.

The lander is equipped with a Calibration Target (CT) consisting of individualtargets specific to or shared by the deployable instruments. Each instrument’s CT will

195

Fig. 17: PLUTO sampling operations at theLander Operations Control Centre, Univ.Leicester (UK) during early December 2003.The lander Ground Test Model, equipped withthe DM ARM is being used to deploy the QMPAW and perform shallow soil samplingoperations with the Mole. Left: the samplebeing acquired from unconsolidated coarsesand (JSCMars1). Right: the sample beingdeposited into the GAP inlet port; note theinlet cover and funnel in the representativesection of the lander deck. All Rights Reserved, Beagle 2


SP-1240

be ‘known’ by the onboard software and flagged as a designated point. The positionof the CT has been chosen to allow PAW optimal viewing of the imaging targets andprovide access for physical contact to be made by the spectrometers and themicroscope. The latter case requires some structural support beneath the CT toaccommodate the weight of the PAW.

The 69 kg Beagle 2 is a highly sophisticated spacecraft (Figs. 19 & 20), which usesadvanced technologies and very limited redundancy in order to meet the tight massrestrictions dictated by the Mars Express spacecraft requirements. Beagle 2 will beejected from the orbiter before the Mars orbit insertion, and enter the planet’satmosphere on 25 December 2003 after a coast phase of about 6 days. The entry,descent and landing system will deliver it to the martian surface, where the nominalscience operations phase will begin after an initial commissioning phase. The nominallifetime of Beagle 2 is 6 months. The following sections provide an overview of thetechnical aspects of the Beagle 2 lander.

In addition to the Beagle 2 Flight Model, a number of system and subsystemmodels were built to support the lander test activities. The Beagle 2 programmedelivered the following models to Mars Express:

— the protoflight model (PFM) to be integrated to the orbiter on the launch site;— the electrical test model (ETM) for software and interface tests;— two mass/stiffness models (MSM#1 and #2) for mechanical testing, one equipped

with a QM Spin-Up and Eject Mechanism (SUEM).

196

Fig. 18. Imaging with the Wide Angle Mirror.Right: early simulated view of a rock-strewnlanding site prior to PAW/ARM deploymentvia the WAM and right-hand stereo camera.The scene is made up of sky (grey), landerstructure (blue/green) and a martian surface(brown). Far right: image taken with the DMStereo Camera and a spherically figuredWAM. Camera is visible in centre of imagetogether with the structural & thermal modelPAW and lander model. The WAM mast isclearly visible in the lower half of the image.Above: processed version of the far-rightimage courtesy of Joanneum Research,Austria. All Rights Reserved, Beagle 2

4. Spacecraft Engineering



197

Fig. 19. The Beagle 2 Flight Model during final assembly in the asepticclean room at the Open University, Milton Keynes, UK. Note that theWide Angle Mirror on the PAW is held down under spring tension whenthe lander lid is closed. Above is the the closed lander, ready forintegration into the descent capsule. All Rights Reserved, Beagle 2

Fig. 20. Below: the fully assembled and encapsulated Beagle 2 probe,ready for delivery. Left: enshrouded in thermal insulation and integratedon Mars Express. All Rights Reserved, Beagle 2


SP-1240

— the volume interface model for mechanical integration tests;— two pyro and frangibolt units (1 FM and 1 EQM).

A number of additional models (aeroshell assembly model, Development Model,SUEM QM #2, common electronics development model) were built for test purposesbut not delivered to Mars Express.

The Beagle 2 lander comprises a number of subsystems on the landing module,and some support systems that remain on the Mars Express orbiter. The Beagle 2system components are described briefly below.

The Entry, Descent and Landing System (EDLS) will decelerate Beagle 2 duringatmospheric entry and deliver the lander to the surface of Mars. The entry sequence iscontrolled by onboard accelerometers and fixed time offsets and delays derived frommodelling of the entry phase. The aeroshell, comprising a thermal protection system,an ablative front shield and a back cover, will decelerate the lander and protect it duringthe initial atmospheric entry. It will reduce the probe’s speed from Mach 31.5 to Mach1.5. Before entering the transonic region, the pilot parachute is deployed. Afterreaching subsonic speed, pyrotechnic bolts release the back cover and the front shield.The parachute system consists of a pilot ’chute and a main ’chute. The pilot ’chutedecelerates the lander to subsonic speed. After the release of the back cover and frontshield, the main ’chute is deployed, which is released on impact on the ground. Themain parachute’s deceleration of the lander also automatically releases the frontaeroshell, which is held in place by aerodynamic pressure following release of thebolts. Once the probe is 200 m above the surface, detected by a radar altimeter, theairbag system is activated. It absorbs the remaining speed of ~17 m s–1 in a series of 10-20 bounces. When the probe finally comes to rest, the lacing that holds the airbagstogether is released, forcing the segments apart via their internal gas pressure andallowing the 33 kg lander to drop to the ground, where it finally deploys itself (Fig. 1).

At the end of the cruise phase, the capsule is released from Mars Express using thespring-powered spin-up and eject mechanism. This provides the probe with thecorrect axial velocity and spin rate for stability during the coast phase until entry. Thecapsule aeroshell is made of carbon fibre with a surface layer of powdered cork(Norcoat) tiles impregnated with phenolic resin for thermal protection during entry.The back cover is made of carbon fibre with titanium stringers again covered withNorcoat tiles. These structures act as a bioshield, enveloping and protecting thelander, airbag system and parachute from all the environments the probe encountersen route to Mars and pre-launch following sealing of the probe.

The lander structure consists of an upper (lid) and lower (base) shell, which areheld closed by a clamp band until after landing. The shells are made of Kevlar,providing both energy absorption during impact with the ground and thermalprotection during surface activities. The inner structure of the lander comprisescarbon fibre skins on an aluminium honeycomb core. The lander outer structurecontains a crushable honeycomb designed to deform around small rocks while stillprotecting the integrity of the payload and systems.

A main hinge mechanism allows the shells to open and provides self-righting byshifting the centre of gravity (dominated by the base) if the lander lands the wrongway up. The lander lid houses the solar panels, which are deployed via electrically-powered hinges. The base shell accommodates the robotic arm, which allows thePAW instruments to be deployed.

Beagle 2 is powered via a 42-cell lithium ion battery that is kept warm by thethermal insulation and by heater power during the martian night. When Beagle 2 isdeployed on the surface, power to charge the battery and/or supply daytimeexperiments is provided by four deployable solar panels of total effective area ofabout 1 m2. The panels employ high-performance triple-junction gallium arsenidecells mounted on germanium substrates. The electronics module of the landerprovides power distribution, conditioning and management.

The lander common electronics consists of a number of circuit boards, forming the

198



electronics module (ELM). A local common electronics module (LCE) that supportsGAP is accommodated separately. The lander electronics provide the followingfunctions:

— onboard processor (ERC32) and data handling;— power conditioning, distribution and management;— interfaces to instruments and equipment.

An interface to the lander electronics is provided via the probe umbilical. TheERC32 processor is controlled by the onboard software, which consists of four basicmodules:

— the Bootstrap Loader (BL), which resides in a PROM. It contains the programsrun initially after power-on (mission phase detection, execution of applicationsoftware image);

— the Common Software (CSW), which provides low-level hardware drivers andutilities;

— the Probe Software (PSW), which provides the functionality required for entry,descent and landing, as well as for handover to Lander Software functionality;

— the Lander Software (LSW), which provides the lander subsystem control andinstrument and experiment functionality for the surface operations.

The CSW, PSW and LSW are stored in EEPROM and loaded into and executedfrom RAM memory.

The Beagle 2 communication system provides the means for bi-directional UHFradio communication with the Mars Express orbiter and NASA’s Mars Odyssey. Itconsists of the following:

— transceiver (transponder and interface digital baseband circuits);— diplexer, power divider and radio-frequency cables;— receive and transmit antenna integrated into the lander lid structure.

The data rates provided on the forward link (Mars Express to Beagle 2) are2 kbit s–1 and 8 kbit s–1. The return link data rates are 2-128 kbit s–1.

Under the UN COSPAR regulations for planetary protection, planetary landerscarrying life-detection instrumentation (designated as category 4B) are subject tosterilisation procedures, which have a major impact on probe design and assembly,integration and verification. In order to meet these requirements, the Beagle 2Planetary Protection Plan was implemented, ensuring that both the protection of themartian environment and the life-detection capabilities of Beagle 2 were notcompromised. The FM lander/capsule was assembled in an Aseptic Assembly Facility(Fig. 19). All components were sterilised and cleaned before integration. After landerintegration was completed, measures were taken to prevent any contamination duringtests and on the way to the launch pad.

The Beagle 2 mission can be divided into five phases:

— cruise and coast following deployment from Mars Express;— descent;— initial lander operations (status and integrity checkout);— primary (baseline) mission (landing to +180 sols);— extended mission, subject to additional funding becoming available (+180 to

+669 sols, i.e. martian year).

An operations team with varying levels of involvement will support all phases of

199

5. Flight Operations


SP-1240

the mission. Most operations will be conducted remotely from the UK via data links,with only a small team at ESOC for critical operations. Data will be released atintervals to the public via project-controlled web sites and the media centre,consistent with the ESA mission publicity and information plan.

Surface operations will be dictated by the ability to communicate with either MarsExpress or Mars Odyssey. The telecommunications system is designed to relay atleast 10 Mbits per day. Communication sessions are dictated by the landing site, MarsExpress orbit, availability of relays via the NASA Mars Odyssey mission, etc.

Beagle 2 remained passive for long periods of the cruise phase. At two intervalsduring cruise, the probe was checked out and the battery charged. The data andcommand interface with Mars Express allowed reprogramming of the onboardcommon electronics in Beagle 2, which will control the descent sequence, had itproved necessary to redefine the landing sequence time delays. Temperature andheater power for the Beagle 2 probe were monitored throughout the cruise phase.

The descent will be fully controlled by the processor within the commonelectronics. This will be powered up via a hardware timer ~60 min before atmosphereentry in order to avoid depleting the battery. The onboard processor will continue tocontrol Beagle 2 until the first communication session is held via either Mars Expressor a relay via Mars Odyssey.

The following operations, which will be initiated following release of the gas-filledlanding bags and impact with the surface, will be performed automatically:

— deploy solar panels;— start battery charging (for the remainder of the day);— obtain monochromatic image with right-hand stereo camera and WAM. WAM

will automatically be positioned in the field of view;— initiate overnight low-power mode if no contact occurs on sol 1;— continue low-power mode and daytime battery charging until communication

possible.

Following first contact and evaluation of the lander status, including analysis of thefirst image, the following operations will be commanded:

— deploy the PAW-ARM subsystem to a safe/default configuration;— begin the initial imaging phase. An early priority is to provide sufficient stereo

coverage of the PAW-ARM working zone for DEM construction.

Once the area within reach of the PAW-ARM has been modelled, the followingactivities dominate the rest of the primary phase of the mission:

— communication sessions;— accumulation of multispectral images of the landing site and atmosphere;— PAW-ARM activities, including target assessment, selection, in situ analysis,

surface preparation and sample acquisition;— extended sampling activities with the Mole;— gas analysis of samples acquired by the PAW or directly from the atmosphere;— battery charging.

To conserve power, ARM positioning and GAP processes will be performed duringthe day, whereas low-resource activities such as spectrometry and microscopy will bedone at night. Obviously there is some logical and/or priority order to some of theactivities listed above. Furthermore, much is dependent on what Beagle 2 is presentedwith at the landing site. It is estimated that an ideal (complete) sampling cycle willtake tens of sols. Assuming a baseline of 5-6 samples is available for analysis, theprimary mission will last ~80-100 sols plus additional time for early operations.Given these factors, a target primary mission lifetime of up to 180 sols is assumed.

200



The majority of an extended mission, if funded, will be devoted to atmosphericscience because it is expected that available solar power will be reduced by dustsettling on the solar panels and hence a low-power mode will be implemented. Thefollowing operations are expected during the extended mission:

— communication sessions;— occasional imaging of the landing site and lander targets to monitor for seasonal

and other changes;— repetition of atmospheric analyses, i.e. daily, seasonal and other changes;— in situ analysis of other rocks and soils;— additional sample analysis by GAP, if resources permit and ovens are available.

Three locations on Mars had been visited by landers before 2003. The Viking andPathfinder sites had in common their rock-strewn landscapes; at the Pathfinder site,coverage by fragments of ~3 cm was ~16% (Golombek et al., 1997). Size-frequencydata suggest that there should be three specimens larger than 10 cm m–2 of surface,one of which would be ~20 cm. Boulders like Pathfinder’s Yogi (> 1 m) occur at arate of one per 100 m2, so an individual rock of such proportions might be found 5-6 m from Beagle 2 at any landing locality similar to that of Viking or Pathfinder. Thesoil consistency on Mars is sandy and the presence of rounded pebbles in the AresVallis confirmed that water and wind had probably once modified the terrain (Smithet al., 1997). The Pathfinder location was specifically chosen because it was likely tohave been a flood region; the success of this prediction means that similar sites canreadily be selected for Beagle 2, especially given the availability of Mars GlobalSurveyor images to guide decisions.

The Beagle 2 team identified a number of sites that were considered to fit themission objectives and constraints (within ±35° of the martian equator and below thedatum). Candidate sites fell into three categories:

— craters in highland terrain with evidence of runoff channels around their margins,e.g. Gusev (15°S, 185°W), Becquerel (22°N, 8°W);

— regions near the highland/lowland boundary, e.g. Elysium basin (0-20°N, 170-210°W) and the margin of Amazonis (4°N, 150-151°W);

— previous landing sites: Viking-1 in Chryse Planitia (22.4°N, 48°W) andPathfinder in Ares Vallis (19.5°N, 32.8°W).

While all candidate sites, with the possible exception of the Viking-1 site, showevidence of flooding in the past and hence possible sedimentary deposits, thehighland region was discounted because of the incompatibility with the expected sizeof the landing ellipse (~250 x 30-50 km). Further work on site selection followedanalysis of data from Mars Global Surveyor, resulting in the identification of threesuitable regions: the Maja Vallis channel area in Chryse, Tritonis Lacus on the marginof the Elysium Plains, and Isidis Planitia.

6.1 Isidis PlanitiaThe landing site for Beagle 2 was eventually chosen as the area around 265.0°W and11.6°N within Isidis Planitia (Bridges et al., 2002). The site satisfies the safetyrequirements for landing (average slope of 0.57° and a low elevation, being more than3.6 km below the martian datum) and provides an environment with goodexobiological potential. The rock abundance is estimated at about 2-17% (mean 11%)and, in addition, Isidis shows evidence for the concentration and remobilisation ofvolatiles.

In a regional sense, the pattern observed in thermal inertia data suggests thatsedimentary materials have been added to the landing site area from the Noachianunits around the southern half of the basin. At the same time, a variation in the degree

201

6. Landing Site Selection


SP-1240

to which tuff cones have been eroded suggests that they formed intermittently over along period of time (within the Amazonian period, and possibly Hesperian as well).The whole area has also been resurfaced in relatively recent times by aeoliandeposition and/or erosion, which is highlighted by a deficit in impact craters largerthan 120 m diameter.

In conclusion, Isidis Planitia represents an opportunity for sampling a set ofmartian materials not previously encountered by other missions. These includeNoachian rocks from Libya Montes, rocks from below tuff cones (which might showevidence of geological activity involving CO2-H2O fluids) and rocks from some ofthe local impact craters (Bridges et al., 2002).

In addition to the instrument experimenters, the Beagle 2 project has set up a groupof adjunct scientists under the Chairmanship of the Associate Science Leader,Dr. A. Brack (Centre de Biophysique Moléculaire, Orleans, F). These investigators,who have no hardware role, work in a great variety of disciplines; their theoreticalinput and background laboratory experience will greatly enhance the interpretation ofthe returned data and contribute to the overall success of the mission.

Bada, J.L., Glavin, D.P., McDonald, G.D. & Becker, L. (1998). A Search forEndogenous Amino Acids in Martian Meteorite ALH 84001. Science 279, 362-365.

Baker, L., Franchi, I., Wright, I.P. & Pillinger, C.T. (1998). Oxygen Isotopes in Waterfrom Martian Meteorites. Meteoritics Planet. Sci. 33, A11-A12.

Becker, R.H. & Pepin, R.O (1984). The Case for a Martian Origin of the Shergottites:Nitrogen and Noble Gases in EET A79001. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 69, 225-242.

Bogard, D.D. & Johnson, P. (1983). Martian Gases in an Antarctic Meteorite. Science221, 631-634.

Bridges, J.C., Seabrook, A.M., Rothery, D.A., Kim, J.-R., Pillinger, C.T., Sims, M.R.,Golombek, M.P., Duxbury, T., Head, J.W., Muller, J-P., Moncrieff, C., Wright, I.P.,Mitchell, K.L., Grady, M.M. & Morley, J.G. (2002). Selection of the Landing Sitein Isidis planitia of Mars Probe Beagle 2. J. Geophys. Res. (in press).

Bullock, M.A., Stoker, C.R., McKay, C.P. & Zent, A.P. (1994). A Coupled Soil-Atmosphere Model H2O2 on Mars. Icarus 107, 142-154.

Burgess, R., Wright, I.P. & Pillinger, C.T. (1989). Distribution of Sulphides andOxidised Sulphur Components in SNC Meteorites. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 93, 314-320.

Carr, R.H., Grady, M.M, Wright, I.P. & Pillinger, C.T. (1985). Martian AtmosphericCarbon Dioxide and Weathering Products in SNC Meteorites. Nature 314, 248-250.

The ESA Exobiology Team (1999). Exobiology in the Solar System and The Searchfor Life on Mars. (Ed. A. Wilson). ESA SP-1231, ESA Publications Division,Noordwijk, The Netherlands.

Franchi, I.A., Wright, I.P., Sexton, A.S. & Pillinger, C.T. (1999). The Oxygen-IsotopicComposition of Earth and Mars. Meteoritics Planet. Sci. 34, 657-661.

Golombek, M.P., Cook, R.A., Economou, T., Folkner, W.M., Haldemann, A.F.C.,Kallemeyn, P.H., Knudsen, J.M., Manning, R.M., Moore, H.J., Parker, T.J.,Rieder, R., Schofield, J.T., Smith, P.H. & Vaughan, R.M. (1997). Overview of theMars Pathfinder Mission and Assessment of Landing Site Predictions. Science 278,1734-1748.

Gooding, J.L., Wentworth, S.J. & Zolensky, M.E. (1988). Calcium Carbonate andSulphate of Possible Extraterrestrial Origin in the EET A79001 Meteorite.Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 52, 909-915.

Gooding, J.L., Wentworth, S.J. & Zolensky, M.E. (1991). Aqueous Alteration of theNakhla Meteorite. Meteoritics 26, 135-143.

202

7. Scientific Analysis

References



Grady, M.M., Wright, I.P. & Pillinger, C.T. (1995). A Search for Nitrates in MartianMeteorites. J. Geophys. Res. 100, 5449-5455.

Harri, A.-M., Linkin, V., Pollko, J., Marov, M., Pommereau, J-P., Lipatov, A., Siili, T.,Manuilov, K., Lebedev, V., Lehto, A., Pellinen, R., Pirjola, R., Carpentier, T.,Malique, C., Makarov, V., Khloustova, L., Esposito, L., Maki, J., Lawrence, G. &Lystev, V. (1998). Meteorological Observations on Martian Surface: Met-Packagesof Mars-96 Small Stations and Penetrators. Planet. Space Sci. 46, 6/7, 779-793.

Harvey, R.P. & McSween, H.Y. (1996). A Possible High-Temperature Origin for theCarbonates in Martian Meteorite ALH 84001. Nature 382, 49-51.

Jull, A.J.T., Donahue, D.J., Swindle, T.D., Burkland, M.K., Herzog, G.F., Albrecht, A.,Klein, J. & Middleton, R. (1992). Isotopic Studies Relevant to the Origin of the‘White Druse’ Carbonates on EET A79001. Lunar Planet. Sci. XXIII, 641-642.

Karlsson, H.R., Clayton, R.N., Gibson, E.K. & Mayeda, T.K. (1992). Water in SNCMeteorites: Evidence for a Martian Hydrosphere. Science 255, 1409-1411.

Klingelhöfer, G. (1998). In-situ Analysis of Planetary Surfaces by MossbauerSpectroscopy. Hyperfine Interact. 113, 369-374.

Klingelhöfer, G., Fegley, B., Morris, R.V., Kankeleit, E., Held, P., Evlanov, E. & Prilout-skii, O. (1996). Mineralogical Analysis of Martian Soil and Rock by a MiniaturizedBackscattering Mossbauer Spectrometer. Planet. Space Sci. 44, 1277-1288.

Leshin, L.A., McKeegan, K.S., Carpenter, P.K. & Harvey, R.P. (1998). OxygenIsotopic Constraints on the Genesis of Carbonates from Martian Meteorite ALH84001. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 62, 3-13.

McDonald, G.D. & Bada, J.L. (1995). A Search for Endogenous Amino Acids in theMartian Meteorite EET A79001. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 59, 1179-1184.

McKay, D.S., Gibson, E.K., Thomas-Keprta, K.L., Vali, H., Romanek, C.S., Clemett, S.J.,Chillier, X.D.F., Maechling, C.R. & Zare, R.N. (1996). Search for Life on Mars:Possible Relic Biogenic Activity in Martian Meteorite ALH 84001. Science 273, 924-930.

McSween, H.Y. (1985). SNC Meteorites: Clues to Martian Petrologic Evolution? Rev.Geophysics 23, 391-416.

McSween, H.Y. (1994). What We Have Learned about Mars from SNC Meteorites.Meteoritics 29, 757-779.

Mittlefehldt, D.W. (1994). ALH 84001, a Cumulate Orthopyroxinite Member of theMartian Meteorite Clan. Meteoritics 29, 214-221.

Owen, T. (1992). The Composition and Early History for the Atmosphere of Mars. InMars (Eds. H.H. Kieffer, B.M. Jakosky, C.W. Sryder & M.S.Mathews), Universityof Arizona Press, Tuscon, 818-834.

Owen, T., Biemann, K., Rushneck, D.R., Buller, J.E., Howarth, D.W. & LaFleur, A.L(1997). The Compositon of the Atmosphere at the Surface of Mars. J. Geophys.Res. 82, 4635-4639.

Pepin, R.O. (1985). Evidence of Martian Origins. Nature 317, 473-475.Re, E., Kochan, H., Magnani, P.G. & Ylikorpi, T. (1997). Small Sample Acquisition/

Distribution Tool (SSA/DT). Final Report ESTEC Co. No. 11485/95 NL PP(SC),Milano.

Rieder, R., Economou, T., Wänke, H., Turkevich, A., Crisp, J., Brückner, J., Dreibus, G.& McSween, H.Y. (1997). The Chemical Composition of Martian Soil and RocksReturned by the Mobile Alpha Proton X-ray Spectrometer: Preliminary Resultsfrom the X-ray Mode. Science 278, 1771-1774.

Romanek, C.S., Grady, M.M., Wright, I.P., Mittlefehldt, D.W., Socki, R.A., Pillin-ger, C.T. & Gibson, E.K. (1994). Record of Fluid-Rock Interactions on Mars fromthe Meteorite ALH 84001. Nature 372, 655-657.

Ryan, J. A. & Lucich, R. D. (1983). Possible Dust Devil Vortices on Mars. J. Geo-phys. Res. 88, 11005-11011.

Saxton, J.M., Lyon, I.C. & Turner, E. (1998). Correlated Chemical and IsotopicZoning in Carbonates in the Martian Meteorite ALH84001. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.160, 811-822.

203


SP-1240

Schidlowski, M. (1997). Application of Stable Carbon Isotopes to Early BiochemicalEvolution on Earth. Ann. Rev. Earth and Planet. Sci. 15, 47-72.

Smith, P.H., Bell, J.F., Bridges, N.T., Britt, D.T., Gaddis, L., Greeley, R., Keller, H.U.,Herkenhoff, K.E., Jaumann, R., Johnson, J.R., Kirk, R.L., Lemmon, M., Maki, J.N.,Malin, M.C., Murchie, S.L., Oberst, J., Parker, T.J., Reid, R.J., Sablotny, R.,Soderblom, L.A., Stoker, C., Sullivan, R., Thomas, N., Tomasko, M.G., Ward, W. &Wegryn, E. (1997). Results from the Mars Pathfinder Camera. Science 278, 1758-1765.

Stoker, C.R. & Bullock, M.A. (1997). Organic Degradation under Simulated MartianConditions. J. Geophysical Res. 102, 10881-10888.

Tuzzolino, A.J. (1995). Applications of PVDF Dust Sensor Systems in Space in-situImpact Detection Techniques, Interplanetary Dust, and Future Mars Exploration.Adv. Space Res. 17 (12): 123-132.

Valley, J., Eiler, J.M., Graham, C.M., Gibson, E.K., Romanek, C.S. & Stolper, E.M.(1997). Low-Temperature Carbonate Concentrations in the Martian MeteoriteALH 84001: Evidence from Stable Isotopes and Mineralogy. Science 275, 1633-1638.

Wiens, R.C., Becker, R.H. & Pepin, R.O. (1986). The Case for a Martian Origin ofthe Shergottites. II Trapped and Indigenous Gas Gomponents in EET A79001Glass. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 77, 149-158.

Wood, C.A. & Ashwal, C.D. (1981). SNC Meteorites: Igneous Rocks from Mars? InProc. Lunar Planet. Sci. Conf., 12th, 1359-1375.

Wright, I.P., Grady, M.M. & Pillinger, C.T. (1988). Carbon, Oxygen and NitrogenIsotopic Compositions of Possible Martian Weathering Products in EET A79001.Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 52, 917-924.

Wright, I.P., Grady, M.M. & Pillinger, C.T. (1989). Organic Materials in a MartianMeteorite. Nature 340, 220-222.

Wright, I.P., Grady, M.M. & Pillinger, C.T. (1992). Chassigny and the Nakhlites:Carbon-bearing Components and their Relationship to Martian EnvironmentalConditions. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 56, 817-826.

Wright, I.P., Grady, M.M. & Pillinger, C.T. (1997a). Evidence Relevant to the Life onMars Debate. (1) 14C Results. Lunar Planet. Sci. XXVIII, 1585-1586.

Wright, I.P., Grady, M.M. & Pillinger, C.T. (1997b). Evidence Relevant to the Life onMars Debate (2) Amino Acid Results. Lunar Planet. Sci. XXVII, 1587-1588.

Wright, I.P. & Pillinger, C.T. (1998a). Modulus – An Experiment to Measure PreciseStable Isotope Ratios on Cometary Materials. Adv. Space Res. 21, 1537-1545.

Wright, I.P. & Pillinger, C.T. (1998b). Mars, Modulus and MAGIC. The Measurementof Stable Isotopic Compositions at a Planetary Surface. Planet. Space Sci. 46, 813-823.

Zent, A.P. & McKay, C.P. (1994). The Chemical Reactivity of the Martian Soil andImplications for Future Missions. Icarus 108, 146-157.

AcknowledgementsThe Beagle 2 consortium has a large industrial component concerned with theengineering aspects of the programme; we gratefully acknowledge the involvement ofeveryone in the team. In addition, the authors would like to express their gratitude tothe European Space Agency (ESA), the UK Particle Physics and Astronomy ResearchCouncil (PPARC), EADS Astrium, the Wellcome Trust and the British National SpaceCentre (BNSC).

204


US PARTICIPATION

Morrison.qxd 7/7/04 3:04 PM Page 205

This paper describes US participation in the Mars Express mission, in whichNASA is a supporting partner.

In December 1997, ESA issued an Announcement of Opportunity for experiments tobe included in the Mars Express mission. Mars Express is flying refurbishedEuropean instruments developed for the Russian-led Mars-96 mission, plus anadvanced radar sounder capable of characterising the martian subsurface to a depth ofseveral kilometres. US scientists who had been appointed Mars-96 ParticipatingScientists by NASA were invited to propose as instrument Co-Investigators (Co-Is).NASA and the Italian Space Agency (ASI) submitted a joint experiment proposal forthe subsurface sounder: the Mars Advanced Radar for Subsurface and IonosphereSounding (MARSIS).

NASA Headquarters was represented in the ESA selection process. Eleven USproposers were selected by ESA as instrument Co-Is. The selected investigatorssubsequently submitted proposals and proposed budgets to NASA and wereappointed by NASA. The NASA/ASI MARSIS sounder was selected over acompeting proposal prepared by a German-led consortium. J. Plaut, of the JetPropulsion Laboratory (JPL), is the MARSIS Co-Principal Investigator (Co-PI) andW.T.K. Johnson was named as Instrument Manager. NASA is also funding hardwaredevelopment, data reduction and archiving tasks for the Analyser of Space Plasmaand Energetic Atoms (ASPERA-3) instrument via the agency’s Discovery Mission ofOpportunity. Two of ASPERA-3’s four data-gathering sensors, the ElectronSpectrometer and the Ion Mass Analyser, were built by the Southwest ResearchInstitute (SwRI).

Table 1 lists the Mars Express experiments and their US Investigators. Table 2 liststhe key US personnel.

US participation primarily consists of the Mars Express/NASA Project, managed byJPL. The contribution to ASPERA-3 is supported by the Discovery Program,managed by the NASA Management Office, also located in Pasadena.

2.1 Mars Express/NASA ProjectThe structure of the Mars Express/NASA Project is shown in Fig. 1. It includes theUS role in MARSIS, support for the US investigators and a Telecommunications andInteroperability Task to study communications between elements of Mars Expressand US assets at Mars. In addition, the Deep Space Network (DSN) will providetracking support.

207

US Participation in Mars Express

A.D. Morrison1, T.W. Thompson1, R.L. Horttor1, C.H. Acton1, Jr., S. Butman1, J.K. Campbell1, P.L. Jepsen1,W.T.K. Johnson1, J.D. Winningham2, J.J. Plaut1 & A. Vaisnys1

1Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove, Pasadena, CA 91109, USAEmail: [email protected]

2Southwest Research Institute, 6220 Culebra Road, San Antonio, TX 78228, USA

1. Introduction

2. US Participation


SP-1240

208

Table 1. US participation in Mars Express instruments.

Country Instrument PI US Hardware US Co-Is

I/US MARSIS G. Picardi, Univ. of Rome W.T.K. Johnson, JPL/ J. Plaut, JPLCo-PI, J.J. Plaut D. Gurnett, Univ. of Iowa D. Gurnett, Univ. of Iowa

RF subsystems and E. Stofan, Proxemy Research IncSounder antenna

I PFS V. Formisano, Instituto Fisica S. Atreya, Univ of MichiganSpazio Interplanetario

D HRSC C.G. Neukum, M. Carr, USGSDLR Institut für R. Kirk, US Geological Survey Planetenerjundung T. Duxbury, JPL

R. Greeley, Univ. of ArizonaJ. Head, Brown Univ.T. McCord, Univ. of HawaiiS. Squyres, Cornell Univ.

D MaRS M. Paetzold, Univ. of Cologne L. Tyler, Stanford Univ.

F SPICAM J.L. Bertaux, Service d’Aéronomie, W. Sandel, Univ. of ArizonaVerrières-le-Buisson A. Stern, SwRI

F OMEGA J.P. Bibring, Institut d’AstrophysiqueSpatiale

S ASPERA-3 R. Lundin, Swedish Institute D. Winningham, SwRI C. Curtis, Univ. of Arizonaof Space Physics Electron Spectrometer K.C. Hsieh, Univ. of Arizona

and portions of J. Kozyra, Univ. of Michiganthe Ion Mass Analyser J. Luhmann, Univ. of California

E. Roelof, Johns Hopkins Univ.B. Sandel, Univ. of ArizonaJ. Sharber, SwRIR. Frahm, SwRID. Williams, Johns Hopkins Univ.

UK Beagle 2 C. Pillinger, Open Univ. M. Sinha, JPL

Table 2. Key US Mars Express personnel.

Mars Express/NASA Project Manager: Richard L. Horttor ([email protected])

Mars Express/NASA Project Science Manager: Thomas W. Thompson ([email protected])

MARSIS Instrument Manager: William T.K. Johnson ([email protected])

Mars Express/NASA Project Telecommunications and Interoperability Task Manager: Stanley A. Butman ([email protected])

MARSIS Co-PI: Jeffrey J. Plaut ([email protected])

ASPERA-3 ELS PI: J. David Winningham ([email protected])

Discovery Program Manager: John B. McNamee ([email protected])

NASA Headquarters Program Executive: David Lavery ([email protected])

NASA Headquarters Program Scientist: Catherine Weitz ([email protected])


us participation

Specific goals of the Mars Express/NASA Project are:

— to support the science objectives of HRSC (High Resolution Stereo Camera),OMEGA (IR mapping spectrometer), MaRS (Mars Radio Science), PFS(Planetary Fourier Spectrometer), SPICAM (UV atmospheric spectrometer),ASPERA-3 and MARSIS instruments by providing US Co-I support;

— to provide information and advice on navigation and mission operations thatcould be used by Mars Express;

— to provide the Radio Frequency (RF) subsystem for MARSIS, including theintegrated transmitter, antenna and receiver;

— to plan for relaying communications to and from Beagle-2 and any potentialEuropean 2005 landers using NASA and ESA orbital assets;

— to coordinate US planning inputs to Mars Express orbiter observations and securesupport from JPL’s Telecommunications and Mission Operations Directorate fortracking and navigation support for Mars orbit insertion;

— to archive a copy of the science investigation data in a Planetary Data System(PDS)-compatible format, as specified in the international agreements;

— to support the HRSC investigation with adaptation of NASA/JPL imageprocessing software;

— to deploy the Spacecraft, Planet, Instrument, C-matrix, Events (SPICE) ancillaryinformation system.

The Mars Express/NASA Project completed the transition from Phase-B (Planning)into Phase-C/D (Implementation) in September 2000. Launch initiated missionoperations.

2.2 MARSISThe MARSIS Program is funded by both NASA and ASI. ASI maintains the scienceleadership through the Principal Investigator (PI), Giovanni Picardi of the INFOCOMDepartment of the University of Rome, while NASA maintains the instrumentleadership through JPL. The US MARSIS Team provided the antennas and thereceiver and transmitter subsystems; Alenia Spazio, Rome had responsibility for thedigital subsystem and instrument integration and test, under direction of the JPLInstrument Manager. The Co-PI serves as the lead scientist for the NASA side of thejoint experiment.

The University of Iowa, under contract to JPL, constructed the antenna subsystem,

209

Fig. 1. The structure of the MarsExpress/NASA Project.


SP-1240

working with their subcontractor, TRW-Astro, Inc., of Carpenteria, CA. TheUniversity of Iowa, under contract to JPL, built the transmitter subsystem; JPL builtthe receiver subsystem. JPL integrated the antenna, transmitter and receiversubsystems into a single RF subsystem that was delivered to Alenia Spazio, whointegrated it with their digital electronic system and delivered an integrated MARSISinstrument to ESA (Astrium) for mating to the spacecraft.

2.3 Science Support Task The Science Support Task (SST) comprises three Sub-Tasks: the Co-I Sub-Task, theHRSC-Multimission Image Processing Laboratory (MIPL) Sub-Task, the Navigationand Ancillary Information Facility (NAIF)-SPICE Sub-Task and several ancillaryactivities, including possible US navigation contributions to the mission.

The Co-I support activity funds and manages the Co-PI and Co-Is. With theexception of OMEGA, all Orbiter instruments have one or more US Co-Is. The SSTwill support OMEGA Co-Is, once selected. The MARSIS Co-PI is also supported bythe SST.

US Co-Investigators will provide instrument calibration, data validation and dataarchiving support to their respective Instrument PIs and Teams to help ensure that thedata products meet the objectives of the mission. Co-Investigators are expected topublish the results of their scientific analysis and provide their data products to thePDS. Interdisciplinary and Participating Scientists, when selected, will also besupported by the Co-I support activity.

The Co-I activity also supports obtaining DSN tracking and data communicationthrough Mars Express Project Service Level Agreements (PSLAs), approved Lettersof Agreement (LOAs) and Memoranda of Understanding (MOUs), allowing technicalexchange between the US Co-Is and their European colleagues and JPL navigationsupport to the mission.

The HRSC/MIPL telemetry software development activity is similar to that forMars-96. The basic HRSC instrument is the same except that the wide-angle camerawas deleted and a Super-Resolution Channel (SRC) added. With those exceptions, theinstrument formats are the same, including the data compression. The spacecraft iscompletely different, as are the telemetry systems.

MIPL developed the HRSC telemetry processing software. This will convert theHRSC data as they are received in Berlin (D) from ESA into a format compatible withexisting image processing software for further processing. The telemetry processingincludes a telemetry processor and data-merge and decompression programs.

After using the telemetry processor on its data, DLR will distribute this processedimagery daily to its Co-Is, so that the US HRSC Co-Is can support Mars Expressmission operations, as well as meet their individual commitments as described in theirproposals. As part of this distribution activity, MIPL will receive these processed dataelectronically on behalf of the HRSC Co-Is and then distribute them directly to theUS Co-Is.

MIPL will maintain approximately 60 days of the most current HRSC MarsExpress data online, with the remainder held in an offline store. The data will beprovided to the US HRSC Co-Is automatically through a subscription service or on arequest basis. They will have access to the data in level 1 or 2 format, such as thedecompressed version of the level 0 image product, or the radiometrically correctedversion of level 1. The radiometric correction software and calibration files will beprovided to MIPL by DLR.

MIPL will also develop PDS generation and validation software to convert theHRSC processed imagery into a PDS-compatible format. DLR will then use thissoftware to place its HRSC data on archive volumes for delivery to the PDS imagingnode at JPL. There will also be sustaining support for the JPL-developed software forthe first 6 months after orbital insertion.

NASA’s SPICE system was conceived to provide planetary scientists with astandard, flexible and proven method of obtaining and properly using the suite of

210


us participation

ancillary and engineering data needed for conceptualising and evaluating missiondesigns, planning scientific observations, analysing scientific data and comparingresults obtained from multiple instruments and multiple spacecraft. To this end,SPICE is used – or being adapted for use – on all NASA planetary missions, includingthe full suite of JPL’s Mars Exploration Program missions. NASA’s SPICE systemwill be deployed to support the US Co-Is, the HRSC team operations, and the otherinstrument teams as interested. SPICE was developed and is maintained by JPL’sNAIF.

In particular, JPL provided the SPICE Tool Kit software and documentation toESTEC and Mars Express PI and Co-I teams and team members who will be involvedin producing and using SPICE data components. The latest versions were delivered inNovember 2000, June 2001 and June 2002. In conducting its work, the SPICE Sub-Task is striving to achieve as much commonality as possible with the use of SPICEby NASA Mars missions.

2.4 Relay communications and tracking interoperabilityAnother ESA-NASA area of cooperation involves tracking and telecommunicationinteroperability. NASA is supporting efforts to establish and demonstrate communica-tions and tracking interoperability between the various orbiting and landing elementsof NASA and ESA. Starting with the Mars 2001 Orbiter and the 2003 Landers, NASAplans to launch a series of orbiting and landing/roving elements, with the eventualgoal of returning rock and soil samples to Earth. With all these assets, including MarsExpress, in Mars orbit and on the surface, it is desirable to provide communicationand navigation cross-support between the NASA and ESA elements. This supportmay be highly desirable during certain critical mission events such as orbit insertionor landing. Fig. 2 shows the potential combinations of cross-support at Mars for MarsExpress and other elements in the 2001-2005 time frame.

Achieving interoperability requires several steps:

— determine the interface characteristics of each pair of elements;— if compatible, proceed to write the Interface Control Documents (ICDs);— if not compatible, propose design changes to one or both elements;— write ICD to define interface to be tested;

211

Fig. 2. Mars telecommunicationsinteroperability.


SP-1240

— write test plan and schedule test;— perform interface test and document results.

2.5 Navigation and orbit insertionWhen the Mars Express spacecraft arrives at Mars, it will deliver the Beagle-2 landerand brake into an elliptical orbit about the planet. Achieving the operational orbitmight involve aerobraking. Coordination between the ESA/ESOC Flight DynamicsDivision and the NASA/JPL Navigation Section will improve understanding of themission constraints and risks. This follows the path pioneered by previous joint ESA-NASA missions such as Giotto, Ulysses and Mars Pathfinder. Comparison ofnavigation results from techniques and procedures developed by each agency is theprimary objective of a series of workshops starting in September 2000 on navigationcollaboration for Mars Express.

2.6 The Discovery Program and ASPERA-3NASA’s Discovery Program is supporting ASPERA-3 as a Discovery Mission ofOpportunity, which is not a complete Discovery Mission but rather a portion of alarger mission. In this case, it gives the US scientific community the chance toparticipate in a mission of a non-US government agency. For ASPERA-3, theDiscovery Program is funding both hardware development and data reduction, andthe PDS archiving tasks being performed by the SwRI.

The Swedish Institute of Space Physics headed the development of ASPERA-3.The instrument has four sensors, along with the data processing unit and the scanningplatform. Two of the sensors, the Electron Spectrometer (ELS) and the Ion MassAnalyser (IMA), are funded by NASA as a Discovery Mission of Opportunity. ELSand IMA were built by SwRI, led by D. Winningham as PI and J. Scherrer as ProjectManager. The instrument was built by an international team of 15 groups from 10countries.

ASPERA-3’s scientific objectives are to study the interaction between the solarwind and the atmosphere of Mars and to characterise the plasma and neutral gasenvironment in near-Mars space. It uses Energetic Neutral Atom (ENA) imaging tovisualise the charged and neutral gas environments around Mars. ASPERA-3 willmake the first ever ENA measurements at another planet. These studies will addressthe fundamental question of how strongly interplanetary plasma and electromagneticfields affect the martian atmosphere, which is directly related to the many questionsabout water on Mars.

AcknowledgementThe work described in this paper was performed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory,California Institute of Technology, under a contract with the National Aeronautics andSpace Administration.

212


ACRONYMS &ABBREVIATIONS

acronyms.qxd 7/7/04 3:03 PM Page 213

AAF Aseptic Assembly Facility (Beagle 2)ADU analogue to digital conversion unitAIV assembly, integration and verificationAO Announcement of OpportunityAOTF acousto-optical tunable filter APS Auxiliary Power SupplyAPXS Alpha Proton X-ray Spectrometer (NASA Mars

Pathfinder)ARM Anthropomorphic Robot Manipulator (Beagle 2)ASI Italian space agencyASIC Application Specific Integrated CircuitASPERA Analyser of Space Plasma and Energetic Atoms

(Mars Express)AU Astronomical Unit

BEE Back End ElectronicsBEEST Back End Electronics Stack (Beagle 2)BL bootstrap loader

CCD Charge Coupled DeviceCCH Common Camera HeadCDPU Command & Data Processing UnitCNES Centre National d’Etudes SpatialesCNR Consiglio Nazionale della Ricercha (Italy)CNRS Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique

(France)CMOS Complementary Metal Oxide SemiconductorCo-I Co-InvestigatorCOSPAR UN Committee on Space ResearchCSW common softwareCT Calibration Target (the Damien Hirst ‘spot’ painting

on Beagle 2)CUL close-up lens

DCT Discrete Cosine TransformDEM Digital Elevation ModelDES Digital Electronic SubsystemDESPA Observatoire de Paris, Département de Recherches

Spatiales (France)DHA Detector Head AssemblyDLR Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und RaumfahrtDM Development ModelDN Data Number (pixel intensity on scale of 0-255)DSN Deep Space Network (DSN)DTM Digital Terrain Model; data-transmission modeDVD digital versatile disk

EDLS Entry, Descent and Landing SystemEEPROM electrically erasable programmable read-only

memoryEGSE electrical ground support equipmentELS Electron Spectrometer (ASPERA)ELM Electronics ModuleENA Energetic Neutral Atom (ASPERA)EPROM erasable programmable read-only memory

215

EQM Electrical Qualification ModelESA European Space Agency; electrostatic analyserESAC European Space Astronomy Centre, Villafranca

(Spain)ESOC European Space Operations Centre, Darmstadt

(Germany)ESS Environmental Sensor SuiteESTEC European Space Research and Technology Centre,

Noordwijk (The Netherlands)ETM Electrical Test ModelEUV extreme ultravioletEW equivalent width

FFT Fast Fourier TransformFIR far-infraredFM flight modelFOV field of viewFPGA field programmable gate arrayFUV far-ultravioletFW(A) filter wheel (assembly)FWHM full width at half maximum

GaAs gallium arsenideGAP Gas Analysis Package (Beagle 2)GCM general circulation modelGC-MS gas chromatograph-mass spectrometerGDS global dust stormGTM Ground Test Model

HK housekeepingHRSC High Resolution Stereo Camera (Mars Express)

IAS Institut d’Astrophysique Spatiale, Orsay (France)ICA Ion Composition Analyser (Rosetta)ICD Interface Control DocumentIDS Interdisciplinary ScientistIF Improvement FactorIFMS Intermediate Frequency and Modem SystemIFSI Istituto di Fisica dello Spazio Interplanetario (Italy)IKI Institute for Space Research (Russia)IFOV instantaneous field of viewIMA Ion Mass Analyser (ASPERA)IMEWG International Mars Exploration Working GroupIMI Ion Mass Imager (Nozomi)IMIS Ion-Mass Imaging Spectrometer (Mars-96)IMP Imager for PathfinderIR infraredISM imaging spectrometer (Phobos mission)ISO Infrared Space Observatory (ESA)

JPL Jet Propulsion Laboratory (NASA)

LEC local common electronics


LCP left-hand circular polarisationLOA Letter of AgreementLOC Lander Operations CentreLOS line of sightLSW Lander Software (Beagle 2)LTE local thermodynamic equilibriumLUT look-up tableLW long wavelength

MaRS Mars Radio Science (Mars Express)MARSIS Mars Advanced Radar for Subsurface and

Ionosphere Sounding (Mars Express)MBS Mössbauer Spectrometer (Beagle 2)MCA Multi-Channel Analyser (Beagle 2)MCO Mars Climate Orbiter (NASA)MCP micro-channel plateMEDUSA Miniaturized Electrostatic DUal-top-hat Spherical

AnalyzerMEE Micro-End Effector (Beagle 2)MELACOM Mars Express Lander Communications subsystemsMEP Mars Exploration Program (NASA)MGS Mars Global Surveyor (NASA)MGSE mechanical ground support equipmentMIC microscopeMIPL Multimission Image Processing Laboratory (JPL)MLI multi-layer insulationMOC Mission Operations Centre; Mars Observer CameraMOCAD Monolithic Octal Charge Amplifier/Pulse

DiscriminatorMOLA Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MGS)MOU Memorandum of UnderstandingMPF Mars Pathfinder (NASA)MSM Mass Stiffness ModelMSP Master Science PlanMsps Megasamples per second

NAIF Navigation and Ancillary Information Facility (JPL)NEB noise equivalent brightnessNPD Neutral Particle Detector (ASPERA)NPI Neutral Particle Imager (ASPERA)

OBDM onboard data managementOMEGA Observatoire pour la Minéralogie, l’Eau, les Glaces

et l’Activitié (Mars Express)

PAW Position Adjustable Workbench (Beagle 2)PDS Planetary Data SystemPFM Proto Flight ModelPFS Planetary Fourier Spectrometer (Mars Express)PG Pattern GeneratorPLUTO Planetary Underground Tool (Beagle 2)POS Payload Operations ServicePPS Payload Power Supply (Beagle 2)PRF Pulse Repetition FrequencyPROM programmable read-only memory

216

PSA Planetary Science Data ArchivePSLA Project Service Level AgreementsPSSL Planetary Science Sample LibraryPST Project Scientist TeamPSW Probe Software (Beagle 2)px pixel

QM Qualification Model

RCL Recognised Cooperating LaboratoryRCG Rock Corer Grinder (Beagle 2)RCP right-hand circular polarisationRFS Radio Frequency Subsystemrms root mean square

SCS Stereo Camera System (Beagle 2)SHADS Sample Handling and Distribution System

(Beagle 2)S/N signal-to-noise ratioSNC Shergottite-Nakhilite-Chassignite meteoriteSOWG Science Operations Working GroupSPICAM Spectroscopy for the Investigation of the

Characteristics of the Atmosphere of Mars (MarsExpress)

SPICE Spacecraft, Planet, Instrument, C-matrix, Eventssystem

SRC Super-Resolution Channel (HRSC)SST Science Support TaskSUEM Spin-Up and Eject Mechanism (Beagle 2)SW short wavelengthSWIR short wavelength infraredSWS Short Wavelength Spectrometer (ISO)

TCS Thermal Control SystemTES Thermal Emission Spectrometer (Mars Global

Surveyor)TGCM thermospheric general circulation modelTICS Three-dimensional Ion Composition Spectrometer

(Freja)TMOD Telecommunications and Mission Operations

Directorate (JPL)TOF time-of-flightTT Translation Table (Beagle 2)TTL transistor-transistor logicTWTA travelling wave tube amplifier

VMC Visual Monitoring CameraVNIR visible & near-infrared

WAM Wide Angle Mirror (Beagle 2)

XRS X-Ray Spectrometer (Beagle 2)


MarsFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Mars (planet))Jump to: navigation, search

This article is about the planet. For other uses, see Mars (disambiguation).

Mars

Mars as seen by the Hubble Space Telescope

Designations

Adjective Martian

Orbital characteristics[1]

Epoch J2000

Aphelion249 209 300 km1.665 861 AU

Perihelion206 669 000 km1.381 497 AU

Semi-major axis227 939 100 km1.523 679 AU

Eccentricity 0.093 315

Orbital period

686.971 day

1.8808 Julian years

668.5991 sols

Synodic period779.96 day2.135 Julian years

Average orbital speed 24.077 km/s

Inclination1.850°5.65° to Sun's Equator

Longitude of ascending node

49.562°

Argument of perihelion 286.537°

Satellites 2

Physical characteristics

Equatorial radius3 396.2 ± 0.1 km[a][2]

0.533 Earths

Polar radius3 376.2 ± 0.1 km[a][2]

0.531 Earths

Flattening 0.005 89 ± 0.000 15

Surface area144 798 500 km²0.284 Earths

Volume1.6318×1011 km³0.151 Earths

Mass6.4185×1023 kg0.107 Earths

Mean density 3.934 g/cm³

Equatorial surface gravity

3.69 m/s²0.376 g

Escape velocity 5.027 km/s

Sidereal rotationperiod

1.025 957 day24.622 96 h[3]

Equatorial rotation velocity

868.22 km/h

Axial tilt 25.19°

North pole right ascension

21 h 10 min 44 s317.681 43°

North pole declination 52.886 50°

Albedo 0.15[4]

Surface temp. Kelvin Celsius

min mean max186 K 227 K 268 K[3]

−87 °C−46 °C −5 °C

Apparent magnitude +1.8 to −2.91[4]

Angular diameter 3.5—25.1"[4]

Atmosphere

Surface pressure 0.7–0.9 kPa

Composition 95.72% Carbon dioxide

2.7% Nitrogen1.6% Argon0.2% Oxygen0.07% Carbon monoxide0.03% Water vapor0.01% Nitric oxide2.5 ppm Neon300 ppb Krypton130 ppb Formaldehyde80 ppb Xenon30 ppb Ozone

10 ppb Methane

Mars (pronounced /ˈmɑrz/) is the fourth planet from the Sun in the Solar System. The planet is named after Mars, the Roman god of war. It is also referred to as the "Red Planet" because of its reddish appearance. This reddish appearance is due to iron oxide.

Mars is a terrestrial planet with a thin atmosphere, having surface features reminiscent both of the impact craters of the Moon and the volcanoes, valleys, deserts and polar ice caps of Earth. It is the site of Olympus Mons, the highest known mountain in the Solar System, and of Valles Marineris, the largest canyon. Furthermore, in June 2008 three articles published in Nature presented evidence of an enormous impact crater in Mars' northern hemisphere, 10 600 km long by 8 500 km wide, or roughly four times larger than the largest impact crater yet discovered, the South Pole-Aitken basin.[5][6] In addition to its geographical features, Mars’ rotational period and seasonal cycles are likewise similar to those of Earth.

Until the first flyby of Mars by Mariner 4 in 1965, many speculated that there might be liquid water on the planet's surface. This was based on observations of periodic variations in light and dark patches, particularly in the polar latitudes, which looked like seas and continents, while long, dark striations were interpreted by some observers as irrigation channels for liquid water. These straight line features were later proven not to exist and were instead explained as optical illusions. Still, of all the planets in the Solar System other than Earth, Mars is the most likely to harbor liquid water, and perhaps life.[7] Water, in the state of ice, was found by the Phoenix Mars Lander on July 31, 2008.[8]

Mars is currently host to three functional orbiting spacecraft: Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, and the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. With the exception of Earth, this is more than any planet in the Solar System. The surface is also home to the two Mars Exploration Rovers (Spirit and Opportunity) and several inert landers and rovers, both successful and unsuccessful. The Phoenix lander recently completed its mission on the surface. Geological evidence gathered by these and preceding missions suggests that Mars previously had large-scale water coverage, while observations also indicate that small geyser-like water flows have occurred during the past decade.[9] Observations by

NASA's Mars Global Surveyor show evidence that parts of the southern polar ice cap have been receding.[10]

Mars has two moons, Phobos and Deimos, which are small and irregularly shaped. These may be captured asteroids, similar to 5261 Eureka, a Martian Trojan asteroid. Mars can be seen from Earth with the naked eye. Its apparent magnitude reaches −2.9,[4] a brightness surpassed only by Venus, the Moon, and the Sun, though most of the timeJupiter will appear brighter to the naked eye than Mars.

Physical characteristics

Size comparison of terrestrial planets (left to right): Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.

Mars has approximately half the radius of Earth. It is less dense than Earth, having about 15% of Earth's volume and 11% of the mass. Its surface area is only slightly less than the total area of Earth's dry land.[4] While Mars is larger and more massive than Mercury, Mercury has a higher density. This results in a slightly stronger gravitational force at Mercury's surface. Mars is also roughly intermediate in size, mass, and surface gravity between Earth and Earth's Moon (the Moon is about half the diameter of Mars, whereas Earth is twice; the Earth is about ten times more massive than Mars, and the Moon ten times less massive). The red-orange appearance of the Martian surface is caused by iron(III) oxide, more commonly known as hematite, or rust.[11]

Geology

Volcanic plateaus (red) and impact basins (blue) dominate this topographic map of Mars.

Rock strewn surface imaged by Mars PathfinderMain article: Geology of Mars

Based on orbital observations and the examination of the Martian meteorite collection, the surface of Mars appears to be composed primarily of basalt. Some evidence suggests that a portion of the Martian surface is more silica-rich than typical basalt, and may be similar to andesitic rocks on Earth; however, these observations may also be explained by silica glass. Much of the surface is deeply covered by a fine iron(III) oxide dust that has the consistency of talcum powder.[citation needed]

Although Mars has no intrinsic magnetic field, observations show that parts of the planet's crust have been magnetized and that alternating polarity reversals of its dipole field have occurred. This paleomagnetism of magnetically susceptible minerals has properties that are very similar to the alternating bands found on the ocean floors of Earth. One theory, published in 1999 and re-examined in October 2005 (with the help of the Mars Global Surveyor), is that these bands demonstrate plate tectonics on Mars 4 billion years ago, before the planetary dynamo ceased to function and caused the planet's magnetic field to fade away.[12]

Current models of the planet's interior imply a core region about 1,480 kilometres in radius, consisting primarily of iron with about 14–17% sulfur. This iron sulfide core is partially fluid, and has twice the concentration of the lighter elements than exist at Earth's core. The core is surrounded by a silicate mantle that formed many of the tectonic and volcanic features on the planet, but now appears to be inactive. The average thickness of the planet's crust is about 50 km, with a maximum thickness of 125 km.[13] Earth's crust, averaging 40 km, is only a third as thick as Mars’ crust relative to the sizes of the two planets.

The geological history of Mars can be split into many epochs, but the following are the three main ones:

Noachian epoch (named after Noachis Terra): Formation of the oldest extant surfaces of Mars, 3.8 billion years ago to 3.5 billion years ago. Noachian age surfaces are scarred by many large impact craters. The Tharsis bulge volcanic

upland is thought to have formed during this period, with extensive flooding by liquid water late in the epoch.

Hesperian epoch (named after Hesperia Planum): 3.5 billion years ago to 1.8 billion years ago. The Hesperian epoch is marked by the formation of extensive lava plains.

Amazonian epoch (named after Amazonis Planitia): 1.8 billion years ago to present. Amazonian regions have few meteorite impact craters but are otherwise quite varied. Olympus Mons formed during this period along with lava flows elsewhere on Mars.

A major geological event occurred on Mars on February 19, 2008, and was caught on camera by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. Images capturing a spectacular avalanche of materials thought to be fine grained ice, dust, and large blocks are shown to have detached from a 700-meter high cliff. Evidence of the avalanche is present in the dust clouds left above the cliff afterwards.[14]

Recent studies support a theory, first proposed in the 1980s, that Mars was struck by aPluto-sized meteor about four billion years ago. The event, thought to be the cause of the Martian hemispheric dichotomy, created the smooth Borealis basin that covers 40% of the planet.[15][16]

Soil

In June, 2008, the Phoenix Lander returned data showing Martian soil to be slightly alkaline and containing vital nutrients such as magnesium, sodium, potassium and chloride, all of which are necessary for living things to grow. Scientists compared the soil near Mars' north pole to that of backyard gardens on Earth, saying it could be suitable for plants such as asparagus.[17] However, in August, 2008, the Phoenix Lander conducted simple chemistry experiments, mixing water from Earth with Martian soil in an attempt to test its pH, and discovered traces of the salt perchlorate. Its presence, if confirmed, would appear to make the soil more exotic than previously believed.[18] Further testing is necessary to eliminate any possibility of the perchlorate readings being influenced by terrestrial sources which may have migrated from the spacecraft, either into samples or into the instrumentation.[19]

Hydrology

Photo of microscopic rock forms indicating past signs of water, taken by Opportunity

Liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars with its present low atmospheric pressure, except at the lowest elevations for short periods[20][21] but water ice is in no short supply, with two polar ice caps made largely of ice.[22] In March 2007, NASA announced that the volume of water ice in the south polar ice cap, if melted, would be sufficient to

cover the entire planetary surface to a depth of 11 metres.[23] Additionally, an ice permafrost mantle stretches down from the pole to latitudes of about 60°.[22]

Large quantities of water are thought to be trapped underneath Mars's thick cryosphere. A large release of liquid water is thought to have occurred when the Valles Marinerisformed early in Mars's history, forming massive outflow channels. A smaller but more recent outflow may have occurred when the Cerberus Fossae chasm opened about 5 million years ago, leaving a supposed sea of frozen ice still visible today on the Elysium Planitia centered at Cerberus Palus.[24] However, the morphology of this region may correspond to the ponding of lava flows, causing a superficial morphology similar to ice flows,[25] which probably draped the terrain established by earlier massive floods of Athabasca Valles.[26] Rough surface texture at decimeter (dm) scales, thermal inertia comparable to that of the Gusev plains, and hydrovolcanic cones are consistent with the lava flow hypothesis.[26] Furthermore, the stoichiometric mass fraction of water in this area to tens of centimeter depths is only ~4%,[27] easily attributable to hydrated minerals[28] and inconsistent with the presence of near-surface ice.

More recently the high resolution Mars Orbiter Camera on the Mars Global Surveyor has taken pictures which give much more detail about the history of liquid water on the surface of Mars. Despite the many giant flood channels and associated tree-like network of tributaries found on Mars there are no smaller scale structures that would indicate the origin of the flood waters. It has been suggested that weathering processes have denuded these, indicating the river valleys are old features. Higher resolution observations from spacecraft like Mars Global Surveyor also revealed at least a few hundred features along crater and canyon walls that appear similar to terrestrial seepage gullies. The gullies tend to be in the highlands of the southern hemisphere and to face the Equator; all are poleward of 30° latitude.[29] The researchers found no partially degraded (i.e. weathered) gullies and no superimposed impact craters, indicating that these are very young features.

In a particularly striking example (see image) two photographs, taken six years apart, show a gully on Mars with what appears to be new deposits of sediment. Michael Meyer, the lead scientist for NASA's Mars Exploration Program, argues that only the flow of material with a high liquid water content could produce such a debris pattern and colouring. Whether the water results from precipitation, underground or another source remains an open question.[30] However, alternative scenarios have been suggested, including the possibility of the deposits being caused by carbon dioxide frost or by the movement of dust on the Martian surface.[31][32]

Further evidence that liquid water once existed on the surface of Mars comes from the detection of specific minerals such as hematite and goethite, both of which sometimes form in the presence of water.[33]

Nevertheless, some of the evidence believed to indicate ancient water basins and flows has been negated by higher resolution studies taken at resolution about 30 cm by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.[34]

Geography

Main articles: Geography of Mars, List of mountains on Mars, and List of craters on MarsSee also: Category:Surface features of Mars

This approximate true-color image, taken by the Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity, shows the view of Victoria Crater from Cape Verde. It was captured over a three-week period, from October 16 – November 6, 2006.

Although better remembered for mapping the Moon, Johann Heinrich Mädler and Wilhelm Beer were the first "areographers". They began by establishing once and for all that most of Mars’ surface features were permanent, and determining the planet's rotation period. In 1840, Mädler combined ten years of observations and drew the first map of Mars. Rather than giving names to the various markings, Beer and Mädler simply designated them with letters; Meridian Bay (Sinus Meridiani) was thus feature "a."[35]

Today, features on Mars are named from a number of sources. Large albedo features retain many of the older names, but are often updated to reflect new knowledge of the nature of the features. For example, Nix Olympica (the snows of Olympus) has become Olympus Mons (Mount Olympus).[36]

Mars’ equator is defined by its rotation, but the location of its Prime Meridian was specified, as was Earth's (at Greenwich), by choice of an arbitrary point; Mädler and Beer selected a line in 1830 for their first maps of Mars. After the spacecraft Mariner 9provided extensive imagery of Mars in 1972, a small crater (later called Airy-0), located in the Sinus Meridiani ("Middle Bay" or "Meridian Bay"), was chosen for the definition of 0.0° longitude to coincide with the original selection.

Olympus Mons, the highest mountain in the solar system, at 27km.

Since Mars has no oceans and hence no 'sea level', a zero-elevation surface or mean gravity surface also had to be selected. Zero altitude is defined by the height at which there is 610.5 Pa (6.105 mbar) of atmospheric pressure. This pressure corresponds to the triple point of water, and is about 0.6% of the sea level surface pressure on Earth (.006 atm).[37]

The dichotomy of Martian topography is striking: northern plains flattened by lava flows contrast with the southern highlands, pitted and cratered by ancient impacts. Research in 2008 has presented evidence regarding a theory proposed in 1980 postulating that, four billion years ago, the northern hemisphere of Mars was struck by an object one-tenth to two-thirds the size of the Moon. If validated, this would make Mars' northern hemisphere the site of an impact crater 10 600 km long by 8 500 km wide, or roughly the area of Europe, Asia, and Australia combined, surpassing the South Pole-Aitken basin as the largest impact crater in the Solar System.[5][6] The surface of Mars as seen from Earth is divided into two kinds of areas, with differing albedo. The paler plains covered with dust and sand rich in reddish iron oxides were once thought of as Martian 'continents' and given names like Arabia Terra (land of Arabia) or Amazonis Planitia (Amazonian plain). The dark features were thought to be seas, hence their names Mare Erythraeum, Mare Sirenum and Aurorae Sinus. The largest dark feature seen from Earth is Syrtis Major.[38]

The shield volcano, Olympus Mons (Mount Olympus), at 26 km is the highest known mountain in the Solar System. It is an extinct volcano in the vast upland region Tharsis, which contains several other large volcanoes. It is over three times the height of Mount Everest which in comparison stands at just over 8.8 km.

Mars is also scarred by a number of impact craters: a total of 43 000 craters with a diameter of 5 km or greater have been found.[39] The largest confirmed of these is the Hellas impact basin, a light albedo feature clearly visible from Earth.[40] Due to the smaller mass of Mars, the probability of an object colliding with the planet is about half that of the Earth. However, Mars is located closer to the asteroid belt, so it has an increased chance of being struck by materials from that source. Mars is also more likely to be struck by short-period comets, i.e., those that lie within the orbit of Jupiter.[41] In spite of this, there are far fewer craters on Mars compared with the Moon because Mars's atmosphere provides protection against small meteors. Some craters have a morphology that suggests the ground was wet when the meteor impacted.

The large canyon, Valles Marineris (Latin for Mariner Valleys, also known as Agathadaemon in the old canal maps), has a length of 4000 km and a depth of up to 7 km. The length of Valles Marineris is equivalent to the length of Europe and extends across one-fifth the circumference of Mars. By comparison, the Grand Canyon on Earth is only 446 km long and nearly 2 km deep. Valles Marineris was formed due to the swelling of the Tharsis area which caused the crust in the area of Valles Marineris to collapse. Another large canyon is Ma'adim Vallis (Ma'adim is Hebrew for Mars). It is 700 km long and again much bigger than the Grand Canyon with a width of 20 km and a depth of 2 km in some places. It is possible that Ma'adim Vallis was flooded with liquid water in the past.[42]

THEMIS image of cave entrances on Mars

Images from the Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) aboard NASA's Mars Odyssey orbiter have revealed seven possible cave entrances on the flanks of the Arsia Mons volcano.[43] The caves, named Dena, Chloe, Wendy, Annie, Abbey, Nikki and Jeanne after loved ones of their discoverers, are collectively known as the "seven sisters."[44] Cave entrances measure from 100 m to 252 m wide and they are believed to be at least 73 m to 96 m deep. Because light does not reach the floor of most of the caves, it is likely that they extend much deeper than these lower estimates and widen below the

surface. Dena is the only exception; its floor is visible and was measured to be 130 m deep. The interiors of these caverns may be protected from micrometeoroids, UV radiation, solar flares and high energy particles that bombard the planet's surface.[45]

Some researchers have suggested that this protection makes the caves good candidates for future efforts to find liquid water and signs of life.

Mars has two permanent polar ice caps: the northern one at Planum Boreum and the southern one at Planum Australe.

Atmosphere

Main article: Atmosphere of Mars

Mars's thin atmosphere, visible on the horizon in this low-orbit photo.

Mars lost its magnetosphere 4 billion years ago, so the solar wind interacts directly with the Martian ionosphere, keeping the atmosphere thinner than it would otherwise be by stripping away atoms from the outer layer. Both Mars Global Surveyor and Mars Express have detected these ionised atmospheric particles trailing off into space behind Mars.[46][47] The atmosphere of Mars is now relatively thin. Atmospheric pressure on the surface varies from around 30 Pa (0.03 kPa) on Olympus Mons to over 1155 Pa (1.155 kPa) in the depths of Hellas Planitia, with a mean surface level pressure of 600 Pa (0.6 kPa). This is less than 1% of the surface pressure on Earth (101.3 kPa). Mars's mean surface pressure equals the pressure found 35 km above the Earth's surface. The scale height of the atmosphere, about 11 km, is higher than Earth's (6 km) due to the lower gravity. Mars' gravity is only about 38% of the surface gravity on Earth.

The atmosphere on Mars consists of 95% carbon dioxide, 3% nitrogen, 1.6% argon, and contains traces of oxygen and water.[4] The atmosphere is quite dusty, containing particulates about 1.5 µm in diameter which give the Martian sky a tawny color when seen from the surface.[48]

Several researchers claim to have detected methane in the Martian atmosphere with a concentration of about 10 ppb by volume.[49][50] Since methane is an unstable gas that is broken down by ultraviolet radiation, typically lasting about 340 years in the Martian atmosphere,[51] its presence would indicate a current or recent source of the gas on the planet. Volcanic activity, cometary impacts, and the presence of methanogenic microbiallife forms are among possible sources. It was recently pointed out that methane could also be produced by a non-biological process called serpentinization[b] involving water, carbon dioxide, and the mineral olivine, which is known to be common on Mars.[52]

During a pole's winter, it lies in continuous darkness, chilling the surface and causing 25–30% of the atmosphere to condense out into thick slabs of CO2 ice (dry ice).[53] When the poles are again exposed to sunlight, the frozen CO2 sublimes, creating enormous winds that sweep off the poles as fast as 400 km/h. These seasonal actions transport large amounts of dust and water vapor, giving rise to Earth-like frost and large cirrus clouds. Clouds of water-ice were photographed by the Opportunity rover in 2004.[54]

Climate

Main article: Climate of Mars

Mars from Hubble Space Telescope October 28, 2005 with dust storm visible.

Of all the planets, Mars's seasons are the most Earth-like, due to the similar tilts of the two planets' rotational axes. However, the lengths of the Martian seasons are about twice those of Earth's, as Mars’ greater distance from the Sun leads to the Martian year being about two Earth years in length. Martian surface temperatures vary from lows of about −140 °C (−220 °F) during the polar winters to highs of up to 20 °C (68 °F) in summers.[20] The wide range in temperatures is due to the thin atmosphere which cannot store much solar heat, the low atmospheric pressure, and the low thermal inertia of Martian soil.[55]

If Mars had an Earth-like orbit, its seasons would be similar to Earth's because its axial tilt is similar to Earth's. However, the comparatively large eccentricity of the Martian orbit has a significant effect. Mars is near perihelion when it is summer in the southern

hemisphere and winter in the north, and near aphelion when it is winter in the southern hemisphere and summer in the north. As a result, the seasons in the southern hemisphere are more extreme and the seasons in the northern are milder than would otherwise be the case. The summer temperatures in the south can be up to 30 °C (54 °F) warmer than the equivalent summer temperatures in the north.[56]

Mars's northern ice cap.

Mars also has the largest dust storms in our Solar System. These can vary from a storm over a small area, to gigantic storms that cover the entire planet. They tend to occur when Mars is closest to the Sun, and have been shown to increase the global temperature.[57]

The polar caps at both poles consist primarily of water ice. However, there is dry ice present on their surfaces. Frozen carbon dioxide (dry ice) accumulates as a thin layer about one metre thick on the north cap in the northern winter only, while the south cap has a permanent dry ice cover about eight metres thick.[58] The northern polar cap has a diameter of about 1000 kilometres during the northern Mars summer,[59] and contains about 1.6 million cubic kilometres of ice, which if spread evenly on the cap would be 2 kilometres thick.[60] (This compares to a volume of 2.85 million cubic kilometres for the Greenland ice sheet.) The southern polar cap has a diameter of 350 km and a thickness of 3 km.[61] The total volume of ice in the south polar cap plus the adjacent layered deposits has also been estimated at 1.6 million cubic kilometres.[62] Both polar caps show spiral troughs, which are believed to form as a result of differential solar heating, coupled with the sublimation of ice and condensation of water vapor.[63][64] Both polar caps shrink and regrow following the temperature fluctuation of the Martian seasons.

Orbit and rotation

Mars’ average distance from the Sun is roughly 230 million km (1.5 AU) and its orbital period is 687 (Earth) days. The solar day (or sol) on Mars is only slightly longer than an Earth day: 24 hours, 39 minutes, and 35.244 seconds. A Martian year is equal to 1.8809 Earth years, or 1 year, 320 days, and 18.2 hours.

Mars's axial tilt is 25.19 degrees, which is similar to the axial tilt of the Earth. As a result, Mars has seasons like the Earth, though on Mars they are nearly twice as long given its longer year. Mars passed its perihelion in June 2007 and its aphelion in May 2008.

Mars has a relatively pronounced orbital eccentricity of about 0.09; of the seven other planets in the Solar System, only Mercury shows greater eccentricity. However, it is known that in the past Mars has had a much more circular orbit than it does currently. At one point 1.35 million Earth years ago, Mars had an eccentricity of roughly 0.002, much less than that of Earth today.[65] The Mars cycle of eccentricity is 96 000 Earth years compared to the Earth's cycle of 100 000 years.[66] However, Mars also has a much longer cycle of eccentricity with a period of 2.2 million Earth years, and this overshadows the 96 000-year cycle in the eccentricity graphs. For the last 35 000 years Mars' orbit has been getting slightly more eccentric because of the gravitational effects of the other planets. The closest distance between the Earth and Mars will continue to mildly decrease for the next 25 000 years.[67]

The image to the left shows a comparison between Mars and Ceres, a dwarf planet in the Asteroid Belt, as seen from the ecliptic pole, while the image to the right is as seen from the ascending node. The segments of orbits below the ecliptic are plotted in darker colors. The perihelia (q) and aphelia (Q) are labelled with the date of the nearest passage.

MoonsMain article: Moons of Mars

Phobos (left) and Deimos (right)

Mars has two tiny natural moons, Phobos and Deimos, which orbit very close to the planet and are thought to be captured asteroids.[68]

Both satellites were discovered in 1877 by Asaph Hall, and are named after the characters Phobos (panic/fear) and Deimos (terror/dread) who, in Greek mythology, accompanied their father Ares, god of war, into battle. Ares was known as Mars to the Romans.[69]

From the surface of Mars, the motions of Phobos and Deimos appear very different from that of our own moon. Phobos rises in the west, sets in the east, and rises again in just 11 hours. Deimos, being only just outside synchronous orbit—where the orbital period would match the planet's period of rotation — rises as expected in the east but very slowly. Despite the 30 hour orbit of Deimos, it takes 2.7 days to set in the west as it slowly falls behind the rotation of Mars, then just as long again to rise.[70]

Because Phobos' orbit is below synchronous altitude, the tidal forces from the planet Mars are gradually lowering its orbit. In about 50 million years it will either crash into Mars’ surface or break up into a ring structure around the planet.[70]

It is not well understood how or when Mars came to capture its two moons. Both have circular orbits, very near the equator, which is very unusual in itself for captured objects. Phobos's unstable orbit would seem to point towards a relatively recent capture. There is no known mechanism for an airless Mars to capture a lone asteroid, so it is likely that a third body was involved — however, asteroids as large as Phobos and Deimos are rare, and binaries rarer still, outside the asteroid belt.[71]

LifeMain article: Life on Mars

The current understanding of planetary habitability—the ability of a world to develop and sustain life — favors planets that have liquid water on their surface. This requires that the orbit of a planet lie within a habitable zone, which for the Sun is currently occupied by Earth. Mars orbits half an astronomical unit beyond this zone and this, along with the planet's thin atmosphere, causes water to freeze on its surface. The past flow of liquid water, however, demonstrates the planet's potential for habitability. Recent evidence has suggested that any water on the Martian surface would have been too salty and acidic to support life.[72]

The lack of a magnetosphere and extremely thin atmosphere of Mars are a greater challenge: the planet has little heat transfer across its surface, poor insulation against bombardment and the solar wind, and insufficient atmospheric pressure to retain water in a liquid form (water instead sublimates to a gaseous state). Mars is also nearly, or perhaps totally, geologically dead; the end of volcanic activity has stopped the recycling of chemicals and minerals between the surface and interior of the planet.[73]

Evidence suggests that the planet was once significantly more habitable than it is today, but whether living organisms ever existed there is still unclear. The Viking probes of the mid-1970s carried experiments designed to detect microorganisms in Martian soil at their respective landing sites, and had some apparently positive results, including a temporary increase of CO2 production on exposure to water and nutrients. However this sign of life

was later disputed by many scientists, resulting in a continuing debate, with NASA scientist Gilbert Levin asserting that Viking may have found life. A re-analysis of the now 30-year-old Viking data, in light of modern knowledge of extremophile forms of life, has suggested that the Viking tests were also not sophisticated enough to detect these forms of life. The tests may even have killed a (hypothetical) life form.[74] Tests conducted by the Phoenix Mars Lander have shown that the soil has a very alkaline pHand it contains magnesium, sodium, potassium and chloride.[75] The soil nutrients may be able to support life, but life would still have to be shielded from the intense ultraviolet light.

At the Johnson space center lab organic compounds have been found in the meteoriteALH84001, which is supposed to have come from Mars. They concluded that these were deposited by primitive life forms extant on Mars before the meteorite was blasted into space by a meteor strike and sent on a 15 million-year voyage to Earth. Also, small quantities of methane and formaldehyde recently detected by Mars orbiters are both claimed to be hints for life, as these chemical compounds would quickly break down in the Martian atmosphere.[76][77] It is possible that these compounds may be replenished by volcanic or geological means such as serpentinization.[52]

ExplorationMain article: Exploration of Mars

Mars 3 Lander (stamp, 1972)

Viking Lander 1 site

Dozens of spacecraft, including orbiters, landers, and rovers, have been sent to Mars by the Soviet Union, the United States, Europe, and Japan to study the planet's surface, climate, and geology.

Roughly two-thirds of all spacecraft destined for Mars have failed in one manner or another before completing or even beginning their missions. While this high failure rate

can be ascribed to technical problems, enough have either failed or lost communications for causes unknown for some to search for other explanations. Examples include anEarth-Mars "Bermuda Triangle", a Mars Curse, or even the long-standing NASA in-joke, the "Great Galactic Ghoul" that feeds on Martian spacecraft.[78]

Past missions

The first successful fly-by mission to Mars was NASA's Mariner 4, launched in 1964. The first successful objects to land on the surface were two Soviet probes, Mars 2 and Mars 3 from the Mars probe program, launched in 1971, but both lost contact within seconds of landing. Then came the 1975 NASA launches of the Viking program, which consisted of two orbiters, each having a lander; both landers successfully touched down in 1976. Viking 1 remained operational for six years, Viking 2 for three. The Viking landers relayed the first color pictures of Mars[79] and also mapped the surface of Mars so well that the images are still sometimes used to this day.

The Soviet probes Phobos 1 and 2 were sent to Mars in 1988 to study Mars and its two moons. Phobos 1 lost contact on the way to Mars. Phobos 2, while successfully photographing Mars and Phobos, failed just before it was set to release two landers on Phobos's surface.

Following the 1992 failure of the Mars Observer orbiter, NASA launched the Mars Global Surveyor in 1996. This mission was a complete success, having finished its primary mapping mission in early 2001. Contact was lost with the probe in November 2006 during its third extended program, spending exactly 10 operational years in space. Only a month after the launch of the Surveyor, NASA launched the Mars Pathfinder, carrying a robotic exploration vehicle Sojourner, which landed in the Ares Vallis on Mars. This mission was also successful, and received much publicity, partially due to the many images that were sent back to Earth.[80]

The most recent mission to Mars was the NASA Phoenix Mars lander, which launched August 4, 2007 and arrived on the north polar region of Mars on May 25, 2008.[81] The lander has a robotic arm with a 2.5 m reach and capable of digging a meter into the Martian soil. The lander has a microscopic camera capable of resolving to one-thousandth the width of a human hair, and discovered a substance at its landing site on June 15, 2008, which was confirmed to be water ice on June 20.[82][83] The mission was declared concluded on November 10, 2008, after engineers were unable to contact the craft.[84]

Current missions

Spirit's lander on Mars

In 2001 NASA launched the successful Mars Odyssey orbiter, which is still in orbit as of November 2008, and the ending date has been extended to September 2010.[85] Odyssey's Gamma Ray Spectrometer detected significant amounts of hydrogen in the upper metre or so of Mars's regolith. This hydrogen is thought to be contained in large deposits of water ice.[86]

In 2003, the ESA launched the Mars Express craft, consisting of the Mars Express Orbiter and the lander Beagle 2. Beagle 2 failed during descent and was declared lost in early February 2004.[87] In early 2004 the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer team announced it had detected methane in the Martian atmosphere. ESA announced in June 2006 the discovery of aurorae on Mars.[88]

Also in 2003, NASA launched the twin Mars Exploration Rovers named Spirit (MER-A) and Opportunity (MER-B). Both missions landed successfully in January 2004 and have met or exceeded all their targets. Among the most significant scientific returns has been conclusive evidence that liquid water existed at some time in the past at both landing sites. Martian dust devils and windstorms have occasionally cleaned both rovers' solar panels, and thus increased their lifespan.[89]

On August 12, 2005 the NASA Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter probe was launched toward the planet, arriving in orbit on March 10, 2006 to conduct a two-year science survey. The orbiter will map the Martian terrain and weather to find suitable landing sites for upcoming lander missions. It also contains an improved telecommunications link to Earth, with more bandwidth than all previous missions combined.

The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter snapped the first image of a series of active avalanchesnear the planet's north pole, scientists said March 3, 2008.[90]

A prototype of the Phoenix lander practices robotic arm control at a test site in Death Valley.

The Dawn spacecraft will fly by Mars in February 2009 for a gravity assist on its way to investigate Vesta and then Ceres.

Future missions

Phoenix will be followed by the Mars Science Laboratory in 2011, a bigger, faster (90 m/h), and smarter version of the Mars Exploration Rovers. Experiments include a laser chemical sampler that can deduce the make-up of rocks at a distance of 13 m.[91]

The joint Russian and Chinese Phobos-Grunt sample-return mission, to return samples of Mars's moon Phobos, is scheduled for a 2009 launch. In 2013 the ESA plans to launch its first Rover to Mars; the ExoMars rover will be capable of drilling 2 m into the soil in search of organic molecules.[92][93]

The Finnish-Russian MetNet mission will consist of sending tens of small landers on the Martian surface in order to establish a wide-spread surface observation network to investigate the planet's atmospheric structure, physics and meteorology.[94] A precursor mission using 1–2 landers is scheduled for launch in 2009 or 2011.[95] One possibility is a piggyback launch on the Russian Phobos Grunt mission.[95] Other launches will take place in the launch windows extending to 2019.

Manned Mars exploration by the United States has been explicitly identified as a long-term goal in the Vision for Space Exploration announced in 2004 by US President George W. Bush.[96] NASA and Lockheed Martin have begun work on the Orionspacecraft, formerly the Crew Exploration Vehicle, which is currently scheduled to send a human expedition to Earth's moon by 2020 as a stepping stone to an expedition to Mars thereafter.

The European Space Agency hopes to land humans on Mars between 2030 and 2035.[97]

This will be preceded by successively larger probes, starting with the launch of the ExoMars probe and a Mars Sample Return Mission.

On September 28, 2007, NASA administrator Michael D. Griffin stated that NASA aims to put a man on Mars by 2037: in 2057, we should be celebrating 20 years of man on Mars.[98]

On September 15, 2008, NASA announced MAVEN, a robotic mission to provide information about Mars' atmosphere[99].

Astronomy on Mars

Main article: Astronomy on Mars

Photograph of a Martian sunset taken by Spirit at Gusev crater, May 19, 2005.

With the existence of various orbiters, landers, and rovers, it is now possible to study astronomy from the Martian skies. The Earth and the Moon are easily visible[citation needed]

while Mars’ moon Phobos appears about one third the angular diameter of the full Moon as it appears from Earth. On the other hand Deimos appears more or less star-like, and appears only slightly brighter than Venus does from Earth.[100]

There are also various phenomena well-known on Earth that have now been observed on Mars, such as meteors and auroras.[88] A transit of the Earth as seen from Mars will occur on November 10, 2084. There are also transits of Mercury and transits of Venus, and the moon Deimos is of sufficiently small angular diameter that its partial "eclipses" of the Sun are best considered transits (see Transit of Deimos from Mars).

Viewing

Apparent retrograde motion of Mars in 2003 as seen from Earth

To the naked eye, Mars usually appears a distinct yellow, orange, or reddish color, and varies in brightness more than any other planet as seen from Earth over the course of its orbit. The apparent magnitude of Mars varies from +1.8 at conjunction to as high as −2.9 at perihelic opposition.[4] When farthest away from the Earth, it is more than seven times as far from the latter as when it is closest. When least favourably positioned, it can be lost in the Sun's glare for months at a time. At its most favourable times — which occur twice every 32 years, alternately at 15 and 17-year intervals, and always between late July and late September — Mars shows a wealth of surface detail to a telescope. Especially noticeable, even at low magnification, are the polar ice caps.[101]

The point of Mars’ closest approach to the Earth is known as opposition. The length of time between successive oppositions, or the synodic period, is 780 days. Because of the eccentricities of the orbits, the times of opposition and minimum distance can differ by up to 8.5 days. The minimum distance varies between about 55 and 100 million km due to the planets' elliptical orbits.[4] The next Mars opposition will occur on January 29, 2010.

As Mars approaches opposition it begins a period of retrograde motion, which means it will appear to move backwards in a looping motion with respect to the background stars.

2003 closest approach

The rotation of Mars as seen in a small telescope in 2003.

Mars oppositions from 2003–2018, viewed from above the ecliptic with the Earth centered.

On August 27, 2003, at 9:51:13 UT, Mars made its closest approach to Earth in nearly 60 000 years: 55 758 006 km (0.372719 AU). This occurred when Mars was one day from opposition and about three days from its perihelion, making Mars particularly easy to see from Earth. The last time it came so close is estimated to have been on September 12, 57 617 BC, the next time being in 2287. However, this record approach was only very slightly closer than other recent close approaches. For instance, the minimum distance on August 22, 1924 was 0.372846 AU, and the minimum distance on August 24, 2208 will be 0.372253 AU.[102] The orbital changes of Earth and Mars are making the approaches nearer: the 2003 record will be bettered 22 times by the year 4000[citation needed].

Historical observations

The history of observations of Mars is marked by the oppositions of Mars, when the planet is closest to Earth and hence is most easily visible, which occur every couple of years. Even more notable are the perihelic oppositions of Mars which occur about every 15–17 years, and are distinguished because Mars is close to perihelion, making it even closer to Earth. Aristotle was among the first known writers to describe observations of Mars, noting that, as it passed behind the Moon, it was farther away than was originally believed.

The only occultation of Mars by Venus observed was that of October 3, 1590, seen by M. Möstlin at Heidelberg.[103]

In 1609, Mars was viewed by Galileo, who was first to see it via telescope.

Map of Mars by Giovanni Schiaparelli.

By the 19th century, the resolution of telescopes reached a level sufficient for surface features to be identified. In September 1877, a perihelic opposition of Mars occurred on September 5. In that year, Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli, then in Milan, used a 22 cm telescope to help produce the first detailed map of Mars. These maps notably contained features he called canali, which were later shown to be an optical illusion. These canali were supposedly long straight lines on the surface of Mars to which he gave names of famous rivers on Earth. His term, which means 'channels' or 'grooves', was popularly mistranslated in English as canals.[104][105]

Mars sketched as observed by Lowell sometime before 1914. (South top)

Influenced by the observations, the orientalist Percival Lowell founded an observatorywhich had a 300 and 450 mm telescope. The observatory was used for the exploration of Mars during the last good opportunity in 1894 and the following less favorable oppositions. He published several books on Mars and life on the planet, which had a great influence on the public. The canali were also found by other astronomers, like Henri Joseph Perrotin and Louis Thollon in Nice, using one of the largest telescopes of that time.

The seasonal changes (consisting of the diminishing of the polar caps and the dark areas formed during Martian summer) in combination with the canals lead to speculation about life on Mars, and it was a long held belief that Mars contained vast seas and vegetation. The telescope never reached the resolution required to give proof to any speculations. However, as bigger telescopes were used, fewer long, straight canali were observed. During an observation in 1909 by Flammarion with a 840 mm telescope, irregular patterns were observed, but no canali were seen.[106]

Map of Mars from Hubble Space Telescope as seen near the 1999 opposition. (North top)

Even in the 1960s articles were published on Martian biology, putting aside explanations other than life for the seasonal changes on Mars. Detailed scenarios for the metabolism and chemical cycles for a functional ecosystem have been published.[107]

It was not until spacecraft visited the planet during NASA's Mariner missions in the 1960s that these myths were dispelled. The results of the Viking life-detection experiments started an intermission in which the hypothesis of a hostile, dead planet was generally accepted.

Some maps of Mars were made using the data from these missions, but it was not until the Mars Global Surveyor mission, launched in 1996 and operated until late 2006, that complete, extremely detailed maps were obtained. These maps are now available online.[108] [109]

On July 31, 2008, NASA announced that they have discovered water on the planet.[110]

Mars in culture

Historical connections

Mars is named after the Roman god of war. In Babylonian astronomy, the planet was named after Nergal, their deity of fire, war, and destruction, most likely due to the planet's reddish appearance.[111] When the Greeks equated Nergal with their god of war, Ares, they named the planet Ἄρεως ἀστἡρ (Areos aster), or "star of Ares". Then, following the identification of Ares and Mars, it was translated into Latin as stella Martis, or "star of Mars", or simply Mars. The Greeks also called the planet Πυρόεις Pyroeis

meaning "fiery". In Hindu mythology, Mars is known as Mangala (मंगल). The planet is

also called Angaraka in Sanskrit, after the celibate god of war, who possesses the signs of Aries and Scorpio, and teaches the occult sciences. The planet was known by the Egyptians as "Ḥr Dšr";;;; or "Horus the Red". The Hebrews named it Ma'adim (מאדים) —"the one who blushes"; this is where one of the largest canyons on Mars, the Ma'adim Vallis, gets its name. It is known as al-Mirrikh in Arabic, and Merih in Turkish. In Urduand Persian it is written as خیمر and known as "Merikh". The etymology of al-Mirrikh is unknown. Ancient Persians named it Bahram, the Zoroastrian god of faith and it is written as رام Ancient Turks called it Sakit. The Chinese, Japanese, Korean and .بھ

Vietnamese cultures refer to the planet as 火星, or the fire star, a name based on the ancient Chinese mythological cycle of Five elements.

Its symbol, derived from the astrological symbol of Mars, is a circle with a small arrow pointing out from behind. It is a stylized representation of a shield and spear used by the Roman God Mars. Mars in Roman mythology was the God of War and patron of warriors. This symbol is also used in biology to describe the male sex, and in alchemy to symbolise the element iron which was considered to be dominated by Mars whose characteristic red colour is coincidentally due to iron oxide.[112] ♂ occupies Unicodeposition U+2642.

Intelligent "Martians"

An 1893 soap ad playing on the popular idea that Mars was populated.

The popular idea that Mars was populated by intelligent Martians exploded in the late 19th century. Schiaparelli's "canali" observations combined with Percival Lowell's books on the subject put forward the standard notion of a planet that was a drying, cooling, dying world with ancient civilizations constructing irrigation works.[113]

Many other observations and proclamations by notable personalities added to what has been termed "Mars Fever".[114] In 1899 while investigating atmospheric radio noise using his receivers in his Colorado Springs lab, inventor Nikola Tesla observed repetitive signals that he later surmised might have been radio communications coming from another planet, possibly Mars. In a 1901 interview Tesla said:

It was some time afterward when the thought flashed upon my mind that the disturbances I had observed might be due to an intelligent control. Although I could not decipher their meaning, it was impossible for me to think of them as having been entirely accidental. The feeling is constantly growing on me that I had been the first to hear the greeting of one planet to another.[115]

Tesla's theories gained support from Lord Kelvin who, while visiting the United States in 1902, was reported to have said that he thought Tesla had picked up Martian signals being sent to the United States.[116] However, Kelvin "emphatically" denied this report shortly before departing America: "What I really said was that the inhabitants of Mars, if there are any, were doubtless able to see New York, particularly the glare of the electricity."[117]

In a New York Times article in 1901, Edward Charles Pickering, director of the Harvard College Observatory, said that they had received a telegram from Lowell Observatory in Arizona that seemed to confirm that Mars was trying to communicate with the Earth.[118]

Early in December 1900, we received from Lowell Observatory in Arizona a telegram that a shaft of light had been seen to project from Mars (the Lowell observatory makes a specialty of Mars) lasting seventy minutes. I wired these facts to Europe and sent out neostyle copies through this country. The observer there is a careful, reliable man and there is no reason to doubt that the light existed. It was given as from a well-known geographical point on Mars. That was all. Now the story has gone the world over. In Europe it is stated that I have been in communication with Mars, and all sorts of exaggerations have spring up. Whatever the light was, we have no means of knowing. Whether it had intelligence or not, no one can say. It is absolutely inexplicable.[118]

Pickering later proposed creating a set of mirrors in Texas with the intention of signaling Martians.

In recent decades, the high resolution mapping of the surface of Mars, culminating in Mars Global Surveyor, revealed no artifacts of habitation by 'intelligent' life, but pseudoscientific speculation about intelligent life on Mars continues from commentators such as Richard C. Hoagland. Reminiscent of the canali controversy, some speculations are based on small scale features perceived in the spacecraft images, such as 'pyramids' and the 'Face on Mars'. Planetary astronomer Carl Sagan wrote:

“ Mars has become a kind of mythic arena onto which we have projected our Earthly hopes and fears. ”

—Carl Sagan, Cosmos[119]

In fiction

Main article: Mars in fiction

The depiction of Mars in fiction has been stimulated by its dramatic red color and by early scientific speculations that its surface conditions not only might support life, but intelligent life.

Alien tripod illustration from the 1906 French edition of H.G. Wells' The War of theWorlds.

Thus originated a large number of science fiction scenarios, the best known of which is H. G. Wells' The War of the Worlds, published in 1898, in which Martians seek to escape their dying planet by invading Earth. A subsequent radio version of The War of the Worlds on October 30, 1938 was presented as a live news broadcast, and many listeners mistook it for the truth.[120]

Also influential were Ray Bradbury's The Martian Chronicles, in which human explorers accidentally destroy a Martian civilization, Edgar Rice Burroughs' Barsoom series and a number of Robert A. Heinlein stories before the mid-sixties.

A comic figure of an intelligent Martian, Marvin the Martian, appeared on television in 1948 as a character in the Looney Tunes animated cartoons of Warner Brothers, and has continued as part of popular culture to the present.

Author Jonathan Swift made reference to the moons of Mars, about 150 years before their actual discovery by Asaph Hall, detailing reasonably accurate descriptions of their orbits, in the 19th chapter of his novel Gulliver's Travels.[121]

After the Mariner and Viking spacecraft had returned pictures of Mars as it really is, an apparently lifeless and canal-less world, these ideas about Mars had to be abandoned and a vogue for accurate, realist depictions of human colonies on Mars developed, the best known of which may be Kim Stanley Robinson's Mars trilogy. However, pseudo-scientific speculations about the Face on Mars and other enigmatic landmarks spotted by space probes have meant that ancient civilizations continue to be a popular theme in science fiction, especially in film.[122]

Another popular theme, particularly among American writers, is the Martian colony that fights for independence from Earth. This is a major plot element in the novels of Greg Bear and Kim Stanley Robinson, as well as the movie Total Recall (based on a short story by Philip K. Dick) and the television series Babylon 5. Many video games also use this element, including Red Faction and the Zone of the Enders series. Mars (and its moons) were also the setting for the popular Doom video game franchise and the later Martian Gothic.

In music

In Gustav Holst's The Planets, Mars is depicted as the "Bringer of War".

See also

Mars portal

Solar System portal

2007 WD5 – asteroid that had a possible impact with Mars on January 30, 2008 Colonization of Mars Darian calendar – system of time-keeping Extraterrestrial life List of artificial objects on Mars List of chasmata on Mars List of craters on Mars List of valles on Mars Terraforming of Mars

Notes

a. ^ Best fit ellipsoidb. ^ There are many serpentinization reactions. Olivine is a solid solution between forsterite

and fayalite whose general formula is (Fe,Mg)2SiO4. The reaction producing methane from olivine can be written (in balanced form) as: Forsterite + Fayalite + Water + Carbonic acid → Serpentine + Magnetite + Methane , or: 18Mg2SiO4 + 6Fe2SiO4 + 26H2O + CO2 → 12Mg3Si2O5(OH)4 + 4Fe3O4 + CH4

References

1. ^ Yeomans, Donald K. (2006-07-13). "HORIZONS System". NASA JPL. Retrieved on 2007-08-08. — At the site, go to the "web interface" then select "Ephemeris Type: ELEMENTS", "Target Body: Mars" and "Center: Sun".

2. ^ a b Seidelmann, P. Kenneth; Archinal, B. A.; A’hearn, M. F.; et.al. (2007). "Report of the IAU/IAGWorking Group on cartographic coordinates and rotational elements: 2006". Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy 90: 155–180. doi:10.1007/s10569-007-9072-y,

http://adsabs.harvard.edu/doi/10.1007/s10569-007-9072-y. Retrieved on 28 August 2007.

3. ^ a b "Mars: Facts & Figures". NASA. Retrieved on 2007-03-06. 4. ^ a b c d e f g h David R. Williams (September 1, 2004). "Mars Fact Sheet".

National Space Science Data Center. NASA. Retrieved on 2006-06-24. 5. ^ a b Ashley Yeager (July 19, 2008). "Impact May Have Transformed Mars".

ScienceNews.org. Retrieved on 2008-08-12. 6. ^ a b Ian Sample (June 26, 2008). "Cataclysmic impact created north-south divide

on Mars". Science @ guardian.co.uk. Retrieved on 2008-08-12. 7. ^ Trudy E. Bell and Tony Phillips (March 12, 2002). "Once Upon a Water

Planet". Science @ NASA. Retrieved on 2008-06-21. 8. ^ NASA (July 31, 2008). "NASA Spacecraft Confirms Martian Water, Mission

Extended". Science @ NASA. Retrieved on 2008-08-01. 9. ^ "NASA Images Suggest Water Still Flows in Brief Spurts on Mars". NASA/JPL

(December 6, 2006). Retrieved on 2007-01-04. 10. ^ Webster, G.; Beasley, D. (September 20, 2005). "Orbiter's Long Life Helps

Scientists Track Changes on Mars". NASA. Retrieved on 2007-02-26. 11. ^ Peplow, Mark. "How Mars got its rust". Retrieved on 2007-03-10. 12. ^ Goddard Space Flight Center. "New Map Provides More Evidence Mars Once

Like Earth". Retrieved on 2006-03-17. 13. ^ Dave Jacqué (2003-09-26). "APS X-rays reveal secrets of Mars' core" (in

English), Argonne National Laboratory. Retrieved on 1 July 2006.14. ^ McMahon, Peter (2008-03-04). "Mars avalanche caught on camera". Discovery

Channel. CTVglobemedia. Retrieved on 2008-05-31. 15. ^ "Giant Asteroid Flattened Half of Mars, Studies Suggest". Scientific American.

Retrieved on 2008-06-27. 16. ^ "Huge Meteor Strike Explains Mars’s Shape, Reports Say". New York Times.

Retrieved on 2008-06-27. 17. ^ "Martian soil 'could support life'". BBC News (June 27, 2008). Retrieved on

2008-08-07. 18. ^ Chang, Alicia. "Scientists: Salt in Mars soil not bad for life". AP. Retrieved on

2008-08-07. 19. ^ "NASA Spacecraft Analyzing Martian Soil Data". JPL. Retrieved on 2008-08-

05. 20. ^ a b Haberle, R. M.; et al. (2001). "On the possibility of liquid water on present-

day Mars". J. Geophys. Res.. Retrieved on 2006-10-06. 106(E10), 23,317–23,326.(abstract, full paper requires purchase or AGU subscription)

21. ^ Heldmann, Jennifer L.; et al. (2005-05-07), "Formation of Martian gullies by the action of liquid water flowing under current Martian environmental conditions" (PDF), Journal of Geophysical Research 110: Eo5004, doi:10.1029/2004JE002261, http://daleandersen.seti.org/Dale_Andersen/Science_articles_files/Heldmann%20et%20al.2005.pdf, retrieved on 17 September 2008 'conditions such as now occur on Mars, outside of the temperature-pressure stability regime of liquid water' … 'Liquid water is typically stable at the lowest elevations and at low latitudes on the planet because the atmospheric pressure is greater than the vapor pressure of

water and surface temperatures in equatorial regions can reach 273 K for parts of the day [Haberle et al., 2001]'

22. ^ a b Kostama, V.-P.; Kreslavsky, M. A.; Head, J. W. (June 3, 2006), "Recent high-latitude icy mantle in the northern plains of Mars: Characteristics and ages of emplacement", Geophysical Research Letters 33: L11201, doi:10.1029/2006GL025946, http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2006/2006GL025946.shtml, retrieved on 12 August 2007 'Martian high-latitude zones are covered with a smooth, layered ice-rich mantle'

23. ^ "Mars' South Pole Ice Deep and Wide". NASA (March 15, 2007). Retrieved on 2007-03-16.

24. ^ Murray, John B.; et al. (March 17, 2005), "Evidence for a frozen sea close to Mars' equator", Nature 434: 352–355, doi:10.1038/nature03379, http://sci.esa.int/science-e/www/object/index.cfm?fobjectid=36832, retrieved on 11 March 2007

25. ^ Kerr, Richard A. (March 4, 2005), "Ice or Lava Sea on Mars? A Transatlantic Debate Erupts", Science 307: 1390–1391, doi:10.1126/science.307.5714.1390a, PMID 15746395

26. ^ a b Jaeger, W. L.; et al. (September 21, 2007), "Athabasca Valles, Mars: A Lava-Draped Channel System", Science 317: 1709–1711, doi:10.1126/science.1143315, PMID 17885126

27. ^ Boynton, W. V.; et al. (in press), "Concentration of H, Si, Cl, K, Fe, and Th in the low and mid latitude regions of Mars", Journal of Geophysical Research, Planets 112: E12S99, doi:10.1029/2007JE002887

28. ^ Feldman, W. C.; et al. (November 30, 2005), "Topgraphic control of hydrogen deposits at low latitudes to midlatitudes of Mars", Journal of Geophysical Research 110: E11009, doi:10.1029/2005JE002452

29. ^ Malin, Michael C. (June 30, 2000). "Evidence for Recent Groundwater Seepage and Surface Runoff on Mars". Science 288: 2330–2335. doi:10.1126/science.288.5475.2330. PMID 10875910.

30. ^ "NASA Images Suggest Water Still Flows in Brief Spurts on Mars". NASA (December 6, 2006). Retrieved on 2006-12-06.

31. ^ "Water flowed recently on Mars". BBC (December 6, 2006). Retrieved on 2006-12-06.

32. ^ "Water May Still Flow on Mars, NASA Photo Suggests", NASA (December 6, 2006). Retrieved on 30 April 2006.

33. ^ NASA (March 3, 2004). "Mineral in Mars 'Berries' Adds to Water Story". Press release. Retrieved on 13 June 2006.

34. ^ McEwen, A. S.; et al. (September 21, 2007). "A Closer Look at Water-Related Geologic Activity on Mars". Science 317: 1706–1709. doi:10.1126/science.1143987. PMID 17885125.

35. ^ Sheehan, William. "Areographers". The Planet Mars: A History of Observation and Discovery. Retrieved on 2006-06-13.

36. ^ "Viking and the Resources of Mars" (PDF). Humans to Mars: Fifty Years of Mission Planning, 1950–2000. Retrieved on 2007-03-10.

37. ^ "Topography". Think Quest. Retrieved on 2007-03-13.

38. ^ Frommert, H.; Kronberg, C.. "Christiaan Huygens". Retrieved on 2007-03-10. 39. ^ Wright, Shawn (April 4, 2003). "Infrared Analyses of Small Impact Craters on

Earth and Mars". University of Pittsburgh. Retrieved on 2007-02-26. 40. ^ "Mars Global Geography". Windows to the Universe. Retrieved on 2006-06-13. 41. ^ Wetherill, G. W. (1999). "Problems Associated with Estimating the Relative

Impact Rates on Mars and the Moon". Earth, Moon, and Planets 9: 227. doi:10.1007/BF00565406, http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1974Moon....9..227W. Retrieved on 26 February 2007.

42. ^ Lucchitta, B. K.; Rosanova, C. E. (August 26, 2003). "Valles Marineris; The Grand Canyon of Mars". USGS. Retrieved on 2007-03-11.

43. ^ G. E. Cushing, T. N. Titus, J. J. Wynne, P. R. Christensen. (2007). "Themis Observes Possible Cave Skylights on Mars" (PDF). Lunar and Planetary Science XXXVIII. Retrieved on 2007-08-02.

44. ^ "'Cave entrances' spotted on Mars". NAU. Retrieved on 2007-05-28. 45. ^ "Researchers find possible caves on Mars". Paul Rincon of BBC News.

Retrieved on 2007-05-28. 46. ^ Philips, Tony (2001). "The Solar Wind at Mars". Science@NASA. Retrieved

on 2006-10-08. 47. ^ R. Lundin, S. Barabash, H. Andersson, M. Holmström, A. Grigoriev, M.

Yamauchi, J.-A. Sauvaud, A. Fedorov, E. Budnik, J.-J. Thocaven,2 D. Winningham, R. Frahm, J. Scherrer, J. Sharber, K. Asamura, H. Hayakawa, A. Coates, D. R. Linder, C. Curtis, K. C. Hsieh, B. R. Sandel, M. Grande, M. Carter, D. H. Reading, H. Koskinen, E. Kallio, P. Riihela, W. Schmidt, T. Säles, J. Kozyra, N. Krupp, J. Woch, J. Luhmann, S. McKenna-Lawler, R. Cerulli-Irelli, S. Orsini, M. Maggi, A. Mura, A. Milillo, E. Roelof, D. Williams, S. Livi, P. Brandt, P. Wurz, P. Bochsler (2004). "Solar Wind-Induced Atmospheric Erosion at Mars: First Results from ASPERA-3 on Mars Express". Science 305: 1933–1936. doi:10.1126/science.1101860. PMID 15448263.

48. ^ Lemmon; et al. (2004). "Atmospheric Imaging Results from Mars Rovers". Science 306: 1753–1756. doi:10.1126/science.1104474. PMID 15576613.

49. ^ V. Formisano, S. Atreya, T. Encrenaz, N. Ignatiev, M. Giuranna (2004). "Detection of Methane in the Atmosphere of Mars". Science 306: 1758–1761. doi:10.1126/science.1101732. PMID 15514118.

50. ^ "Mars Express confirms methane in the Martian atmosphere", ESA (March 30, 2004). Retrieved on 17 March 2006.

51. ^ Martin Baucom (2006). "Life on Mars?". American Scientist 94 (2), http://www.americanscientist.org/template/AssetDetail/assetid/49613. Retrieved on 26 February 2007.

52. ^ a b C. Oze, M. Sharma (2005). "Have olivine, will gas: Serpentinization and the abiogenic production of methane on Mars". Geophys. Res. Lett. 32: L10203. doi:10.1029/2005GL022691.

53. ^ J. T. Mellon, W. C. Feldman, T. H. Prettyman (2003). "The presence and stability of ground ice in the southern hemisphere of Mars". Icarus 169 (2): 324–340. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2003.10.022, http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004Icar..169..324M. Retrieved on 26 February 2007.

54. ^ "Mars Rovers Spot Water-Clue Mineral, Frost, Clouds", NASA (December 13, 2004). Retrieved on 17 March 2006.

55. ^ "Mars' desert surface...". MGCM Press release. NASA. Retrieved on 2007-02-25.

56. ^ Goodman, Jason C (September 22, 1997). "The Past, Present, and Possible Future of Martian Climate". MIT. Retrieved on 2007-02-26.

57. ^ Philips, Tony (July 16, 2001). "Planet Gobbling Dust Storms". Science @ NASA. Retrieved on 2006-06-07.

58. ^ Darling, David. "Mars, polar caps, ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ASTROBIOLOGY,ASTRONOMY, AND SPACEFLIGHT". Retrieved on 2007-02-26.

59. ^ "MIRA's Field Trips to the Stars Internet Education Program". Mira.org. Retrieved on 2007-02-26.

60. ^ Carr, Michael H. (2003). "Oceans on Mars: An assessment of the observational evidence and possible fate". Journal of Geophysical Research 108 (5042): 24. doi:10.1029/2002JE001963, http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998RPPh...61...77K. Retrieved on 26 February 2007.

61. ^ Phillips, Tony. "Mars is Melting, Science at NASA". Retrieved on 2007-02-26. 62. ^ J. J. Plaut, G. Picardi, A. Safaeinili, A. B. Ivanov, S. M. Milkovich, A.

Cicchetti, W. Kofman, J. Mouginot, W. M. Farrell, R. J. Phillips, S. M. Clifford, A. Frigeri, R. Orosei, C. Federico, I. P. Williams, D. A. Gurnett, E. Nielsen, T. Hagfors, E. Heggy, E. R. Stofan, D. Plettemeier, T. R. Watters, C. J. Leuschen, P. Edenhofer (2007). "Subsurface Radar Sounding of the South Polar Layered Deposits of Mars". Science 315: 92. doi:10.1126/science.1139672. PMID 17363628.

63. ^ Pelletier J. D. (2004). "How do spiral troughs form on Mars?". Geology 32: 365–367. doi:10.1130/G20228.2, http://www.gsajournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1130%2FG20228.2. Retrieved on 27 February 2007.

64. ^ "MarsToday.Com". Mars Polar Cap Mysery Solved. Retrieved on 2007-01-23. 65. ^ "Mars' Orbital eccentricity over time". Solex. Universita' degli Studi di Napoli

Federico II (2003). Retrieved on 2007-07-20. 66. ^ Jean Meeus (March 2003). "When Was Mars Last This Close?". International

Planetarium Society. Retrieved on 2008-01-18. 67. ^ Ron Baalke (August 22, 2003). "Mars Makes Closest Approach In Nearly

60,000 Years". meteorite-list. Retrieved on 2008-01-18. 68. ^ "Close Inspection for Phobos". ESA website. Retrieved on 2006-06-13. 69. ^ "ARES ATTENDANTS: DEIMOS & PHOBOS". Greek Mythology. Retrieved

on 2006-06-13. 70. ^ a b Arnett, Bill (November 20, 2004). "Phobos". nineplanets. Retrieved on 2006-

06-13. 71. ^ Ellis, Scott. "Geological History: Moons of Mars". CalSpace. Retrieved on

2007-08-02. 72. ^ Helen Briggs (BBC science reporter, Boston) (February 15, 2008). "Early Mars

'too salty' for life". BBC News. Retrieved on 2008-02-16. 73. ^ Hannsson, Anders (1997). Mars and the Development of Life., Wiley. ISBN 0-

471-96606-1.

74. ^ "New Analysis of Viking Mission Results Indicates Presence of Life on Mars", Physorg.com (January 7, 2007). Retrieved on 2 March 2007.

75. ^ "Phoenix Returns Treasure Trove for Science". NASA/JPL (2008-06-26). Retrieved on 2008-06-27.

76. ^ Vladimir A. Krasnopolsky, Jean-Pierre Maillard, Tobias C. Owen (2004). "Detection of methane in the Martian atmosphere: evidence for life?". Icarus 172: 537–547. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2004.07.004.

77. ^ "Formaldehyde claim inflames Martian debate", Nature (February 25, 2005). Retrieved on 19 March 2006.

78. ^ Dinerman, Taylor (September 27, 2004). "Is the Great Galactic Ghoul losing his appetite?". The space review. Retrieved on 2007-03-27.

79. ^ "Other Mars Missions". Journey through the galaxy. Retrieved on 2006-06-13. 80. ^ "Mars Global Surveyor". CNN- Destination Mars. Retrieved on 2006-06-13. 81. ^ "Mars Pulls Phoenix In". University of Arizona Phoenix mission Website.

Retrieved on 2008-05-25. 82. ^ "Phoenix: The Search for Water". NASA website. Retrieved on 2007-03-03. 83. ^ "Frozen Water Confirmed on Mars". UANews.org. Retrieved on 2008-08-24. 84. ^ "NASA Mars Mission declared dead". BBC (November 10, 2008). Retrieved on

2008-11-10. 85. ^ "NASA's Mars Odyssey Shifting Orbit for Extended Mission". nasa.com

(October 9, 2008). Retrieved on 2008-11-15. 86. ^ Britt, Robert (March 14, 2003). "Odyssey Spacecraft Generates New Mars

Mysteries". Space.com. Retrieved on 2006-06-13. 87. ^ Wardell, Jane (January 26, 2004). "Europe's Beagle 2 Mars Probe Stays

Ominously Silent". Space.com. Retrieved on 2006-06-13. 88. ^ a b Bertaux, Jean-Loup; et al. (June 9, 2005). "Discovery of an aurora on Mars".

Nature Magazine. Retrieved on 2006-06-13. 89. ^ "Mars Exploration Rovers- Science". NASA MER website. Retrieved on 2006-

06-13. 90. ^ "Photo shows avalanche on Mars". CNN. Retrieved on 2008-03-04. 91. ^ "Mars Science Laboratory". NASA's MSL website. Retrieved on 2007-03-03. 92. ^ "ExoMars". ESA website. Retrieved on 2007-03-03. 93. ^ Rincon, Paul (November 10, 2006). "European Mars launch pushed back".

Retrieved on 2006-10-10. 94. ^ >"Introduction to the MetNet Mars Mission". Finnish Meteorological Institute.

Retrieved on 2008-08-28. 95. ^ a b "Introduction to the MetNet Mars Mission". Finnish Meteorological Institute.

Retrieved on 2008-08-28. 96. ^ Britt, Robert. "When do we get to Mars?". Space.com FAQ: Bush's New Space

Vision. Retrieved on 2006-06-13. 97. ^ "Liftoff for Aurora: Europe’s first steps to Mars, the Moon and beyond"

(October 11, 2002). Retrieved on 2007-03-03. 98. ^ "NASA aims to put man on Mars by 2037". Yahoo.com. 99. ^ NASA Selects 'MAVEN' Mission to Study Mars Atmosphere100. ^ "Deimos". Planetary Societies's Explore the Cosmos. Retrieved on

2006-06-13.

101. ^ "Mars Observing FAQ". Shallow Sky. Retrieved on 2006-06-15. 102. ^ Rao, Joe (August 22, 2003). "NightSky Friday – Mars and Earth: The

Top 10 Close Passes Since 3000 B.C.". Space.com. Retrieved on 2006-06-13. 103. ^ Breyer, Stephen (March 1979). "Mutual Occultation of Planets". Sky

and Telescope 57 #3: 220.104. ^ Snyder, Dave (May 2001). "An Observational History of Mars".

Retrieved on 2007-02-26. 105. ^ Sagan, Carl (1980). Cosmos. New York, USA: Random House.

pp. p.107. ISBN 0394502949.106. ^ Zahnle K. (2001). "Decline and fall of the Martian empire". Nature 412:

209–213. doi:10.1038/35084148.107. ^ Salisbury F. B. (1962). "Martian Biology". Science (journal) 136

(3510): 17–26, http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0036-8075%2819620406%293%3A136%3A3510%3C17%3AMB%3E2.0.CO%3B2-R. Retrieved on 26 February 2007.

108. ^ NASA probe confirms water on Mars AFP July 31, 2008 109. ^ "Google Mars". Retrieved on 2007-02-26. 110. ^ NASA probe confirms water on Mars AFP, July 31, 2008 111. ^ Sheeham, William (February 2, 1997). "Motions of Mars". The Planet

Mars:: A History of Observation and Discovery. Retrieved on 2006-06-13.112. ^ "Planet Symbols". NASA solar system exploration. Retrieved on 2006-

06-13. 113. ^ "Percivel Lowell's Canals". Retrieved on 2007-03-01. 114. ^ Fergus, Charles (May 2004). "Mars Fever". Research/Penn State 24 (2),

http://www.rps.psu.edu/0305/mars.html. Retrieved on 2 August 2007.115. ^ Tesla, Nikola (February 19, 1901). "Talking with the Planets". Collier's

Weekly. Retrieved on 2007-05-04. 116. ^ Cheney, Margaret (1981). Tesla, man out of time. Englewood Cliffs,

New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. pp. 162. ISBN 978-0-13-906859-1. OCLC 7672251.117. ^ "Departure of Lord Kelvin", The New York Times, May 11, 1902, p.29. 118. ^ a b Professor Pickering (January 16, 1901). "The Light Flash From Mars"

(PDF). The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2007-05-20. Retrieved on 2007-05-20.

119. ^ Sagan, Carl (1980). Cosmos. New York, USA: Random House. pp. p.106. ISBN 0394502949.

120. ^ "Radio's War of the Worlds Broadcast (1938)". Retrieved on 2007-03-01.

121. ^ "Swift, Jonathan and the moons of Mars". David Darling. Retrieved on 2007-03-01.

122. ^ Kathy Miles and Charles F Peters II. "Unmasking the Face". Retrieved on 2007-03-01.

External links

3D maps of Mars in NASA World Wind Google Mars – Interactive image of Mars

Flight Into Mariner Valley – NASA/JPL/Arizona State University 3D flythrough of Valles Marineris

Guide to Mars – information about Mars and how to observe it. Nine Planets Mars page On Mars: Exploration of the Red Planet 1958–1978 from the NASA History

Office. Martian Law – a CATO white paper Computer Simulation of a flyby through Mariner Valley Mars Unearthed – Comparisons of terrains between Earth and Mars Ralph Aeschliman's Online Atlas of Mars Geody Mars – World's search engine that supports NASA World Wind, Celestia,

and other applications. Be on Mars – Anaglyphs from the Mars Rovers (3D) NASA/JPL OnMars WMS Server for Mars Data – Work as Google Earth client

overlays Exploring Mars: Image Center Mars Astronomy Cast episode #52, includes full transcript. BBC News update on Mars Express' findings of polar water ice and water-eroded

features on the surface BBC News Mars pictures reveal frozen sea 04/02/07: ESA Prepares for a Human Mission to Mars Mars' apparent relative size at opposition as seen by HST Mars articles in Planetary Science Research Discoveries

Cartographic resources

Mars Nomenclature PDS Map-a-planet Viking Photomap MOLA (topographic) map

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

Mars GlobalSurveyor Arrival

Press KitSeptember 1997

Contacts

Douglas Isbell Policy/Program Management 202/358-1753Headquarters, Washington, DC

Franklin O’Donnell Mars Global Surveyor 818/354-5011Jet Propulsion Laboratory, MissionPasadena, CA

ContentsGeneral Release ............................................................................................................................ 3Media Services Information .......................................................................................................... 7Quick Facts ................................................................................................................................... 8Mars at a Glance ........................................................................................................................... 9Historical Mars Missions ............................................................................................................ 10Why Mars? .................................................................................................................................. 11The Multi-Year Mars Program .................................................................................................... 14Mission Overview ........................................................................................................................ 17Spacecraft .................................................................................................................................... 27Science Objectives ....................................................................................................................... 31Program/Project Management .................................................................................................... 34

1

RELEASE:

MARS GLOBAL SURVEYOR ON TARGET FOR ARRIVAL

NASA's Mars Global Surveyor, the first in a new series of spacecraft destined to explorethe red planet, is preparing to intercept the orbit of Mars and begin a two-year mapping missionafter a 10-month, 700-million-kilometer (435-million-mile) interplanetary journey.

The orbiter will fire its main engine beginning at 01:17 Universal Time on September12 (6:17 p.m. Pacific Daylight Time September 11) for 22 minutes to slow its speed enough tobe captured in orbit around the planet.

Mars Global Surveyor is a global mapping mission, carrying a suite of science instru-ments designed to study the entire Martian surface, atmosphere and interior. Measurements willbe collected beginning in March 1998 from a low-altitude, nearly polar orbit 378 kilometers(234 miles) above the Martian surface over the course of one complete Martian year, the equiv-alent of nearly two Earth years.

"Throughout its primary, two-year mission, Mars Global Surveyor will gather informa-tion on the geology, geophysics and climate of Mars," said Glenn E. Cunningham, GlobalSurveyor project manager at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA.

"The mission will provide a global portrait of Mars as it exists today," he said. "Thisnew view will help planetary scientists to better understand the history of Mars' evolution, andwill provide clues about the planet's interior and surface evolution. With this information, wewill have a better understanding of the history of all of the inner planets of the solar system,including our home planet, Earth."

Mars Global Surveyor continues NASA's long exploration of the red planet, whichbegan more than 30 years ago with the Mariner 4 spacecraft that produced the first pictures ofthe planet's cratered surface. Following the successful landing of the Mars Pathfinder lander androver on July 4, 1997, Mars Global Surveyor is the first in a multi-year series of missions calledthe Mars Surveyor program that will lead to eventual human expeditions to the red planet.

Mars Global Surveyor was launched at 12:00:49 p.m. Eastern Standard Time onNovember 7, 1996, atop a three-stage Delta II launch vehicle from launch pad 17A at CapeCanaveral Air Station, FL. The third-stage Star 48B solid rocket later propelled the spacecraftout of Earth orbit and on its way to Mars.

Once on course for the cruise to Mars, the spacecraft deployed its two solar panels tobegin generating solar power. One of the solar panels did not fully deploy and is tilted about 20degrees from its intended position; this is not, however, expected to pose a significant risk tothe mission. The low-gain antenna was used for initial spacecraft communications, until the

3

spacecraft was far enough away from Earth in early January 1997 to begin using its 1.5-meter-diameter (5-foot) high-gain antenna.

Mars Global Surveyor's six science instruments — the thermal emission spectrometer,laser altimeter, magnetometer/electron reflectometer, ultra-stable oscillator, camera and radiorelay system — were calibrated during the cruise to Mars. Three trajectory correction maneu-vers were performed to fine-tune the spacecraft's flight path. All spacecraft systems and theinstrument payload performed well as Mars Global Surveyor headed for its destination, accord-ing to Joe Beerer, Global Surveyor flight operations manager.

When Surveyor reaches Mars, its 660-newton main engine will fire to slow the space-craft's speed by more than 973 meters per second (2,176 miles per hour) with respect to Marsand allow the craft to be captured by Mars' gravity.

"Mars Global Surveyor will be flying over the north pole when it enters orbit aroundMars," said Wayne Lee, Mars Global Surveyor mission planner. "The spacecraft will spend thefirst six days in this highly elliptical orbit around the planet, completing one orbit around Marsin about 45 hours, or just less than two days."

Instrument calibrations and some science measurements will take place during the ellip-tical orbit phase, said Dr. Arden Albee, Mars Global Surveyor project scientist.

“The spacecraft will be passing in and out of the planet’s magnetic field, if indeed Marshas one, during the early and larger elliptical orbits around the planet,” he said. “GlobalSurveyor will be able to make unique observations of interactions of magnetic field lines withthe solar wind. In addition, it will make calibrations of the magnetometer and electron spec-trometer that would not be possible from the lower-altitude mapping orbit.

“The thermal emission spectrometer and the camera will obtain initial observations onthe surface and atmosphere of Mars,” Albee continued. “These will provide valuable insightinto changes in the atmosphere that might affect the safety of the spacecraft during aerobrakingoperations.”

Six days after Mars arrival, the spacecraft will begin an innovative braking process,called aerobraking, to lower itself into a low-altitude mapping orbit. Aerobraking allows aspacecraft to use the drag of a planet's atmosphere to lower its orbit without relying on propel-lant. The technique was first tested in the summer of 1993, using the Magellan spacecraft orbit-ing Venus.

During each of its orbits shortly after Mars arrival, Mars Global Surveyor will passthrough the upper fringes of the Martian atmosphere each time it reaches periapsis, the point inits orbit closest to the planet. Friction from the atmosphere will cause the spacecraft to beslowed slightly and lose some of its momentum during each orbit. Each time the spacecraft dipsinto the atmosphere, its one tilted solar panel will be rotated 180 degrees to protect it from fold-ing up. As the spacecraft loses momentum, the apoapsis, or the point in its orbit farthest from

4

Mars, will also be lowered.

Trimming its orbit from the highly elliptical, 45-hour orbit to a nearly circular, two-hourorbit will take about four months. Five engine burns will accomplish the first orbital adjust-ments, lowering the periapsis (or closest point to Mars) from about 250 kilometers (156 miles)to about 112 kilometers (69 miles) above the surface.

Next, Mars Global Surveyor will spend about three months adjusting the farthest part ofits orbit from 54,000 kilometeres (33,480 miles) to about 2,000 kilometers (1,240 miles). As thespacecraft's orbit is trimmed, the time it takes to make one complete revolution around Marswill diminish to less than three hours.

In the final three weeks of aerobraking, Global Surveyor will raise the closest part of itsorbit once again, until it is circling Mars in a 350- by 410-kilometer (217- by 254-mile) orbit,very close to the final mapping orbit. With this adjustment, the spacecraft will be orbiting Marsabout once every 118 minutes, and crossing Mars' equator at about 2 p.m. local solar time eachorbit.

As the spacecraft continues to circularize its orbit, the 34-meter-diameter (112-foot)antennas of NASA’s Deep Space Network will be used to begin a navigation and radio scienceexperiment, measuring small shifts in the spacecraft's velocity that will tell scientists moreabout the planet's gravity field.

All of the spacecraft's instruments will be turned on around March 10, 1998, and themapping mission will begin on March 15. Data from this final checkout phase will allow thespacecraft to obtain one complete global map of the surface — a process that will take sevendays — before the dust storm season begins in the spring.

"In 1998 the Martian dust storms occur roughly between February and August, so theatmosphere may be disturbed when mapping begins," Albee said. "But we may have an excel-lent opportunity to obtain data on the spread of a global Martian dust storm, should one occurnext year."

In its final mapping orbit, Mars Global Surveyor will circle Mars at a speed of about 3.4kilometers per second (7,600 miles per hour) in an orbit that will take it close to both poles. Onthe day side of the planet, Global Surveyor will be traveling from north to south. On each orbit,it will cross the equator at about 2 p.m. local mean solar time. The spacecraft will always seethe surface of Mars on the daylit side as it appears at mid-afternoon. This “sun-synchronous”orbit puts the Sun at a standard angle above the horizon in each image.

Experiment teams will control their spaceborne instruments from their home institutions.Each 24 hours worth of data will be transmitted to Earth during daily, 10-hour tracking passesperformed by NASA's Deep Space Network.

The Mars Global Surveyor mission is expected to yield more than 700 billion bits of

5

scientific data, more than the amount of data returned by all previous Mars missions, andexceeded only by the Magellan Venus mission.

Mars Global Surveyor will examine the entire planet — from the ionosphere, an enve-lope of charged particles surrounding Mars, down through the atmosphere to the surface anddeep into Mars' interior. Scientists will glean valuable new information on daily and seasonalweather patterns, geological features and the migration of water vapor from hemisphere tohemisphere over a complete Martian year.

As the primary mission winds down in late 1999, Global Surveyor will be used to relaydata from microprobes penetrators beneath the surface of Mars that will have been deployedbefore arrival by the 1998 Mars Surveyor, and will be used as a backup relay platform for datafrom the Mars Surveyor '98 lander itself. Depending on its lifetime, Global Surveyor may alsoserve as a communications relay station for other spacecraft arriving at Mars.

Mars Global Surveyor is the first mission in a sustained program of robotic explorationof Mars, managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA, for NASA's Office of SpaceScience, Washington, DC. JPL is a division of the California Institute of Technology.

[End of General Release]

6

Media Services Information

NASA Television Transmission

NASA Television is broadcast on the satellite GE-2, transponder 9C, C Band, 85degrees west longitude, frequency 3880.0 MHz, vertical polarization, audio monaural at 6.8MHz. Television coverage of the Mars Global Surveyor orbit insertion begins at 5 p.m. PacificDaylight Time on Sept. 11 and concludes at approximately 8:30 p.m. PDT, following a livenews briefing. The schedule for NASA TV programming is available from the Jet PropulsionLaboratory, Pasadena, CA; Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX; Kennedy Space Center, FL;and NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.

Status Reports

Status reports on Mars Global Surveyor will be issued by the Jet PropulsionLaboratory's Public Information Office. They may be accessed online as noted below. Dailyaudio status reports are available by calling (800) 391-6654.

Briefings

A pre-arrival mission and science overview briefing, originating from the Jet PropulsionLaboratory, will be carried live on NASA TV at 10 a.m. Pacific Daylight Time on Tuesday,September 9. Status briefings will be held at 10 a.m. PDT Wednesday and Thursday, September10-11. A post-arrival briefing will be held at 7:40 p.m. PDT Thursday, September 11. A brief-ing presenting initial science findings is tentatively scheduled the week of September 22-26.

Image Releases

Images returned by Mars Global Surveyor will be released to the news media in elec-tronic format only during the mission. The images will be available in a variety of file formatsfrom the JPL home page at http://www.jpl.nasa.gov. Images will also be distributed from theMars Orbiter Camera principal investigator's web site at http://www.msss.com.

Internet Information

Extensive information on Mars Global Surveyor — including an electronic copy of thispress kit, as well as news releases, fact sheets, status reports, spacecraft and science data andimages — is available from the Jet Propulsion Laboratory's World Wide Web home page athttp://www.jpl.nasa.gov. The Mars Global Surveyor Project also maintains a home page athttp://marsweb.jpl.nasa.gov. Data from all of the mission's science instruments will be avail-able on the home pages of each instrument's principal investigator; these addresses are linked tothe Mars Global Surveyor project's home page.

7

Quick Facts

SpacecraftDimensions: Main structure 1.2 by 1.2 by 1.8 meters (4 by 4 by 6 feet); 12 meters (40 feet)

across with fully deployed solar panelsSpacecraft mass at Mars arrival: 767 kg (1,691 lbs)Science instruments: thermal emission spectrometer; laser altimeter; magnetometer/electron

reflectometer; ultra-stable oscillator; camera; radio relay system Solar arrays: 2 panels, each 3.5 meters (11 feet) long; power 980 watts maximum;

cells composed of gallium arsenide and siliconRadio: 25-watt transmitter, X-band (8 GHz)High-gain antenna diameter: 1.5 meters (4.9 feet)

Launch/CruiseLaunch: 12:00:49 p.m. Eastern Standard Time (17:00:49 Universal Time) November 7, 1996,

from Cape Canaveral Air Station, FLCruise: 10 months

Mars Orbit Inser tionOrbit insertion burn: Begins 01:17:16 and ends at 01:39:33 Universal Time on Sept 12, 1997

(6:17 p.m. to 6:39 p.m. Pacific Daylight Time Sept 11, 1997); duration 22 min, 17 secOne-way speed of light time on arrival day: 14 minutes, 6 secondsTime burn observed on Earth: Begins 6:31 p.m. and ends 6:53 p.m. PDT Sept 11, 1997Mars-Earth distance on arrival day: 254.6 million km (158 million mi)Change in velocity: 973 m/sec (2,176 mph)Velocity before burn (with respect to Mars): 5.09 km/sec (11,386 mph)Velocity after burn (with respect to Mars): 4.40 km/sec (9,842 mph)Average deceleration due to burn: 7/100ths of 1 Earth GMartian seasons at arrival: Fall in northern hemisphere, spring in south

Aerobraking and Mapping MissionPeriod of aerobraking: Begins September 17, 1997; continues for 4 monthsPeriod of initial elliptical orbit: 45 hours, plus or minus 3 hoursFinal mapping orbit: period 117 min, mean altitude 378 km (234 mi), polar, sun-synchronousPrimary mapping mission: March 15, 1998 to January 31, 2000; covers 1 Martian year (687

Earth days)Martian seasons when mapping begins: Winter in northern hemisphere, summer in south

ProgramDevelopment time: 26 monthsCosts: $148 million pre-launch development; $52.6 million launch; $46.4 million mission opsSpacecraft industrial partner: Lockheed Martin Astronautics, Denver, CO

8

Mars at a Glance

Generalq One of 5 planets known to ancients; Mars was Roman god of war, agriculture and the stateq Reddish color; at times the 3rd brightest object in night sky after the Moon and Venus

Physical Characteristicsq Average diameter 6,794 kilometers (4,219 miles); about half the size of Earth, but twice thesize of Earth’s Moonq Mass 1/10th of Earth’s; gravity only 38 percent as strong as Earth’sq Density 3.9 times greater than water (compared to Earth’s 5.5 times greater than water)q No magnetic field detected to date

Orbitq Fourth planet from the Sun, the next beyond Earthq About 1.5 times farther from the Sun than Earth isq Orbit elliptical; distance from Sun varies from a minimum of 206.7 million kilometers(128.4 million miles) to a maximum of 249.2 million kilometers (154.8 million miles); averagedistance from Sun, 227.7 million kilometers (141.5 million miles)q Revolves around Sun once every 687 Earth daysq Rotation period (length of day in Earth days) 24 hours, 37 min, 23 sec (1.026 Earth days)q Poles tilted 25 degrees, creating seasons similar to Earth’s

Envir onmentq Atmosphere composed chiefly of carbon dioxide (95.3%), nitrogen (2.7%) and argon (1.6%)q Surface atmospheric pressure 8 millibars (less than 1/100th that of Earth’s average)q Surface temperature averages -53 C (-64 F); varies from -128 C (-199 F) during polar nightto 27 C (80 F) at equator during midday at closest point in orbit to Sun

Featuresq Highest point is Olympus Mons, a huge shield volcano more than 15,900 meters (52,000feet) high and 600 kilometers (370 miles) across; has about the same area as Arizonaq Canyon system of Valles Marineris is largest and deepest known in solar system; extendsmore than 4,000 kilometers (2,500 miles) and has 5 to 10 kilometers (3 to 6 miles) relief fromfloors to tops of surrounding plateausq “Canals” observed by Giovanni Schiaparelli and Percival Lowell about 100 years ago were avisual illusion in which dark areas appeared connected by lines. The Viking missions of the1970s, however, established that Mars has channels probably cut by ancient rivers

Moonsq Two irregularly shaped moons, each only a few kilometers wideq Larger moon named Phobos (“fear”); smaller is Deimos (“terror”), named for attributes personified in Greek mythology as sons of the god of war

9

Historical Mars Missions

Mission, Country, Launch Date, Purpose, Results

Mars 1, USSR, 11/1/62, Mars flyby, lost at 106 million kilometers (65.9 million miles)Mariner 3, U.S., 11/5/64, Mars flyby, shroud failedMariner 4, U.S. 11/28/64, first successful Mars flyby 7/14/65, returned 21 photosZond 2, USSR, 11/30/64, Mars flyby, failed to return planetary dataMariner 6, U.S., 2/24/69, Mars flyby 7/31/69, returned 75 photosMariner 7, U.S., 3/27/69, Mars flyby 8/5/69, returned 126 photosMariner 8, U.S., 5/8/71, Mars flyby, failed during launchMars 2, USSR, 5/19/71, Mars orbiter/lander arrived 11/27/71, no useful data returnedMars 3, USSR, 5/28/71, Mars orbiter/lander, arrived 12/3/71, some data and few photosMariner 9, U.S., 5/30/71, Mars orbiter, in orbit 11/13/71 to 10/27/72, returned 7,329 photosMars 4, USSR, 7/21/73, failed Mars orbiter, flew past Mars 2/10/74Mars 5, USSR, 7/25/73, Mars orbiter, arrived 2/12/74, some dataMars 6, USSR, 8/5/73, Mars orbiter/lander, arrived 3/12/74, little data returnMars 7, USSR, 8/9/73, Mars orbiter/lander, arrived 3/9/74, little data returnViking 1, U.S., 8/20/75, Mars orbiter/lander, orbit 6/19/76-1980, lander 7/20/76-1982Viking 2, U.S., 9/9/75, Mars orbiter/lander, orbit 8/7/76-1987, lander 9/3/76-1980; combined,

the Viking orbiters and landers returned 50,000+ photosPhobos 1, USSR, 7/7/88, Mars/Phobos orbiter/lander, lost 8/88 en route to MarsPhobos 2, USSR, 7/12/88, Mars/Phobos orbiter/lander, lost 3/89 near PhobosMars Observer, U.S., 9/25/92, orbiter, lost just before Mars arrival 8/22/93 (8/21/93 EDT)Mars Global Surveyor, 11/7/96, orbiter, en route to orbit insertion 9/12/97 (9/11/97 EDT)Mars 96, Russia, 11/16/96, orbiter and landers, failed during launchMars Pathfinder, U.S., 12/4/96, landed 7/4/97, lander and rover, fulfilled all science objectives

10

Why Mars?

Of all the planets in the solar system, Mars is the most like Earth and the planet mostlikely to support eventual human expeditions. Earth's Moon and Mercury are dry, airless bodies.Venus has suffered a runaway greenhouse effect, developing a very dense carbon dioxideatmosphere that has resulted in the escape of all of its water and the rise of torrid, inhospitablesurface temperatures of nearly 500 C(about 900 F). Mars, on the other hand, has all of theingredients necessary for life, including an atmosphere, polar caps and large amounts of waterlocked beneath its surface. Mars, in fact, is the only other terrestrial planet thought to haveabundant water that could be mined and converted into its liquid form to support human life.

Compared to Earth, Mars is about 6,800 kilometers (4,200 miles) in diameter, about halfthe diameter and about one-eighth the volume of Earth. Mars turns on its axis once every 24hours, 37 minutes, making a Martian day — called a "sol" — only slightly longer than an Earthday. The planet's poles are tilted to the plane of its orbit at an angle of 25 degrees — about thesame amount as Earth, whose poles are titled at 23.3 degrees to the ecliptic plane. Because ofits tilted axis, Mars has Earth-like seasonal changes and a wide variety of weather phenomena.Although its atmosphere is tenuous, winds and clouds as high as about 25 kilometers (15 miles)above the surface can blow across stark Martian deserts. Low-level fogs and surface frost havebeen observed by spacecraft. Spacecraft and ground-based observations have revealed hugedust storms that often start in the southern regions and can spread across the entire planet.

Early Mars may have been like early Earth. Current theories suggest that, early in itshistory, Mars may have once been much warmer, wetter and enveloped in a much thickeratmosphere. On Earth, evidence for life can be found in some of the oldest rocks, dating fromthe end of Earth's heavy bombardment by comets and meteors around 4 billion years ago.Surfaces on Mars that are about the same age show remains of ancient lakes, which suggeststhat liquid water flowed on the surface at one time and the climate was both wetter and substan-tially warmer. If this proves to be true, then further exploration may reveal whether life diddevelop on Mars at some point early in its history. If it did not, scientists will want to knowwhy it didn't. Or perhaps they will be able to determine whether life that began early on inMars' evolution could still survive in some specialized niches such as hydrothermal systemsnear volcanoes.

Mars is the most accessible planet on which to begin answering fundamental questionsabout the origin of life. Scientists want to know if we are alone in the universe. Is life a cosmicaccident, or does it develop anywhere given the proper environmental conditions? What hap-pened to liquid water on Mars? Could life have begun on Mars and been transported to Earth?

Exploring Mars also will provide us with a better understanding of significant eventsthat humankind may face in the future as Earth continues to evolve. What are the factorsinvolved in natural changes in a planet's climate, for instance? On Earth, one of the most impor-tant questions now being studied is whether or not human activities are contributing to possibleglobal warming. Could these climate changes bring about negative environmental changes such

11

as sea level rise due to the melting of the ice caps? Mars provides a natural laboratory forstudying climate changes on a variety of time scales. If Mars in the past was warmer and wet-ter, and had a thicker atmosphere, why did it change?

Layered deposits near the Martian polar caps suggest climatic fluctuations on a shortertime scale. If scientists can learn about the important factors controlling climatic changes onanother planet, they may be able to understand the consequences of natural and human-inducedchanges on Earth.

Mars is an excellent laboratory to engage in such a study. Earth and Venus are activeenvironments, constantly erasing all traces of their evolution with dynamic geological process-es. On Mercury and on Earth's Moon, only relatively undisturbed ancient rocks are present.Mars, by contrast, has experienced an intermediate level of geological activity, which has pro-duced rocks on the surface that preserve the entire history of the solar system. Sedimentaryrocks preserved on the surface contain a record of the environmental conditions in which theyformed and, consequently, any climate changes that have occurred through time.

The Search for Life

After years of exhaustive study of the data returned by the Viking spacecraft from theirbiology experiments, most scientists concluded that it is unlikely that any life currently existson the surface of Mars. Centuries of fascination about the possibility of intelligent life on thered planet seemed to fade.

Since that time more than 20 years ago, however, much has been learned about the ori-gins of life on Earth. Biologists learned that the most primitive single-celled microscopic organ-isms had sprung from hot volcanic vents at the very bottom of Earth's oceans. They found thatthe most fundamental carbonaceous organic material appear to demonstrate cell division anddifferentiated cell types, very similar to other fossils and living species. Geologists learned thatthese organisms could exist in regions along the floors of oceans in environments akin to pres-sure-cookers, at extremely hot temperatures devoid of light and prone to extreme pressures thatno human being could survive. With new technologies and sophisticated instruments, theybegan to measure the skeletons of bacteria-like organisms lodged deep within old rocks.

Then, in August 1996, a NASA-funded team of scientists announced its findings of thefirst fossil evidence thought to be from Mars. The findings re-ignited the age-old question: Arewe alone in the universe?

The two-year investigation by a team led by scientists from NASA's Johnson SpaceCenter, Houston, TX, revealed evidence that strongly suggested primitive life may have existedon Mars more than 3.6 billion years ago. Researchers discovered an igneous meteorite inEarth's Antarctica that had been blasted away from the surface of Mars in an impact event; therock was dated to about 4.5 billion years old, the period when Mars and its terrestrial neighborswere forming. According to scientists on the team, the rock contains fossil evidence of whatthey believe may have been ancient microorganisms.

12

The team studied carbonate minerals deposited in the fractures of the approximately 2-kilogram (4-pound), potato-shaped Martian meteorite. They suggested living organisms deposit-ed the carbonate — and some remains of the microscopic organisms may have become fos-silized — in a fashion similar to the formation of fossils in limestone on Earth. Then, 16 mil-lion years ago, a huge comet or asteroid struck Mars, ejecting a piece of the rock from its sub-surface location with enough force to escape the planet. For millions of years, the chunk of rockfloated through space. It encountered Earth's atmosphere 13,000 years ago and fell in Antarcticaas a meteorite.

In the tiny globs of carbonate, researchers found a number of features that could beinterpreted as having been formed by possible past life. Team members from StanfordUniversity detected organic molecules called polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) concen-trated in the vicinity of the carbonate. Researchers from NASA Johnson found iron mineralcompounds commonly associated with microscopic organisms and the possible microscopicfossil structures.

Most of the team's findings were made possible only because of very recent technologi-cal advances in high-resolution scanning electron microscopy and laser mass spectrometry. Justa few years ago, many of the features that they reported were undetectable. Although past stud-ies of the meteorite in question — designated ALH84001 — and others of Martian origin failedto detect evidence of past life, they were generally performed using lower levels of magnifica-tion, without the benefit of the technology used in this research. In addition, the recent sugges-tion of extremely small bacteria on Earth, called nanobacteria, prompted the team to performthis work at a much finer scale than had been done in the past.

The findings, presented in the August 16, 1996, issue of the journal Science, have beenput forth to the scientific community at large for further study. The team was co-led by JohnsonSpace Center planetary scientists Dr. David McKay, Dr. Everett Gibson and Kathie Thomas-Keprta of Lockheed Martin, with the major collaboration of a Stanford University team headedby chemistry professor Dr. Richard Zare, as well as six other NASA and university partners. Avariety of papers have been published in the months since that announcement that have arguedfor and against the claims that the evidence is suggestive of ancient life.

Whether or not the evidence stands up to scientific scrutiny, the suggestion alone hasrenewed interest in exploring the planets, stars and galaxies outside of the Milky Way galaxy.The questions resound: Does life exist elsewhere in the universe? And why does it exist at all?Did life as we know it originate on Earth or did it spring from other planets, only to be trans-ported to Earth, where it found the most advantageous niche for continuing evolution?

In the year 2005, NASA plans to send to Mars a sample return mission, a robotic space-craft that will be able to return soil and rock samples to Earth for direct study much as theApollo astronauts returned hundreds of pounds of lunar rocks to Earth. Additional debate andscientific experimentation with Martian meteorites in the next several years may bring about ananswer that could become a turning point in the history of civilization.

13

The Multi-Year Mars Program

Launch of the two 1996 missions to Mars — Mars Pathfinder and Mars GlobalSurveyor — ushered in a continuing U.S. campaign of Mars exploration. The program isdesigned to send low-cost spacecraft to Mars every 26 months well into the next decade.

Although they were launched within a month of each other in late 1996, Mars GlobalSurveyor and Mars Pathfinder have their roots in two separate NASA programs. MarsPathfinder was approved as a stand-alone project under NASA's Discovery program, which wascreated in 1992 to fund low-cost solar system missions. Mars Global Surveyor, on the otherhand, is the first in a multi-year series of missions under the Mars Surveyor program.

After 1996, current plans call for two Mars Surveyor spacecraft to be sent to Mars dur-ing each launch opportunity in 1998, 2001 and 2003, and a single sample-return spacecraft in2005. The program is expected to continue beyond 2005 on a direction set by results obtainedfrom earlier flights. In addition to fulfilling specific science goals, these missions are expectedto pave the way for human exploration some time early in the next century.

By 2005, NASA will have launched a series of small spacecraft with highly focused sci-ence goals probing and watching the planet, setting in place a new way of exploring the solarsystem. Based on the space agency's philosophy of bringing faster, better and cheaper missionsto fruition, combinations of orbiters and landers will take advantage of novel microtechnologies— lasers, microprocessors and electronic circuits, computers and cameras the size of a gamingdie — to deliver an ingenious armada of miniaturized robotic payloads to Earth's planetaryneighbor.

The current plan for U.S. missions to Mars is listed below. Projected costs are for space-craft development only and do not include launch vehicles, mission operations after the first 30days or spacecraft tracking.

1996:

q Mars Pathfinder (Discovery mission). Demonstrate low cost-entry and landing system, androver mobility; initiates mineralogy studies; continue study of surface characteristics andMartian weather. Cost: $171 million (capped at $150 million in fiscal year 1992 dollars), plus$25 million for rover.q Mars Global Surveyor. Perform global reconnaissance of physical and mineralogical sur-face characteristics, including evidence of water; determine global topography and geologicstructure of Mars; assess atmosphere and magnetic field during seasonal cycles; provide com-munication relay for the Mars Surveyor '98 microprobes and backup communication relay forthe Mars Surveyor '98 lander. Cost: $148 million.

14

1998:

q Mars Surveyor '98 Orbiter . Launch scheduled December 10, 1998. Characterize theMartian atmosphere, including definition of atmospheric water content during seasonal cycles.Provide primary communication relay for the Mars Surveyor '98 lander.q Mars Surveyor '98 Lander. Launch scheduled January 3, 1999. Access past and present-day water reservoirs on Mars; study surface chemistry, topology and mineralogy; continueweather studies. The spacecraft also will deliver two innovative soil microprobes developedunder NASA's New Millennium program. Combined cost of both 1998 missions: $187 million,plus $26 million for the microprobes.

2001:

q Mars Surveyor '01 Orbiter . Characterize mineralogy and chemistry of surface, includingidentification of near surface water reservoirs.q Mars Surveyor '01 Lander and Rover. Characterize terrain over tens of kilometers (ormiles) at site selected from MGS and Mars Surveyor '98 orbital observations. Select and gathersamples for possible later return. Characterize dust, soil and radiation conditions as they pertainto eventual human exploration. Test components of in-situ propellant production plant.Combined development cost of both 2001 missions: approximately $250 million.

2003:

q Mars Surveyor '03 Lander and Rover. Characterize terrain over tens of kilometers (ormiles) at a site chosen using earlier orbital observations; select and gather samples for possiblelater return. Other objectives, related to eventual human exploration, are expected to be addedto both 2003 missions. q Mars Surveyor '03 Orbiter : Provide communications and navigation facilities for 2003 andlater missions on the Martian surface. Combined development cost of both 2003 missions:approximately $220 million.

2005:

q Sample Return Mission. Return a sample from one of the two rovers launched in 2001 and2003. Development cost: approximately $400 million.

Beyond 2005:

q To be determined. Plans will depend on results of earlier missions.

15

International Cooperation

International collaboration on all Mars missions will be an important aspect of explo-ration in the next decade. Many space agencies around the world are considering participationin the planning stages of future missions, including those of Russia, Japan and many Europeancountries. Scientists from the United States are consulting with international partners on thebest ways to combine their efforts in Mars exploration. This may result in new proposals forcooperative missions in the first decade of the 21st century.

Among the ongoing programs taking shape is one called "Mars Together," a concept forthe joint exploration of Mars by Russia and the United States. The program was initiated in thespring of 1994 and bore its first fruit in the summer of 1995. A Russian co-principal investiga-tor and Russian hardware were incorporated into one experiment, the pressure modulatorinfrared radiometer, to be flown on NASA's Mars Surveyor 1998 orbiter. Dr. Vassili Moroz ofthe Russian Academy of Sciences Space Research Institute (IKI) in Moscow will co-lead theexperiment with Dr. Daniel McCleese of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. The Russian insti-tute also will provide the optical bench for the radiometer. In addition, IKI will furnish a com-plete science instrument, the LIDAR (light detection and ranging) atmospheric sounder, for the1998 Mars Surveyor lander.

Under Mars Together, NASA is discussing possible collaboration with Russia on a mis-sion in 2001. This possible arrangement involves an additional rover launched and operated byRussia that also would select and gather samples for possible later return. The Mars Surveyor'01 orbiter would provide the communications relay for this rover.

Japan also is building an orbiter, called Planet B, to study the Martian upper atmosphereand its interaction with the solar wind. The spacecraft, to be launched in August 1998, willcarry a U.S. neutral mass spectrometer instrument to investigate the upper atmosphere, in addi-tion to a variety of Japanese instruments.

The nations of Europe are considering a mission in 2003 called Mars Express. The ten-tative plan includes an orbiter carrying one or more small landers and remote-sensing instru-ments that would study topography and surface minerals. A final decision on this mission isexpected before the end of 1998.

16

Mission Overview

Mars Global Surveyor is a global mapping mission, designed to gather data on theatmosphere, surface and interior of Mars. Global data sets will enable scientists to determineMars' current state and characterize its evolution. Among a myriad of science objectives, MarsGlobal Surveyor will study Mars' climate, surface topography and subsurface resources, andmap the entire globe. Information from the mission will serve as a foundation for planningfuture robotic and human missions to Mars.

Launch

Mars Global Surveyor was launched at 12:00:49 p.m. Eastern Standard Time onNovember 7, 1996, atop a Delta II 7925A launch vehicle from launch pad 17A at CapeCanaveral Air Station, FL. The launch was delayed one day due to clouds and upper levelwinds on the first day of the launch period.

After liftof f, the first stage of the three-stage Delta rocket and the nine solid-fuel strap-on boosters lifted the spacecraft to an altitude of about 115 kilometers (70 miles) above Earth,and the Delta's second stage then boosted the payload into a circular parking orbit 185 kilo-metes (115 miles) above Earth. After achieving the parking orbit, the booster and spacecraftcoasted for about 35 minutes, then fired to raise the apogee, or high point, of the parking orbit.

Small rockets were used to spin up the Delta's third stage and spacecraft to 60 rpm. Thesecond stage was jettisoned and the third stage, a Star 48B solid rocket, was ignited to completethe trans-Mars injection burn and send Global Surveyor on its way to the red planet.

Solar panel deployment. About an hour after launch, the spacecraft's two 3.5-meter(11-foot) solar arrays were unfolded and a piece of metal called the "damper arm" on one of thepanels was broken off during the deployment. (The damper arm is the part of the solar arraydeployment mechanism at the joint where the entire panel is attached to the spacecraft.) Themetal fragment became trapped in the 50-millimeter (2-inch) space between the panel's shoul-der joint and the edge of the solar panel, leaving the array about 19 degrees from its fullydeployed position.

The damper arm connects the panel to a device called the "rate damper," which func-tions in much the same way as the hydraulic closer on a screen door acts to slow the speed atwhich the door closes. In Global Surveyor's case, the rate damper was used to slow the motionof the solar panel as it unfolded from its stowed position.

The operations team studied the problem with engineering data and computer-simulatedmodels over the next two weeks. Two strategies for correcting the problem emerged. The firstinvolved performing several slight maneuvers using the spacecraft's electrically driven solararray positioning actuators to try to gently shake the array and free the trapped debris. Thesemaneuvers were carried out in January and February 1997, to no avail.

17

The second strategy was to reconfigure the solar panel during aerobraking so that theunlatched side of the panel would not be facing into the direction of the air flow and at risk offolding up on itself. The solar arrays are essential to the aerobraking technique and will be usedto provide the drag surface that will slow the spacecraft's orbital speed, transforming its initialelliptical orbit into the final, circular mapping orbit. The technique allows Global Surveyor tocarry considerably less fuel to Mars and take advantage of the planet's atmospheric drag tolower itself into the correct orbit.

After testing and analysis, the flight team determined that aerobraking could be safelyaccomplished by rotating the panel 180 degrees, turning the panel's solar-cell side into the flowof wind each time the spacecraft dips into the Martian atmosphere. By turning the panel's solar-cell side into the direction of the air flow, force will be exerted on the debris that is lodgedin the hinge. The force of the air flow on the opposite side of the panel will insure the paneldoes not close up, and may possibly exert enough force to snap the panel into the latched posi-tion.

Cruise

The spacecraft spent 309 days en route to Mars, following what navigators call a Type 2trajectory. This type of flight path took the spacecraft more than 180 degrees around the Sunand, compared with other types of trajectories, is a slower way to reach Mars. Because thespacecraft has been traveling at a slower velocity, however, it will require less propellant toslow down once it is ready to be captured in orbit around the destination planet.

On the first part of its flight, all spacecraft communications with Earth occurred throughGlobal Surveyor's broad-beam, low-gain antenna. The dish-shaped, narrow-beam high-gainantenna sat on the spacecraft in a stowed, body-fixed orientation during cruise, making commu-nications with Earth through the high-gain antenna impossible unless the spacecraft was turnedto point the high-gain antenna directly at Earth.

Outer cruise began on January 9, 1997, when the spacecraft switched from the low-gainto the high-gain antenna for communications with Earth. The switch-over became feasible whenthe angle between the Sun and Earth as seen from the spacecraft fell to a level low enough toallow the solar panels to collect adequate power while pointing the antenna at Earth.

Three trajectory correction maneuvers were performed along the trip to Mars to fine-tune the spacecraft's flight path. These thruster firings were performed on November 21, 1996,March 20, 1997, and August 25, 1997. Another maneuver had been scheduled for April 21,1997, but was not necessary and, hence, not performed.

During the last 30 days of approach to Mars, the flight team focused on final targetingof the spacecraft to the proper aim point, and preparations for orbit insertion. On August 19 and20, the spacecraft's camera took a series of eight images of Mars, at a distance of 5.5 millionkilometers (3.4 million miles). With a resolution of about 20 kilometers (12.5 miles) per picture

18

element, these images were processed to create a movie of the planet as it rotated.

Mars Orbit Inser tion

Mars Global Surveyor will perform an attitude reorientation maneuver once it reachesthe orbit of Mars to turn the spacecraft's main engine toward the direction of its motion, ortoward Mars. Then the spacecraft will fire its 660-newton main engine for approximately 22minutes, 17 seconds, to slow down. The burn will begin at 01:17:16 and conclude at 01:39:33Universal Time (UT)September 12, 1997 (6:17 to 6:39 p.m. September 11, 1997 PacificDaylight Time (PDT)). Because it takes 14 minutes, 6 seconds for radio signals to travel fromMars to Earth on arrival day, the beginning and end of the burn will be detected on Earth at6:31 and 6:53 p.m. PDT, respectively.

Telecommunications with the spacecraft will cease 9 minutes into the burn as MarsGlobal Surveyor passes behind Mars as seen from Earth. This occultation will last 14 minutes.NASA's Deep Space Network tracking facilities in California and Australia will regain commu-nications with Global Surveyor at 01:57:00 UT (6:57 p.m. PDT), when the spacecraftreemerges from behind Mars.

By completion of the burn, the spacecraft will have slowed down by about 973 metersper second (2,176 miles per hour) with respect to Mars. Global Surveyor will be in a highlyelliptical orbit, completing one revolution around Mars every 45 hours, plus or minus 3 hours.

Aerobraking

Selection of the less expensive Delta II booster in order to stay within program costsplaced mass limitations on Mars Global Surveyor and prevented it from carrying enough pro-pellant to Mars to directly achieve a low-altitude mapping orbit. An innovative, mission-enabling braking technique known as aerobraking was chosen instead to trim the spacecraft'sinitial, highly elliptical capture orbit and lower it to a nearly circular mapping orbit.

The Magellan spacecraft at Venus was the first planetary spacecraft to try aerobraking,as a demonstration, in the summer of 1993. The success of this demonstration cleared the wayfor its implementation in the Mars Global Surveyor mission design.

Global Surveyor's use of aerobraking will differ from that performed with the Magellanspacecraft in two important ways. First, Global Surveyor must aerobrake before it can start itsprimary mapping mission, whereas Magellan tested aerobraking as an engineering demonstra-tion at the conclusion of its mission. Consequently, Global Surveyor's mission objectives aredependent on successfully aerobraking through the Martian atmosphere until the proper map-ping orbit is achieved. Not only must aerobraking be successful, but it must be accomplished sothat the spacecraft crosses the equator within a few minutes of 2 p.m. local solar time eachorbit. This is called a “sun-synchronous” orbit. These two elements of the aerobraking phasemake the Mars Global Surveyor's navigation by far the most challenging of the planetary mis-sions to date.

19

20

Mars Global SurveyorOrbit Insertion T imeline

Thursday, September 11, 1997All times are Earth-received, Pacific Daylight Time

12:40 p.m. Deep Space Station 14 at Goldstone, CA, begins tracking

12:40 Deep Space Station 15 at Goldstone, CA, begins tracking

4:31 Gyro #2 turned on

4:35 Deep Space Station 43 in Australia begins tracking

4:35 Deep Space Station 45 in Australia begins tracking

5:01 Spacecraft begins loading maneuver control parameters

5:17 Deep Space Station 15 transmitter off

5:31 Spacecraft begins maneuver command block

5:55 Spacecraft transmitter switches from high-gain antenna to low-gain antenna #1

5:55 Spacecraft's telemetry turned off; transmits only carrier signal

~5:59 Deep Space Stations re-acquire signal

6:01 Thrusters enabled for steering and attitude control during orbit insertion

6:14 Spacecraft starts turn to align rocket engine in burn direction

6:15 Solar arrays begin turning to orbit insertion orientation

6:29 Inertia measurement unit set to supply accelerometer data

6:30 Fuel and oxidizer valves enabled and armed

6:31 Main engine burn begins

6:40 Deep Space Station 45 transmitter on

6:43 Spacecraft passes behind Mars; radio signal lost

6:44 Closest approach to Mars (periapsis #1)

6:53 Main engine burn ends

6:55 Attitude control returned to reaction wheels

6:55 Spacecraft turns to Earth point and resumes array-normal-spin attitude

6:56 Solar arrays moved to array-normal-spin position

6:57 Spacecraft emerges from behind Mars

~6:57 - 7:03 Deep Space Stations acquire spacecraft carrier signal

7:10 Spacecraft transmitter switches from low-gain antenna to high-gain antenna

7:10 Spacecraft resumes transmitting telemetry (data)

During each of its orbits shortly after Mars arrival, the spacecraft will pass through theupper fringes of the Martian atmosphere each time it reaches periapsis, the point in its orbitclosest to the planet. Friction from the atmosphere will cause the spacecraft to slow slightly andlose some of its momentum during each orbit. Loss of momentum will lower the spacecraft'sapoapsis, or the point in its orbit farthest from Mars.

Aerobraking will take place over four months, beginning with an initial "walk-in" phase.After the spacecraft is captured in a 45-hour (plus or minus 3 hours) elliptical orbit aroundMars, its apoapsis and periapsis will be gradually adjusted as scientists and engineers learnmore about the density of Mars' upper atmosphere. The flight team will be able to gauge atmos-pheric density and variations from one orbit to another, while the spacecraft is tracked continu-ously by the 34-meter-diameter (112-foot) antennas of NASA’s Deep Space Network, which aredesigned to both transmit and receive X-band signals.

In the initial walk-in phase, the spacecraft's closest pass over Mars will be lowered fromthe capture orbit of 250 kilometers (156 miles) above the surface to about 112 kilometers (69miles) above the surface. This will be done with a series of five propulsive maneuvers, usingthe spacecraft's thrusters. The first of these propulsive burns, scheduled to take place onSeptember 16, will be the largest and drop the spacecraft's periapsis altitude to 150 kilometers(93 miles). The next four burns, occurring on September 18, 20, 22 and 24, will lower thespacecraft gradually to the 112-kilometer (69-mile) aerobraking altitude.

After completion of the walk-in phase, the spacecraft will spend about three months inthe main phase of aerobraking. During this time, Global Surveyor's apoapsis altitude of 54,000kilometers (33,480 miles) will be dropped to about 2,000 kilometers (1,240 miles). As thespacecraft's orbit is trimmed, the time it takes to make one complete revolution around Marswill drop to less than three hours.

The final three weeks of aerobraking constitute the "walk-out" phase and will reduce thespacecraft's apoapsis to 450 kilometers (279 miles) above the surface of Mars. As GlobalSurveyor lowers its apoapsis, it will also use its thrusters to gradually raise its periapsis from112 kilometers (69 miles) to 143 kilometers (89 miles) above the surface. By doing so, thespacecraft will be slowly "walking out" of the atmosphere during each closest approach toMars. Adjustments in both the farthest and closest points in Mars Global Surveyor's orbitaround the planet will be reshaping its flight path from highly elliptical to a nearly circularorbit.

Aerobraking will end with a termination burn performed on about January 18, 1998.This burn will raise Global Surveyor's periapsis one final time, from 143 kilometers (89 miles)to approximately 450 kilometers (279 miles) above the surface of Mars. The spacecraft willthen be circling Mars in a 400- by 450-kilometer (248- by 279-mile) orbit, just slightly off fromits final mapping orbit. By then Global Surveyor will be orbiting Mars about once every 118minutes, and crossing Mars' equator at just about 2 p.m. local solar time each orbit.

21

22

Aerobraking From Capture Orbitto Mapping Orbit Altitude TakesAbout 130 Earth Days

Middle Main Phase(period = 12 hours)

Early Main Phase(period = 24 hours)

Mapping Orbit(period = 2 hours)

Initial Capture OrbitWalk-In Phase

(period = 48 hours)

Early Main Phase(period = 34 hours)

Late Main Phase(period = 6 hours)

MOI+ 40 Days

MOI+60 Days

MOI+80 Days

MOI+100 Days

5700 Miles(9170 km)

MOI = Mars Orbit Insertion

Mars Global Surveyor aerobraking orbits

Mars Global Surveyor will begin aerobraking in the southern spring, and the historicalrecord of global dust storms suggests that this is the most likely season for such storms tooccur. During these storms, the dust itself is not of concern, since there is no evidence that itreaches anywhere near the altitudes at which aerobraking will occur. Scientists are more con-cerned with the possible increase in atmospheric density at the aerobraking altitude that couldbe caused by increased heating due to a dustier atmosphere in general.

Data from the highly successful Mars Pathfinder mission provided valuable new infor-mation about the density of the Martian atmosphere all the way up to about 120 kilometers (75miles), which will be used to update the atmospheric models before the start of the Mars GlobalSurveyor aerobraking phase. Pathfinder also recorded dust activity and pressure and tempera-ture fluctuations during its primary mission in July 1997. If Pathfinder’s lander and rover arestill operating by the time Mars Global Surveyor arrives at Mars, surface temperature, pressureand opacity measurements will be monitored to help the Global Surveyor navigation teamadjust the spacecraft's orbit.

Several measurements will also be made from the Hubble Space Telescope and fromEarth. Hubble will take multiple images of Mars near the start of the aerobraking phase, beforeMars gets too close to the Sun as viewed from Earth. Hubble images taken during the weekbefore Pathfinder landed showed local dust activity near the landing site in Ares Vallis. Whencombined with Earth-based observations made at the Space Science Institute in Boulder, CO,using the National Radio Astronomy Observatory microwave antenna, these measurements willyield a global average atmospheric temperature profile from the ground to about 60 kilometers(35 miles) above the surface.

Scientists have been able to infer that moisture in the atmosphere usually confinesMartian dust to lower altitudes, where it has a minimal impact on the densities at higher alti-tudes. As Mars gets closer to the Sun, atmospheric temperatures rise, along with water vaporcontent, and allow dust to circulate at higher altitudes. The Hubble and radio astronomymicrowave observations will be used to keep a close eye on the Martian atmosphere during aer-obraking, not only because the spacecraft's periapsis will have to be raised to survive the effectsof a global dust storm, but also because the aerobraking phase coincides with the first half ofthe dust storm season.

Mars Global Surveyor will also be dipping repeatedly into the Martian atmosphere in adifferent configuration than was originally planned. Because one of the spacecraft's two solarpanels did not fully deploy and latch into place after launch, it is tilted at about 20 degrees fromits fully deployed position. After careful analysis, engineers determined that the only risk posedby the tilted panel was the possibility that the panel might fold up on itself if enough wind flowwas exerted.

To minimize that risk, the operations team will rotate the unlatched panel 180 degreeseach time the spacecraft encounters the strongest air flow, which will be at periapsis. By rotat-ing the panel and turning its solar-cell side into the direction of the air flow, the latch will notbe in danger of folding up. The air flow, when exerted on the opposite side of the latch, may, in

23

fact, push the array into the fully locked position. Whether or not that is accomplished, GlobalSurveyor's new aerobraking configuration does not pose significant risk to the science objec-tives of the mission.

Science During Aerobraking

Early science measurements conducted during aerobraking will provide the navigationteam with enough information to perform alternative aerobraking strategies should the situationarise. Scientists will benefit from new observations of Mars achieved with unique lightinggeometry from Global Surveyor's aerobraking orbit. The spacecraft's low-altitude passes willallow scientists to record information from much closer to the planet than will be possible dur-ing the mapping period. This 4-1/2-month transition will also give experiment teams time tocalibrate their instruments and prepare for continuous mapping operations.

The Mars orbital camera will image the surface of Mars at low Sun elevations between15 degrees north latitude and 45 degrees south latitude, as the spacecraft slowly unwinds fromthe aerobraking attitude. Image swaths taken over 100 orbital revolutions will yield more than5,000 pictures at five times the surface resolution of Viking orbiter imaging.

Data from the thermal emission spectrometer will include 100 atmospheric profiles oftemperature and dust content at an unprecedented altitude of about 100 kilometers (60 miles).This will be followed each orbit by mid-latitude infrared measurements with a resolution of 30to 40 kilometers (19 to 25 miles). In addition, daily global coverage of thermal and composi-tional properties will be recorded at a resolution of about 300 to 400 kilometers (185 to 250miles) resolution, in association with unique local times of day and seasons.

As the elliptical orbit shrinks, the magnetometer will complete its primary scienceobjective of determining the existence of a global magnetic field and measuring solar windinteraction with Mars' magnetopause, the boundary beyond which Mars no longer influencesspace. The electron reflectometer portion of this experiment will observe electron density varia-tions in the ionosphere at the lowest altitude during its two months of operation.

Pointing down at the planet, the laser altimeter will have a unique opportunity duringthe spacecraft's closest approach to the planet on its third orbit after arrival to obtain a 600-kilo-meter (373-mile) swath, centered at 30 degrees north latitude, with 200 meters (655 feet) ofspatial resolution and 2 meters (6.5 feet) of altitude precision. This orbit also permits the onlyforward/aft viewing by the thermal emission spectrometer prior to mapping the planet at 5:30p.m. local solar time.

Finally, as the spacecraft’s orbit is adjusted to achieve a periapsis of 200 kilometers (124miles) from the surface, the radio science team will see a fourfold improvement in the sensitivi-ty of their measurements when Global Surveyor flies over features known to produce gravityvariations, such as the south polar cap.

24

The Mapping Mission

The final mapping orbit will be nearly circular, at 350 by 410 kilometers (217 by 254miles), or an average of 378 kilometers (234 miles) above the planet's surface.

After the mapping orbit is achieved, spacecraft systems will be deployed and instru-ments will be checked out over the next 10 days.

The primary mission begins once the spacecraft has reached its mapping orbit and iscompleting one orbit around Mars about every two hours. Each new orbit will bring the space-craft over a different part of Mars. As the weeks pass, the spacecraft will create a global portraitof Mars — capturing the planet's ancient cratered plains, huge canyon system, massive volca-noes, channels and frozen polar caps. During its mission, Mars Global Surveyor will pass overthe terrain where the two U.S. Viking landers — separated by more than 6,400 kilometers(4,000 miles) — have rested for 21 years, and over Ares Vallis, home of the Mars Pathfinderlander (or Carl Sagan Memorial Station) and the Sojourner rover.

The primary mapping mission will begin on March 15, 1998, and last until January 31,2000 — a period of one Martian year or 687 Earth days (almost two Earth years). The space-craft will transmit its recorded data back to Earth once a day during a single 10-hour trackingpass by antennas of the Deep Space Network. During mapping operations, the spacecraft willreturn more than 700 billion bits of scientific data to Earth — more than that returned by allprevious missions to Mars and, in fact, roughly equal to the total amount of data returned by allplanetary missions since the beginning of planetary exploration with the exception of theMagellan mission to Venus.

As Mars rotates beneath the spacecraft, a suite of onboard instruments will record avariety of detailed information. Detectors will measure radiation — visible and infrared — fromthe surface to deduce the presence of minerals that make up Mars. These same instruments willrecord infrared radiation from the thin Martian atmosphere, gathering data about its changingpressure, composition, water content and dust clouds. By firing short pulses of laser light at thesurface and measuring the time the reflections take to return, a laser altimeter will map out theheights of Mars' mountains and the depths of its valleys.

The camera system will use wide- and narrow-angle lenses to record land forms andatmospheric cloud patterns. Another sensor will look for a Martian magnetic field. As thetelecommunications subsystem transmits information back to Earth, engineers will use the sig-nal of the orbiting spacecraft to derive data about the planet's atmosphere and gravitationalfield.

By the time global mapping operations are over, Mars Global Surveyor will haveobtained an extensive record of the nature and behavior of the Martian surface, atmosphere andinterior. Such a record will aid in planning more specialized explorations that might involverobots, scientific stations deployed to the Martian surface, sample return missions and perhaps

25

even human landings. Just as importantly, this record will help scientists understand planetEarth and what the future might have in store for humanity.

Mission Operations

Throughout the two years of Mars Global Surveyor's mapping mission, principal inves-tigators, team leaders and interdisciplinary scientists will have science operations planning com-puters at their home institutions. All will be electronically connected to the project database atthe Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, CA, giving them direct involvement in missionoperations.

Their computers will be equipped with software that allows the science teams to remote-ly initiate most of the commands required by their instruments to conduct desired experiments.The teams will be able to access raw science data within hours of their receipt on Earth. Thisautomated operation will provide "quick-look" science data and let investigators easily monitorthe health and performance of their instruments.

Many images and other data will be immediately available to the public on the Internet.After a short period of data validation, science data, both raw and processed, along with supple-mentary processing information and documentation, will be transferred to NASA's PlanetaryData System archive for access and use by the broader planetary science community and thegeneral public.

Control and operation of Mars Global Surveyor will be performed by a team of engi-neers located at JPL and at Lockheed Martin Astronautics Inc. in Denver, CO. Engineers inDenver will be electronically linked to JPL, providing monitoring and analysis of Mars GlobalSurveyor based on telemetry received from the spacecraft through NASA's Deep SpaceNetwork. The team will also develop the sequence of commands that will be sent to the space-craft via the Deep Space Network. The electronic networking eliminates the costs of relocatingmission operations team members during the mission.

26

The Spacecraft

The main component of the Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft is a rectangular body, orbus, that houses computers, the radio system, solid-state data recorders, fuel tanks and otherequipment. Attached to the outside of the bus are several rocket thrusters, which are fired toadjust the spacecraft's path during the cruise to Mars and to modify the spacecraft's orbit aroundthe planet.

At launch, the spacecraft weighed 1,060 kilograms (2,337 pounds), including the sci-ence payload and fuel, and stands about 3 meters (10 feet) tall. The bus or main body of thespacecraft measures 1.2 by 1.2 meters (4 by 4 feet) and is 12 meters (40 feet) across from tip totip when the solar panels are fully unfolded. The high-gain antenna, deployed in the cruisephase, measures 1.5 meters (4.9 feet) in diameter. The high-gain antenna will be deployed on a2-meter-long (6-1/2-foot) boom.

To minimize costs, spare units left over from the Mars Observer mission were used inportions of the spacecraft's electronics and for some of the science instruments. The spacecraftdesign also incorporates new hardware — the radio transmitters, solid state recorders, propul-sion system and composite material bus structure.

Mars Global Surveyor will orbit the planet so that one side of the bus, called the nadirdeck, always faces the Martian surface. Of the six science instruments, four — the Mars orbitercamera, the Mars orbiter laser altimeter, the electron reflectometer and the thermal emissionspectrometer — are attached to the nadir deck, along with the Mars relay radio system. Themagnetometer sensors are mounted on the ends of the solar arrays.

The bus has two solar-array wings and a boom-mounted high-gain communicationsantenna. The solar arrays, which always point toward the Sun, provide 980 watts of electricityfor operating the spacecraft's electronic equipment and for charging nickel hydrogen batteries.The batteries will provide electricity when the spacecraft is mapping the dark side of Mars. Tomaintain appropriate operating temperatures, most of the outer exposed parts of the spacecraft,including the science instruments, are wrapped in thermal blankets.

In its mapping configuration, the dish-shaped high-gain antenna is deployed on the endof a 2-meter (6-1/2-foot) boom so that its view of Earth will not be blocked by the solar arraysas the spacecraft orbits Mars. Measuring 1.5 meters (4.9 feet) in diameter, this steerable antennawill be pointed toward Earth even though the spacecraft's position will be continuously adjustedduring mapping to keep the nadir deck pointed toward Mars. The spacecraft's radio system,including the high-gain antenna, also will function as a science instrument. Researchers will useit in conjunction with NASA's Deep Space Network ground stations for the radio science inves-tigations.

Spacecraft communications with Earth will always utilize X-band frequencies for radiotracking, return of science and engineering telemetry, commanding and the radio science experi-

27

28

Mars OrbiterLaser Altimeter

Mars OrbiterCamera

Thermal EmissionSpectrometer

Celestial SensorAssembly

Mars Relay

Electron Reflectometer

Mars Horizon Sensor

Magnetometer

Attitude Control Thruster(1 set on each corner of spacecraft)

High-GainAntenna

High-GainAntenna Gimbals

PropellantTank

Solar Panel

Solar Panel

Solar Panel

Solar Panel

DragFlap

DragFlap

Magnetometer

Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft

29

LaunchConfiguration

CruiseConfiguration

AerobrakeConfiguration

MappingConfiguration

Mars Global Surveyor configurations

ments. However, the spacecraft's telecommunications equipment also accommodates Ka-banddownlink, which was furnished as an experiment to demonstrate its feasibility for future mis-sions. Primary communications to and from the spacecraft occur through the 1.5-meter-diame-ter (4.9-foot) high-gain antenna.

From launch through the aerobraking operations, the high-gain antenna remains fixed toone side of the spacecraft, and the spacecraft must be slewed to point the antenna directlytoward Earth for communications. Just before the start of mapping, the high-gain antenna willbe deployed on the end of a 2-meter (6.5-foot) boom mounted to the same side of the space-craft. This configuration will allow the antenna to automatically track Earth by using two gim-bals that hold the antenna to the boom.

In addition to the high-gain antenna, the spacecraft also carries four low-gain antennasthat could be used in the event ground-controllers lose the signal from the high-gain antenna.Two of these low-gain antennas function as transmit antennas, while the other two can receivesignals from Earth. Placement of these four low-gain antennas insures that the spacecraft canreceive commands and transmit downlink telemetry in a wide range of orientations in space.

The spacecraft's 25-watt radio frequency amplifiers allow Global Surveyor to transmitscience and engineering telemetry at data rates between 21,333 symbols per second to 85,333symbols per second. A symbol is specially encoded bit. It takes approximately 1.147 bits ofstorage space to encode one bit of raw data with this particular encoding scheme.

Data rates for sending commands to the spacecraft will vary from as low as 7.8 bits persecond using the low-gain antennas to as high as 500 bits per second using the high-gain anten-na. The standard date rate is 125 bits per second. Global Surveyor can receive instructions fromEarth at a maximum rate of 12.5 commands per second.

30

Science Objectives

Mars Global Surveyor is designed to provide a detailed, global map of Mars that willallow scientists to study its geology, climate and interior. Key science objectives are to:

q Characterize the surface features and geological processes on Mars.

q Determine the composition, distribution and physical properties of surface minerals,rocks and ice.

q Determine the global topography, planet shape and gravitational field.

q Establish the nature of the magnetic field and map the crustal remnant field. (Acrustal remnant field is evidence of magnetism that is detected within the planet's crust or rocks,produced by the planet's own magnetic field at the time of formation.)

q Monitor global weather and the thermal structure of the atmosphere.

q Study interactions between Mars' surface and the atmosphere by monitoring surfacefeatures, polar caps that expand and recede, the polar energy balance, and dust and clouds asthey migrate over a seasonal cycle.

Among the questions scientists wish to answer are those relating to Mars' early atmos-phere and the dramatic climate changes which sent the planet into a deep freeze. All the ingre-dients necessary for life exist on Mars, including water, yet the surface of Mars is totally dryand probably devoid of life today.

Water is fundamental to the understanding of geological processes and climate change.But water cannot exist in liquid form at the low atmospheric pressures that currently prevail onthe surface of Mars; it turns into water vapor or ice. Spacecraft have photographed numerouslarge and fine channels across the surface of Mars, with shapes and structures that indicate,almost beyond a doubt, that they were carved by running water. Where has the water gone?Only a tiny fraction is known to exist in the northern polar cap and in the atmosphere.

Some of it may have escaped into space, but scientists believe that most of it shouldhave remained on Mars. They want to know if water could be hidden in permafrost — thicklayers of ice-rock — beneath the surface, just as it is trapped in the polar regions on Earth. Theorigin and evolution of Mars are still a mystery. Thought to have formed 4.6 billion years ago,in much the same way as the other rocky planets of the inner solar system, Mars has two dis-tinct hemispheres, roughly divided by the equator. The southern hemisphere is badly battered,perhaps the result of an intense bombardment by debris as the planet was forming. This part ofMars may be closest in history and age to the heavily cratered faces of the Moon and Mercury.Other regions of Mars may be widespread plains of volcanic lava, which erupted from withinthe planet over a long period of time. Similar eruptions spread across Earth's Moon to form the

31

dark areas known as lunar maria, or "seas."

During the last 2 billion or 3 billion years, Mars also developed features that resemblethose of Earth rather than the Moon. Geologic activity in the younger, northern hemisphere cre-ated huge, isolated volcanoes — most notably Olympus Mons and the other volcanoes alongthe Tharsis uplift — as the interior of Mars melted and lava rose to the surface. A huge canyonjust below the Martian equator, called Vallis Marineris, would dwarf Earth's Grand Canyon,stretching 5,000 kilometers (3,100 miles) across the planet's surface. Many sinuous channels,apparently cut by running water that may have flooded regions of Mars hundreds of millions ofyears ago, also appear in the northern hemisphere.

Science Experiments

Mars Global Surveyor carries a complement of six scientific instruments which havebeen furnished by NASA centers as well as universities and industry. They are:

q Thermal Emission Spectrometer. This instrument will analyze infrared radiationfrom the surface. From these measurements, scientists can determine several important proper-ties of the rocks and soils that make up the Martian surface: how hot and cold they get duringthe cycles of night and day; how well they transmit heat; the distribution of rock and grainsizes; and the amount of the surface covered by large rocks and boulders. Scientists will also beable to identify minerals in solid rocks and sand dunes, which will be key to understanding howMartian bedrock has weathered over millions of years and how it might be weathering today.The instrument can also provide information about the Martian atmosphere, especially the loca-tions and nature of short-lived clouds and dust. Principal investigator is Dr. Philip Christensen,Arizona State University.

q Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter . This experiment will measure the height of Martiansurface features. A laser will fire pulses of infrared light 10 times each second, striking a 160-meter (525-foot) area on the surface. By measuring the length of time it takes for the light toreturn to the spacecraft, scientists can determine the distance to the planet's surface. Data fromthis instrument will give scientists elevation maps precise to within about 30 meters (100 feet)from which they will be able to construct a detailed topographic map of the Martian landscape.Principal investigator is Dr. David Smith, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.

q Magnetometer/Electron Reflectometer. The magnetometer/electron reflectometerwill search for evidence of a planetary magnetic field and measure its strength, if it exists.These measurements will provide critical tests for current speculations about the early historyand evolution of the planet. The instrument will also scan the surface to detect remnants of anancient magnetic field, providing clues to the Martian past when the magnetic field may havebeen stronger due to the planet's higher internal temperature. Principal investigator is Dr. MarioAcuna, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.

q Radio Science. The radio science investigation will use data provided by the space-craft's telecommunications system, high-gain antenna and an onboard ultra-stable oscillator,

32

which is like an ultra precise clock, to map variations in the gravity field by noting where thespacecraft speeds up and slows down in its passage around Mars. From these observations, aprecise map of the gravity field can be constructed and related to the structure of the planet. Inaddition, scientists will study how radio waves are distorted as they pass through Mars' atmos-phere in order to measure the atmosphere's temperature and pressure. Dr. G. Leonard Tyler, ofStanford University, is the radio science team leader.

q Mars Orbiter Camera . Unlike cameras on spacecraft such as Galileo or Voyager, whichtake conventional, snapshot-type exposures, the Mars orbiter camera uses a "push-broom" tech-nique that builds up a long, ribbon-like image as the spacecraft passes over the planet. The cam-era will provide low-resolution global coverage of the planet every day, collecting imagesthrough red and blue filters. It will also obtain medium- and high-resolution images of selectedareas. The wide-angle lens is ideal for accumulating a weather map of Mars each day, showingsurface features and clouds at a resolution of about 7.5 kilometers (4.6 miles). These globalviews will be similar to the types of views obtained by weather satellites orbiting the Earth. Thenarrow-angle lens will image small areas of the surface at a resolution of 2 to 3 meters (6.5 to9.5 feet). These pictures will be sharp enough to show small geologic features such as bouldersand sand dunes — perhaps even the Mars Pathfinder lander and the now-silent Viking landers— and may also be used to select landing sites for future missions. Principal investigator is Dr.Michael Malin, Malin Space Science Systems Inc., San Diego, CA.

q Mars Relay System. Mars Global Surveyor carries a radio receiver/transmitter supplied bythe French space agency, Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales, which was originally designed tosupport the Russian Mars '96 mission, lost during launch. Now it will be used to relay datafrom the microprobes carried on the 1998 Mars Global Surveyor Lander mission, as well as toserve as a backup to relay data from the lander itself. Data relayed from the surface to MarsGlobal Surveyor will be stored in the large solid-state memory of the orbiter's camera, where itwill be processed for return to Earth. This collaborative effort will maximize data collection.Following support of the Mars '98 mission, the Mars relay system is expected to provide multi-ple years of in-orbit communications relay capability for future international Mars missions.

33

Program/Project Management

Mars Global Surveyor is the first mission in a sustained program of Mars exploration —called the Mars Surveyor program — which will send low-cost pairs of orbiters and landers toMars every 25 months well into the next century.

The Mars Global Surveyor mission is managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory forNASA's Office of Space Science, Washington, DC. At NASA Headquarters, Dr. Wesley T.Huntress is associate administrator for space science. Kenneth Ledbetter is director for missionand payload development. Dr. William Piotrowski is Mars Global Surveyor program executive.Dr. Patricia Rogers is Mars Global Surveyor program scientist.

At the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Norman Haynes is director of the Mars ExplorationDirectorate. Donna Shirley is manager of the Mars Exploration Program. Glenn E. Cunninghamis Mars Global Surveyor project manager. Dr. Arden Albee of the California Institute ofTechnology, Pasadena, CA, is Mars Global Surveyor project scientist.

JPL's industrial partner is Lockheed Martin Astronautics, Denver, CO, which developedand operates the spacecraft. Navigation and ground data support are provided by JPL. Scienceoperations will be carried out by NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD;Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ; Malin Space Science Systems, San Diego, CA; StanfordUniversity, Palo Alto, CA; and NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, CA.

9-9-97

34

Roving on the Red Planet

National Aeronaut ics andSpace Administrat ion

p • a • t • h • f • i • n • d • e • r

Return to Mars!

As explorers, pioneers, and innovators, we boldly expand frontiers in air andspace to inspire and serve America and to benefit the quality of life on Earth.

NASA Vision StatementNASA Strategic Plan

From the beginning of time, humans have looked up at the heavens and wonderedwhat lay beyond the world that we know. Over time, we have learned much aboutthe universe and our place within it, but much remains to be explored. The questionsare among the most profound that we face: How did the universe form? Are thereplanets like Earth around other stars? How did life arise on Earth? Has it everexisted elsewhere in our solar system or elsewhere in the universe? What can welearn about other planets that will help us to understand our own? What else canwe learn about our own planet? Will humans ever leave Earth for another planet—and why? and when?

These are the questions that occupy the people of NASA and shape our work. Ourunique contribution to this undertaking is the perspective that we offer from the airand from space. By sending airplanes, spacecraft, rockets, and people into theheavens, we not only open new frontiers, we tap into fundamental streams ofknowledge and discovery. This produces information not only to enrich the soul andthe mind, but also to guide our decisions and make us wiser stewards of our home.We explore space because it is exciting, because it challenges us to be our best,and because it makes practical sense. Exploration and discovery are, as they alwayshave been for humanity, the pathways to our future.

Most recently, we have focused attention on one of the most intriguing places weknow of: Mars. Of all the planets in the solar system, Mars is the most like Earth.Although Mars has a thinner atmosphere than Earth, it also has weather seasonsand an Earth-like day (called a sol) lasting 24 hours, 37 minutes. Mars also hasa diverse and complex surface, including ice and winding channels made byflowing water in the distant past. Although the present cold, dry conditions onMars are considered hostile for life forms, scientists have evidence that Mars wasonce warmer and wetter and had a much denser atmosphere early in its

history. Life may have arisen in ancient Martian lakes or springs. If so, fossilevidence of life might be found.

Mars was not always the dry wasteland that it is now. Billions of years ago, earlyMars may have been very similar to early Earth, with flowing water and possiblyeven seas. Understanding why the two planets evolved from that point to the verydifferent states we see today can tell us much about what makes Earth such a uniqueand special place. Exploring Mars will provide us with a better understanding ofsignificant events humanity may face in the future as Earth continues to evolve. Whatare the factors involved in natural changes in a planet‘s climate and weather, forinstance? Such exploration will also tell us if Mars is a place where humans maysomeday be able—and want—to live and work.

Mars has experienced a complicated geologic history. On its surface are vastexpanses of sand dunes, gorges, polar ice caps, huge volcanoes, and giganticcanyons. The giant Olympus Mons volcano is three times as tall as Mt. Everest andlarger than Montana; it’s the largest volcano in the solar system. Valles Marinerisis three times as deep and ten times as long as the Grand Canyon. With a landarea equal to Earth’s, Mars offers a potential wealth of natural resources. Theessentials for life support, including air and water, can be found or manufacturedthere. These resources will be essential for humans to live and work on Mars aswe continue to explore the Red Planet.

There are many questions to be answered and many challenges to be met. Ourexplorers will first be robotic—unmanned spacecraft, landers, and rovers. Thesemechanical descendants of Magellan and Lewis and Clark—designed to scout ahead—will probe the soil, measure the atmosphere, map the surface, and graduallyunderstand the lay of the land. Using this information, we will decide together if the nextstep is to sends humans and how best to do so. Like solving a riddle, exploring anotherplanet is an ongoing series of steps, not a one-shot deal.

This is an exciting time to be alive, and to be explorers. As we send missions to Mars—and elsewhere in the universe—all are welcome and encouraged to go along for the ride.

Mars Pathfinder

Mars Pathfinder is the first of these trailblazers. The first spacecraft to set down on

Mars since the two Viking Landers in 1976, Mars Pathfinder is a mission to test

key technologies for future science missions. It is the first ever to send out a robotic

rover to independently explore the surface of Mars. Launched on December 4,

1996, Mars Pathfinder took seven months to reach Mars, and then successfully

landed in a region known as Ares Vallis (Mars Valley) on July 4, 1997. The

lander unfolded and a small rover, named Sojourner (after the American

abolitionist, Sojourner Truth), rolled onto the Martian soil.

Mars Pathfinder also delivered science instruments to the surface of Mars to

investigate the structure of the Martian atmosphere, weather, surface geology, and

elemental composition of Martian rocks and soil. The Mars Pathfinder project is one

of the first of the NASA Discovery program, which offers a class of frequent, low-

cost space missions and is part of a long-term program of Mars exploration being

conducted by NASA’s Office of Space Science. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory, an

operating division of the California Institute of Technology, manages the Mars

Exploration Program for NASA.

Mars Pathfinder Mission Objectives

• Prove that it is possible to successfully deploy ”faster, better, and cheaper“ spacecraft

(three years for development and cost under $150 million)

• Demonstrate a simple, low-cost system, at fixed price, for placing a science payload

on the surface of Mars at one-fifteenth the Viking price tag

• Exhibit NASA‘s commitment to low-cost planetary exploration by completing the

mission for a total of $280 million dollars, including the launch vehicle and

mission operations

• Demonstrate the mobility and usefulness of a microrover on the surface of Mars

Mission Operation and Science

Mars Pathfinder is investigating the surface of Mars with three primary science

instruments. On the lander are a stereoscopic imager with spectral filters on an

extendable mast known as the Imager for Mars Pathfinder (IMP) and the

Atmospheric Structure Instrument/Meteorology package (ASI/MET), which acts as

a Martian weather station, gathering pressure, temperature, and wind

measurements. On the rover is the Alpha Proton X-ray Spectrometer (APXS), which

measures the elements present in rocks and soil. Sojourner also has one color and

two black-and-white cameras. These instruments allow investigations of the

geology and surface characteristics at scales of a few millimeters up to hundreds

of meters, the geochemistry and evolutionary history of soils and rocks, the

magnetic and mechanical properties of the soil as well as the magnetic properties

of the dust, the atmosphere, and the rotational and orbital dynamics of Mars.

Downstream from the mouth of a giant catastrophic outflow channel, this landing site

offers the potential for the identification and analysis of a wide variety of crustal

materials, from the ancient, heavily cratered terrains, to intermediate-aged ridged

plains, to reworked channel deposits. Sojourner‘s mobility provides the capability of

“ground truthing” a landing area over hundreds of square meters on Mars.

Examinations of the different surface materials are allowing first-order scientific

investigations of the early differentiation and evolution of the crust, the development of

weathering products, and the early environments and conditions that have existed on Mars.

Mars Pathfinder Science Objectives

• Surface morphology and geology at meter scale

• Petrology and geochemistry of surface materials

• Magnetic properties and soil mechanics of the surface

• Atmospheric structure, as well as diurnal and seasonal meteorological variations

• Rotational and orbital dynamics of Mars

Entry, Descent, and Landing

Mars Pathfinder‘s dramatic entry, descent, and landing worked exactly as

engineers had designed, placing the lander and rover safely onto the surface.

The sequence of events included the use of a heat shield and a large parachute,

the lowering of the lander on a bridle, the use of a radar altimeter to tell the

lander how far it was from the surface, rockets to stop the lander in mid-air, and

giant airbags to cushion its fall after the parachute and backshell detached.

Amazingly, this entire process—from entry into the atmosphere to landing—took

just a little over four minutes.

Once Mars Pathfinder came to rest, the airbags deflated with the lander resting

on its base, and the three lander petals unfolded. It was early morning when the

lander arrived on Mars (about 3:00 a.m. local time), so the lander waited for the

Sun to rise to begin sending data to Earth. During its first day on Mars (known as

Sol 1), the lander took pictures and made weather measurements. It also lifted up

one of its petals and pulled in more of a deflated airbag so that the airbag would

not block the deployment of the rover’s ramps.

Mars Pathfinder Lander

Mars Pathfinder‘s Sojourner Rover

The Next Day

On Sol 2, Sojourner rolled down its ramp and onto Martian soil. Over the nextseveral sols, Sojourner visited rocks named Barnacle Bill, Yogi, and Scooby Dooby the scientists. The rover also made measurements of the elements found inthese rocks and in the Martian soil. The lander photographed Sojourner and thesurrounding “marscape” and made weather observations. The Mars Pathfindermission exceeded all of its mission objectives and has sent back important dataand beautiful views of Ares Vallis.

Sojourner Truth

The name Sojourner was chosen for the Mars Pathfinder rover aftera year-long, worldwide competition in which students up to 18years old were invited to select a heroine and submit an essayabout her historical accomplishments. The students were asked toaddress in their essays how a planetary rover named for theirheroine would translate these accomplishments to the Martianenvironment.

Valerie Ambroise, of Bridgeport, Connecticut, submitted thewinning essay about Sojourner Truth, an African-Americanreformist who lived during the Civil War era. An abolitionist andchampion of women‘s rights, Sojourner Truth, whose legal namewas Isabella Van Wagenen, made it her mission to ”travel up anddown the land,“ advocating the rights of all people to be free andthe rights of women to participate fully in society. The nameSojourner also means ”traveler.“

A New Era of Mars Exploration

Mars Pathfinder is the first in a series of spacecraft that will visit the Red Planet overthe next decade. This exciting program of exploration is designed to send low-costspacecraft to Mars every 26 months from 1996 to 2005. Each mission will build onthe work done by its predecessors and will use the latest technology to revolutionizeour understanding of the planet and its evolution. We are working closely with othernations on joint efforts that will expand the range of science data we can obtain.Ultimately, all this information will help us answer exciting questions about life onMars and whether to send human explorers to the Red Planet. Upcoming U.S.missions include:

September 1997: Mars Global Surveyor (launched in November 1996)will orbit Mars and maps the planet’s surface and atmosphere. It will look forevidence of surface water, study surface geology and structure, and examinechanges in Martian weather for at least one Martian year (a little less than two Earth years).

1998–99: Mars Surveyor ’98 Lander and Orbiter. The lander will setdown near the edge of Mars’ south polar cap and focus on studies of geology,weather, and past and present water resources. Before touchdown, it willrelease two microprobes that will drop into the soil to search for the presence ofsubsurface water. The orbiter will examine the atmosphere and changes inwater vapor during the Martian seasons.

2001: Mars Surveyor ’01 Lander and Orbiter. The lander will carry arover capable of traveling dozens of kilometers to gather surface dust and soilsamples. There will also be tests of our ability to produce rocket propellant usingMartian rocks and soil as raw materials. The orbiter will study the mineralogy andchemistry of the surface, including the identification of water resources just belowthe Martian surface.

2003: Mars Surveyor ’03 Lander and Orbiter. This lander will alsocarry a wide-ranging rover to collect samples from a different part of the planet.The orbiter will provide the complex links needed for communications andnavigation for this and future surface missions.

2005: Mars Sample Return Mission. This exciting and ambitious missionwill descend to the surface, collect the samples acquired by either the ’01 or’03 mission rover, and then blast off and return the sample back to the Earth forstudy by 2008.

Beyond 2005: These missions will be determined by what we learn and whatwe still need to know. The journey will continue. . . .

Mars Facts

Fourth Planet From the Sun

Distance From the Sun: Minimum: 206,000,000 kilometersAverage: 228,000,000 kilometers

(1.52 times as far as Earth)Maximum: 249,000,000 kilometers

Eccentricity of Orbit: 0.093 vs. 0.017 for Earth (0.00 is a perfectly circular orbit)

Distance From Earth: Minimum: 56,000,000 kilometersMaximum: 399,000,000 kilometers

Year: 1.88 Earth years = 669.3 Mars days (sols) = 686.7 Earth days

Day: 24.6 Earth hours

Tilt of Rotation Axis: 25.2° vs. 23.5° for Earth

Size: Diameter = 6,794 kilometers vs.12,756 kilometers for Earth

Surface Gravity: 0.38 (or ~1/3) Earth’s gravityMass: 6.4 x 10 grams vs. 59.8 x 10 grams

for EarthDensity: 3.9 grams/cc vs. 5.5 grams/cc for Earth

Surface Temperature: ColdGlobal extremes: –125°C (–190°F) to 25°C (75°F)Average at Viking 1 site: high –10°C (15°F);

low –90°C (–135°F)

Atmosphere: Thin, unbreathableSurface pressure: ~6 millibars, or about 1/200th

of Earth’sContains 95% carbon dioxide, 3% nitrogen,

1.5% argon, ~0.03% water (varies with season), no oxygen. (Earth has 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% argon, 0.03% carbon dioxide.)Dusty, which makes the sky pinkish. Planet-wide dust storms black out the sky.

Surface: Color: Rust redAncient landscapes dominated by impact cratersLargest volcano in the solar system (Olympus Mons)Largest canyon in the solar system (Valles Marineris)Ancient river channelsSome rocks are basalt (dark lava rocks); most

others unknownDust is reddish, rusty, like soil formed from volcanic

rockMoons: Phobos (“Fear”), 21 kilometers diameter

Deimos (“Panic”), 12 kilometers diameter26 26

Activity 1: “Old, Relatively”

For exploring Mars, it is important to know which events happened in which orderand which areas are older than others. A simple way of figuring out the sequenceof events is “superposition”—most of the time, younger things are on top of olderthings, and younger (more recent) events affect older things.

Superposition in Your LifeIs there a pile of stuff on your desk? On your teacher’s? On a table or floor at home?Where in the pile is the thing you used most recently? The thing next most recently?Where in the pile would you look for something you put down 10 minutes ago? Whenwas the last time you or your teacher or parent used the things at the bottom of the pile?

Superposition on MarsUsing superposition, we can sort out many of the complicated events in the historyof Mars. For example, you can sort out all the events that affected the area in theimage above. It is a small part (60 kilometers across) of the wall of the greatcanyon system of Valles Marineris. Toward the top is a high plateau (labeled “P”),with a large circular impact crater (“C”). It formed when a huge meteorite hit Mars’surface. Below the plateau is the wall of Valles Marineris. Here, the wall has beencut away by huge landslides (“L”), which leave bumpy rough land at the base ofthe wall and a thin, broad fan of dirt spreading out onto the canyon floor. In thecanyon wall, almost at its top, alternating layers of light and dark rock are exposed.

To discover the history of this region, start by listing all the landscape features youcan see, and the events that caused them (do not bother listing every small craterby itself). Now list the events in order from oldest to youngest. [Hints: How manyseparate landslides are there? Is the large crater (“C”) younger than the landslides?Are the landslides younger than the rock layers at the top of the canyon wall? Arethe small craters older or younger than the landslides?] Sometimes, you cannot tellwhich of two events was younger. What additional information would help you tell?

—(From A.H. Treiman, Lunar and Planetary Institute, 1997)

Activity 2: “Geography and Mission Planning”

These locations on Mars were considered by mission planners as possible landingsites for the two Viking landing craft.

If Martians sent spacecraft to these same latitudes and longitudes on Earth, whatwould they find? Would they find life or evidence of an advanced civilization? Usea globe or world map to identify these spots on Earth. Use geography referencebooks to describe what the Martians would see at each site.

If you were a Martian, why would you explore Earth? Does Earth have resources you mightneed? What would you want to know about Earth? Where would you land first and why?

—(From B.M. French, The Viking Discoveries, NASA EP-146, October 1977)

For Reference: Mars MapU.S. Geological Survey (1991) Topographic Maps of Polar, Western, and EasternRegions of Mars, U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Investigations Map I-2160.USGS Information Services,1-800-USA-MAPS

To learn more about this image, visit the World Wide Web site at:http://cass.jsc.nasa.gov/education/K12/gangis/mars1.html

Latitude Longitude

22°N 48°W (Viking Site)20°N 108°E44°N 10°W7°S 43°W46°N 150°W (Viking Site)44°N 110°W5°S 5°W

Image Caption

This image is a portion of a full-color, 360-degree panorama of Ares Vallis(Mars Valley), where Mars Pathfinder landed on July 4, 1997. Visible next to arock named Yogi is the rover Sojourner. She has backed up to Yogi and hasplaced the Alpha Proton X-ray Spectrometer instrument against the rock todetermine its elemental composition. Yogi is approximately 6.5 meters (20 feet)from the Mars Pathfinder lander and stands about 1 meter (3 feet) high.Sojourner is 30 centimeters (1 foot) tall.

In the lower left corner of the image is the ramp that Sojourner used to roll offthe lander petal and onto the Martian soil. To the right is a portion of thedeflated airbag from the adjacent petal. Sojourner’s tracks across the soil areplainly visible and are darker than the undisturbed soil.

A dusting of very fine-grained material is also seen on a number of the rocks inthe view. Dust finer than talcum powder has gathered to the left of Barnacle Bill,the pitted football-shaped and -sized rock just above the end of the ramp. Dustparticles suspended in the thin Martian atmosphere give the sky its color.

At one time in Mars’ past, a large amount of water rushed across this area. Thedirection of flow was to the north, which is toward the upper right corner of thispicture. The flood waters cut a series of gullies in the plain. A trek across this“marscape" toward the horizon would carry you up and down a series of hills and valleys.

On the horizon can be seen two hills nicknamed the Twin Peaks. They are about1 kilometer (0.6 mile) away. To their right is the rock known as the Couch, morethan 150 meters (500 feet) away.

Images and other data from Mars Pathfinder are relayed via the antennas of NASA’s

Deep Space Network. With stations in Spain, Australia, and California, contact with

the lander is possible whenever it is on the near side of Mars. Each day, controllers

send commands and receive scientific and engineering data when Earth is above the

Martian horizon at the Ares Vallis landing site.

Web Sites

Mars

Ames Center for Mars Exploration http://cmex-www.arc.nasa.gov/Lunar and Planetary Institute http://cass.jsc.nasa.gov/expmars/expmars.htmlMars Multi-Scale Map http://www.c3.lanl.gov/~cjhamil/Browse/mars.htmlMars Landing Sites http://www.mars-sites.arc.nasa.gov/Marls Global Surveyor Project http://mgs-www.jpl.nasa.gov/Mars Pathfinder Project http://mpfwww.jpl.nasa.gov/Mars K–12 Curriculum Guide http://esther.la.asu.edu/asu_tes/TES_Editor/ (Arizona State University) CURRIC_GUIDES/curric_guideMENU.htmlMars Surveyor Orbiter http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/databse/

www-nmc?MARS98SMars Surveyor Lander http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/

database/www-nmc?MARS98LViking Orbiter Image Archive http://barsoom.mss.com/http/vikingdb.htmlViking Lander Image Data http://www-pdsimage.jpl.nasa.gov/PDS/

public/viking/vl_images.html

Tours of the Solar System

Views of the Solar System http://bang.lanl.gov/solarsys/ (Calvin Hamilton/Los Alamos)The Nine Planets http://seds.lpl.arizona.edu/nineplanets/ (Bill Arnett/SEDS) nineplanets.htmlWelcome to the Planets (JPL) http://pds.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/NASA Spacelink http://spacelink.nasa.govPlanetary Photo Journal http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov

Education

NASA On-line Resources for http://www.hq.nasa.gov/education EducatorsLunar and Planetary Institute http://cass.jsc.nasa.gov/lpi.html

NMSmith

http://cass.jsc.nasa.gov/expmars/expmars.html

NMSmith

The Lunar and Planetary Institute has changed their address to... http://www.lpi.usra.edu

More About Mars

Books

Beatty, J.K., and A. Chaikin, eds. (1990) The New Solar System, Third Edition,Sky Publishing Corp., Cambridge.

Carr, M.H. (1981) The Surface of Mars, Yale University Press, New Haven. Ahighly readable account of our knowledge of Mars at the end of the Viking program.

Christiansen, E.H., and W.K. Hamblin (1995) Exploring the Planets, SecondEdition, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

Cooper, H.S.F. (1980) The Search for Life On Mars: Evolution of an Idea, Holt,Rinehart, and Winston, New York.

Lowell, P. (1895) Mars, Houghton, Mifflin, Boston, New York. PercivalLowell’s fascinating, passionate, and highly erroneous interpretations of hislongtime observations of Mars. Especially interesting when read withSheehan’s Planets & Perception.

Murray, B. (1989) Journey Into Space: The First Thirty Years of Space Exploration,W.W. Norton, New York. Describes humankind’s robotic exploration of Marsand the rest of the solar system, as witnessed by this former director of the JetPropulsion Laboratory.

Sheehan, W. (1988) Planets & Perception: Telescopic Views and Interpretations,1609–1909, University of Arizona Press, Tucson. An introduction to the physical,social, and psychological pitfalls of observing distant worlds, especially Mars.This makes an excellent companion to Lowell’s Mars.

Sheehan, W. (1996) The Planet Mars: A History of Observation and Discovery,University of Arizona Press, Tucson. A popular history of discoveries and ideas aboutMars, emphasizing the era of visual and telescopic observations.

Viking Lander Imaging Team (1978) The Martian Landscape, NASA SP-425. Acompilation of photographs obtained by the Viking Landers.

Viking Orbiter Imaging Team (1980) Viking Orbiter Views of Mars, NASA SP-441.A compilation of photographs obtained by the Viking Orbiters.

Wilford, J.N. (1990) Mars Beckons, Alfred A. Knopf, New York.

Science Fiction

Since telescopes first revealed seasonal color changes on Mars, Earthlings havebeen fascinated with the possibility of life on the Red Planet. These classics(among hundreds of others) trace human notions of Martian “society” throughthe 20th century and hold up a mirror to the concerns and crises of our own.

Bradbury, Ray (1950) The Martian Chronicles, various publishers.

Heinlein, Robert (1986) Red Planet, Del Ray Books, Ballantine.

Wells, H.G. (1898) The War of the Worlds, various editions, various publishers.

EW-1997-08-128-HQ

Mars Miscellaneous Articles

Documents

Transcript of Mars Miscellaneous Articles