MANUSCRIPTOLOGY

Ph.D. Coursework AssignmentUNIT 2: SANSKRIT ANCIENT & MODERN, MODULE 4

MANUSCRIPTOLOGY

A manuscript is to be decked like ones beloved child, to be guarded from others like ones virtuous wife, to be carefully treated like an injured limb of ones body, to be looked up everyday like a real friend, to be tied strongly like a prisoner and to be always remembered like Gods name. Then only the manuscript will not perish. These are the instructions of our forefathers. Manuscriptology is a branch of study in archaeology about history or literature by means of very old palm-leaf manuscripts, rare paper manuscripts, epigraphy and underwater archaeology.

************************************************************************************Manuscriptology is actually for process of listeningthe pulse of our past.

Contents MANUSCRIPTOLOGY AN INTRODUCTION Definition of Manuscriptology Nature Scope Branches Aim NATURE OF MANUSCRIPTS A wide variety of writing materials Manuscript: Etymology Towards a definition Illuminated Manuscripts Illustrated Manuscripts Wealth of Manuscripts COLLECTION OF MANUSCRIPTS Manuscript Survey A Short note on Manuscript collection in India The Indian pre-eminence

Historic Indian manuscript libraries Chambers Collection etc. Post-independence era

PRESERVATION OF MANUSCRIPTS Climate Bio-deterioration Place of storage Remedies DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE Cataloguing of Manuscripts Classification Cataloguing

Descriptive Catalogue Descriptive Cataloguing Catalogus Catalogorum (CC) New Catalogus Catalogorum (NCC) CRITICAL EDITION Textual Criticism and edition Textual Criticism Lower Criticism Heuristics

Restoration

Emendation Higher Criticism Edition Critical Edition in India Contemporary Studies on Manuscripts REFERENCES

I. MANUSCRIPTOLOGY AN INTRODUCTION

Manuscripts are available in almost all written languages of the world. Ancient languages like Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Persian etc., have treasures of manuscripts which are of gigantic historical importance. Manuscripts of other languages of medieval and modern origin are also no less important. Manuscriptology which is the scientific study of manuscripts is, therefore, relevant worldwide. It is an important component of the discipline of Cultural Studies of the present day.

Manuscriptology is important from the standpoint of the cultural history of mankind. Manuscripts represent an advanced stage in the history of language. Man without language, the progress of mankind has been rapid. It was correctly observed by Dain:

( ..)Meaning: Here the progress of the world is maintained by the grace of words which have been recommended by authoritative writers. These three worlds would become entirely dark and blind if the light called word does not shine as long as the world exists.Definition of ManuscriptologyManuscriptology is the science of manuscripts. It can otherwise be called manuscript studies. It is the branch of learning concerned with the searching, collecting, cataloguing, preserving, transcribing, reading, collating, editing and publishing of manuscripts. With the emergence of New Manuscriptology one has to redefine Manuscriptology as the study pertaining to or with the help of manuscript. Manuscript studies have to be carried out against the background of the cultural history of mankind as well as the history of language in general and writing in particular.

NatureThe nature of Manuscriptology is such that it depends on expertise in the language as well as the subject of the manuscript. It is somewhat similar to the specialized activity of translation. Sound knowledge of the source and target languages as well as the subject of the source material is necessary for translating. Similarly, sound knowledge of the language as well as the subject of the concerned manuscript or manuscripts is necessary for working with them. An expert manuscriptologist should be an expert in the language as well as the subject of the manuscript. In short, Manuscriptology is a specialized branch of learning by its very nature. Its boundaries border on other specialized branches like Textology and Conservation Science.

ScopeThe scope of Manuscriptology as seen above does not confine to mere reading or transcribing or editing of manuscripts. Of course, among the different types of manuscripts, manuscripts of antique value are of more concern to Manuscriptology. But, a manuscriptologist cannot confine him to manuscript studies alone. The scope of Manuscriptology extends to literary science, conservation science and cultural criticism. The emergence of New Manuscriptology, in recent years, as a trend in literary criticism, especially genetic criticism, enlarges the scope of Manuscriptology. The possibilities of utilizing Manuscriptology in such branches of studies like Criminology, Psychology and certain paramedical sciences also have to be enquired into. BranchesThe branches of Manuscriptology such as cataloguing, preservation and textual criticism are specialized ones. Cataloguing is part of library science. Preservation is within the purview of conservation science. Textual criticism extends to literary criticism and cultural criticism. Of late, a modern development of Manuscriptology known as New Manuscriptology also has come into existence. Sometimes, the term deciphering of scripts is used in Manuscriptology. Actually, the deciphering of scripts is not within the scope of Manuscriptology. Manuscripts dealt with in Manuscriptology are in some script already deciphered. Reading and interpreting the material available in the script are important in Manuscriptology.

AimManuscripts with which Manuscriptology is concerned pertain mainly to the period prior to the invention and wide prevalence of printing. Manuscriptology aims at bringing out those manuscript materials to the use of the modern reader. Though manuscripts available at present are not older than a thousand years, the content of many manuscripts relate, often, to much earlier periods. As such, the study of manuscripts is inevitable for historiography. The data supplied by manuscripts to historiography are primarily literary and documentary. History cannot be reconstructed solely depending on manuscript evidence. But, in finalizing the results obtained through other sources, manuscript evidence can serve a lot.

Manuscripts in abundance are found in India. Of the manuscripts available in other countries also, a large number pertain to India either directly or indirectly. May be because of this, in India, Manuscriptology has been developing as a branch of Indological studies. Cataloguing of manuscripts has been regularly undertaken. As a result, now, we have descriptive catalogues of manuscripts of almost all libraries. New scientific methods have been adopted for preserving the manuscripts. Difficulties in reading various scripts have been much reduced as a result of the successful studies carried out in paleography and other related fields. Textual criticism has grown to higher levels. Editing and publishing of manuscripts have been undertaken to a large extent. Microfiche and Microfilm have been in use in manuscripts libraries. Of late, computer, scanner etc. also have been utilized in the field of manuscript studies. Thus, at present, Manuscriptology has every right to establish itself as a separate branch of learning. This assignment is mainly concerned with Manuscriptology in Indian context.

II. NATURE OF MANUSCRIPTS: WRITING MATERIALS

What is called a book/manuscript is made of mud, wood, textile, skin, metal or gems.

A wide variety of writing materials

Over the last six millennia, a wide variety of materials have been used by mankind in various parts of the world for writing. Stone of different kinds, metals like gold, silver, copper, lead etc., animal skin, bones, shells, leather, clay, was, pottery, ostraca, silk, cotton, wooden plank, bamboo, ivory, bark, leaves, linen, papyrus, paper and what not. Tortoise-shell seems to be the oldest known material on which characters are recorded.

The type of material used for writing has in influenced the form of script. The direction of writing and the shape of manuscript are even influenced by the type of material. The availability of material was the principal reason behind the use. The Chinese used bamboo and shells. The Mesopotamians used clay and Egyptians used papyrus.

In India, the oldest evidence of material used for writing as well as the oldest record of writing are the Indus seals discovered as the Indus site. Pottery and metal have been in use in the period of the Indus Valley Civilization, probably from 2500 to 1900 B.C. and Curtis of Greece bear testimony to the use of cloth and tree-bark as writing materials during the fourth century B.C. The bark used was of the Himalayan birch tree (Bhrja). Buddhist documents obtained from Bhutan and Afghanistan disclose the fact that leaves of the same tree (Bhrpatra) were used for writing on. Kidsa has referred to the birch bark as a writing material. Birch bark has been in use in Kashmir till very recent times. Kashmiri poet of Sanskrit Kmndra of the 11th century refers to the Kyasthas who were professional copyists and accountants who used writing materials such as leaves, pen and ink-bottle.

Palm-leaf (Tlapatra) has been in wide use in India. Many varieties of palm-leaf cut to different sizes were used. Most of the manuscripts in India are on palm leaves. Palm leaves written on were tied together using thread. Writing on Palm-leaves was using metallic stylus. In the north, the stylus written letters were darkened by charcoal powder or leaf-juice. A white chalk-like powder was often spread over the dark ink-written palm-leaves to brighten the letters. The oldest palm-leaf manuscript ever written available is found in Nepal. It is about 700 years old. The pliable variety of palm-leaf used for writing was named ritla.

Silk and cotton cloth were also used for writing special items. State documents were written in Karnataka until very recently, on Kaditam which was made of cotton pieces. Cotton pieces were suffered by applying dark paste coatings to make them Kaditam. Matter was written on such Kaditam using chalk (Kahin) or steatite pencil. Royal proclamations were written on superior silk cloth.

Wooden planks (Phalaka) were also in use for writing on. These also mainly used for special purposes. As such phalakam has attained the meaning of sign board and even name board. The use of the word ilphalakam to mean the special writing board bearing names of those who laid the foundation stone for big buildings, is prevalent in India even today.

Metal plates especially of copper were also used for writing on. The copper plate inscriptions of South Indian Kings are famous in Indian history. The royal grants written on copper plates are known as Tmrasanas. It may be remembered in this connection that the recognition given to the freedom fighters by the President of India is known as Tmrapatra. They are made of copper.

The famous Tirupati Temple of Lord Venkateswara has a huge collection of copper plate writing. The entire musical compositions of the Tallapakam composers of the temple belonging to the 15-16th centuries have been preserved on copper plate.

Stone and rock were also freely used to record royal deeds, especially, exploits and grants. The earliest known stone and rock edicts are those of Asoka found in different parts of the country. The cave temples and rock temples of various locations have imperishable records on rock. Burnt bricks were also used to record events.

Iron was rarely in use as writing material. The Mehrauli Iron Pillar bearing an inscription of Chandragupta is a rare one. The reason for the non-use of iron as a writing material on a large scale is a matter to be researched into.

Paper was originally a Chinese discovery. It was in 105A.D. that the Chinese made it. The technique of papermaking remained a secret for about six centuries. Later, the Arabs knew it and they established paper manufacturing factory as Samarkhand. Arabs brought the art of papermaking to India. It was in the tenth century. Right from then, paper has been in use in India.

India of Megasthenes and Jain sources make mention about use of paper in India. These even point to paper production in India. These are indications of use of paper in India prior to the tenth century. However, manuscripts on paper now available in India appeared from the tenth century onwards only. India paper, anyway, is world famous. Paper was very much in use in North India. The first paper manuscripts were cut into palm-leaf size. A yellow coating was applied on the paper as preservative.

The Sanskrit word Grantha prevalent in India, as well as the English word, book, points to the historical material of writing. The word Grantha suggests meaning of something tied together. It may be noted that the palm-leaves were pierced at one or two ends and were tied together, passing a thread through the holes. The origin of the word book goes to the beach tree. Beach boards were used by the Anglo-Saxons and Germans for the purpose of writing. The book name codex also is derived from the wood material used for writing. The medieval vellum codex reminds the historical importance of the material used for writing on.

Now different varieties of paper are used universally for writing. Manual writing has practically become outmoded. Electronic typing, computer typesetting, Fax, E-mail and Internet are used in the modern world, where one scribbling on a paper pad is looked upon as old-fashioned.

Manuscript: EtymologyThe manuscript is formed of two elements namely manu and scripts. Manu stands for manual originating from Latin manus meaning hand. Script is from Latin scribere meaning to write. The two semantic elements of the word manuscript, therefore, are 1) it is manually written and 2) it is in some script form. As such, manuscripts represent an advanced stage in the history of human development. Antecedents of manuscripts are many with which we are not concerned here.

Towards a definitionManuscript, in common parlance is anything handwritten, but not printed. Usually the script sent to press for printing is called manuscript. Once the matter is printed, it can be called only printed matter. No printed matter has the status of manuscript. As such, printed manuscript is a self contradictory expression.

A doubt may arise in this connection: whether something typewritten using a typewriter or typeset using a computer is a manuscript or not? Strictly speaking, it is not, because in both cases the matter in script form is not simply manually produced; but produced by a machine, whether it be typewriter or computer. However, today, both typewritten and computer typeset matters have to be considered as manuscripts. They may further undergo printing in a press whereby only they will lose their status of manuscript.

The word Manuscript has more than one meaning. The Dictionary of Reading and related terms published by the International Reading Association gives the following three meanings:

1.Any writing done by hand without mechanical aid such as a typewriter or printing press; especially, a hand-written book or document.

2.A finished version of a piece of writing to be submitted for publication; script; especially, a book, article, document or essay.

3.A type of handwriting in which letter forms that look like ordinary type are wholly or partially unconnected within each word; print-script.

L.M. Harrod defines manuscript as a document of any kind which is written by hand, or the text of a music or literary composition in hand-written or typescript form, and which, in that from, has not been reproduced in multiple copies.

The Anglo American Cataloguing Rules cover the description of manuscript (including typescript) materials of all kinds of including manuscript books, dissertations, letters, speeches etc., legal papers (including printed forms completed in manuscripts) and collections of such manuscripts. In the widest sense manuscript should include all the above mentioned items. In the present age of computers, it should include all computer typeset printouts also, because they are also hand-produced basically and will serve as master copy for printing multiple copies in the form of book.

A manuscript is to be distinguished from an inscription. An inscription is a writing engraved on some object. Inscriptions are incised rather than written. However, often writing in relief such as we find in the legends on coins and seals which are usually produced out of moulds or dies and also records painted on cave walls or written in ink on wooden tablets are regarded as inscriptions, although these writings are not actually engraved.

MSS are divided into two types according as they deal with one or more works. The former is called single MS and the latter bundle. Bundle type is further divided into two namely homogeneous and heterogeneous. Homogeneous MS bundle contains one text with its exegesis while a heterogeneous MS bundle contains more than one text with their exegesis.Illuminated ManuscriptsIn the Middle Ages, European monks produced MSS in special workshops called Scriptoria in their monasteries. Gold or silver leaf was applied on the initial letters and the decoration. Such MSS were called illuminated MSS. Distinct styles were used in illuminated MSS in Europe. Byzantine, English, French, Italian, Irish etc were important styles of illumination.

It is not possible to determine when Indians began to illuminate manuscripts. The earliest available Indian manuscript illuminated is from central Asia about the middle of the first millennium A.D. These are Buddhist Manuscripts. The text is Lotus Sutra.

In India itself, similar illuminated manuscripts have been found only in the excavated stpas of Gilgit which came to be known as the Gilgit Manuscripts.

Gilgit is a part of Kashmir and the seat of later Sahi rulers. In 1931 several Buddhist Sanskrit Manuscripts were discovered in a stpa near Gilgit. The discovery of the MSS was first announced by Sir Aurel Stein. He reported about the discovery of a great mass of MSS dating back to the 6th century A.D. The MSS were written in changing form of the Post Gupta Brhmi and also in Proto-rada Scripts. The most important and extensive of the MSS is that of the Mlasarvstivda Vinayavstu. The MSS have been edited by Dr. Nalinaksha Dutt and published in 1939.

Illustrated ManuscriptsIllustrated MSS are those with pictures illustrating the events described in them. But at the same time MSS with some pictures are also available. Illustrated MSS of the The Book of the Dead of the Egyptians are available. Mlavstu of the Hnayna Buddhists, Aashasrika Prajapramita of the Mahayana Buddhists etc. are also available in the illustrated MSS form. MSS illustration continued throughout the centuries. Dvimhatmya, the Holy Quran, Shahnama, Kalpastra, Viupuraa, Bhgavata, Gitgovinda, Mahbhrata (certain parvans), Rmyaa and many other works have been available in illustrated MSS.

The Citrarmaya is a rare palm-leaf manuscript available with the Oriental Research Institute and MSS library of the University of Kerala. Such completely illustrated MSS are very rare. The story of Ramayana illustrated on palm leaf. The work has been published recently.

The MSS heritage of India is very rich. But MSS dating before a thousand years are few. The literary works of the earlier periods are represented by later MSS. The ramaa tradition of the Jainas and Buddhas which was later split many times lost most of the ancient records of their literature. Destruction of MSS occurred as part of civil wars also in India. In short, when systematic collection and preservation of MSS began, there was little that was very ancient.

Systematic manuscript studies and assembling of MSS in India may be traced back to 1868-69 when the Government of India took initiative in the matter. A systematic and regular search of MSS in different parts of India was initiated. In ten years the results came out. A report of the work done in different parts of the country was published by the Govt. in 1878. Many MSS which would have been lost otherwise were collected. Thus revealed much information throwing light on the dark and little known corners of Indian history and literature.

Both the printing press and camera have together made manuscripts and old documents, which have only historical importance, lively. Manuscripts are produced even today, but not as in the ancient or medieval period. Now, manuscript is press matter for printing. It can be manually written, typewritten or type set in a computer. These have no antique value. As part of Manuscriptology we are here concerned mainly with old manuscripts.

Wealth of ManuscriptsIndia is the wealthiest country in the world as regards manuscripts. There are more than five lakhs Sanskrit manuscripts alone deposited in about 250 institutions in India. The Sanskrit University of Benares has a collection of 90000 manuscripts in Sanskrit, Pli or Prkt. The Oriental Research Institute, Mysore has 45000 Sanskrit manuscripts. The L.D. Institute of Ahmadabad also has 45000 Sanskrit manuscripts. Manuscripts Library of the University of Kerala has a collection of 40000 Sanskrit manuscripts. The Abhay Jain Granthalaya of Bikaner has 30000 manuscripts. The Baroda Oriental Research Institute has 25000 manuscripts. The Rajasthan Oriental Research Institute, Jodhpur, The Adayar Library and Research Centre, Madras, Ganganath Jha Institute, Allahabad, Bharat Itihas Sansodhan Mandal, Poona and the Orissa Government Museum, Bhuvaneswar have 20000 manuscripts each. The Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona has 18000 and many other libraries have 10000 or around. About one lakh Sanskrit manuscripts are deposited in various institutions in Germany, France, Britain, Japan, America, Canada, Sri Lanka, Nepal etc.

In India manuscripts are available in plenty in the regional languages also. The Oriental Research Institute and Manuscripts Library, University of Kerala alone has more than 20000 Malayalam manuscripts. The Serfoji, Saraswati Mahal Library, Tanjavr has an equal number of Tamil manuscripts. It can be said that an equal number of manuscripts as those in Sanskrit are available in various regional languages of India also.

III. COLLECTION OF MANUSCRIPTS Manuscripts are written down and copied with much difficultybending the neck, back and spinal cord, and fixing the eye on the text with a downward face. Therefore, they are to collected and preserved with great care.Collecting manuscripts has two main aspects. One is survey of manuscripts with a view to locate them and the other is procurement of manuscripts with a view to preserve them. Both are hazardous tasks which need time, energy and fund for being executed. As such, what is important regarding the collection of manuscripts is the policy of the state or agency concerned. And this policy in favor of manuscripts collection may evolve only if there is a manuscript consciousness among the policy makers. Once the policy is evolved at the high level the idea should reach the masses. Then only the manuscripts is the custody of the general public will be carefully kept for being handed over to the collectors concerned. Manuscript SurveyA complete survey of manuscripts of the world has not been undertaken, so far, by any individual or agency. As such, the total fund of manuscripts of the different languages of the world cannot be ascertained. There is scope for carrying out such a global survey of manuscripts and collecting the manuscripts which will be a huge project. UNESCO and such other agencies will be able to execute such a huge project.

Many surveys of manuscripts at different parts of the world have been undertaken. As a result thousands of manuscripts have been collected.A Short note on Manuscript collection in IndiaIn India, manuscripts were collected and preserved from ancient times. Before the introduction of printing manuscripts were the main means of preservation and communication of knowledge.

During its history extending over more than 4000 years, Sanskrit has witnessed a stupendous output of literature. Not only did its literary activity develop and express itself in a very large number of branches of knowledge, but in each branch also a prodigious amount' of continuous production of literature has taken place. It will be no exaggeration to say that, among all ancient languages, Sanskrit excels in the sheer number of the works and authors that have enriched it down the centuries. All this literary material of Sanskrit has been handed down both orally as well as in written form. In the latter form, this vast mass of literature has been preserved in different kinds of scripts and on different kinds of materials, like birch-bark, palm-leaf and paper, and also occasionally on cloth, wood and stone. This written mass of literature is interesting not only for the diverse materials it has used but also for the diverse forms of writing it has employed, and the attendant arts of calligraphy and illumination.

The primary interest of these written materials lies of course in their being the medium of preservation and perpetuation of the growth and development of Sanskrit literature and learning in all their manifold branches. The study of Sanskrit has always been closely linked with these manuscripts in which its works have been preserved. In ancient times, as the saying goes, Kesavan Acharya: He was a greater teacher who had larger collections or a more representative library, of manuscript works. More manuscripts meant access to rare and higher contributions in each special branch of studies; and even in the case of single works, the greater the number of manuscripts, the greater the facility to consult and decide upon the better readings (pha-bhedas) in difficult contexts of the texts and in matters of controversy. While thus each teacher had his own collection of manuscripts, either in his house or in the school or in the temple or religious establishment to which he was attached, there were also, in a quasi-public manner, collections belonging to educational establishments, monasteries, temples, colleges and palaces of kings, where leading scholars of the time were patronized, debates were held, and literary activity promoted. Thus the places of preservation of manuscripts were also varied and were spread over different and distant parts of this vast country.

The Indian pre-eminence

During the centuries when India was holding a position of pre-eminence and even of leadership in the field of intellectual activity and spiritual culture, Indian literature as enshrined in the manuscripts was taken by religious teachers and scholars to countries outside the borders of India, for preservation, transliteration (if necessary) and translation 'into the local languages. It is well known that the excavations in Central Asia have unearthed fragments of Sanskrit literature of great significance to the early history of its growth, that works of Indian fable literature, mathematics and medicine have been translated into the languages of the Middle East, that quite a number of the Indian classics have been taken to the countries of South-East Asia where they have formed the basis of versions in the local languages, and that a considerable mass of Sanskrit literature, in the branches of Buddhism and Indian Philosophy, exists in Tibetan and Chinese translations, though in India itself the Sanskrit originals of a good many of these texts are no longer extant.

The recovery of India's past rests not merely on monuments and 'documents in stone, in the shape of architecture, sculpture' and inscriptions, but on these manuscripts also, and to a much greater extent. Realizing the importance of manuscripts, pioneers in the field of Indian studies, both in India and abroad, had begun even at the very initial stages to collect and preserve the manuscript material lying scattered all over the country. Chinese Buddhist scholars like Fa Hien, Hiuen Ts'ang and I-Tsing came to India with the acquisition of Sanskrit manuscripts for study and translation as one of their main objectives. I-Tsing the Chinese traveler, who stayed in Nalanda (675-685A.D) collected copies of hundreds of manuscripts. The Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang also took great interest in collecting manuscripts. Historic Indian manuscript libraries

The kings and chieftains of those days established huge manuscript libraries. Sanskrit manuscripts relating to subjects like Logic, Metaphysics, Medicine, Astronomy, Romance and Fables, and Mysticism were very much in demand in the lands of Iran, Iraq and Syria during the Sassanian period and in the early centuries of Islam. In India, rulers and rich men as well as scholars have been building up their collections of manuscripts all along, from the ancient times down to the present age. We have information about collections of books in Buddhist monasteries and Universities like those of Nalanda and Vikramasila, and in Jaina bhandars or libraries. The Universities of Takshasila, Nalanda, Valabhi etc. collected and preserved manuscripts as far back as the 5th century A.D. The Mutts, Viharas etc., maintained the practice of collecting and preserving manuscripts. The tradition was continued by the Mughals. Akbar the great was particularly interested in manuscripts and calligraphy. He himself was a good calligrapher. A distinguished Sannyasin-scholar, Kavindracharya, patronized by the Mogul Emperor Shah Jahan, had a rich library of manuscripts at Banaras, the catalogue of which is available and the manuscripts from which, bearing the owner's name, are now found scattered all over the world.

Chambers Collection etc.

In modern times, western scholars took great interest in collecting manuscripts. Sir William Jones, Sir Robert Chambers, Mackenzie and many others personally collected manuscripts in India towards the close of the 18th century. The first collection of Sanskrit manuscripts made in modem times under European auspices goes back to the years 1774-79, when the Chambers Collection, which later became the nucleus of the Berlin Collection, was made in India. During the years 1796-1806, Col. Mackenzie, an Engineer and Surveyor in the employ of the East India Company, made a huge collection in Madras and the Deccan of manuscripts, copies of inscriptions, accounts of local legend and history, plans, maps, etc., which was purchased by the East India Company and later catalogued by H. H. Wilson in 1828. By the middle of the 19th Century, as a result of the discovery and study of Sanskrit by European scholars and for the pursuit of Sanskrit Research by them, a certain amount of manuscripts relating to Sanskrit literature had been collected and carried to different Universities and libraries in Europe, and many of those manuscripts have been described by European Orientalists in catalogues. This work reacted in creating an interest in India itself in searching and surveying the manuscripts lying in the public and private libraries of India. In 1838, a list was made of the manuscripts in the 'possession of the College of Fort William, Calcutta, and, in 1857, of the collections in Fort St. George, Madras.

Collections of manuscripts of these western scholars were voluminous. Their interest in collecting manuscripts influenced the British regime in India. As a result, the Government of India made it policy to encourage collecting manuscripts. The Government ordered for collecting and cataloguing of Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian manuscripts in different parts of India and necessary funds were allocated for the same in the second half of the 19th century. On the 6th of August, 1868, Whitely Stokes who was Secretary to the Council of the Governor-General for making laws and regulations submitted a note to the council advocating the necessity of collecting and preserving the manuscripts of the country. He prepared a scheme for the same. The concluding part of his note was as follows:But whatever may be done, I trust that no time may be lost in doing something. The climate and the white-ants of India are awful destroyers of manuscripts. The old race of Sastris is dying out; the young natives are losing their national literature; and it is safe to say that in another generation, unless the Government bestirs itself at once, much of value that is now procurable will have disappeared for ever.

The Government of India accepted the scheme and orders were issued for a massive search for manuscripts throughout the country. Many scholars were deputed to tour the length and width of the country to search manuscripts to prepare a comprehensive list of them and to purchase the most important among them.

In ten years, a magnificent work was done. The Government of India published in 1878, the reports of scholars on their search of manuscripts. R.L. Mithra (Bengal), R.T.H. Griffith (North Western Province), Buhler (Gujarat, Rajaputana, Kashmir), Kielhorn (Bombay), Burnell (Tanjvr), Oppert (Madras), G.V. Malleson (Mysore), Vishnu Shastri (Central Provinces) and Deviprasad (Oudh) were the prominent scholars who carried out this search and collection of manuscripts.

Post-independence era

In the post-independence era, the Government of India took interest in the wealth of manuscripts in the country. The Ministry of Scientific Research and Cultural Affairs (presently Ministry of Human Resource Development) of the Government of India constituted an Indology Committee. The Indology Committee at its proceedings held on 25th November 1960 set up a sub-committee to consider and report on the collection, preservation and processing of manuscripts in India. The findings in the main were as follows.

Various surveys conducted in recent times have shown conclusively that a large number of rare manuscripts were lying scattered all over the country in the possession of various institutions and private individuals and that in most of these cases, due to paucity of funds or ignorance or both, the manuscripts were fast deteriorating and even being destroyed. The Committee also took note of anxiety expressed some years ago by the President and the Prime Minister of India for early steps to save these valuable treasures for the use of the posterity.

Even at present there are many private institutions and individuals engaged in the work of buying manuscripts wherever they may be found, though their activities are necessarily restricted by paucity of funds. In fact, the Committee felt that such institutions and individuals have rendered a signal to the cause of learning by such work. In the normal course, the best solution to the problem of collecting and preserving the large collections of manuscripts lying scattered all over India would be to give liberal financial assistance to such organizations and individuals doing such work. But the committee felt that, however laudable this idea might be, it would not be possible achieve to in the near future due to various technicalities which would necessarily be involved in making public funds available to such bodies and in devising machinery to ensure that the funds so granted are utilized properly for the purposes for which they were given.

In the circumstances, the Committee discussed various possibilities and ultimately arrived at the conclusion that the most satisfactory manner of tacking the present problem of collection would be for the Government of India or the proposed Central Institute of Indology to set up on one or more Manuscripts Purchase Committees to inspect and purchase manuscripts on the lines on which the Art Purchase Committee is purchasing antiquities for the National Museum. Considering the largeness of the country and the scope of the work to be done, the Committee would even recommend that there might be four Regional Committees functioning in the four different parts of the country for the purpose of collection of such manuscripts.

Each of these Regional Manuscripts Committees should have n it the members of Indology Committee residing in those regions and in addition, the representatives of the more important of the regional learned associations and bodies including Universities which have been engaged in Manuscripts work.

The University of Grants Commission set up in 1959 a Manuscript Committee to inspect the collection, preservation and utilization of manuscripts in University Libraries and to recommended measures for improvement. The committee reported later:

(i)All Universities visited laid stress on the possibility of further collection of manuscripts in their areas. For proper exploration and survey it is necessary that adequate facilities are given to the Universities in the form of staff, etc. We are of the opinion that for a work like this the main lead and inspiration are to come from the teachers connected with research. Where the spirit and atmosphere of research exist the Universities may provide field workers to collect information about manuscripts and to help in the acquisition. For this purpose the Universities which have the necessary possibilities may be provided with two field workers. A sum of Rs. 5,000/- per annum may be placed by the University Grants Commission at the disposal of the Universities towards the emoluments of field workers and meeting travelling expenses of the teachers and other collectors who may have to go round on this account.

(ii) For collections of a special type for which large sums of money are demanded by the owners but which are believed to be of much importance for research and cultural purposes, the Commission may be approached by the Universities for special grants. But all such collections should be inspected and examined and valued by experts before they are actually purchased.

(iii) A sum of Rs. 5,000/- per annum may normally be made available by the University Grants Commission to the Universities for the purchase of manuscripts. The Universities making good use of the provision and doing good work in respect of the collection of manuscripts may be helped with further sums if there is sufficient justification. The Universities themselves may also be required to make a provision for the purchase of manuscripts in their normal budget.

(iv) Universities may organize manuscript committees consisting of experts to evaluate the collections properly and to guard against the purchase of spurious materials.

The ideas did work to large extent. The results have been the collection, preservation and cataloguing of thousands of MSS which would otherwise have lost forever.

IV. PRESERVATION OF MANUSCRIPTS Protect me from oil (fire), water and being loosely tied. Please do not hand me over to the careless fools, says the manuscript.

Preservation of manuscripts is technical topic for which a scientific background is necessary. It forms part of the broad branch of conservation science in general and the science of conservation of old documents in particular. Mere knowledge of manuscripts is not enough for the proper preservation of them.

The problems connected with the preservation of manuscripts are varied. It is not possible here to go into all the details of the problem of preservation of manuscripts. In fact, preservation of manuscripts can be properly carried out only after obtaining on the job training. What is intended, here is to give a general idea regarding the problems of preserving manuscripts rather than giving any concrete practical direction.

Preservation is the general term used, but it includes conservation reconstruction, restoration and preventive conservation. Preservation of manuscripts has two main aspects: one is the proper storage of manuscript and the other is the use of preservation agents. In both cases the material used for writing the manuscripts and also the polluting agents play the major role.

ClimateClimate conditions are important in the preservation of manuscripts. Drastic variations in light, heat, humidity, air circulation etc. will affect manuscripts. Extreme humidity will easily damage paper manuscripts whereas palm leaf will sustain for a longer period. Higher humidity increases the chances of bio-deterioration. Paper, palm leaf, leather, wood, textiles etc are easy victims of microorganisms in humid conditions.

Bio-deteriorationFungi, insects, rodents and people are agents causing bio-deterioration of manuscripts.

Fungi grow on paper, palm leaf, wood, leather, textiles etc when the room temperature is between 230 and 350 Celsius and humidity is more than 65%. Fungi not only disfigure the writings of the manuscript but cause damage to the material.

Silverfish, bookworm, termites, wasps, beetles, cockroaches etc., are insects which cause harm to the manuscripts. The names book worm and silver-moth also are used for silverfish. It makes holes in the leaves of paper and palm. It is fond of starch, gum and gelatin. Silverfish will be more active if the manuscripts are store in the dark places. Bookworm actually is the larva of beetle. Beetles lay eggs on paper, palm-leaf etc., and in five to ten days these eggs hatch into larvae. They bore the bundles of manuscripts horizontally and vertically.

Termites are of many varieties. White ants are the most common variety found everywhere. Black variety also is rarely found. White ants cause damage not only to manuscripts but to racks and the wooden parts of the buildings also.

Wasps do not eat paper or palm leaf. They either bore holes on the manuscript bundles or build mud-nests on them. In both cases manuscripts are liable to be damaged.

Apart from the larvae of beetles, beetles themselves cause damage to manuscripts. They mutilate paper and palm leaf manuscripts.

Cockroaches are found everywhere and they live for a long time without food. Cockroaches lay eggs on the edges of manuscript bundles. They are more active in darkness and their reproduction rate is very high. The black excreta of cockroaches cause bad smell and disfigure the writings on the manuscripts.

There are also a number of occasional damage makers to the manuscripts. Booklice are minute parasites which will dwell on manuscripts and attack them. Rats are common trouble makers to manuscripts. They can be included in the rodents mentioned above. They cut manuscripts into pieces. People throw away manuscripts of precious nature into fire and water out of sheer superstition. People are the best preservers as well as destroyers of manuscripts.

Place of storagePlace of storage also can cause damage to manuscripts. If the manuscript library is situated on the sea shore there is possibility of salinity apart from humidity in the atmosphere which is dangerous to manuscripts. Dusty buildings with spider web and the sort also are disturbing. Old buildings which are dwelling places of bats and such creatures cannot be used as such for storing manuscripts.

RemediesClimate problems and those related to place of storage can be remedied by keeping the manuscripts in modern well-built air-conditioned buildings. Air-conditioning has the danger of causing harm to manuscripts if not for 24 hours a day. In most libraries there is no night-watcher or night-staff since manuscripts are not considered liable to be stolen. As such even if the library is air-conditioned the machine will be switched off during night. This will results in intermittent use of air-condition which is harmful to manuscripts.

In non air-conditioned libraries dust must be controlled strictly. Manuscripts as well as the racks have to be dusted and cleaned regularly. This must be done gently and with utmost care, otherwise the manuscripts will be hurt.

Paper manuscripts can be protected with naphthalene balls or camphor. Ghodavaca powder in pill-form or packets can be placed among the bundles of paper manuscripts. Use of DDT powder is not advisable since it will cause difficulty to those who handle manuscripts. Similar is the case of Mercuric chloride, Ammonium thiocyanate, thymol etc. These may be good pesticides; but the manuscripts are to be handled by the staff of the library as well as scholars whose health also is of importance.

Palm leaf manuscripts are treated in many ways. Application of citronella and or lemon grass oil is a good method. Soft nylon brush should be used for oiling and the whole process should be gentle. It may be noted that the pleasant smell of lemon grass oil is an incentive for the use of it.

Fumigation is another remedy for insects. Central fumigation is not possible in large libraries. So, in such libraries small fumigation chambers are maintained. Manuscripts bundles have to be taken to the chambers periodically and fumigated. Para dichlorobenzene, Carbon disulphide, Carbon Tetra chloride, Methyl bromide and pure crystals of Thymol which evaporate at ordinary temperature and form gases lethal to insects are used for fumigation. V. DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE I have managed to copy exactly the same I saw in the manuscript.

It may be correct or incorrect. I am not at fault.

Cataloguing of ManuscriptsCollecting manuscripts and simply preserving them are not enough. They are to be made readily available to the scholars for reference. This is not possible without cataloguing manuscripts. Cataloguing is not possible without classification of manuscripts.

Classification

Manuscripts contain knowledge. Attempts to classify knowledge have been very old. Ancient European as well as Indian scholars have made such attempts. Kaualya divided the entire field of knowledge into four branches namely nvkik, Tray, Vrta and Daanti.

CataloguingThe Central Government scheme insists on the systematic cataloguing of manuscripts also. A tabular form for preparing the catalogue of manuscripts has been given by the Government.Tabular statement for preparing catalogue of manuscripts

Serial No. Library Title Name Name Material Script Size, Extent Cond- Additional

& Subject Accession/ of of of /Subst- No. of ition Parti-

Collection work author commen- ance folios/ & age culars

no. if any

tator

leaves;

lines per

page &

No. of

letters

per line

1

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 11

Descriptive CatalogueBooks have many means of circulation unlike manuscripts. It can be said that manuscripts serve their users only if they approach them. And to approach a particular manuscript the concerned user should know in advance whether that is of use to him. As such catalogue of manuscripts should not be mere lists. They should be speaking or descriptive. That is why the catalogues of manuscripts need be descriptive.Descriptive CataloguingIt is not just enough if a Manuscript Library prints and makes available its Catalogue title wise and subject wise to sister institutions in the world. Manuscripts Catalogue work is not at all complete without the preparation of a Descriptive Catalogue.

A Descriptive Catalogue, as its very name suggests, is a Catalogue which gives a description of the manuscripts so that a scholar referring to it may visualize it. The ordinary catalogue informs the existence of a copy. A Descriptive Catalogue furnishes details. The Government of India, Department of Education, Sanskrit section, Ministry of Human Resource Development, New Delhi, which provides financial assistance to institutions to prepare and publish the Descriptive Catalogues of manuscripts with them, bas prescribed the format as follows.

A Descriptive Catalogue consists of two parts. Part one gives the physical details of a manuscript, little being arranged alphabetically under different subject heads. The order of the columns spread on two adjoining pages is: Call Number, Title, Author, Material, Size (in centimeters), Number folios/pages; Number of lines per page; Number of letters per line; Extent (C/Inc.); Condition of the manuscript; Remarks (Whether printed, etc.) Part two shall contain extracts of the Manuscript: (a) A few lines in the beginning; (b) a few lines at the end, just enough to compare two copies of the same work and identify them; and (c) the Colophon. If the Colophon at the end is not available, a Colophon available elsewhere in the copy is given. If there is more than one copy of a work in the Library then the extracts may be given from any of them and only difference, if any, in other copies noted. Letter E is prefixed to the Call Number in Part one to indicate that extracts are necessary because they are useful in differentiating a manuscript from its namesake and deciding that one and the same work is known under different titles.

The Colophon, generally, gives the title of the work, its nature, the name of the author with, sometimes, his titles, his parentage, his patrons name etc.

Catalogus Catalogorum (CC)To facilitate reference to manuscript Catalogues of various institutions in the world, Theodor Aufrecht conceived and compiled in Germany, A Catalogus Catalogorum, a Catalogue of Catalogues in three parts, (Heidelberg, 1891, Bonn 1896 and 1903 reprint 1962 (Franz Steiner Verlag SMBH, Wiesbaden). This was compiled from and gives reference to manuscripts noticed in the Catalogues and Lists of Manuscripts available during his time. The Catalogue Catalogorum is an alphabetical register of names of authors and titles of works. Under an author, all works known under the name in the source material are listed. Under the title of a work, the author, if any, and the reference to the Catalogues (Volume Number and page) wherein the work is noticed are provided. This minimizes the effort of scholars in locating whether any manuscript of a work is available and if so, in which institution/s. Reference to the commentaries and super-commentaries are also provided under the title-entry.

Aufrechts Catalogus Catalogorum has many faulty entries but the defect lies not in Aufrechts magnificent labor but in the source material on which he relied upon. This was noticed as far back as 1935 when more authentic catalogues and descriptive catalogues were available. So, a revision of Catalogus Catalogorum was deeply felt by the scholars.

New Catalogus Catalogorum (NCC)In 1935, Dr. A.C.Woolner, Vice-Chancellor, Punjab University, Lahore, wrote a letter to the University of Madras, to revise the Catalogus Catalogorum. The University considered and accepted the proposal. A committee, with MM S.Kuppuswami Sastri as editor-in-Chief and Sri. P.P.S. Sastri and Dr. C. Kunjan Raja, was formed. The work began in 1935. Later, the editorship was given to Dr. V. Raghavan. On the retirement of Dr. Raghavan, Dr. K. Kunjunni Raja became the editor. Till 2010, 25 volumes are published. VI. CRITICAL EDITION

Interpolations, omissions, transpositions, and errors have taken place by ignorance as well as intention.

Please correct the error of mutilation of words and meaning in my copying due to the illegibility of the original or my own misunderstanding. Please do not be angry with me, the scribe. The scribes were not so much responsible for all the errors in manuscripts. The errors committed by them may be attributed to their ignorance. The other lapses have to be attributed to the narrow-minded persons handling these texts. Anyway it is inevitable to critically edit the text of the manuscript.

Textual Criticism and editionThe most important scholarly aspect of Manuscriptology is textual criticism and edition of the manuscripts for publication. And in this, modern Indian scholars have often followed the model formulated by Greek, Latin and English scholars.

Textual CriticismThe process of textual criticism has four stages which are called:

1. Heuristics

2. Restoration or Recensio3. Emendation or Emendatio 4. Higher Criticism. Since the last one is called Higher Criticism all the other together are considered as Lower criticism. As such, textual criticism is often divided into two major parts called Lower Criticism and Higher Criticism.

Lower CriticismHeuristics

The entire material consisting of manuscripts and testimonia are collected and arranged in the form of a genealogical tree which is also called pedigree or stemma codicum. This process is known as heuristics. The purpose of heuristics is to fix the inter-relationship of the materials. Looking at the pedigree the editor can easily classify the manuscripts and other materials in accordance with their mutual dependence or otherwise.

All the extant copies of the manuscript, commentaries, notes etc., are to be thoroughly read to finalize the text. The authenticity of the codices has to be determined based on the orthographic and stylistic peculiarities. All the variant readings are to be collated. For the purpose of collation, each particular codex consulted is to be given an identification mark which is called siglum (pl.sigla). A, B, C, D....., A1, A2, A3, A4. Content or the script of the manuscript can be shortened in letter form and used. In such case, for example, MB will stand for Mahbhrata and D for Devanagari and MB1, MB2, MB3, MB4........, or D1, D2, D3, D4........, can form the sigla.

Apart from the direct evidence of manuscripts secondary evidences like commentary, translation, anthologies (florilegia), direct quotations, imitations, epitomes and adaptations, parallel versions etc., also can be relied in collation. The ultimate intention is to be obtaining the most pure form of the text.

Restoration

Restoration is that of the original text. The result of the heuristics is before the editor of ready reference. He has now to restore the original text. The critical skill of the editor is the most important thing here. He should be guided by scholarship independent of sectarian attitudes. The fact that all readers may assess his choice should be in mind. Any flaw on the part of the editor in the restoration of the text may lead to the loss of credit to his effort in the process of heuristics.Emendation

Such situations when none of the readings can be satisfactorily accepted may arise. But without the correct reading the text will not be complete. On such occasions the editor will have to suitably amend the reading. This is what is called emendation. The editor will have to be utmost careful in emendation. Emendation is the last resort of the editor in finalizing the text. The emended reading should satisfy the internal and external requirements of the text.

Higher CriticismHigher criticism is not within the limits of textual criticism and Manuscriptology alone. It is part of the present day science of criticism. It is concerned with the text from is content point. Mere knowledge of the text and its subject matter is not enough for higher criticism. Objective historical knowledge is very much in need for higher criticism. Higher criticism need not necessarily be a part of textual criticism and edition. It can be done independently also. A text critically edited and published also is always subject to higher criticism.

Lower criticism, in fact, should lead to higher criticism. Real evaluation of authenticity, interpretation etc., are part of higher criticism. It may be noted that the technical, philological, literary and other criteria are valid only when applied against the correct historical setting. And this is done in higher criticism.

EditionWhat exactly is the work of edition? The editorial work is not the collation of the manuscripts and testimonia. The collation is important but more important is the finalization of the text. In this the editor has to apply his scholarship and skill. The editor of a movie film can be taken as an example here. All the frames shot at different locations at different points of time are assembled and rallied before the editor. He employs his scissors in cutting and joining them. In the case of the edition of a text, the editor uses his pen instead of the scissors. The decision-making is the most important thing in edition.

Critical Edition in IndiaV.S. Skthankar can be called the father of modern Indian textual criticism and edition. Systematic origin of textual criticism was in the third century B.C. Greek scholars of Alexandria initiated the branch of learning. Later Roman and Latin scholars united the traditions and developed textual criticism further. The full-fledged growth of the science took place only in the eighteenth century A.D. The nineteenth century saw important technical advancement of the science. In most of the studies the text subjected was the Bible. Later, many scholars started applying the technique in the case of classical English writings. It was Skthankar who first applied the method of textual criticism in India in editing a book.

The best example of textual criticism and edition in India can be seen in V.S. Skthankars critical edition of Mahbhrata. Mahabharata itself is a unique epic of the world in many respects. The critical edition of Mahbhrata carried out by the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona also has become a unique event. Such amount of time and energy spent on the critical edition of a work is quite rare in history. The volume of work done as part of the critical edition of MB can be judged from the Prolegomena added to the edition by V.S. Skthankar. The prolegomena alone stands as a classical work on textual criticism and edition. The collation details, general account of the manuscripts, classification of manuscripts, detailed account of the manuscripts, testimonia, pedigree of diparvan versions, critical survey of the recensions and their versions, character and mutual relations of the versions and their manuscripts, critical principles followed in the constitution of the text etc. given in the prolegomena constitute a text book in which all the necessary principles of lower criticism can be found applied.

There are also other examples of lower criticism applied in text edition. The critical edition of Rmyaa brought out by M.S. University, Baroda is one. It can be said that lower criticism has flourished in India. Perhaps, this had prompted some scholars to hold the view that lower criticism alone has developed in India and not higher criticism

S.M. Katre, whose Introduction to Indian Textual Criticism still serves as the best in the field, wrote. The subject of higher criticism may perhaps be dealt with profitability in a separate work, as conditions in India so far are not favorable to its study in the absence of exact chronology on the one hand and intensive study of definite periods of literature on the other. Following this statement some people still preach the idea that higher criticism has not originated in India and that time is not yet ripe for the same. But this is not correct. Katre wrote it originally in the first edition of his book in 1941. There is no point in repeating the same words even today, without taking any pain to search whether the situation has changed or not after half a century now, is quite objectionable. In the preface to the second edition of his book Katre wrote in 1954. Preoccupation with other major activities has prevented me from enlarging this edition by inclusion of material and examples from more recently published critical texts. Nevertheless I shall be failing in my duty if I do not refer to one or two significant publications during the past decade. He then refers to the definitive edition of verses ascribed to Bharthari, by Professor D.D. Kosambi published in 1948 and the exhaustive study of the century ascribed to Amaru by Professor S.K. De which awaited publication then.

Without making any exhaustive study of the contribution of scholars to textual criticism and edition in India during the last sixty years it is not possible to pass judgment on the question whether higher criticism has originated in India or not. It is not within the scope of the present assignment to carry out such a study. But it can be convincingly proved that higher criticism has already developed in India.Contemporary Studies on ManuscriptsWith a view to cultivate scholarship on manuscripts, and further the cause of preservation of manuscripts the Government of India announced the formation of the National Manuscript Mission (NMM) on 5 February 2003. The NMM has established a network of Resource Centres in the country and has conducted extensive surveys throughout its length and breadth. More than 4,000 personnel have been trained in the area of preserving manuscripts; cataloguing and conservation work has also been done. In 2006-07, the first phase of this Pilot Project was completed and digitisation of manuscripts in various repositories is now in progress. Publication of the periodical Kiti Rakaa by NMM and other works has gone a long way towards creating awareness about the manuscripts Heritage. Tattavabodha - the lecture series of NMM running monthly at their headquarters and annually at many of the centres created by it - has been of substantial value for the furtherance of manuscript studies and creating awareness about the manuscripts. Selected lectures are being published in a series of volumes. Volume III of Tattavabodha - edited by Dipti Tripathi has been published (2010).

It was V. Raghavan who started one of the most voluminous works in the field of manuscripts studies by New Catalogus Catalogorum (NCC). He also brought out five volumes of the NCC, a project now being funded by the NMM; 25 volumes have been prepared and published, to complete the work up to the alphabet ra. The digitisation of these volumes will supplement the whole project of digitisation of manuscripts. The mission has digitised the existing volumes of the New Catalogus Catalogorum for preserving the valuable data in these books. Presently they have completed 200 books and work is still in progress. RSkS has published a catalogue of 13,000 manuscripts in their G.H. Jha campus; a complete catalogue of 56,000 manuscripts in this library is being published now. Sanskrit and Allied Manuscripts in Europe (2005) by D.K. Kanjilal and Kripamayee Kanjilal present a survey of manuscripts in 21 libraries of Europe. Besides producing the lists of manuscripts in these libraries it also gives descriptions of some rare and important manuscripts. Other important contributions to manuscript studies are Prkt-pulipi-cayanik and Apabhraa-pulipi-cayanik edited by K.C. Sogani. One of the important surveys with reference to manuscripts on science was made by K.V. Sarma and his account of manuscripts related to astronomy, astrology, medicine, veterinary science chemistry, physics, botany, architecture draws one's attention towards some very valuable literature that lies in the repositories in south India. Pustaka Prakasha - a research institute at Jodhpur (Rajasthan) - has launched an annual journal on manuscripts studies titled Mnapraka. The first number released in 2011 gives a detailed account of 77 manuscripts preserved in the library of this institute; some of these manuscripts dealing with lives of the local rulers are very important from the point of view of history of the Jodhpur state. Manuscriptology and manuscript studies have become most significant emerging areas and some of the budding scholars have devoted themselves to these. Works by Virupaksha Jaddipal have been referred to above. He has also translated S.M. Katre's book on textual criticism in Sanskrit. Basant Kumar Bhatta has done an authentic work on the manuscripts of Abhijnakuntala and Uttararmacaritam and has also produced critical editions of these. Malhar Kulkarni has worked on manuscripts of Kik. Rajesh Chunilal Vyas has worked on the commentary of Pujarja on Srasvatavykaraa. Ajad Mishra has prepared critical edition of Siddhntaratnkara - a commentary on Siddhntakaumud.

VII. REFERENCES A.H. Dani: Indian Palaeography [Oxford: Clarendon Press 1963] G. Colas: The criticism and transmission of texts in Classical India [Diogenes 47,2 [186] (1999) J. Filliozat: Manuscripts on Birch Bark (Bhurjapatra) and their preservation [The Indian Archives 1,2 (1947), 102-08]. P.K. Padmakumar / V.B. Sreekumar: Palm leaves as writing material: history and methods of processing in Kerala [Palms 47,3 (2003), 125-29] Maheswaran Nair, K., Introduction to Manuscriptology, 1998

SIXTY YEARS OF SANSKRIT STUDIES: VOL .1, Radhavallabh Tripathi, R Skt Sansthan, 2010

R.S.S. Murthy: Introduction to manuscriptology [Delhi: Sharada Publishing House 1996] T. Aufrecht: Catalogus catalogorum an alphabetical register of Sanskrit works and authors [3 parts. Leipzig: Brockhaus 1891-1903], followed by the New Catalogus Catalogorum [19 volumes. University of Madras 1968-2007]. V.S. Sukthankar's Prolegomena to the critical edition of the Mahbhrata [Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute 1933]qwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzx

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sdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmrtyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmrtyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmrtyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmrtyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmrtyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmrtyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmrtyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnmqwertyuiopasdfghjklzxcvbnm

Harris, Theodore,L., & Hodges, Richard, E., ed., A Dictionary of Reading and Related Terms, London, 1983, pp. 189-190.

Harrod, L.M., The Librarians Glossary, London, 1959, p.40.

Sircar, D.C., Indian Epigraphy, Delhi, 1965, p.1

Dutt, Nalinaksha, Ed., Gilgit Manuscripts, Delhi, 1984.

Vijayan, Dr. K., Ed., CitraRmaya, Tvpm, 1997.

Murthy, Shivagangesa, R.S., Introduction to Manuscriptology, Delhi, 1996, p.69

Raghavan, Dr. V., Manuscripts, Catalogues, Editions (Steps taken for the collection, preservation and utilization of Manuscripts), Madras, 1963.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Katre, S.M., Introduction to Indian Textual Criticism, Poona, 1954, p.87

Ibid. p. XII

PhD Coursework: UNIT 2 - SANSKRIT ANCIENT & MODERN/module 4