Manufacturing Processes - Mechanical
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Transcript of Manufacturing Processes - Mechanical
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Manufacturing Processes
Mechanical Properties
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Mechanical Properties in Design and Manufacturing Mechanical properties determine a material’s
behavior when subjected to mechanical stresses Properties include elastic modulus, ductility, hardness, and
various measures of strength
Dilemma: mechanical properties desirable to the designer, such as high strength, usually make manufacturing more difficult The manufacturing engineer should appreciate the design
viewpoint and the designer should be aware of the manufacturing viewpoint
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Importance
Influence function and performance
Reflects the capacity to resist deformation
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Stress
Tensile Stretch the material
Compressive Squeeze the material
Shear Slide of adjacent portions of the material
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A B
3 m
4 m
Conceptual Model
B
C
30 kN
FBC
F’BC
FAB F’AB
30 kN 5 m
= =A
3 m
C
B
4 m
30 kN
4 m
3 m
FAB= 40 kNFBC= 50 kN
FAB= 40 kNFBC= 50 kN
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Conceptual Model (cont.)
B
CFBC
F’BC
F’BC
FBC
DD
FBC
A
A
FBC
Stress- internal force per unit area
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(e)
Strain
B
CFBC
F’BC
lo
L
Strain – elongation per unit of length
e
=L
lo
-
lo
100(%)
o
o
l
lLe
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Measurement Units
International System (SI) Axial force (F) in Newtons
(N) Area (A) in squared meters
(m2) Stress () in N/m2 or
Pascals (Pa) 1 N/m2 = 1 Pa
US Customary System (USCS) Axial force (F) in pounds-
force (lbf) Area (A) in squared inches
(in.2) Stress () in lbf/in.2 or psi
A
F
internal force per unit area
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Tensile Test Most common test for
studying stress‑strain relationship, especially metals
In the test, a force pulls the material, elongating it and reducing its diameter
Figure 3.1 ‑ Tensile test: (a) tensile force applied in (1) and (2) resulting elongation of material
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ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) specifies preparation of test specimen
Figure 3.1 ‑ Tensile test: (b) typical test specimen
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Figure 3.1 ‑ Tensile test: (c) setup of the tensile test
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Figure 3.2 ‑ Typical progress of a tensile test: (1) beginning of test, no load; (2) uniform elongation and reduction of cross‑sectional
area; (3) continued elongation, maximum load reached; (4) necking begins, load begins to decrease; and (5) fracture. If
pieces are put back together as in (6), final length can be measured
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Stress-Strain RelationshipStress‑strain curve - basic relationship that describes mechanical properties for all three types.
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Figure 3.3 ‑ Typical engineering stress‑strain plot in a tensile test of a metal
prior to yielding of the material
after yielding of the material
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Elastic Region in Stress‑Strain Curve Relationship between stress and strain is
linear Material returns to its original length when
stress is removed
Hooke's Law: = E e where E = modulus of elasticity; slope of the curve E is a measure of the inherent stiffness of a
material Its value differs for different materials
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Yield Point in Stress‑Strain Curve As stress increases, a point in the linear
relationship is finally reached when the material begins to yield Yield point Y can be identified by the change in
slope at the upper end of the linear region Y = a strength property Other names for yield point = yield strength, yield
stress, and elastic limit
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Figure 3.3 ‑ Typical engineering stress‑strain plot in a tensile test of a metal
prior to yielding of the material
after yielding of the material
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Plastic Region in Stress‑Strain Curve Yield point marks the beginning of plastic
deformation The stress-strain relationship is no longer
guided by Hooke's Law As load is increased beyond Y, elongation
proceeds at a much faster rate than before, causing the slope of the curve to change dramatically
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Stress
Engineering stress
oeng A
F
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Tensile Strength in Stress‑Strain Curve Elongation is accompanied by a uniform
reduction in cross‑sectional area, consistent with maintaining constant volume
Finally, the applied load F reaches a maximum value, and engineering stress at this point is called the tensile strength TS or ultimate tensile strength
TS =
oAFmax
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Figure 3.3 ‑ Typical engineering stress‑strain plot in a tensile test of a metal
prior to yielding of the material
after yielding of the material
UTS
YS
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Ductility in Tensile Test
Ability of a material to plastically strain without fracture
where EL = elongation; Lf = specimen length at fracture; and Lo = original specimen length
Lf is measured as the distance between gage marks after two pieces of specimen are put back together
o
of
LLL
EL
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Figure 3.3 ‑ Typical engineering stress‑strain plot in a tensile test of a metal
prior to yielding of the material
after yielding of the material
UTS
YS
Ductility
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True Stress
Stress value obtained by dividing the instantaneous area into applied load
where = true stress; F = force; and A = actual (instantaneous) area resisting the load
AF
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True Strain
Provides a more realistic assessment of "instantaneous" elongation per unit length
o
L
L LL
LdL
o
ln
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If previous engineering stress‑strain curve were plotted using true stress and strain values
Figure 3.4 ‑ True stress‑strain curve for the previous engineering stress‑strain plot in Figure 3.3
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Strain Hardening in Stress-Strain Curve Note that true stress increases continuously
in the plastic region until necking In the engineering stress‑strain curve, the
significance of this was lost because stress was based on an incorrect area value
What it means is that the metal is becoming stronger as strain increases This is the property called strain hardening
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When the plastic region of the true stress‑strain curve is plotted on a log‑log scale, it becomes linear
Figure 3.5 ‑ True stress‑strain curve plotted on log‑log scale
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Flow Curve
Because it is a straight line in a log-log plot, the relationship between true stress and true strain in the plastic region is
where K = strength coefficient; and n = strain hardening exponent
nK
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Types of stress-strain
Perfectly elastic behavior follows Hooke’s law; fractures rather
than yielding to plastic flow Elastic and perfectly elastic
Behave as indicated by E; once yield is reached deforms plastically at same stress level.
Elastic and strain hardening Obeys Hooke’s Law in the elastic region; begin to
flow at yield strength (Y); continued deformation requires ever-increasing stress
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Behavior is defined completely by modulus of elasticity E
It fractures rather than yielding to plastic flow
Brittle materials: ceramics, many cast irons, and thermosetting polymers
Figure 3.6 ‑ Three categories of stress‑strain relationship: (a) perfectly elastic
Perfectly Elastic
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Stiffness defined by E Once Y reached, deforms
plastically at same stress level
Flow curve: K = Y, n = 0 Metals behave like this
when heated to sufficiently high temperatures (above recrystallization)
Figure 3.6 ‑ Three categories of stress‑strain relationship:
(b) elastic and perfectly plastic
Elastic and Perfectly Plastic
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Hooke's Law in elastic region, yields at Y
Flow curve: K > Y, n > 0 Most ductile metals
behave this way when cold worked
Figure 3.6 ‑ Three categories of stress‑strain relationship:
(c) elastic and strain hardening
Elastic and Strain Hardening