Manufacturing of an Alternative Green Solar Power Battery Charger for Stationary Cars

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    CHAPTER 1

    INTRODUCTION

    These days electrical generation is typically provided by fossil fuels such as

    coal, natural gas, and oil and also as nuclear power. Currently one third of the

    world population do not have access to electricity and are not connected to the

    national grid, one solution to this problem is renewable energy in the form of

    photovoltaic (PV) systems.

    Despite high capital cost, PV systems are still a viable solution for rural areas.

    Studies suggest that the rate at which fossil fuels are consumed today, there are

    high chances that they will deplete by the end of this century. For a long time, it

    has been thought that atomic energy would be a solution for the growing energy

    problem, but in recent times solar energy has proved to be an efficient, more

    secure and safe way of providing energy.

    Concepts related to the solar energy have constantly been under heavy research

    and development. The basic objective is to optimize the energy produced from

    photovoltaic cells, by making the overall systems more efficient and cost

    effective. Most solar panels are statically aligned; they have a fixed position at a

    certain angle towards the sky.

    Therefore, the time and intensity of direct sunlight falling upon the solar panel

    is greatly reduced, resulting in low power output from the photovoltaic (PV)cells. Solar tracking system is the solution to this issue as it plays a major role in

    overall solar energy optimization. In order to ensure maximum power output

    from PV cells, the sunlights angle of incidence needs to be constantly

    perpendicular to the solar panel.

    This requires constant tracking of the suns apparent daytime motion, and

    hence develops an automated sun tracking system which carries the solar panel

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    and position it in such a way that direct sunlight is always focused on PV cells.

    This project is about moving a solar panel along with the direction of sunlight; it

    uses a stepper motor to control the position of the solar panel, which obtains its

    data from a microcontroller. The automated solar tracking system is design in

    order to optimize the efficiency of overall solar energy output. Light dependent

    resistor (LDR) is used for each degree of freedom.

    LDRs are basically photocells that are sensitive to light. Several applications of

    solar energy ranging from simple solar water heating to complex mega watt

    power generation systems are under extensive investigation. The function of the

    solar collector is to collect the radiation incident from the sun. To get maximumenergy from the Sun, solar panel needs to rotate according to movement of the

    Sun with the help of LDR.

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    1.1 The Proposed System:

    The ordinary battery has some drawbacks such as it gets discharged when car is steady for long period of time. To overcome this problem we have introduced

    an Alternate Solar Battery Charger For Steady Cars. We know that solar energyis readily available. So when the car is in steady condition the battery getscharged using solar energy.

    Solar power battery charger for Stationary cars

    1.2 Why this topic was chosen:

    As per survey done , it is found that in many old model vehicles or

    existing vehicles the problem Push and start arises for example a medium size

    four wheeler a battery of rating 30 amp-hr is used to start the vehicle . If a

    vehicle is kept steady for a long period or 2,3 weeks or more the vehicles

    battery gets discharged due to some chemical leakage or composition in the

    battery. This generally happens in cold nights ,to overcome this problem a solar

    charging concept is introduced, as solar charging is easily possible when the

    vehicle is in idle time in sun light ,only installation is somewhat costly but it

    dont require much mentainance .

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    1.3 Expected layout of the project :

    1.4 Problem definition:

    1.4.1Demerits of Less Driven Vehicles:

    Many times we ignore the importance of battery in our vehicle and thereafter

    face trouble because of the same. Cars battery is quite a significant component

    of your vehicle and without it your car wont start.

    Even the temperature affects the batterys perfo rmance, and when the battery isat 0 degrees F, only half of the normal cranking power will be produced

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    whereas the drop in temperature of 20 degrees F, it will raise out less power

    capacity.

    So here are some steps to warm up your battery so that you can easily start your

    vehicle. If a vehicle is kept steady for a long period or 2,3 weeks or more the

    vehicles battery gets discharged due to some chemical leakage or composition

    in the battery.

    1.4.2 Insufficient Charging Output:

    If one of the three stator windings failed, the alternator would still charge, but

    only at two thirds of its normal output. Since an alternator is designed to handle

    all the power that is needed under heavy load conditions, you may never know

    that there is a problem with the unit. It might only become apparent on a dark,

    cold rainy night when the lights, heater, windshield wipers and possible the seat

    heaters and rear defroster are all on at once that you may notice the lights start

    to dim as you slow down. If two sets of windings failed, you will probably

    notice it a lot sooner.

    Its more common for one or more of the six diodes in the rectifier to fail. If a

    diode burns out and opens one of the circuits, you would see the same problem

    as if one of the windings had failed. The alternator will run at a reduced

    output. However, if one of the diodes were to short out and allow current to

    pass in either direction, other problems will occur.

    A shorted diode will allow AC current to pass through to the automobile'selectrical system which can cause problems with the computerized sensors and

    processors. This condition can cause the car to act unpredictably and cause all

    kinds of problems.

    1.4.3 Too much voltage:

    http://www.familycar.com/Classroom/charging.htmhttp://www.familycar.com/Classroom/charging.htm
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    A voltage regulator is designed to limit the voltage output of an alternator to

    14.5 volts or less to protect the vehicle's electrical system. If the regulator

    malfunctions and allows uncontrolled voltage to be released, you will see bulbs

    and other electrical components begin to fail. This is a dangerous and

    potentially costly problem. Fortunately, this type of failure is very rare. Most

    failures cause a reduction of voltage or amperage.

    1.5 Need of project:

    Car battery is used for a number of purposes such as headlights, starting the

    engine, etc. However, when the car is not used for extended periods of time, the

    battery slowly discharges. As a result, the battery performance degrades.

    This charge can be easily maintained by using a solar cell. The solar cell

    converts solar energy to electrical energy and helps to keep the battery charged.

    Charging through solar energy ensures negligible voltage drops and helps to

    prolong the battery life.

    Solar power charger is the most abundant and absolutely cost-free supply of

    electricity accessible. A charge controller, or charge regulator is similar to the

    voltage regulator in your car. It regulates the voltage and current coming from

    the solar panels going to the battery. Most "12 volt" panels put out about 16 to

    20 volts, so if there is no regulation the batteries will be damaged from

    overcharging. Most batteries need around 14 to 14.5 volts to get fully charged.

    Solar battery charger converts light energy into direct current, using solar cell

    modules i.e. a solar panel of varying volts for different uses.

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    Typically, a solar charger can hold on to its charge for up to a year. The

    advantage to using a solar charger is that it eliminates all of those unnecessary,

    bulky chargers for every electronic device. Most solar power systems use 12

    volt batteries, like you find in cars. Solar panels can deliver far more voltage

    than is required to charge the batteries.

    By, in essence, converting the excess voltage into amps, the charge voltage can

    be kept at an optimal level while the time required to fully charge the batteries

    is reduced. This allows the solar power system to operate optimally at all times.

    In this way, solar battery chargers are the perfect alternative for normal battery

    chargers. It stores chemicals, not electricity. Two different types of lead in an

    acid mixture react to produce an electrical pressure. This electrochemical

    reaction changes chemical energy to electrical energy.

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    CHAPTER 2

    Literature survey on Solar Energy2.1 Solar energy :

    Rajasthan, Gujarat, west Madhya Pradesh and north Maharashtra receive more

    than 3000 to 3200 hours of bright sunshine in a year. Over 2600 to 2800 hours

    of bright sunshine are available over the rest of the country, except Kerala, the

    north-eastern states, and Jammu and Kashmir where they are appreciably lower.

    During monsoon (June August), a significant decrease in sunshine occurs over

    the whole country except Jammu and Kashmir where the maximum duration of

    sunshine occurs in June and July, and minimum in January due to its location.

    The north-eastern states and south-east peninsula also receive relatively less

    sunshine during October and November due to the north-east monsoons. As far as the availability of global solar radiation is concerned, more than 2000

    kWh/m2-year are received over Rajasthan and Gujarat, while east Bihar, North

    West Bengal and the north-eastern states receive less than 1700 kWh/m2-year.

    The availability of diffuse solar radiation varies widely in the country. The

    annual pattern shows a minimum of 740 kWh/m2-year over Rajasthan

    increasing eastwards to 840 kWh/m2-year in the north-eastern states, and south

    wards to 920 kWh/m2-year.

    A huge market for solar energy; given the high solar incidence in India (there

    are about 300 clear sunny days in a year in most parts of India and the daily

    average solar energy incident over India varies from 4-7 kWh/m2

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    2.2 The photovoltaic (PV) power plants of India :

    India inaugurated Azure Power's 2-megawatt photovoltaic plant in the state of

    Punjab, the first privately owned, utility-scale power plant on the Asiansubcontinent.

    Built under a 30-year power purchase agreement with the Punjab State

    Electricity Board, the plant will help power 4,000 rural homes for 20,000

    people.

    Azure Power is India's first independent power producer in solar energy. It builtthe plant, situated on 13 acres of farmland in the village of Awan, in a record six

    months,

    Inderpreet Wadhwa founded Azure Power two years ago after a 15-year career

    in the United States that most recently included software giant Oracle Corp. The

    37-year-old native of Amritsar city in Punjab said he wanted to return home and

    do something for rural areas in India, where millions of people don't have

    reliable electricity.

    Azure Power received initial venture-capital funding from Helion Ventures and

    Foundation Capital.

    Wadhwa encountered a number of bureaucratic hurdles in the project, including

    obtaining signatures from 152 local officials in Punjab, The Wall Street Journal

    report.

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    Gandhinagar Solar Plant

    Thyagaraj Stadium Plant-Delhi

    Azure Power, Sabarkantha Gujarat Tata - Mulshi, Maharashtra

    Tata - Mayiladuthurai, Tamil Nadu

    Moser Baer - Patna, Gujarat

    TATA - Osmanabad, Maharashtra

    REHPL - Sadeipali, (Bolangir) Orissa

    2.3 Solar Equipment:

    Solar Panels, Solar FanCap, Solar Fountain Pump, Solar Fountain Cascade, Solar Security Light, Solar Shed Light, Solar Lantern, Solar Street Light,Solar Power Pack ,Solar Power Pack Systems, Photovoltaic Modules,Photovoltaic Panels, Renewable Energy Products, Renewable

    Energy Power Plant, High Quality PV Panels, IEC Approved PV Panels, HighQuality PV Module, Cellular Phone Tower Power Systems, Solar Garden LightSystems, Solar Water Pumping, Solar Home Light Systems, Solar Lantern,Waaree Energies, Solar Power,

    2.4 List of Solar Energy Companies in India

    1. Tata BP Solar India Ltd

    2. Sun Technics Energy Systems Pvt Ltd3. Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd

    4. HHV Solar Technologies Pvt Ltd

    5. Emmvee Toughened Glass & Photovoltaics Pvt Ltd

    6. IComm Tele Ltd

    7. Thrive Energy technologies (I) Ltd

    8. Photon Energy Systems Ltd

    http://www.tatabpsolar.com/http://www.suntechnics.de/in/http://www.bhel.com/http://www.hhvsolar.com/http://www.emmveesolar.com/http://www.icommtele.com/http://thriveenergy.co.in/http://www.photonsolar.com/http://www.photonsolar.com/http://thriveenergy.co.in/http://www.icommtele.com/http://www.emmveesolar.com/http://www.hhvsolar.com/http://www.bhel.com/http://www.suntechnics.de/in/http://www.tatabpsolar.com/
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    9. Andromeda Energy Technologies (P) ltd

    10. Noble Energy Solar Technologies Ltd

    11 . XL Telecom & Energy Ltd

    12. Sungrace Energy Solutions Pvt Ltd

    13. Shurjo Energy

    14. Synergy Renewable Energy

    15. Sova Power Limited

    16. Vikram Solar Pvt. Ltd

    17. Webel Solar

    18. PV Power Tech19. Green Brillinace Energy Pvt Limited

    20. PLG Power Limited

    21. Access Solar Ltd

    22. Solar Semiconductors Pvt Limited

    23. Titan Energy Systems Limited

    24. Moser Baer 25. Synergic India Pvt. Limited

    26. Jain Irrigation Systems

    27. Premier Solar Systems Pvt Ltd

    28Maharishi Solar Technology Pvt Ltd

    2.5 USE OF SOLAR ENERGY BY INDIAN POPULACE :

    At an international level we are aware of the crisis being caused by global

    warming and its possible consequences. However, we also see the teeming

    millions, especially in rural India, living with many unmet needs. Due to

    poverty and illiteracy the methods of farming are primitive. There is insufficient

    or no electricity in many villages around which we work. An unscientific

    approach to living impacts health and performance in different areas.

    http://www.andromedasolar.com/http://www.solarnest.net/home.htmlhttp://www.solarnest.net/home.htmlhttp://www.solarnest.net/home.htmlhttp://www.xltelenergy.com/http://www.xltelenergy.com/http://www.xltelenergy.com/http://sungrace.net/http://sungrace.net/http://sungrace.net/http://www.shurjo-energy.com/http://www.shurjo-energy.com/http://www.shurjo-energy.com/http://www.group-synergy.net/http://www.group-synergy.net/http://www.group-synergy.net/http://sovasolar.com/http://sovasolar.com/http://www.vikramsolar.com/http://www.vikramsolar.com/http://www.vikramsolar.com/http://www.webelsolar.com/http://www.webelsolar.com/http://www.webelsolar.com/http://www.greenbrilliance.com/http://www.greenbrilliance.com/http://www.greenbrilliance.com/http://www.plgpower.com/http://www.plgpower.com/http://www.plgpower.com/http://www.accesssolar.co.in/home.htmlhttp://www.accesssolar.co.in/home.htmlhttp://www.accesssolar.co.in/home.htmlhttp://www.solarsemiconductor.com/http://www.solarsemiconductor.com/http://www.solarsemiconductor.com/http://www.titansolar.com/http://www.titansolar.com/http://www.titansolar.com/http://moserbaer.com/http://moserbaer.com/http://moserbaer.com/http://www.synergicsolar.com/http://www.synergicsolar.com/http://www.synergicsolar.com/http://www.jains.com/http://www.jains.com/http://www.jains.com/http://www.premiersolarsystems.com/http://www.premiersolarsystems.com/http://www.premiersolarsystems.com/http://www.maharishisolar.com/http://www.maharishisolar.com/http://www.maharishisolar.com/http://www.premiersolarsystems.com/http://www.jains.com/http://www.synergicsolar.com/http://moserbaer.com/http://www.titansolar.com/http://www.solarsemiconductor.com/http://www.accesssolar.co.in/home.htmlhttp://www.plgpower.com/http://www.greenbrilliance.com/http://www.webelsolar.com/http://www.vikramsolar.com/http://sovasolar.com/http://www.group-synergy.net/http://www.shurjo-energy.com/http://sungrace.net/http://www.xltelenergy.com/http://www.solarnest.net/home.htmlhttp://www.andromedasolar.com/
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    With torrential monsoon rains lasting nearly four months and snow fall in the

    northern regions, India receives abundant water. Bright sunshine for the rest of

    the year gifts India with huge amounts of Solar energy. These freely given gifts

    are not sufficiently tapped nor used. If these plentiful resources were used with

    better planning and wisdom we could avert many drought-like situations in the

    country.

    For India's agrarian economy there are many alternatives possible to shift from

    dependence on non-renewable energy sources. But due to poverty and illiteracy,the living and working processes are still very primitive, often self defeating

    and unfriendly to the environment.

    Our commitment to sustainable living standards prompted us to apply for

    funding from the Conrad Hilton Fund for Sisters. The approved funding was

    allocated for solar units in four Indian villages where we work: Siktia in Bihar,Morai in Tamilnadu, Jeevan Jyoti Hospice for HIV/AIDS patients in Theni,

    Tamilnadu and Karanje in Maharashtra. The funds helped install solar units for

    electricity, street lighting, water heating and cookers.

    Over the past 50 years Indias urban population has been dramatically

    increasing, with most people living in slums or other substandard dwellings.People in these low-income communities face major health hazards due to poor

    living conditions, lack of hygiene and sanitation, dependency on untreated water

    supplies and significant exposure to indoor air pollution. Most of the inhabitants

    depend on health care services provided by local government.

    The level of health service provided varies from city to city and local

    governments are becoming increasingly concerned about their ability to meet

    their social obligations in the health sector. At the same time, most Indian cities

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    are facing a severe energy crisis, which also has a negative affect on health care

    services. Recognising the serious nature of these problems, the issue of energy

    in the urban health sector in India was addressed by a project carried out by the

    South Asian group of ICLEI - Local Governments for Sustainability.

    The project team focused on identifying and implementing renewable energy

    technologies and efficiency measures within hospitals. Hospitals are large

    consumers of energy; they need power supply for lighting common areas and

    operating theatres, providing hot water, refrigerating vaccines and medicines

    etc.Additionally, alternative sources of energy are needed for emergency

    services during power shortages.

    Initially, ICLEI carried out a detailed assessment of the energy consumption in

    local authority health care facilities in the city of Bhubaneswar, India. One

    hospital was then chosen as a pilot project to demonstrate that renewable energy

    technologies and energy efficiency strategies could be a way of tackling the

    hospitals energy issues. An expert conducted an energy audit at the hospital in

    order to identify possible areas of intervention.

    Based on the results of this audit, recommendations for action were

    formulated. The proposed technologies were: a solar photovoltaic power plant,

    solar water heating installations, a solar powered vaccine refrigerator, solar

    lighting systems with energy efficient light fixtures and efficient ceiling fans.

    The necessary equipment was procured and installed and then the hospital staffswas trained in the operation and maintenance of the equipment so that they

    would be able to use it on a daily basis..

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    CHAPER 3

    STUDY OF PHOTOVOLTAIC (PV) CELL

    3.1 BASICS

    The photoelectric effect was first noted by a French physicist, Edmund

    Becquerel, in 1839, who found that certain materials would produce small

    amounts of electric current when exposed to light. In 1905, Albert Einstein

    described the nature of light and the photoelectric effect on which photovoltaictechnology is based, for which he later won a Nobel prize in physics.

    The first photovoltaic module was built by Bell Laboratories in 1954. It was

    billed as a solar battery and was mostly just a curiosity as it was too expensive

    to gain widespread use. In the 1960s, the space industry began to make the first

    serious use of the technology to provide power aboard spacecraft.

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    Through the space programs, the technology advanced, its reliability was

    established, and the cost began to decline. During the energy crisis in the 1970s,

    photovoltaic technology gained recognition as a source of power for non-space

    applications. The solar cells that you see on calculators and satellites are also

    called photovoltaic (PV) cells, which as the name implies (photo meaning

    "light" and voltaic meaning "electricity"), convert sunlight directly into

    electricity.

    A module is a group of cells connected electrically and packaged into a frame

    (more commonly known as a solar panel).

    Internal structure of solar panel

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    3.2 Simple explanation

    1. Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed bysemiconducting materials, such as silicon.

    2. Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms,

    allowing them to flow through the material to produce electricity. Due to

    the special composition of solar cells, the electrons are only allowed to

    move in a single direction.

    3. An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amountof direct current (DC) electricity.

    3.3Working of solar panel

    3.3.1 Photogeneration charge carriers

    When a photon hits a piece of silicon, one of three things can happen:

    1. the photon can pass straight through the silicon this (generally)

    happens for lower energy photons,

    2. the photon can reflect off the surface,

    3. the photon can be absorbed by the silicon, if the photon energy is higher

    than the silicon band gap value. This generates an electron-hole pair andsometimes heat, depending on the band structure.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunlighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunlighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunlighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band_gaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band_gaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band_gaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band_gaphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunlighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photon
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    Band diagram of a silicon solar cell

    When a photon is absorbed, its energy is given to an electron in the crystal

    lattice. Usually this electron is in the valence band , and is tightly bound in

    covalent bonds between neighboring atoms, and hence unable to move far. The

    energy given to it by the photon "excites" it into the conduction band , where it is

    free to move around within the semiconductor.

    The covalent bond that the electron was previously a part of now has one fewer

    electron this is known as a hole. The presence of a missing covalent bond

    allows the bonded electrons of neighboring atoms to move into the "hole,"

    leaving another hole behind, and in this way a hole can move through the

    lattice. Thus, it can be said that photons absorbed in the semiconductor create

    mobile electron-hole pairs.

    A photon need only have greater energy than that of the band gap in order to

    excite an electron from the valence band into the conduction band. However,

    the solar frequency spectrum approximates a black body spectrum at about

    5,800 K ,[1] and as such, much of the solar radiation reaching the Earth is

    composed of photons with energies greater than the band gap of silicon. These

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valence_bandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valence_bandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valence_bandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conduction_bandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conduction_bandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_spectrumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_spectrumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_spectrumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_bodyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_bodyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_bodyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_solar_cells#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_solar_cells#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_solar_cells#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BandDiagramSolarCell-en.gifhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BandDiagramSolarCell-en.gifhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BandDiagramSolarCell-en.gifhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BandDiagramSolarCell-en.gifhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_solar_cells#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_bodyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_spectrumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conduction_bandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valence_band
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    higher energy photons will be absorbed by the solar cell, but the difference in

    energy between these photons and the silicon band gap is converted into heat

    (via lattice vibrations called phonons ) rather than into usable electrical

    energy.

    3.3.2 Charge carrier separation

    There are two main modes for charge carrier separation in a solar cell:

    1. drift of carriers, driven by an electric field established across the device

    2. diffusion of carriers due to their random thermal motion, until they are

    captured by the electrical fields existing at the edges of the active region.

    In thick solar cells there is no electric field in the active region, so the dominant

    mode of charge carrier separation is diffusion. In these cells the diffusion length

    of minority carriers (the length that photo-generated carriers can travel before

    they recombine) must be large compared to the cell thickness. In thin film cells

    (such as amorphous silicon), the diffusion length of minority carriers is usually

    very short due to the existence of defects, and the dominant charge separation is

    therefore drift, driven by the electrostatic field of the junction, which extends to

    the whole thickness of the cel l[2] .

    3.3.3 The p-n junction

    The most commonly known solar cell is configured as a large-area p-n junction

    made from silicon. As a simplification, one can imagine bringing a layer of n-

    type silicon into direct contact with a layer of p-type silicon. In practice, p-n

    junctions of silicon solar cells are not made in this way, but rather by diffusing

    an n-type dopant into one side of a p-type wafer (or vice versa).

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phononshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phononshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_solar_cells#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_solar_cells#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_solar_cells#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_solar_cells#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonons
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    If a piece of p-type silicon is placed in intimate contact with a piece of n-type

    silicon, then a diffusion of electrons occurs from the region of high electron

    concentration (the n-type side of the junction) into the region of low electron

    concentration (p-type side of the junction). When the electrons diffuse across

    the p-n junction, they recombine with holes on the p-type side.

    The diffusion of carriers does not happen indefinitely, however, because

    charges build up on either side of the junction and create an electric field . The

    electric field creates a diode that promotes charge flow, known as drift current ,

    that opposes and eventually balances out the diffusion of electrons and holes.

    This region where electrons and holes have diffused across the junction is called

    the depletion region because it no longer contains any mobile charge carriers. It

    is also known as the space charge region . It is formed by deposition of one

    material on the surface of an extrinsic semi-conductor by spray method.

    3.4 Connection to an external load

    Ohmic metal -semiconductor contacts are made to both the n-type and p-type

    sides of the solar cell, and the electrodes connected to an external load.

    Electrons that are created on the n-type side, or have been "collected" by the

    junction and swept onto the n-type side, may travel through the wire, power the

    load, and continue through the wire until they reach the p-type semiconductor-

    metal contact. Here, they recombine with a hole that was either created as anelectron-hole pair on the p-type side of the solar cell, or a hole that was swept

    across the junction from the n-type side after being created there.

    The voltage measured is equal to the difference in the quasi Fermi levels of the

    minority carriers, i.e. electrons in the p-type portion and holes in the n-type

    portion.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drift_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drift_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drift_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depletion_zonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depletion_zonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depletion_zonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohmic_contacthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrodeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrodeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrodeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasi_Fermi_levelshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasi_Fermi_levelshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasi_Fermi_levelshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasi_Fermi_levelshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrodeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohmic_contacthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depletion_zonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drift_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusion
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    Equivalent circuit of a solar cell

    The schematic symbol of a solar cell

    To understand the electronic behavior of a solar cell, it is useful to create

    a model which is electrically equivalent, and is based on discrete electrical

    components whose behavior is well known. An ideal solar cell may be modelled

    by a current source in parallel with a diode ; in practice no solar cell is ideal, so

    a shunt resistance and a series resistance component are added to the

    model .[3] The resulting equivalent circuit of a solar cell is shown on the left.

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_(physical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_(physical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_(physical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shunt_(electrical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shunt_(electrical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shunt_(electrical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_solar_cells#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_solar_cells#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_solar_cells#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Photovoltaic_cell.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Solar_cell_equivalent_circuit.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Photovoltaic_cell.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Solar_cell_equivalent_circuit.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_solar_cells#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shunt_(electrical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_(physical)
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    Also shown, on the right, is the schematic representation of a solar cell for use

    in circuit diagrams.

    3.5 Characteristic equation

    From the equivalent circuit it is evident that the current produced by the solar

    cell is equal to that produced by the current source, minus that which flows

    through the diode, minus that which flows through the shunt resistor :[4][5]

    where

    I = output current (amperes )

    I L = photogenerated current (amperes)

    I D = diode current (amperes)

    I SH = shunt current (amperes).

    The current through these elements is governed by the voltage across them:

    where

    V j = voltage across both diode and resistor RSH (volts )

    V = voltage across the output terminals (volts)

    I = output current (amperes)

    RS = series resistance ( ).

    By the Shockley diode equation , the current diverted through the diode

    is:

    [6]

    where

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_solar_cells#cite_note-Luque-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_solar_cells#cite_note-Luque-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_solar_cells#cite_note-Luque-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampereshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampereshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampereshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode#Shockley_diode_equationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode#Shockley_diode_equationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode#Shockley_diode_equationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_solar_cells#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_solar_cells#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_solar_cells#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode#Shockley_diode_equationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampereshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_solar_cells#cite_note-Luque-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_solar_cells#cite_note-Luque-3
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    I 0 = reverse saturation current (amperes)

    n = diode ideality factor (1 for an ideal diode)

    q = elementary charge

    k = Boltzmann's constant

    T = absolute temperature

    At 25C, volts.

    By Ohm's law , the current diverted through the shunt resistor is:

    where

    RSH = shunt resistance ().

    Substituting these into the first equation produces the

    characteristic equation of a solar cell, which relates solar cell

    parameters to the output current and voltage:

    An alternative derivation produces an equation similar in

    appearance, but with V on the left-hand side. The two

    alternatives are identities ; that is, they yield precisely the same

    results.

    In principle, given a particular operating voltage V the

    equation may be solved to determine the operating current I at that voltage.

    However, because the equation involves I on both sides in a transcendental

    function the equation has no general analytical solution. However, even without

    a solution it is physically instructive. Furthermore, it is easily solved

    using numerical methods . (A general analytical solution to the equation is

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturation_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturation_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturation_currenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_chargehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_chargehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_chargehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boltzmann%27s_constanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boltzmann%27s_constanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boltzmann%27s_constanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohm%27s_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohm%27s_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohm%27s_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_(mathematics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_(mathematics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_(mathematics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendental_functionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendental_functionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendental_functionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_methodshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_methodshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_methodshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_methodshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendental_functionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendental_functionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_(mathematics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohm%27s_lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boltzmann%27s_constanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_chargehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturation_current
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    possible using Lambert's W function, but since Lambert's W generally itself

    must be solved numerically this is a technicality.)

    Since the parameters I 0 , n, R S , and RSH cannot be measured directly, the most

    common application of the characteristic equation is nonlinear regression to

    extract the values of these parameters on the basis of their combined effect on

    solar cell behavior.

    3.6 Solar panel:

    Solar panel Specification

    Maximum power[pm]- 8.0Wp

    Open circuit voltage[Voc]-21.0V

    Short circuit current[Isc]-0.52A

    Rated voltage[Vm]-16.8V

    Rated current[Im]-0.48A

    Maximum system voltage-600V

    Output Tolerence-+/- 5%

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambert%27s_Whttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambert%27s_Whttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambert%27s_Whttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinear_regressionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinear_regressionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinear_regressionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonlinear_regressionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambert%27s_W
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    CHAPER 4

    STUDY OF CAR BATTERY4.1 Battery Functions:

    1. ENGINE OFF: Battery energy is used to operate the lighting and

    accessory systems.

    2. ENGINE STARTING: Battery energy is used to operate the starter

    motor and to provide current for the ignition system during cranking.

    3. ENGINE RUNNING: Battery energy may be needed when the

    vehicle 's electrical load requirements exceed the supply from the

    charging system.

    In addition, the battery also serves as a voltage stabilizer, or large

    filter, by absorbing abnormal, transient voltages in the vehicle's

    electrical system .Without this protection, certain electrical or electronic

    components could be damaged by these high voltages.

    4.2 Battery Types:

    1. PRIMARY CELL: The chemical reaction totally destroys one of

    the metals after a period of time.Small batteries for flashlights and

    radios are primary cells.

    2. SECONDARY CELLS: The metals and acid mixture change as the battery supplies voltage. The metals become similar, the acid strength

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    weakens.This is called discharging. By applying current to the battery in

    the opposite direction, the battery materials can be restored. This is

    called charging . Automotive lead-acid batteries are secondary cells.

    3. WET-CHARGED: The lead-acid battery is filled with electrolyte and

    charged when it is built. During storage, a slow chemical reaction will

    cause self-discharge. Periodic charging is required. For Toyota batteries,

    this is every 5 to 7 months.

    4. DRY-CHARGED: The battery is built, charged,washed and dried,sealed, and shipped without electrolyte. It can be stored for 12 to .18

    months. When put into use, it requires adding electrolyte and

    charging.

    5. LOW-MAINTENANCE: Most batteries for Toyota vehicles are

    considered low maintenance batteries.Such batteries are built to

    reduce internal heat and water loss. The addition of water should

    only be required every 15,000 miles or so.

    Types Of Lead-Acid Car Batteries :

    WET/FLOODED:

    The wet or flooded battery still dominates. It consists of all but freely

    suspended plates that are insulated from each other usually with the

    negative plate being sealed in a small polythene separator bag. The

    price factor is the main reason why this design is so prominent. Even

    though a normal car battery contains around 130 components, the

    production method has been refined and the material can be relatively

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    basic. The result is a low price battery that offers something that is

    adequate to meet the needs of many people.

    Some more types of car batteries CALCIUM-CALCIUM:

    The next stage has dominated on a wide front in recent years and is called

    Calcium-Calcium. This involves the antimony on both the negative and

    positive plates being replaced by calcium alloy. The benefits are obvious.

    The fluid loss of the battery is about 80 % lower than that of antimony

    batteries and the self-discharge is lower, i.e. they can remain unused for

    longer periods without losing a lot of their charge. The disadvantage is

    that they are more demanding when charging if they have been over-

    discharged.

    VRLA:

    An entirely different way of controlling fluid loss goes under the generic

    name of VRLA, Valve Regulated Lead Acid. In this case the battery box

    is designed as a small pressure vessel with safety valves. If you confine

    the oxygen and hydrogen gases, they can react with each other and be

    reformed into water. This is called recombination and is a brilliant way of

    all but eliminating fluid loss. It is not possible to confine and recombineall the gas but the loss is reduced dramatically.

    GEL:

    A Gel battery has some elements, usually silicon compounds, added to

    the acid to ensure it gelatinises and thereby guarantee that no flooded acid

    can leak out. The oxygen gas "drills" channels in the gel from the positive

    to the negative plate where it meets the hydrogen gas and recombines into

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    water. They have excellent capacity but the somewhat higher resistance

    in the acid means that they have limitations as starter batteries. They can

    withstand over-discharging very well, i.e. when the battery is drained

    down to 20% State Of Charge. Gel batteries are very robust and are often

    used in applications such as floor-cleaning machines and golf carts. When

    gel batteries are mentioned in a motorcycle context, this is often a

    misconception.

    AGM (Vlies):

    AGM, Absorbed Glass Mat, (Vlies) keeps the acid in place by the

    separator paper that consists of a fibreglass mat operating like a sponge.

    The capillary forces in the separator do the trick. The batteries can be

    constructed with extremely thin separators which keep the internal

    resistance low. This means that you can leverage high power from a small

    volume which makes it ideal as a starter battery. AGM has one drawback which is that the amount of acid is limited. All acid must be absorbed by

    the separator paper and when the small amount of acid has been

    converted into lead sulphate, this signals that the "petrol tank" is empty.

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    4.3 Construction:

    1. CASE: Container which holds and protects all battery components and

    electrolyte, separates cells, and provides space at the bottom for sediment

    (active materials washed off plates). Translucent plastic cases allow checking

    electrolyte level without removing vent caps.

    2. COVER: Permanently sealed to the top of the case; provides outlets for

    terminal posts, vent holes for venting of gases and for battery maintenance

    (checking electrolyte, adding water).

    3. PLATES: Positive and negative plates have a grid framework of antimony

    and lead alloy. Active material is pasted to the grid ... brown-colored lead

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    dioxide (Pb02) on positive plates, gray-colored sponge lead (Pb) on negative

    plates. The number and size of the plates determine current capability ...

    batteries with large plates or many plates produce more current than batteries

    with small plates or few plates.

    4. SEPARATORS: Thin, porous insulators (woven glass or plastic envelopes)

    are placed between positive and negative plates. They allow passage of

    electrolyte, yet prevent the plates from touching and shorting out.

    5. CELLS: An assembly of connected positive and negative plates withseparators in between is called a cell or element. When immersed in electrolyte,

    a cell produces about 2.1 volts(regardless of the number or size of plates).

    Battery cells are connected in series, so the number of cells determines the

    battery voltage. A "1 2 - volt" battery has six cells.

    6. CELL CONNECTORS: Heavy, cast alloy metal straps are welded

    to the negative terminal of one cell and the positive terminal of the

    adjoining cell until all six cells are connected in series.

    7. CELL PARTITIONS: Part of the case, the partitions separate each

    cell.

    8. TERMINAL POSTS: Positive and negative posts (terminals) on

    the case top have thick, heavy cables connected to them. These cables

    connect the battery to the vehicle's electrical system (positive) and to

    ground (negative).

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    9. VENT CAPS: Types include individual filler plugs, strip-type, or

    box-type. They allow controlled release of hydrogen gas during

    charging (vehicle operation). Removed, they permit checking

    electrolyte and, if necessary, adding water.

    10. ELECTROLYTE : A mixture of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and

    water (H2O). It reacts chemically with the active materials in the

    plates to create an electrical pressure (voltage). And, it conducts the

    electrical current produced by that pressure from plate to plate. A

    fully charged battery will have about 36% acid and 64% water.

    4.4 Cell Theory :

    A lead-acid cell works by a simple principle: when two different metals are

    immersed in an acid solution, a chemical reaction creates an electrical

    pressure.One metal is brown-colored lead dioxide (Pb02). It has a positive

    electrical charge. The other metal is gray colored sponge lead (Pb). It has a

    negative electrical charge.

    The acid solution is a mixture of sulfuric acid

    (H2SO4) and water (H20). It is called electrolyte. If a conductor and a load are

    connected between the two metals, current will flow. This discharging will

    continue until the metals become alike and the acid is used up. The

    action can be reversed by sending current into the cell in the opposite

    direction. This charging will continue until the cell materials are restored

    to their original condition.

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    ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTION :

    A lead-acid storage battery can be partially discharged and recharged many

    times. There are four stages in this discharging/charging cycle.

    1. CHARGED: A fully charged battery contains a negative plate of sponge

    lead (Pb), a positive plate of lead dioxide (Pb02), and electrolyte of sulfuric

    acid (H2SO4) and water (H20).

    2. DISCHARGING : As the battery is discharging, the electrolyte becomes

    diluted and the plates become sulfated. The electrolyte divides into hydrogen

    (H2) and sulfate(S04) . The hydrogen (H2) combines with oxygen (0) from the

    positive plate to form more water (H20). The sulfate combines with the lead

    (Pb) in both plates to form lead sulfate (PbS04)

    3. DISCHARGED: In a fully discharged battery, both plates are covered with

    lead sulfate (PbSO4) and the electrolyte is diluted to mostly water (H2O).

    4. CHARGING: During charging, the chemical action is reversed.Sulfate (S04)

    leaves the plates and combines with hydrogen (H2) to become sulfuric acid

    (H2SO4). Free oxygen (02) combines with lead (Pb) on the positive plate toform lead dioxide (Pb02).Gassing occurs as the battery nears full charge, and

    hydrogen bubbles out at the negative plates, oxygen at the positive.

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    4.5 Capacity Ratings

    The battery must be capable of cranking the engine and providing adequate

    reserve capacity. Its capacity is the amount of electrical energy the battery

    can deliver when fully charged. Capacity is determined by the size and

    number of plates, the number of cells, and the strength and volume of

    electrolyte.

    The most commonly used ratings are:

    Cold Cranking Amperes (CCA)

    Reserve Capacity (RC)

    Amp -Hours (AH)

    Power (Watts)

    4.5.1 COLD-CRANKING AMPERES (CCA):The battery's primary function is to provide energy to crank the engine

    during starting. This requires a large discharge in a short time. The CCA

    Rating specifies, in amperes, the discharge load a fully charged battery at

    0F ( -1 7.8C) can deliver for 30 seconds while maintaining a voltage of at

    least 1.2 volts per cell (7.2 volts total for a 12-volt battery).

    Batteries used on various Toyota vehicles have CCA ratings ranging from

    350 to 560 amps.

    4.5.2 RESERVE CAPACITY (RC):

    The battery must provide emergency energy for ignition, lights, and

    accessories if the vehicle's charging system fails. This requires adequate

    capacity at normal temperatures for a certain amount of time. The RC

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    Rating specifies, in minutes,the length of time a fully charged battery at

    80F (26.7'C) can be discharged at 25 amps while maintaining a voltage

    of at least 1.75 volts per cell (10.5 volts total for a 12-volt battery). \

    Batteries used on various Toyota vehicles have RC ratings ranging from

    55 to 115 minutes

    4.5.3 AMP-HOURS (AH):

    The battery must maintain active materials on its plates and adequate

    lasting power under light-load conditions. This method of rating \

    batteries is also called the 20-hour discharge rating. Originalequipment batteries are rated in amp-hours. The ratings of these

    batteries are listed in the parts microfiche. The Amp-Hour Rating

    specifies, in amphours, the current the battery can provide for 20

    hours at 80F (26.7C) whil e maintaining a voltage of at least 1.75

    volts per cell (10.5 volts total for a 12-volt battery). For example, a

    battery that can deliver 4 amps for 20 hours is rated at 80 amp-hours(4 x 20 = 80). Batteries used on various Toyota vehicles have AH

    ratings ranging from 40 to 80 amp-hours.

    4.5.4 POWER (WATTS):

    The battery's available cranking power may also be measured in watts.

    The Power Rating, in watts, is determined by multiplying the currentavailable by the battery voltage at 0F ( -1 7.8C). Batteries used on

    various Toyota vehicles have power ratings ranging from 2000 to

    4000 watts.

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    4.6 FACTORS AFFECTING CHARGING

    Five factors affect battery charging by increasing its internal resistance and

    CEMF (counter-electromotive force produced by the electrochemical

    reaction):

    1. TEMPERATURE: As the temperature decreases the electrolyte resists

    charging. A cold battery will take more time to charge; a warm battery, less

    time. Never attempt to charge a frozen battery.

    2. STATE-OF-CHARGE: The condition of the battery's active materials

    will affect charging. A battery that is severely discharged will have hard

    sulfate crystals on its plates. The vehicle's charging system may charge

    at too high of a rate to remove such sulfates.

    3. PLATE AREA: Small plates are charged faster than large plates.

    When sulfation covers most of the plate area, the charging system

    may not be able to restore the battery.

    4. IMPURITIES: Dirt and other impurities in the electrolyte

    increase charging difficulty.

    5. GASSING: Hydrogen and oxygen bubbles form at the plates during

    charging. As these bubble out, they wash away active material, causewater loss, and increase charging difficulty

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    4.7

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    4.8 Car Battery Survey

    As per survey done the following list shows the battery ,rating and cost

    commonly used in cars,the major manufacturers are Amron,Excit

    and etc.

    CAR BATTERY TYPE RATINGS

    (Amp-Hr)

    COST

    ( IN Rs.)

    Maruti 800 50B20R 35 6101

    Maruti Suziki

    Zen

    50B20R 35 6101

    Hundai (Getz,

    Accent)

    55B24LS 45 7032

    Honda Accord 85D23R 55 9108

    Skoda Superb 574106069(DIN

    74)

    74 10936

    Mercedese (c

    class, E class,

    S class)

    600131087(DIN

    100)

    100 16542

    TATA

    Indica(Petrol)

    42B20R 35 4378

    Toyota Innova(Petrol)

    42B20L 35 4378

    Fiat(Uno, Palio,

    Sienna, Punto,

    Linea) (Alll

    Petrol)

    545171036(DIN

    44)

    44 5533

    Fiat(Uno, Sienna, 566101061(DIN 60 7480

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    Palio, Punto) (All

    Diesel)

    60)

    Mitsubishi

    (Lancer, Cedia,

    Montero,

    Outlander )

    105D31L 80 8983

    Mercedese Benz 105D31R 80 8983

    Mahindra And

    Mahindra(Scorpio,

    Xylo)

    BLACK-700RMF 65 5164

    Dawoo (Cielo,

    Corsa, Opel Extra)

    (Petrol)

    555107050(DIN

    55)

    55 6373

    Fiat(118 NE,

    Punto) (Diesel)

    95D26R 65 7022

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    CHAPTER 5

    Block Diagram

    Fig Block diagram

    5.1 List Of Various Blocks

    1 Power Supply

    2 ADC 0809

    3 Microcontroller 89C51

    4 IC 555

    5 Relay IN4007

    6 LCD

    7 LED

    5.2 Description

    The aim of the project is to optimize the power supply to the base transceiver station.

    The major components used in the circuit can be categorized as follows

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    1) Power supply sources:

    Battery:

    Solar and wind energy supply(renewable energy sources which continuously

    charge the battery)

    2) ADC 0809An analog-to-digital converter is a device which converts continuous signals to

    discrete digital numbers for analog to digital conversion. An ADC is an

    electronic device that converts an input analog voltage (or current) to a digital

    number proportional to the magnitude of the voltage or current.

    3) MICROCONTROLLER 89C51

    The microcontroller is used to control the entire switching operation through

    the following tasks :

    1. Controlling output voltage within a tolerance band of rated voltage for the

    system using specially designed circuit.

    2. Continuously monitoring battery state of charge by special software.

    3. Continuously displaying the following parameters on LCD display

    a. Voltage ratings of all the sources.

    b. Source driving the relay at that instant of time.

    c. Panel positions.

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    4) IC 555

    The 555 Timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) implementing a variety of timer

    and multivibrator applications. It is used to provide clock signal to the ADC and

    acts as a timer.

    5) RELAY IN4007A relay is an electrically operated switch. The boolean AND function is

    realised by connecting normally open relay contacts in series, the OR function by connecting normally open contacts in parallel.

    6) LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)

    LCDs are passive devices that are mainly used for display purposes.

    7) LIGHT EMITTING DIODES (LED)Used to indicate which relay switch is ON.

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    CHAPTER 6

    HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

    6.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

    Fig.6.1 Circuit Diagram

    6.2 DESCRIPTION

    6.2.1 Summary of circuit features

    Brief description of operation: Gives out well regulated +5V output,output current capability of 100 mA

    Circuit protection: Built-in overheating protection shuts down outputwhen regulator IC gets too hot

    Circuit complexity: Very simple and easy to build

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    Circuit performance: Very stable +5V output voltage, reliable operation.

    6.2.2 MICRO CONTROL

    fig.6.3 Functional Block Diagram

    Features

    Compatible with MCS-51 Products 4 Kbytes of In-System Reprogrammable Flash Memory. Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz

    Three-Level Program Memory Lock 128 x 8-Bit Internal RAM

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    Port 1

    Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins they

    are pulled high by the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source.

    Port 2

    Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins theyare pulled high by the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pullups. Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetchesfrom external program memory and during accesses to external data memorythat use 16-bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this application it uses stronginternal pull-ups when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memorythat use 8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2Special Function Register. Port 2 also receives the high-order address bits andsome control signals during Flash programming and verification.

    Port 3

    Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins theyare pulled high by the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups. Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programmingand Programming verification.

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    Oscillator Characteristics:

    XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting

    amplifier which can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator, as shown in

    Figure 1. Either a quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the

    device from an external clock source, XTAL2 should be left unconnected while

    XTAL1 is driven as shown in Figure 2.

    There are no requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since

    the input to the internal clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop,

    but minimum and maximum voltage high and low time specifications must be

    observed.

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    6.2.3 ADC

    Features :

    Easy interface to all microprocessors

    Operates ratiometrically or with 5 V DC or analog span adjusted voltagereference

    No zero or full-scale adjust required

    8-channel multiplexer with address logic

    0V to V CC input range

    Outputs meet TTL voltage level specifications

    ADC0808 equivalent to MM74C949

    ADC0809 equivalent to MM74C949-1

    Description:

    Fig 6.5.ADC

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    The ADC 0809 is an 8-bit A/D converter with 8-channel multiplexer. The ADC

    0809 contains on chip 8 channel multiplexer. 8 analog inputs can be applied to

    ADC 0809. The analog on chip multiplexer selects one out of 8 inputs for

    conversion of analog to digital signal.

    Some important characteristics of ADC 0809 are listed below.

    1. Resolution/digital output .......8bits

    2. Clock frequency..10 KHz to 1280 KHz

    3. Conversion time..100microsec at 640 KHz

    4. Minimum start pulse width.100ns 5. Minimum ALE pulse width100ns

    6. Error.+/ - 1 LSB

    7. Supply.5 VDC

    The ADC used here is the SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION ADC.

    6.2.4 IC 555

    Fig.6.6 Internal Block Diagram

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    The NE555 monolithic timing circuit is a highly stable controller capable

    of producing accurate time delays or oscillation.

    In the time delay mode of operation, the time is precisely controlled by

    one external resistor and capacitor.

    For a stable operation as an oscillator, the free running frequency and the

    duty cycle are both accurately controlled with two external resistors and

    one capacitor.

    The circuit may be triggered and reset on falling waveforms, and the

    output structure can source or sink up to 200mA.

    Fig.6.7 Astable mode operation

    Explanation:

    When the circuit is connected as shown in figure above (pin 2 and 6

    connected) it triggers itself and free runs as a multivibrator.

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    The external capacitor charges through R1 and R2 and discharges through

    R2 only.

    Thus the duty cycle may be precisely set by the ratio of these two

    resistors.

    In the astable mode of operation, C1 charges and discharges between 1/3

    Vcc and 2/3 Vcc.

    As in the triggered mode, the charge and discharge times and therefore

    frequency are independent of the supply voltage.

    The charge time (output HIGH) is given by : t1 = 0.693 (R1 + R2) C1

    6.2.5 RELAY CIRCUIT

    Fig.6.8

    A relay is basically a Switch.

    There are three relays operative in this circuit .Based on the microcontroller

    output, the relay circuit switches control from one source to another.

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    An LED is connected to each relay which glows whenever the particular sourceis currently activated.

    When the relay output is high, then NC (Normally closed) is enabled otherwise

    NO (Normally opened) is enabled.

    6.2.6 LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)

    LCD is the display element used in the circuit.

    The LCD used in our circuit is the 16CH1 LINE LCD.

    It receives input signals from the output of ADC as well as from themicrocontroller circuit.

    It displays the status of the entire system.

    It includes the indication of the power source currently enabled.

    It indicates the voltage level received from all the sources so as to keep a timelycheck on the varying power levels.

    6.3 PCB LAYOUT

    Printed circuit board is a piece of art. The performance of an electronic circuit

    depends upon layout and design of PCB. Printed circuit boards are used to

    route electrical current through copper tracks, which are firmly bonded to aninsulating base.

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    Advantages of PCB over normal wiring as follows:

    1. PCBs are necessary for interconnecting large number of electronic

    components in very small area with minimum wiring.

    2. PCBs are suitable for mass production with less chances of wiring effects.

    3. Small components can be easily mounted on PCB.

    4. Servicing is simplified.

    5. Construction is neat, compact and simple.

    6. By using PCB the electronic equipment becomes reliable, small in size and

    less costly.

    Types of Material used for preparing PCB:

    The base materials used for PCB are paper phonemic which is less costly and

    used in consumer electronics circuits. Paper phonemic is more resistant to

    moisture but difficult to machine and drill as compared to glass epoxy. Copper

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    foil for copper clad is manufactured by process of slowly prorating corrosion

    resistant metal cylinder. Its lower portion is immersed in a copper rich

    electrolytic plating bath, a thin copper deposit gradually builds in form of metal

    foil. This metal foil then gently pealed off from the cylinder surface.

    Ferric Chloride is recommended for itching small numbers of boards. It is not

    used in high volume production because it cannot be regenerated and it attacks

    metal etch resists.

    General Consideration and Rules For Layout:

    PCB interconnects various electronics components by an interconnection

    pattern. The general considerations are:

    1. Mechanical considerations: Size Shape, Mounting of PCBs etc.

    2. User system considerations: i.e. whether for consumer or laboratory or

    industry etc.

    3. Electrical and electronic parameters such as impedance, gain &

    electromagnetic coupling etc.

    4. Ease of maintenance.

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    ARTWORK:

    The prototype circuit is initially tested. Location of components is fixed.

    Artwork is the drawing, showing conductor pattern on PCB.

    After testing the prototype, a rough layout is prepared on a good millimeter grid

    graph paper 1:1 size. Artwork of the circuit 1:1 Or 2:1 size is prepared on a

    good quality graph paper using black waterproof ink. The artwork may also be

    prepared on transparent paper with sticking tapes and patterns.

    The following points should be considered before preparing artwork:

    1. Resistance of printed conductors.

    2. Capacitance between conductors.

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    3. Spacing between conductors.

    4. Width of signal, supply and ground lines should be proper.

    For photographic reduction process the artwork should provide maximum

    contrast between the portions to be etched away and those to be left. Thus the

    artwork should be generated on white sheet with black ink.

    Preparation of single sided PCB:

    In single sided PCB, the conductor tracks run only on one side of copper clad

    board. Thus crossing of conductor is not allowed. Steps in preparing single

    sided PCB:

    1. Choice of base material.

    2. Cleaning of copper clad laminate surface.

    3. Application of photo resist material4. Exposure.

    5. Image development

    6. Etching.

    7. Mechanical fabrication and baking.

    8. Drilling.

    After the entire printed circuit board (PCB) is ready, then drilling must be done at the required points using hand drill or machine drill. After drilling isdone, the components must be mounted on the component side of the PCB. Therules for component mounting must be followed. Then soldering is to be doneon the layout side of PCB considering the various rules for soldering.

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    BIBLIOGRAPHY

    Automobile Engg.Volume_2 Kirpal Singh

    Automobile Engg. R.K. Rajput

    Text Book Automobile C.P.Nakra

    Microprocessor Architecture, Programming and Applications Gaonkar

    Opto Electronics Handbook National Semiconductor

    Microprocessor data handbook

    PIC Micro controller databook

    89 series micro controller N. G. Palan

    WEBSITES/LINKS

    www.microchip.com

    www.icmaster.com

    www.identecsolutions.com

    www.usingrfid.com

    www.instructables.com/id/solar-Battery-Charging

    www.solarbatterycharger.org/wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_charger

    www.batterystuff.com/solar-chargers/

    www.anisolar.com

    www.solarbatterychargerreview.org/

    http://www.microchip.com/http://www.microchip.com/http://www.icmaster.com/http://www.icmaster.com/http://www.identecsolutions.com/http://www.identecsolutions.com/http://www.usingrfid.com/http://www.usingrfid.com/http://www.instructables.com/id/solar-Battery-Charginghttp://www.instructables.com/id/solar-Battery-Charginghttp://www.solarbatterycharger.org/wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_chargerhttp://www.solarbatterycharger.org/wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_chargerhttp://www.batterystuff.com/solar-chargers/http://www.batterystuff.com/solar-chargers/http://www.anisolar.com/http://www.anisolar.com/http://www.solarbatterychargerreview.org/http://www.solarbatterychargerreview.org/http://www.solarbatterychargerreview.org/http://www.anisolar.com/http://www.batterystuff.com/solar-chargers/http://www.solarbatterycharger.org/wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_chargerhttp://www.instructables.com/id/solar-Battery-Charginghttp://www.usingrfid.com/http://www.identecsolutions.com/http://www.icmaster.com/http://www.microchip.com/
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