Manned Space Flight, 1963

8/8/2019 Manned Space Flight, 1963

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MANNEDFLIGHT-1963

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This booklet is based on testimony presented by Mr. D. Brainerd Holmes,Deputy Associate Administrator and Director of Manned Space Flight, NationalAeronautics and Space Administration, ori;M?arcJi 6 and 7, 1963, before theSubcommittee on Manned Space Flight, Committee on Science and Astronautics,House of Representatives, and on April 26, 1963, before the Committee onAeronautical and Space Sciences,United States Senate. The complete transcriptsof the hearings will be published by the respective Committees.


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MANNEDSPACE FLIGHT-1963

T e c h n i c a l Library, Bellcom nv Inc.

CONTENTSIntroduction 3Program M anagement 5The M anned Space Flight Program 10Systems Engineering 10Flight M issions, Spacecraft, and Space M edi-cine 16Launch Vehicles an d Propulsion 37Integration an d Checkout 54Launch Operations 59Ast ronaut Selection and Training 65Flight Operations 68The M ission 72Advanced Planning 85Conclusion. . 87

Fo r sale by the Superintendent of Documents , U.S. Governm ent Pr int ing OfficeWashington 25, D . C . - Price 60 cents


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MANNED SPACE FLIGHTI N T R O D U C T I O N

The United States has achieved much in spacein the 5 years since Explorer I was launched inJan uar y 1958. M y colleagues in NA SA w ill re-port on our successes in scientific invest igation, indevelopment of practical applicat ions, in advance-ment of technology, and in flight missions, suchas the histor ic rendezvous wi th Venus a t ta ined byM ar ine r II last December 14.It is my responsibility to report on the Ameri -ca n accomplishments in manned space flight.M u ch ha s been done in this area and we have

grown stronger over the last year . However, itis a sobering fact that another nation has beenable to demonstrate longer-duration mannednights, mann ed fl ights ut i l iz ing spacecraft weigh-in g more than three tim es tha t of M ercury, and asimultaneous flight of two as t ronaut s in space inseparate spacecraft.As is well known, th e Soviet Union startedwell ahead of us in the development of largerockets, so necessary for manned flight. TheSoviets have been ahead of us, and are still aheadof us in their ab ility to reliab ly laun ch large masses-to earth orbit.Ove r th e next few years, we must ant ic ipate thatth e Soviets will demonstrate even more impres-sive accom plishm ents than they already haveshown in such categories as long-duration flightand the precise t iming of manned space flightlaunchings. Nevertheless, w ith th e acceleration ofour own progress and by the establishment of ourprogram on a sound engineering basis, we can,we believe, surpass the Soviets in time and clearly

establish United States pre-eminence in mannedspace flight.What do we mean by pre-eminence ? W e mean

that we intend to occupy first place among thenations of this wo rld in science, in technology,and in man 's conquest of space.W e intend to conduct scientific investigationsin the unknown areas that the power of the rocketenables us to explore, to provide us with knowl-edge of conditions in space, to let us solve someof the mysteries of the unexplored sea.W e intend to advance our technology in pro-pulsion, in control and navigation, in power gen-eration, in l i fe support systems, and in thetransmission of large quantities of i n fo rmat ionover long distances.W e intend to develop powerful launch vehicles,advanced spacecraft, and adequate facilities onearth to provide the operational capabil i ty re-quired for pre-eminence. W e intend to obta in agreat deal of flight experience.W e intend to know how to maneuver in space

-and rendezvous wi th other spacecraft. W e intendto develop th e techniques of landing on anotherastronomical body, and of re-entering th e earth'satmosphere at incre asingly great speeds.I n addit ion to all of this, we intend to acquire

the abil i ty to fabricate, inspect, assemble, andcheck out f l ight hardware and ground equipmentthat will provide space vehicles that are safe,economical, und unsurpassed in operationalproficiency.


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MANNED S P A C EFLIGHT PROGRAM

A S T E P - B Y - S T E P P R O G R A M T O D E V E L O PA B R O A D C A P A B IL IT Y FOR THE MANNEDE X P L O R A T I O N O F S P A C E T H A T W I L L A C H I E V EA N D MAINTAIN U N I T E D S T A T E S S P A C EL E A D E R S H I P .

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The objectives of the program we shall de -scribe are to progress so rapidly along theselines that, by the end of this decade, our envelopeof manned flight competence will extend out aquarter-million miles from the earth.The manned lunar landing program, ProjectApollo, at present provides an organizationalfocus for the development of the capabilities re-quired for the attainment of national pre-eminencein space. M oreover, Pr oj ect Apollo provides anopportunity to conduct our space program in sucha manner that United States pre-eminence will beclearly evident to the world.Let us now turn to the mann ed spaceflightpro-gram. In this booklet, we shall deal first withquestions of management and then with the tech-nical phase of our efforts. We shall co nclude thisdiscussion with a description of a manned flight tothe moon and back, as we now foresee it. Fin ally,we shall make a few remarks about planning foradvanced programs.At present, there are three manned space flightprogramsM ercury, Gemini , and Apollo, asshown in figure 1. They cons titu te a step-by-stepprogram to develop a broad capability for the

manned exploration of space. They are designedto achieve and maintain United States spaceleadership.In Project M ercury, we have adequately estab-lished man's ability to perform effectively in theenvironment of orbital flight and have developedthe foundation of a man ned space flight technol-ogy. In th ree flights last year the time under con-ditions of zero gravity was extended to almost 9hours and, in May, we conducted a mission of morethan 34 hours.In P roject Gem ini, we will gain operational pro-ficiency and develop new techniques, includin grendezvous.In Project Apollo, ou r objective is to achieveUnited States pre-eminence and to develop theability to explore the moon before the "nd of thisdecade.The exploration of the moon will be a beginning,no t an end, however. It will open the way forwider explorations of space and our solar system,whose end cannot be foreseen. In later years, weshall have availab le the capacity to und ertak e sub-stantial efforts in programs to carry out more ad-vanced missions, should the Nation so decide.


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P R O G R A M M A N A G E M E N T

These programs constitute a very great nationaleffort. The bulk of the work is carried out byindustry. M ore than 90 percent of the funds ap -propriated to NASA for the current fiscal yearar e expended on contracts with industry, uni-versities, private laboratories, and other Govern-ment agencies. How ever, we are buildi ng a power-ful organization of managers, engineers, scientists,and adm inistra tive specialists in NA SA to super-vise the contractors' work and to make certainthat the taxpayers get full value for theirinvestment.NASA r e s e a r c h and development centersthroughout the country supervise most of the wo rkperformed by the contractors. Only a small pro-portion of the contractor effort, is directly man-aged in Washington. Overall direction of theNA SA program is carried out in W ashington infour major program offices, one of which is theO f f i c e of M anned Space F light.The program offices have the responsibility forthe technical supervision of projects assigned tothe Centers. O n institutional matters, the CenterDirectors formerly reported directly to the Asso-ciate Adm inistrator. Last fall, in add ition to myduties as Director of M anned Space Flight, I wasappointed to the post of D eputy Associate A dm in-istrator with direct responsibility for the institu-tional operations of the three Centers primari lyconcerned with manned space flight. These arethe M anned Spacecraft C enter, Houston, Tex.; theM arshall Space Flight C enter, Hun tsville, A la.;an d the Launch Operations Center, Cape Canav-eral, Fla.

Management CouncilIn the managem ent of the m ann ed space flightprogram we employ the M anagement Counci l, abody consisting of the Directors in the O f f i c e of

Manned Space Flight and the senior officials ofth e three Centers just mentioned.The M anagement Council, on which I serve aschairman, m eets every month for an evening an dall the follow ing day. These meetings of the keymen responsible for the Nation's manned spaceflight activities have proven to be an extremelyuseful managem ent tool. As the tangible resultof these m eetings, the M ana gem ent C ouncil gener-ates the fundamental program decisions and pro-gram policy. In addition, th e mutual understand-ings and better communications that have beenachieved bear directly upon the efficiency withwhich our organization functions.

Department of Defense LiaisonAnother important managem ent concern is ourworking relationship with the arm ed services. Ex-

tensive cooperation between NASA and the De-partment of D efense continues to be a fundamentalnecessity. In Project M ercury, fo r example, theArmy, th e Navy, and the Air Force have contrib-uted support in many ways. W e employed anArmy rocket, the Redstone, for the suborbitalflights. We use an Air Force laun ch vehicle, theAtlas, for the orbital flights. Our flights arelaunched from a range operated by the Air Forceand we rely on the Navy for recovery operations.W e reported last year that the Air Force Sys-tems Command had established direct liaison withthe O f f i c e of Manned Space Flight. M aj. Gen. O .J. R it lan d carries out this function as D eputy Com -mander, M anned Space Flight. Together with astaff of senior officers, General Ritland occupiesspace within the O f f i c e of M anned Space Flight.This association has resulted in close coordina-tion between the Systems C omm and and the O f f i c eof M anned Space Flight. It has served to providerapid and e f f i c i e n t Air Force support for theNASA program. At the same t ime, it has made


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readily available to the Air Force such informa-tion about the NASA program as its high officialsbelieve may be beneficial to Air Force plans andoperations.NASA and the Department of Defense alsocordinate their space programs with the use ofthe Aeronautics and Astronautics CoordinatingBoard. The AACB has a Manned Space FlightPanel on which I serve as Chairman. ThroughGeneral Ritland's office and the AACB panel, theD epartment of Defense receives prom pt and com-plete reports of the results of NASA research anddevelopment. O ur object is to keep the DOD con-stantly in a position to take whatever action thenational interest requires.In January 1963, Secretary of Defense M c-Namara and the Administrator of NASA, M r.Webb, agreed on joint DOD-NASA arrange-ments for the most effective utilization of theGemini program to assure the fulfillment of bothNASA and DO D requirements in the plan nin g ofexperiments, the conduct of flight tests, and theanalysis and dissemination of results. NA SA willcontinue to manage the project. However, the D e-partment of D efense will take p art in development,pilot training, preflight checkout, launch opera-tions, and flight operations. The DO D w ill con-tribute funding as appropriate, in an amount tobe determined later.At the same time, NAS A and the Department ofDefense reached a new agreement on the responsi-bilities fo r operations on the Atlantic M issileRange. The DOD will continue to be the singlemanager of the Range and the Air Force will stillbe the host agency responsible for the old CapeC anaveral area. However, NA SA will manageand serve as the host agency for the Merritt IslandLaunch Area to the north of Cape Canaveral.

Internal NASA LiaisonThe activities of other NASA offices and instal-lations also contribute to the M anned Space Flightprogram . The Space Science program is veryclosely related. To properly plan our mannedflights, we need the infor mation tha t science canprovide in understanding the nature an d distribu-tion of radiation in space, and the density and ve-locity of meteoroids and space dust. As anoth erexample, we will benefit considerably from SpaceScience programs such1 as Ranger an d Surveyor,which will make investigations of the gravity and

topography of the moon and will provide info r-mation concerning lunar surface characteristics.In a reciprocal manner, as we have noted pre-viously, much information can be gained forscience from ma nne d space flight.We are working closely with the Office of SpaceSciences and with th e general scientific communityto plan the scientific measurements and experi-ments that will be conducted in both ProjectsGemini an d Apollo.Recently, NASA formed a working group, con-sisting of personnel from the offices of Space Sci-ences and M ann ed Space Flight, in order to assurecoordination with the scientific community. Thegroup, headed by Dr. Eugene Shoemaker of theO f f i c e of Space Sciences, will be responsible toboth the Office of Space Sciences and the Office ofManned Space Flight. The working group willrecommend programs of scientific exploration infuture manned flights, define th e informationdesired from unmanned flights in support ofmanned flights, and m ai nt ai n general liaison an dcoordination.The manned space flight program also benefitsfrom the advanced research an d technology in-vestigations, particularly those conducted at theNA SA Research Centers. Indeed, it was D r. JohnHoubolt, a scientist at the Langley Research Cen-ter, who began detailed study of the idea of lunarorbit rendezvous in 1960.The technologies studied in the NASA ResearchCenters today are those we will employ in thedesign of our launch vehicles and spacecraft in thenext decade. W ithou t this work we wou ld be pro-ceeding rapidly down a road with a blank, sterilefuture.Manned space flight makes use of worldwidenetworks of tracking an d data acquisition stations,which serve all of our programs. D eep Space In-strumentation Network stations around the world,such as that at Goldstone, C alif ., wh ich trackedM ariner II to Venus and beyond, will enable usto communicate with astronauts on the moon.

Program ReviewManaging thisprogram is a task of unparalleledscope. M any thousan ds of people will be at workat locations throughout the country. Thousandsof events must occur at the proper time and at theproper place. In research and dev elopm ent, weare often exploring unknown areas and it is not


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E L E M E N T S O F S C H E D U L I N G

J U D G E M E N T B Y M A N T OA S S E S S P R O G R E S S

M E A S U R E P E R F O R M A N C E

S C H E D U L EM I L E S T O N E

Fit}. 2.

always possible to predict how long each phase ofthe job will require. There is an ever-present haz-ard that bottlenecks in small things will interferewith the progress of ma jor phases of the program.

If we provide the means to identify problems,preferably before they arise, we are frequentlyable to prevent this kind of bottleneck. It shouldbe recognized that everything we propose to dois well with in the short-term grow th cap aci ty ofour technology, assuming that our estimates ofthe environment are correct. The only majorbreakthrough? required are in the area of manage-ment. Indeed, we believe that th e national experi-ence of managing a research an d developmentprogram of this magnitude is an added benefit,beyond the technological div ide nd s tha t w e shallobtain from the manned lunar landing program.To aid us in managing this program, the Officeof M anned Space Flight and the three Centersmost closely associated w ith its program usesched-uling and review procedures, in w hich we haveestablished a uniform and integrated schedulingsystem. The three elements of scheduling (f ig. 2)are technical progress, funding, and manpower .The three Centers and contractors directly re-sponsible to the Office of M anned Space Flight

prepare their schedules by analyzing informationcompiled by other contractors and subcontractors.In the next diagram (fig. 3), we see that the Pro-gram Evaluation Review Technique (PEET), theCompanion Cost System, and other modern man-agement methods are used extensively in the prep-arat ion of these detailed schedules. Then theinformation from the three Centers is combined inthe Office of M anned Space Flight.The scheduling procedure covers study efforts,system engineering, development and productionof equipment , and construction of facilities, andthe flights themselves. It provides informationon the status of hardware at all levels for man-agement at all levels. To accomplish this, wemainta in and continually bring up to date com-prehensive reports of the status of work in signif-icant detail.In figure 4, we see that the reports are madeon several levels. The vehicle on the left illus-trates the first, or highest, level: that of programlaunches. Level 2 covers projects; two are shown,the spacecraft and the launch vehicle. Level 3is called systems an d consists of spacecraft mod-ules and launch vehicle stages. The fourth level,at the right, is subsystems. We can see a space-


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MANAGEMENT SCHEDULESB A S E D ON PERT A ND OTHER DATA

PERI AND COMPANIONCOST SYSTEM

TECHNICALDEVELOPMENT

FUNDING

MANPOWER

FlG. 3.

ISCHEDULE LEVELS

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FIG. 4.


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craft module at the top and a launch vehicle stagebelow, broken up into a number of these sub-systems.By using this review pattern, each accountablelevel of management is able to keep firm hold onth e schedules, funding, and manpower. Progressagainst the schedules is carefully checked. Oncea month, there is a formal review, at which eachDirectorate of the O f f i c e of M anned Space Flightpresents the status for that area of responsibility.A t remendous am ount of information is presentedat these reviews. For a recent review, fo r example,we prep ared ab out 1,500 charts. W e are preparingadditional fourth-level charts that will increasethis total to about 2,000. These charts sum m arizethe information in thousands of additionaldetailed charts and schedules supplied bycontractors.O f course, not ev ery event occurs precisely atthe time we have plan ned it. E vents on theseschedules have va ryin g degrees of priority. Insome cases, it is essential to m eet a dea dlin e be-cause an ev ent is part of a sequence. The highest-priority events are along the so-called "criticalpath"a sequence of events that determines the

minimum length of t ime required to complete anoverall schedule. In other cases, the loss of t imemay be of less concern.In the day-to-day m anage me nt of the programs,we anticipate that we will periodically en counterproblems that endanger the overall schedule.When this happens, it is essential that the prob-lem come immediately to the attention of manage-ment at the level necessary to take correctiveaction.To expedite the proper consideration of suchproblems, we have established an urgent actionmessage procedure. If the Director or DeputyDirector of one of the three Centers determinesthat a problem warrants this priority handling,the O f f i c e of M anned Space Flight is notified byteletype.The status of urgent action messages is posteddaily in my o f f i c e . Within 24 hours, a teletypereply must go out describing what is being done.If final action is not accomplished with in 48 hours,th e responsible Director must provide a detailedstatus report. With procedures like these, wear e pacing m anne d space flight activities to main-tain established schedules.


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T H E M A N N E D S P A C E F L I G H T P R O G R A MNow that we hav e discussed some of the manage-ment methods, let us tu rn to the technical pro-

gram. We believe technical responsibility shouldbe exercised at as low a level in the organizationas is in keeping with the natu re of the work. De-cisions on the design of hardware should ideallybe the responsibility of those who are physicallypresent where the hard war e is being produced.Insofar as possible, the individual contractorsand subcontractors are responsible for producinghardware that meets the specifications establishedby the N A S A Centers. The contractors' work onth e design, development, ma nufa c tu r ing , and test-ing of all elements of the system is directed by thetechnical staff at each Center. Center personnelare responsible for execution of the flight missions.

But the manned lunar landing program is toovast in scope to be managed by a single Center.A central organizat ion is required to integrate andto direct th e efforts of the three principal Centers,to coordinate these efforts with those of other ele-ments of NA SA, and to deal with technical m at-ters that encompass the ent i re program. Thatcentral function is provided by the Office ofM an n ed Space Flight inWashington.

System s EngineeringUnited States experience in conduc ting complexresearch an d development programs of steadilyincreasing magnitude over th e last tw o decadeshas shown that a strong central systems engineer-ing team is required to establish the overall sys-tems concept and to provide con t inuing cr i t ica ltechnical review. For a program of the scope ofthe manned lunar landing, the requirement foroveral l systems engineering is especially app are nt .In the Office of M anned Space Flight, we needsuch a systems engineering activity to provideprogram-wide technica l analys is fo r management .We need it also to insure that the funct ional andperformance require me nts placed upon all ele-ments of the system are compat ib le wi th th e mis-sion objectives, and th at all elements of the system

ca n be developed wi thin the scope of the project.Within the Office of M anned Space Flight, th eOffice of Systems fulfills the requirement fo r sys-tems engineering and provides, among others, thefol lowing f unc t ions : Determinat ion of broad specifications and con-ceptual designs of major elements of a programincluding the establishment of weight-controlspecifications for Project Apollo and all futuremanned space flight programs.

Review of on-going programs to ident i fy andevaluate possible alternative courses of action thatmay become desirable because of unanticipatedtechnical developments. Study of the impact of funding, schedule,andtechnical changes on the overall program . Development of the overall reliability and sys-tem test plans for Apollo and f u tu re mannedspace flight projects. Prepara t ion of a long range plan, implementa-tion of necessary long range studies, and participa-tion in the establishmen t of project developm entplans for f u t u r e manned space flight projects.

For the last year , our Systems organization,which now inc ludes the check out, reliability assess-ment, and integrat ion fun ct ions, has been carefullyrecru i t ing a strong team of scientists and engi-neers. W e now hav e about two-thirds of ourplanned to tal complement of 175 members of thetechnical staff on board.

B e llco m m OrganizationIn Feb rua ry 1962, NA SA requested th e Amer i -can Telephone & Telegraph Co. to assist in thissystems engineering effort. W e asked AT&T toprovide an organizat ion of experienced men ableto employ th e most advanced ana lyt ic al proceduresnecessary to develop the factual bases needed byresponsible N A S A officials to m ak e th e wide rangeof decis ions requi red for the successful execu-tion of the m a n n e d space fl ight program.AT&T responded to this request by formingBellcomm, Inc., in M arch 1962. W e expect the

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A P O L L OLAUNCH V E H I C L E S350

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FIG. 6.

Module, was issued, and the contractor was se-lected in November. Thus we were able to studythe question fu rthe r witho ut delaying our develop-ment schedule.Present systems engineering activities centeron developing specifications for P roject Apollothat assure that each system element will be de-veloped in accordance with th e overall systemrequirements. The specifications will be contin-ually reviewed and brought up to date throughoutthe life of the program to reflect th e current statusof th e development and to certify tha t all elements,when assembled, will function in proper relntion-ship to perform th e mission.As development progresses, the O f f i c e of Sys-tems will con tinu ally review th e program to an-t icipate problems and effect solutions. It willevaluate new technical developments to determinewhether they can benefit the program. It willarbi t ra te technical conflicts between majo r ele-ments of the program. In sum, the O f f i c e ofSystems will provide a staff to assure that th etechnical status of the program is sound.

Mission ProfileAt this point, let us review briefly the LunarOrbi t Rendezvous mission profile, to illustrate the

systems engineering considerations that enteredinto its selection.At the time this mode was selected last year,the United States had under development twolarge launch vehicles of the Saturn class, and theopportunity to improve the smaller of the two byadapting to it an upper stage of the larger vehicle.The two vehicles are the two-stage Saturn I,planned to be operationally available in 1965,which will provide the power to boost about 11tons of payload into low earth orbit, and the three-stage Saturn V, phased about 2 years later thanthe Saturn I, which will lift approximately 12 0tons into the same orbit. The chart in figure 6shows these tw o vehicles at the right and left. Itis perhaps easier to keep the relative lifting powerof these vehicles in mind if we compare them wit hthe Atlas, which we employed to boost into orbitthe M ercury sp acecraft w eighing 3,000 pounds.

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B y combining the first stage of the Saturn I andthe third stage of the Saturn V, we will be ableto produce the Satu rn I-B, wi th about 45 percentmore lifting power than th e Saturn I, which willbe available about a year earlier than the SaturnV.The Saturn I will lift, th e equiva lent weight ofsomewhat m ore than seven M ercury spacecraft.The Saturn I-B will boost the weight of almost11 M ercury spacecraft. The Saturn V will pro-vide a q ua n tum jum p to about an equivalentof 80M ercury spacecraft.Another important, number for the Saturn V ishow much payload it will accelerate to the speedof about 25,000 miles an hour required to reachthe moon. That figure is 90,000 pounds. All ofth e weight-control specifications for ProjectApollo are based on 90,000 pounds as the max-imum capacity that can achieve the neededvelocity.With these vehicles available, we have estab-lished three series of flight missions in ProjectApollo.In the first series of missions, the Saturn I willlaunch two of the three modules of the Apollospacecraft into low earth orbit, to qual i fy them for

flight and to obtain flight experience up to 2 weeksor more for the three-man crew. The Apollospacecraft fuel tanks will carry only a smallamount of rocket fuel fo r maneuvering in spaceon these missions.In the second series of missions, the Saturn I-Bwill launch the complete Apollo spacecraft intoearth orbit to qual i fy th e Lun ar Excursion M odulefo r flight an d to rehearse the deployment and dock-ing of this unit. Again, th e fuel tanks will beonly partially filled.In the third series of missions, the Saturn Vwill launch the fully fueled Apollo spacecraft, onmissions into orbit around the moon, and to thelunar landing itself.The Satu rn V launc h vehicle ( fig. 7) will con-sist of three stagesthe S-IC first stage, the S-IIsecond stage, and the S-IVB third stage. TheApollo spacecraft, (fig. 8) will consist of the Com-man d M odule, which houses the three astronautson the trip to and from the moon; the ServiceM odule, which w ill provide th e propulsion to ma-neuver spacecraft into and out of lunar orbit; an dthe Lunar Excursion M odule, which will transportthe lunar explorers to the surface of the moon andback to rendezvous w rith th e Command Module

FIG. 7.13


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Fio. 8.

Km. !'14


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in orbit around the moon. In addition, a launchescape rocket system will be attached to the topof the C ommand M odule to enable the astronautsto get away quickly in the event of trouble duringthe initial phase of flight upward through theearth's atmosphere.All elements of the space vehicle will be as-sembled an d checked out in the vertical assemblybuilding of the launch facility at M erritt Island,Fla. (fig. 9). The checkout procedure will makeextensive use of automatic equipment to assurethat al l elements of the system are ready for themission. Then the launch vehicle, 360 feet tall,will be transported in vertical position more tha n3 miles to the launch pad by a crawler tractor.The v ehicle will remain at the p ad on ly a few daysbefore th e astronauts climb aboard and prepareto launch.The three-stage launch vehicle will lift off andplace the spacecraft on a trajectory that will carryit to the vic ini ty of the moon. The propulsionsystem in the spacecraft's Service M odule will fol-low the commands of the guida nce system to pro-

vide necessary course corrections and, on arrivalnear th e moon, a maneuver into lunar orbit.Then two of the three astronauts will climbinto the Lu na r E xcursion M odule, separate fr omthe rest of the spacecraft, and use its propulsionsystem to descend to the surface, where they willremain about 24 hours. The Lunar ExcursionM odule will have two propulsion stages, one ofwhich will rem ain on the moon. The other willboost the spacecraft from the moon's surface torendezvous with th e mother spacecraft.After the lunar explorers return to the Com-mand M odule, the Lunar Excursion M odule willbe detached, to remain in orbit about the moon.The Service M odule will provide the thrust to ac-celerate from lunar orbit for the return flight toearth an d will power the necessary course correc-tions en route. The Service M odule will be jet-tisoned befo re reentry int o the earth's atmosphere.The Command Module will reenter alone andwill descend to the earth by parachute.Later, we shall describe the mission profile an dthe equipment involved in considerably greaterdetail.

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F L I G H T M I S S I O N S , S P A C E C R A F T , A N D S P A C E M E D I C I N ENow let us turn to the major elements of themanned space flight program. The first such ele-ment will comprise flight missions, spacec raft, andspace medicine.

Project MercuryO ur initial manned missions have been inProject Mercury. Its primary objective, mannedorbital flight, was achieved last year (fig. 10).The names of John Glenn , Scott Carpen ter, W allySchirraand now Gordon Cooperare listed in

the history books of our Nation. But it was notour intention, at the outset of Project M ercury,merely to produce names fo r history books; ou rgoals were to take the first step in the mannedexploration of space, to determine man's capabili-

ties in space, and to develop the foundation fo rthe technology of man ned space flight.Now that both Glenn and C arpenter have flownfo r nearly 5 hours in space, Schirra for 9 hours,and Cooper for 34 hours, let us examine how wellwe have achieved our goals, and what we havelearned from Pr oject M ercury (fig. 11).We have learned how to design, build, an d testa spacecra ft to take man more than 100 miles fromthe surface of the earth, to withstand the high ac-celerations of a rocket launching, to provide ahabitable atmosphere in the hostile environmentof space, to maintain its own orientation in space,to provide th e thrust to initiate reentry towardthe earth's surface, and to withstand the searingheat of reentry.We have learned how to adapt a launch vehicle,never intended for m anne d flight, so that it is suf-

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S P A C E C R A F T D E V E L O P M E N T E N V I R O N M E N T A L C O N T R O L A T T I T U D E C O N T R O L. C O M M U N I C A T I O N S R E T R O R O C K E T S R E E N T R Y H E A T S H I E L D. R E L I A B I L I T Y

M A N - R A T E D L A U N C H V E H I C L E. A B O R T S E N S I N G> W O R L D W I D E N E T W O R KCOMMUNICATIONS T R A C K I N G. C O N T R O L C E N T E R

. R E A L T I M E O P E R A T I O N S> R E C O V E R Y T E C H N I Q U E S

LOJECT MERCURYkTHE FIRST STEP

A S T R O N A U T S E L E C T I O N & T R A I N I N G> S P A C E MEDICINE

A C C E L E R A T I O N T O L E R A N C E. W E I G H T L E S S N E S S EFFECTS. D E C E L E R A T I O N T O L E R A N C E. P R E S S U R E S U I T S. B I O M E D I C A L I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N> MAN'S FUNCTION. E N G I N E E R T E S T P I L O T E X P L O R E R

Fio. 11.NASA M63 536

ficiently safe and reliable to be used for mannedflight; and how to incorporate in this launch ve-hicle an intricate system for sensing an impendingmalfunct ion so that the spacecraft could be safelyseparated from the launch vehicle in emergency.W e have learned how to operate a world-widenetwork of radio and radar stations, linked to acontrol center by an elaborate net of c o mmu n i -cations systems, to keep track of a manned space-c r a f t and remain in constant communication withits pilot. We have learned how to conduct mannedflight operations in real time, based on informa-tion received at the control center from thousandsof miles away, sometimes on the other side of theearth.W e have learned how to pinpoint the space-craft's location once it has landed in the ocean,and how to recover it from the ocean in a veryshort period of time.W e have learned how to select and train astro-nauts so that they can perform in space as wellas a test pilot can perform in the earth's atmos-phere; and we have learned what controls andwhat displays should b e provided in the spacecraftso that the pilot can manually back up his auto-matic systems.

W e have learned that man can withstand thehigh accelerations of a rocket launching, a pro-longed period of zero gravity, and then a periodof high deceleration during re-entry; and thatnone of these forces exerts any deleterious effecton his ability to do his work for periods lastingas long as 34 hours. We have developed andproven the concepts of spacecraft life-support sys-tems, of pressure suits to be used in space, and ofbiomedica l instrumentationthat can allow a flightsurgeon on the ground to assess the physical con-di t ion of a pilot who is hundreds of thousandsof miles away.Pe rha p s most impor tant of all, w e have l e a rn e dthat man can materially contribute to the explora-tion of space. He can enhance the systems reliabil-ity through his capabilities as an engineer and asa test pilot, and he can act as a scientific observerin space. These demonstrations of man's abilityto judge, to reason, and to cope with the unex-pected enable us to proceed with confidence thatm an can assume the role of an explorer in spacejust as he has been an explorer on the surface ofthe earth.

This capability of man to func t ion as a primary"system" of the spacecraft, even after a long period

681342 O63 2 17


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FLIGHTSIMULATION

FOR M A - 9

N A S A M63 575

FIG. 12.of space flight, was demonstrated in the 22-orbitflight of Astronaut Cooper on May 15 and 16 (fig.12). This 34-hour and 20-minute mission enab ledus to ob ta in a more de tai led assessment of man'sreaction to long-duration flights, and also per-mitted the pilot to perform fu rth er scientific ex-periments in space. The mission stretched thecapabi lities of the M ercury spacecraft system;however, ample reserves of cooling water, oxygenan d reaction control fuel were retained.W e hav e spacecraft an d A tlas boosters availablefo r tw o additional M ercury flights. These ar ecurrently scheduled only as back-up missions tothe Cooper flight.

Project GeminiFollowing hard on the heels of Project M ercurywill be Project G emin i. This project, which ha sbeen under way for more than a year, forms anintegral part of a step-by-step development pro-

gram starting with Mercury and leading to theachievement of a manned luna r landing in ProjectApollo. The basic objectives of Proj ect Gem iniare to increase ou r operational proficiency an d

our knowledge of technology required fo r mannedspace flight and to develop both rendezvous andlong-duration manned flight capabilities.Although we have learned muc h from ProjectM ercury, this first program must be consideredas only a tin y step in our m ann ed explor ation ofspace. An Apollo lunar mission will last at leastfive t imes as long as the next M ercury mission.The Apollo spacecraft will have the capability tomaneuver in space, to correct its course on theway to the moon, and to perform th e all-impor-tant rendezvous maneuver in orbit about th emoon. In M ercury, only the craft's orientationcan be changed. It s orbital path is fixed in space.For these reasons the G em ini program was con-ceived and is being implemented to bridge thetechnical ga p between M ercury and Apollo (fig.13). The G emi ni spacecraft resembles M ercuryin many important details. The aerodynamicshape of the M ercury spacecraft has been retained,but the size of the pressurized compartment ha sbeen increased to accom modate two astron auts.The space for equipment has been grea tly incr easedby arranging to carry the adapter section intoorb it. To proceed with the Gem ini program at theearliest possible time, th e prime spacecraft con-

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t rac t was awarded to the M cDonnel l Ai rcr af tCorp., whic h so successfu lly developed the M er-cury spacecraf t. M any of the M ercury subsystemshave been re ta ined an d, of course, th e opera t iona land flight experience achieved in M ercury wil l bedirectly appl icable to the Gem ini program.The step from Gemini to Apollo will be a verylarge one, but, to the m a x i m u m e x t en t possible,th e G e mi n i deve lopmenta leffort has been directedtoward common use of technology for Gemin i an dApollo. In many instances, th e same subcon-tractors have been selected for both proj ects. Forexample, on both Gemini and Apollo spacecraft ,Rocketdyne D iv is ion , Nor th Amer ican Av ia t ion ,is developing the reaction control systems, AiRe-search Division of the Garre t t Corp. is developingth e l i fe support systems, and M inneapolis-Honey-well is developing th e a t t i tude and maneuver con-trol electronics.In the area of ground systems developm ent, verynearly the same network of ground stations willbe used in Gemini rendezvous and Apollo orbitalmissions. M uch of the au t omat i c check-out equip -ment that is now being developed for Apollo willse e its first use in checking out the Geminispacecraft .

The planned Gemini missions will provide op-era t iona l experience that will be directly ap-plicable to f u t u r e Apollo missions. Gem ini willbe capable of ex ecuti ng space flight missions of upto 2 weeks, longer than any presently plannedApollo lunar mission. T he Gemin i program willcont r ibute important ly to Apol lo in the majorphases of a rendezvous maneuver: launch-on-time,maneuvers in space, acquisition in space, anddocking.A highly skilled and experienced operationalteam is essential to any manned space flight pro-gram. The experience gained in M ercury is beingapplied in G e mi n i . The more advanced experi-ence in Gemini wil l f u l f i l l a cri t ical requirementfor such experience in carrying out the much moredifficult task of controll ing operations in ProjectApollo.O ur astronauts will learn how to perform mostof th e man euv ers required in a luna r l and ing mis-sion in training flights using the Gemini space-cra f t , before a t tempting th e more difficult Apollomissions. Spacecraf t .The Gem ini two-man spacecraft(fig. 14 ) will be approximately 30 percent largerthan th e M ercury spacecraft and will weigh about

F I G . 13.19


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7,000 pounds. A fundamental concept of thespacecraft design will be the use of modular equip-ment, which provides subsystems that are inde-pendent and readily accessible. Accordingly,maintenance and check-outdifficulties will b e mi n i -mized, and product improvem ent as well as missionadapta t ion wil l b e s impli f ied.Several new subsystems will be in t roduced in theGemini spacecraft . Ai rcr af t - typ e e jec t ion seatswill be provided for astronaut abort in case ofemergencies. An in ertial gu ida nce system, to-gether wit h a rendezvous rada r, wil l providei n f o r ma t ion for the spacecraft to carry out therendezous with i ts target vehicle. T he iner t ia !guidance system also will provide information fordirecting the spacecraft to a predetermined re -covery site, and will serve as a back-up for theGemini launch vehicle guidance system. For thef irs t t ime in a United States spacecraft , a fuelcell, similar to the one to be used in Apollo, will

serve as a pr im ary source of electrical power. Alsofor the first t ime, w e shall have to make provi-sions for food storage and waste handling.While th e M ercury spacecraft circled th e ea r thin f ixed orbits without maneuvering capabili t ies ,th e Gem ini spacecraft w ill carry small thrust units

which wil l be used to m o d i f y its orbi ta l path , andto per mit rendezvous and docking maneuvers. Apa ra g l ide r , or pa raw ing , deployed from the space-craf t at about 50,000 feet a l t i tu d e , wil l be substi-tu ted for the parachute in la ter f l ights to allowth e Ge min i spacecraf t to come down on land inmuch th e same manner as a motorless aircraft .D urin g fiscal year 1964, f ive Gemin i spacecraf twil l be delivered. Funds will be used also for theproduct ion of other spacecraf t , and for develop-ment tests inc lud ing those of the paraglider, launchservices and spacecraf t re l iab i l i ty . Launch Vehicle .The Titan II, modified toincrease re l i ab i l i ty and astronaut safety, will beemployed as the prim ary launc h vehicle for Proj-ec t Gemini ( f ig. 15). To facil i tate rendezvous,this launch vehicle will be required to insert th eGem ini spacecraft into a precise earth-orbit witha m i n i m u m of launc h delays. The Ti tan II is nowbeing developed by the Air Force as an intercon-t inenta l bal l is t ic miss i le . Critical components ofthe Gemini version of the Titan II, such as them al f unc t ion detection system, wil l be flight-testedon Air Force Titan II ICBM's dur ing the develop-mental program . Fifte en Titan II 's are being pro-cured for the Gemini program from the Martin-

G E M I N I C A P S U L E A D A P T E RE Q U I P M E N T. S E C T I O N

R E N D E Z V O U S A N DR E C O V E R Y S E C T I O N

R E A C T I O NC O N T R O LS Y S T E MS E C T I O N

C A B I N R E T R O G R A D ES E C T I O N

N A S A M 6 J 5 4 2

FIG. 14.20


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M arietta Corp., through the Air Force Space Sys-tems Division. The first fiveTitan II vehicles willbe delivered dur ing fiscal year 1964. Fu nds re-quested in the budget will be used for the produc-tion of addi tiona l vehicles,launch support services,propellants, and preflight testing. Rendezvous Target.The Gemini target ve-hicle will be a modified Agena vehicle, which willbe boosted into earth-orbit by an Atlas (fi g. 16).M odifications to the Agena will include supply-ing a capability for mu ltiple restarts, so that ren-dezvous maneuvers can be performed. A radartransponder will be added to send signals to theradar receiver on the Gemini spacecraft. EightAgena target vehicles are being developed by, andprocured from the Lockheed M issiles & Space Co.,throug h the Air Force. The Atlas vehicles arebeing procure d, aga in through the Air Force, fromth e Astronautics Division of the Genera l Dynam -ics Corp.Fiscal year 1964 funds will be used to purchaseAtlas boosters for the first Atlas-Agena launch-ings. For the Agena, funds will be used forvehicle manufac ture , test site support, develop-ment testing, and the delivery of one vehicle. Long Duration Flights.Early Gemini flightswill be long-duration missions lasting up to 2

GEMINIL A U N C H V E H I C L E

T I T A N II MODIF IEDFO R A S T R O N A U TS A F E T Y

N A S A M 6 3 4 4 0

Fro. 15.weeks. In these missions, we shall investigate thephysiological effects on the crew of zero gravity,artificial environment, limited mobility, and variedwork plans for prolonged periods of time, pre-ceded by high acceleration an d intensive vibra t ion,and followed by high deceleration. The Geminiprogram will provide an early evaluation of man'sefficiency under such conditions. The programwill provide experience in the maintenance of aproper atmosphere in the spacecraft fo r longperiods.

Spacesuit .In figure 17, we seework in prog-ress at the M anned Sp acecr aft Center on the de-velopment and testing of possible designs for theGemini spacesuit. Seated at the left is an engineerwearing a new Air Force suit being evaluated formobility -characteristics. Next to him, anotherman is wearing a M ercury-type suit. O n the rightis one type of advanced suit being evaluated forthe Gemini program.

We expect that the spacesuit used in Gemini(fig. 18 ) will cover the torso, head, upper arms,and upp er thighs. How ever, it will be possible toremove the cove ring from the lower legs, forearms,feet, an d hands dur ing most of the mission. In theevent cabin pressure is lost d uri ng flight, it will be2 1


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A T L A S -AGENA AGENA VEHICLE

R A D A R T R A N S P O N D E R

DOCKING C O L L A RMULTIPLE -RESTARTE NGI NE

Fio. 16.

SPAC ESU I TS

N A S A M 6 3 5 6 5

22


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possible to don these add i t i ona l garments in timeto avoid any hazard to the astronauts.

The construction of the Gemini sui t will permitthe wearer to open it sufficiently to accommodatenormal body funct ions. The pre-prototype suitshave been evaluated by our bio-medical engineers.Negotiations are in progress for the fabricationof a sufficient number of suits to meet test andtraining needs. In its final form, the Geminispacesuit will provide a capability for short-dura-tion life support outside the spacecraft. At pres-ent, we are studying how we will use this spacesuit.to explore the problems to be encountered in oper-ations outside of the spacecraft in Project Apollo.Fiscal year 1964 funds will be used for the con-tinued development of the extravehicular suit, pur-chase of p r o d u c t i o n pressure suits, and theassociated maintenance and procurement of pro-duction food and waste management systems.

R e n d e zv o u s Exper iments .A variety of ex-periments of scientific and engineering signifi-cance will be conducted during the periods of ex-tended flight. By deploying a small piggybacktarget, important phases of the rendezvous prob-lem will be explored in the very early phases ofGemini flights.

Later, the complete rendezvous operation willbe conducted by placing an Agena target vehiclein a circular orbit approximately 185 miles abovethe earth (fig. 19). One day after launch of thetarget, the Gemini manned spacecraft will beplaced in an elliptical orbit in which it reaches amaximum altitude of 185 miles. Through precisetiming and control of the flight path of themanned spacecraft in the l aunch phase, the numberof corrections to rendezvous w i th the target vehiclewill be minimized. The propulsion system onboard th e Gemini spacecraft will b e capable ofsmall mid-course corrections as well as terminalguidance and docking maneuvers. Target vehiclepropulsion may also be used to assist the rendez-vous maneuve r s . During the docking operations(f ig. 20) most of the maneuve r s will be accom-plished solely by the manned spacecraft underm a n u a l control of the astronauts. An exceptionmay be the orientation of the target vehicle. Afterdocking, the Agena propulsion system will be usedto develop techniques for the check-out and firingof large engines in space, for orbit change ma-neuvers, and for navigation.

On complet ion of the orbital flight portionof the mission, the Gemini spacecraft will return

FIG. 18.23


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FIG. 19.

FIG. 20.24


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GEMINI PARAGLIDER

Fro. 21.

to earth for landing at the preselected ground site.During re-entry, modification of lift with rollmaneuvers will make it possible to alter the bal-listic flight path and thus to maintain a degreeof control over the selection of a landing area.These roll maneuvers will make it possible toshif t the landing point several hundred milesalong the flight path and a few dozen miles later-ally from where th e spacecraft w ould land with-out such maneuvers. The maneu vers will enablethe Gemini astronauts to land within an areaabout 10 miles on a side. Between the altitudesof 40,000 and 50,000 feet, the paraglider recoverywing will be deployed for a glide to a controlledlanding on skids. U nder cond itions of zero w indsth e paraglider will carry th e spacecraft about 20miles in any direction from the point at which itis deployed.An example may clarify the si tuation. Sup-pose a pair of Ge min i astronauts w ere in an orbitthat would enable them to land in the area to beselected in one of the southwestern States. Theerror in their retro rocket firing might put themon a trajectory heading to a landing in anotherpart of the State. With the roll control, theycould shift their flight path back to the desired

area and come down to the lower atmospherewithin a radius of 10 miles around the selectedlanding po int. Then they could use the paraglide rto sail the rest of the way . In figure 21 is a draw-ing of the Gemini paragl ider in flight.Project Gem ini was approved in December 1961,and a contract for the development of 12 space-craf t w as awarded to M cDonnell Air craf t Corp.during the same month. A full-scale m ock-up ofthe Gemini spacecraft was completed in Augustof 1962, and the first Gemini spacecraft are inproduction (f ig. 22 ). Produ ction of the Geminilaunch vehicles is also in progress (fig. 23), andth e Agena target vehicle is well under way. Thefirst suborbital Gemini flight is scheduled aroundthe end of this year. The first manned Geminiflight is schedu led for 1964. R end ezv ou s flightswill begin in 1965, and the system will be opera-t ional in 1966.

Apollo SpacecraftFollowin g G em ini, we are developing the Apollospacecraft as the vehicle for lunar explorat ion.This spacecraft will be composed of three separatemodules, each designed to fulfill specific mission

25


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FIG. 22.

26FIG. 23.


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FIG. 24.

A P O L L OS P A C E C R A F T M E R C U R Y A T L A SM E R C U R Y

S P A C E C R A F TL A U N C H E S C A P E

S Y S T E M

C O M M A N DM O D U L E

S E R V I C EM O D U L ET O T A L E M P T Y

W E I G H T :9 T O N S

L U N A R E X C U R S I O NM O D U L ET O T A L E M P T YW E I G H T :

1 3 T O N S

Fio. 25.27


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requirements (fig. 24). The Command Modulewill house the three-man crew, will serve as a con-trol center for spacecraft operations, and is de-signed to safely re-enter the earth's atmosphereat a velocity of about 25,000 miles per hour uponreturn from the moon. The Sen-ice Module willhouse many of the spacecraft's l i f e support sys-tems, and a major propulsion system for missionabort, mid-course corrections and i n j ec t ion intoand out of lunar orbit. The Lunar ExcursionModule w i l l be a special purpose shuttle, or spaceferry, for the two men making the lunar landing.The Excursion Module will contain the necessarysystems for descending from lunar orbit, perform-ing the lunar landing and take-off , and accom-plishing the lunar orbit rendezvous with theCommand and Service Modules.

The three modules, together w i t h the launchescape system, will be 80 feet tall. When we com-pare this spacecraft with the Project Mercuryhardware (fig. 25), we find that the Apollo space-craft will be nearly as big as the Mercury space-craft and its Atlas launch vehicle together. Theempty weight of the Apollo spacecraft will benearly one-and-one-half times the empty weight ofthe total Mercury-Atlas combination.

C o m m a n d Module.A contract for theApollo Command and Service Modules wasawarded to the Space and Information SystemsDivision of Xorth American Aviation, Inc., inDecember 1961. The Command Module (fig. 26),isa blunt, conically-shaped body that has an aero-dynamic lift-drag ratio of approximately one-half. It is 13 feet in diameter and weighsapproximately 5 tons. It wi l l be protected fromthe heat of re-entry by a special material fastenedto its external surface, which ablatesor boils toa gason exposure to very high temperatures.The Command Module structure, heat shield, andinternal equipment arrangement wil l protect theastronauts from the hazards of radiation in space.The module w i l l contain subsystems to provideelectrical power, communications, orientation con-trol, orientation stabilization, environmental con-trol, earth-landing and crew-support subsystems.Also contained within the Command Module willbe the guidance and navigation system and theinstrumentation displays. In figure 27, we see aview of the interior. The internal volume pro-vided for the three-man crew wil l be approxi-mately 300 cubic feet. Attached to the CommandModule, but jettisoned after staging of the first

FIG. 26.28


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A P O L L O^COMMANDM O D U L E

FIG. 27.

A P O L L OS E R V I C EM O D U L E

Fio. 28.29


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stage of the launch vehicle, will be a launch escapesystem similar to the escape tower used in ProjectM ercu ry. Service Module .The second unit of the space-craf t wil l be the Service M odule (f ig. 28 ) , whic hwill contain a 22,000-pound-thrust rocket propul-sion system, an orientation control system, hydro-gen-oxygen fuel cells for electrical power supply,radiators- for spacecraft cooling, radar, and thesupplies of oxygen for the life-support systemand the electrical power supply, as well as hydro-

gen for the power supply. The Service M odulewill weigh approximately 25 tons ful ly loadedwith propellants, and appro xima tely 5 tons em pty.It is 13 feet in diameter and 20 feet long.

In fiscal year 1964, Command and ServiceM odule development efforts will be devoted to in-tensive component and subsystem fabrication,testing, an d qual i f icat ion, and fabrication of 12spacecraf t , to support a delivery schedule of aman-qual i f ied spacecraf t every three months dur-ing fiscal year 1965. M ost spacec raft subsystemsfor manned orbital fl ight will have completedground qualification testing by the end of fiscalyear 1964. Lunar Excursion M odule.Since January 1963,

th e Lunar Excursion M odule (fig . 29 ), has beenunder development by the Grumm an Aircraf t En-gineering Corp. It will be able to perform separa-tion, lunar descent, landing, lunar ascent, rendez-vous and docking, al l independent of theComma nd M odule. The Lun ar Excursion M od-ule will weigh about 12 tons and wil l containits own electrical power, guidance and control,communications, propulsion, and crew-supportsubsystems.The moon has a relat ively weak gravi tat ionalfield (about one-sixth that of earth) and no at-mosphere. Consequently, the Luna r ExcursionModule will not have the same stru ctural and heat-resistance requirem ents as the C omm and M odule,which must re-enter the earth's atmosphere andbe recovered on the earth's surface. The designof the Lunar Excursion M odule will be optimizedfor lunar landing, take-off, and rendezvous. W in-dows with a broad view will provide visual refer-ence for the astronauts during these criticalmaneuvers, which they will perform while sittinguprigh t . The Lu nar Excursion M odule wil l havetw o propulsion stages. The stage used to land onthe moon will remain there. The other stage willbe employed for the take-off f rom the moon's sur-

Fio. 29.30


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this environment adequately with information ob-tained in the unmanned space science flights, to-gether with recorded observations of solar flarea c t i v i ty . Based on this i n fo rma t i o n , w e have es-tablished radiation shielding design criteria fo rthe spacecraft. We have applied dose limits pos-tulated by our space medical staff, assisted by theSpace Science Board of the National Academy ofSciences. W e feel conf ident that adequate shield-ing can be provided for the flight crew within thea l lowable weight l im i t s of the Apollo vehicle.R a d i a t i o n dosimeters developed and f l ight- testedin Project Mercury will be subjected to more rig-orous testing during the Project Gemini flightprogram.

G u i d a n c e and Navigation.The Apollo guid-ance and navigation system has been under devel-opment since 1961, at the Instrumentation Labora-tory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.In mid-1962, industrial contractors were selectedto support the MIT effort and to produce the op-erational guidance and navigation systems. Thisteam includes the AC Spark Plug Division of theGeneral Motors Corp., the Raytheon Corp., andthe Kollsman Instrument Corp.T he f unc t ions of the Apollo guidance and n a v i -

gation system (fig. 32), are to determine the posi-t ion , velocity, and trajectory of the spacecraft;and to control the spacecraft's engines and re-entry l i f t for the precise maneuvers required fo reach phase of the mission: flight to the moon,l u n a r orbit, lunar landing, take-off f rom the moon,l u n a r orbit rendezvous, and the return to earthat a preselected landing site.The system consists of three m a j o r components:the i n e r t i a l subsystem, th e guidance computer, andthe op t i ca l subsystem. T he inertial subsystem em -ploys gyroscopes to establish directional reference

in space and accelerometers to measure course cor-rect ions applied by the propulsion system or byae r odynamic maneuvers. The guidance computercalculates the trajectory, computes required ve-locity changes, sends start and cutoff signals tothe propulsion system, and signals for the properuse of the aerodynamic lilt during atmosphericentry. The optical subsystem, consisting of ascanning telescope and a space sextant, finds thecraft's position in space and aligns the inertialplatform for each maneuver.During fiscal year 1964, prototype guidance sys-tems will be developed and intensive ground test-ing wil l b e under way.

F I G . 31.32


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FIG. 32.

COMMAND M OD U LE D E V E L O P M E N T

L A N D I M P A C TW A T E R HANDLING N A S A M 6 3 5 7 7

FIG. 33.681342 O63 3 33


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Test Program.Work on the Command andService M odules is well advanced. In figure 33,some of the Com man d M odule development ac-compl ishments are portrayed . A full-scale mock-up was completed in December 1962. The firstbo ilerplate spacec raft ha ve been manuf ac t u r ed ,and testing of water-handling qualit ies , earth-land ing qu al i t ies , water impact , and parachutes ,is in progress. To assure a high degree of re l iabi l -ity, an intensive test program for components,subsystems, mo dules, and com plete spacecraft isrequired ( f ig. 34).At the bottom of the p y r a m i d will be the testsof components and subsystems, performed by theresponsible contractors. Ne xt, spacecraft mo duleswill be tested at the No rth A me rica n plant at Dow-ney, Calif., and at the Grumman plant at Beth-page, N.Y. The performance and functioning ofeach will be verif ied, and compliance with th especifications will be assured.The most rigorous phase of the Apollo space-cra f t ground test program will take place at theM anned Spacecraft Center in Houston. There weare bui lding major fac i l i t ies that can dupl ica temany of the condi t ions encountered in space flight.In these facilities, we can conduct tests and learn

of flaws that otherwise would not be discoveredunt i l the fl ight tests . Constructing and operatingthese faci litie s is a less expensive and oft en fasteran d sa fe r means of obtaining the necessary testresults. In these ground tests a spacecraft willbe subjected to env iron me nts much more severethan those encountered in space, for periods oft ime far longer tha n a single luna r mission. O urexperience has shown that we must subject a space-cra f t to heat and cold, to vacuum and pressure, tovibra t ion and to noise, to achieve the degree of as-surance we require to know that the spacecraftcan func t ion for the entire period of its mission.Spacecraft propulsion development and testingwill be carried out at the White Sands M issileRange in New M exico. Highly toxic propellantsare being used in all three mod ules of the ApolloSpacecraft. It is not possible to develop and testthese systems at any of the existing test locations.Consequently, a spacecraft propulsion develop-ment facility is being bu i l t at White Sands forthe Com mand and Service M odules, and fo r theLu nar E xcursion M odule propulsion systems.Final check-out of the spacecraft must be per-formed in the v ic in i ty of the l a u n c h site. Duringthe pre-fl ight preparation period, th e spacecraft

A P O L L O S P A C E C R A F T T E S T I N GI!1

WHITI :I E C I I( U T T L E J C/I

F L I U 1

TH^CAK | W H I T E S A N O SPIEF l l t IT CIECIIIT

I S A T U R N i

I C C E P T U C f T E S 1 I N S

#G RU M M A N

EimiNNEN T t B E H I B P M E N ! T E S T SM S C H O U S T O N W H I T E S A N O S

C O M P O N E N T t S U B S Y S T E M S T E S T S B r S U B C O N T D I C T O I I S

N A S A M 6 3 5 3 9

FIG. 34.

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LAUNCH E S C A P E S Y S T E M D E V E L O P M E N TWH I T E S A N D S M I S S I L E R A N G E

>

P A D A B O R T S A L T I T U D E A B O R TUSING LITTLE JOE HN A S A M 6 3

FIG. 35.

FIG. 36.35


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will be weighed and balanced, fitted with pyro-technics and landing devices, and checked and re-checked to assure perfect funct ioning of all thecomponents. Flight Schedule.ThefirstApollo flights arescheduled for this calend ar year ( fig. 35). In thefirst test, th e launch escape system concepts willbe verified in a simulated off-the-pad escape ma-neuver. Later in the year, w e will begin testingth e func t ion ing of the launch escape system athigh al t i tude on flights powered by Little Joe II,a special solid-propellant lau nch vehicle. TheLittle Joe II is similar in design to, but muchlarger than, th e Little Joe I, which was used sosuccessfully in the Mercury flight test program.Both the pad-abort tests and the Little Joe IItests will be caried out at the White Sands Mis-sile Range.In 1964, we will begin flights of Apollo boiler-plate spacecraft from Cape Ca naver al, poweredby the Saturn I vehicle. The first manned flights,also powered by the Saturn I, are scheduled for1965.O n the first manned flights, the Saturn I launchvehicle will allow us to fly the Command an d Serv-

ice Modules, and the Service Module will carry asmall amount of fuel fo r exercises in maneuver .Following these flights, when th e Saturn I-B be-comes available, we will launch into earth orbit allthree modules of the Apollo spacecraft, with apar t ia l fuel supply in both th e Service M oduleand the Lu nar E xcurs ion M odule.O n these flights, scheduled to begin in 1966, ourastronauts will be able to develop the operationaltechniques of deployment and docking of theLun ar Excursion M odule.Since the second stage of the Saturn I-B is alsothe third stage of the Saturn V, which will be em-ployed for the lunar flights, we shall be able totest in earth orbit a large portion of the system tobe employed for the luna r landing. In figure 36,we see how much the two vehicles have in common.In this phase of the program, we expect to obtaina significant amount of experience in earth orbitin the kind of operations we must conduct in theneighborhood of the moon. The opportunity togain this experience adds greatly to our confidencethat we can carry out the lu na r lan di ng missionsuccessfully.

36


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L A U N C H V E H IC L E S A N D P R O P U L S IO NTo travel into space it is first necessary to reacha very high speed. By atta in in g a speed of about18,000 miles an hour, we can place a satellite inearth orbit, and by increasing this speed to 25,000miles an hour we can overcome the grav itationalforce of the earth. To place a spacecraft weigh-ing 90,000 poun ds in a trans lun ar trajectory re-quires a tremendous amount of power. For ex-ample, the maximum generating capacity of thePotomac Electric Power Co. in Washington is1,639,000 kilowatts of electric power. The firststage of the Saturn V w ill produce a thrust equiv-

alent to 110 million kilow atts; over 68 times themaximum PEPCO rat*.Engines

To power the three Saturn vehicles previouslymentioned requires development of a series of en-

gines suitable fo r application to the stages ofwhich the vehicles are comprised. Shown in figure37 is the engine family now under development.As can be seen, the th rust levels range f rom 15,000to 1,500,000 pounds.Smaller rocket engines of the 1950's broke thespace barrier an d made possible the early satel-lites and the first probes in to ou ter space. In the1960's, the chemical rocket is reaching maturitywith this series of engines, which opens the wayfor manned exploration of space and its first greatstepthe exploration of the moon.Two of these engines are for first-stage applica-tion and util ize kerosene as fuel. These are theH-l for Saturn I, and Saturn I-B, and the F-lfo r Saturn V. The other three engines are forupper-stages and use liquid hydrogen. The A-3is used in the second stage of Saturn I; the J-2 in

E N G I N E S FOR MANNED FLIGHT1 200000

T H R U S T ,P O U N D S

MlO X Y O t NKEIOSINI

O x r o i N -HTDIOOEN

oxrOfNKEIOSfNi

oxroiN.HroiooiNN A S A M63 435

F I G . 37.37


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SA-3 LIFTOFF

FIG. 39.

N A SA M 6 3 4 8 9

FIG. 40.39


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engines in each test performed to design specifica-tions ( f ig . 39). To date, 100 H-l engines havebeen delivered. M ost of these have been manu-factured by the Eocketdyne Division of XorthAmerican Aviation at Canoga Park, Cal i f . R e-cently, however, flight engine production ha s beentransferred to the Rocketdyne plant at Neosho,M o. In figure 40 we see an engine in the assemblyarea at-Neosho. The H-l is approximately 10feet long and weighs about 1 ton. During thecoming fiscal year, we will contin ue the develop-ment effort to solve problems discovered duringflight testing, an d will complete qualification formanned flight. J-2 Engine.As a result of the encouragingearly developmental experience wi th th e A-3,XASA in 1960 began the development of a secondhydrogen engine, the J-2. Th is engine will develop200,000 pounds of thrust, more than 13 times asmuch as the A-3. The J-2, which weighs abou ta ton and a half, is also being developed by theRocketdyne Division. Figure 41 shows a mock-up of the J-2 in the assembly area at the CanogaPark plant of Rocketdyne. The J-2 engine hasbeen fired almost 200 times, primarily for theinvestigation and development of the ignition sys-

tem and for checkout of the pumps and other sub-components. There has been one 4-m inute , full-duration, full-thrust firing. D ur ing th e comingyear, the test activity on the J-2 engine will begreatly augmented by put t ing an additional standinto service to supplement the two stands nowavailable. This add ition al capa bi lity will permitus to schedule over 3 Q O eng ine systems tests, includ-in g altitude sim ulation , gimbaling, malfun ctions,and others. W e expect that the engine will bebrought to the state of pre l imina ry flight ratingdur ing this time. Five J-2 engines will formthe power plant of the Saturn V second stage,while one J-2 will power the third stage of th isvehicle, which will be employed in the Apollospacecraft lu na r missions. F-l Engine.The largest kerosene-fueled en-gine under development in the free world is theF-l engine, which delivers a thrust of 11/2 millionpounds and consumes 3 tons of liquid oxygen andkerosene every second. It stands 18 feet high andweighs 10 tons. In figure 42 we see a workerstanding next to an F-l in the assembly area ofthe Rocketdyne plant at Canoga Park, Calif . Fiveof these engines will power the S-IC stage, thefirst stage of the Satu rn V. W e began the develop-

J-2 INA S S E M B L Y A R E AA T C A N O G A P A R K

FIG. 41.40


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FIG. 42.

FIG. 43.

F-lFIR ING INT E S T S T A N D I A,

E D W A R D S A F B

N A S A A 3 5 0 1

41


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ment of the F-l engine in 1958, and in the past 2*4years approximately 29 0 engine firings have beencompleted. In figure 43 we see one of the tests.M a n y firings, especially in the early part of theprogram, were of short duration and had the ob-jective of checking out the operation of variouscomponents such as turbopumps, injector designs,and cooling systems. In 12 recent firings theengine has demonstrated its full thrust of ll/2million pounds over the full 2% minutes of oper-ation. During th e coming year, we will continuethe development of the engine and we will makemore ful l - thrust , ful l -durat ion runs, culminat in gin Preliminary Flight R ati ng Test. By the endof this year, we will commit the engine for thebeginning of ground tests of the S-IC stage ofSaturn V and we will be furnishing engines forfabrication of the early developmental flight teststageaThe major problem remaining in the F-l engineprogram is the existence of the phenomenon know nas combustion instability, which is characterizedby pressure oscillations in the combustion gas in-side the engine. The resulting vibration can de-stroy the entire engine. Although combustioninstability has developed in only 7 of the 290 F-lfirings in the last 2,y4 years, even this small inci-dence cannot be tolerated. Consequently, we areplacing major emphasis on solving this problem.The source of instability in liquid propellant en-gines has been the subject of considerable research,since most engines exhibit instability in the earlystages of their development.O ne of the most likely sources is the injector,th e engine component which mixes th e liquid oxy-gen and the kerosene within the thrust chamberso that the propellant can bur n completely. Theusual means of conquering instability is to changethe design of the inj ector by changing the locationor the size of the i nj ecto r holes. W e have a con-tinuing program of fabricating modified injectordesigns, which are fired extensively in highly in -strumented thrust chambers an d engine test stands.Another suspect part of the engine is the largedome through which the liqu id oxygen flows.Here, ou r instrum ents have revealed pressure oscil-lations, which could be transmitted to the gases inthe chamber. We are redesigning this dome toprovide smoother flow and we are installing bafflesto damp out flow oscillations. Still another ap-proach being followed is to introduce a specialkind of injector hole, called a cavitating venturi.

This device should prevent oscillations from th ecombustion gases feeding back into the l iquid orvice versa.We are confident that we will solve th e insta-bil i ty problem on the F-l engine, just as it hasbeen solved for all other l iquid propellant enginesin use, and we are confident that we can achievethe flight ra t ing and delivery schedules. W e are,however, giving this matter our closest attentionand bringing to bear the knowledge and judg men tof the most qualified experts in the United States.These experts are drawn from Lewis ResearchCenter, M arshall Space Flight Center, variousengine companies and universities and others whohave conducted research in this area. For thefuture, we are establishing a consulting body ofexperts to assure a continuing national program todevelop more information on this phenomenonan d methods of prevention. M-l Engine.The latest and the largest hyro-gen engine to be placed under development is theM-l. It will be designed to deliver a thrust of 1.2million pounds, which is capable of being in -creased to 1.5 million. The M-l will be 25 feethigh, and 15 feet across the nozzle exit. It willweigh about 10 tons.In figure 44, we see M-l combustion chamberfabrication in progress at the Aero j et-Generalplant in Sacramento, Calif. In the next illustra-tion (fig. 45 ), we see the construction of a testfacility for thrust chambers and gas generators.The M -l is destined fo r missions beyond the capa-bility of the Saturn vehicle. W e have started theM-l development because, as mentioned earlier, along period of time is required to develop an d qual-ify an engine. It will require about 6 or 7 years ofwork to bring an engine of the M -l size to its firstflight test. An orderly development program ha sbeen init iated which will lead to preliminary flightrating approximately 4 years from now; th eengine will be ready for flight test about 2 yearslater. B y starting an M - l engine developmentprogram we have taken a first step, which willpermit us to institu te programs to further increaseour launch vehicle payload capabilities in futureyears. Spacecraft Propulsion.In addition to theliquid propellant engines for our launch vehicles,we have work underway on propulsion fo r space-craft. Here, instead of kerosene or hydrogen andoxygen we are concentrating on storable propel-lants which are hypergolic that is they have the

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N A S A M 6 3 5 0 4

Fio. 44.

CURRENT STATUS O F ACTUAL/C O NS T R U C T I O N OFM-l *THRUST C H A M B E R A N DGA S G E N E R A T O R TESTFACIL ITY ( C - 9 )

Fio. 45.

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SATURNL A U N C H V E H I C L E S S A T U R N

20 S T O R YB U I L D I N G

S A T U R N I B

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

P A Y I O A D IN1 0 0 M I L E O R B I TA P P L I C A T I O N

2 2 O O O L B SO R B I T A L T E S T S

AND MISSIONS

3 2 . 0 0 0 L B SO R B I T A L T E S T S

AND MISSIONSES CAPE MISSIONS

WITH ltd S T A G !

2 4 0 O O O I B SO R B I T A L A N D

E SC A P E MISSIONSL U N A R LANDINGMISSIONS A W ' " i .

FIG. 46.

S A T U R N S A - 3 S T A T I S T I C SN O V E M B E R 1 6 , 1 9 6 2 1 2 4 5 E S TL A U N C H C O M P L E X 3 4

C O U N T D O W N D U R A T I O N8 E N G I N E T O T A L I G N I T I O NT I M EE N G I N E C U T - O F F I N B O A R DE N G I N E C U T - O F F O U T B O A R DR E T R O R O C K E T I G N I T I O NA L T I T U D EP R O J E C T " H I G H W A T E RB U R S T T I M EM E A S U R E M E N T S

S T - 1 2 4 G U I D A N C E P L A T F O R MS A T I S F A C T O R I L Y .

* 4 5 M I N . HO L D A TO P E R A T O R P O W E R

P R E D I C T E D600 MIN0 3 0 S E C O N D S1 4 0 2 S E C O N D S1 4 7 8 S E C O N D S1 5 2 2 S E C O N D S1 0 3 6 M I L E S2 9 2 S E C O N D S

A C T U A L6 4 5 MIN '0 3 0 S E C O N D S1 4 1 2 S E C O N D S1 4 9 0 S E C O N D S1 5 2 3 S E C O N D S1 0 4 1 M I L E S2 9 2 S E C O N D S

6 1 3 6 1 0R I D I N G A S P A S S E N G E R P E R F O R M E D

T M I N U S 7 5 M I N D U E T O G R O U N DF A I L U R EFlo. 47 .

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characteristic of igniting as soon as the oxidizerand fuel ar e brought into contact. Em ploymentof these propellants simplifies design, since an ig-ni t ion system is not required. We find that theyar e especially applicab le to the propulsion used onboard the spacecraft because they can be storedfor a long tim e with out boiling aw ay and becauseof their self-igniting characteristics. For this rea-son, they ar e employed in the Gemini spacecraftand will be used in all primary propulsion systemsof the-A pollo spacecraft. Solid P r o p e l l e n t M otors.We have given verycareful study to the place of solid propellantrockets in our program and find that th e rel iabil-ity of solid rockets is especially attrac tive fo r com-ponents such as the escape system, or for retro-rockets needed for stage separation, and forproviding the retrograde propulsion needed toslow th e spacecraft for return to earth from orbit.We are also very m uch interested in the future useof very large solid rocket motors for applicationto the first stage of large launch vehicles. Justrecently, a program which will demonstrate th efeasibi l i ty of these giant engines was initiated incooperation with th e Department of Defense.This National Large Solid M otor Program is

funded and m anaged by the Air Force Space Sys-tems Division. NASA supplies th e motor sizeand performance specifications to the Air Force.NASA is cur ren tly supporting studies and tech-nology efforts pertaining to the application ofsolid motors for possible future use in mannedvehicle stages.Vehicles

W hile engin e deve lopment necessarily leads theway in expanding ability to explore space, actualcapabil i ty results from development of appro-priate launch vehicles using these engines. In(fig. 46),we see the three launch vehicles in Proj-ect Apollo. Both the Saturn I and Saturn I-Bplay supporting roles in development of acom-plete system for landing explorers on the moonand providing for their return. Saturn I.The firstSaturn I was successfullylaunched from Cape Canaveral, in October 1961,a l i t t le over 3 years after initiatio n of the Saturnprogram. Since that time, we have successfullylaunched three additional flights, all of whichhave yielded significant information about it s per-formance and reliability. In figure 47, we see sta-

FIQ. 48.45


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tistics indicating th e performance on the launchingof the third vehicle last November.The fo ur th in a series of 10 development anddem onstration flights took place on M arch 28,1963. Later in the year, we will start flighttesting a full two-stage Saturn, th e second stageof which is already undergoing ground tests byth e contractor. The later flights in this series willcarry boilerplate versions of the Apollo space-craft as part of the development leading to thelaunch of the first manned Apollo in 1965. In thefirst manned flights, the Apollo C omm and M odule,carrying the astronauts, together with the ServiceM odule, will be launched into a low earth orbit.Fabrication an d assembly tools for continuedproduction of the Saturn S-I stage are now beingprovided by the Chrysler Corp. in that company'sportion of the Government-owned M ichoud Plantat New Orleans. In figure 48, we see work onthe tail assembly of the S-I stage for a Saturn Iflight next year.The M ichoud plant includes a fab rication build-ing with 43 acres of floor area and a ceiling 40feet high, fully ai r conditioned, and is served byrail, highway, air,and water transportation.In figure 49, we see the second stage of theSaturn I vehiclethe S-IV stagewhich is being

developed an d produced by the Douglas AircraftCompany in Santa M onica, California. Thisstage utilizes liq uid oxygen .and liqui d hydrogenpropellants an d contains six RL-10A-3 engines.Figure 50 shows the Douglas production line. Saturn I-B.The Saturn I launch vehicle willbe capable of placing 11 tons in low earth orbit.However, to make orbital testsof the entire Apollospacecraft , including the Luna r Excursion M od-ule, & launch vehicle of greater capability is needed.Such a vehicle, the Saturn I-B, is being developedthrough modification of Saturn I, by increasingthe power of the second stage. The new secondstage, called S-IVB, is shown in figure 51. Itcontains a single J-2 engine, producing 200,000pounds of thrust. The use of this stage will in -crease our orbital payload capability from 11 tonson the Saturn I to 16tons on the Saturn I-B.From earlier discussions of these vehicles, it willbe recalled that this S-IVB stage is modified toprovide the third stage of the Saturn V, the ve-hicle which will send the Apollo spacecraft on itsl una r mission.The Saturn I-B, with its increased orbital pay-load capability, will be developed through a four-flight test program that will begin in 1965, an dwill be ready for its first manned mission in the

S-IV STAGE OFSATURN I

DIAMETER- 18 FT. 4 IN.LENGTH- 41 FT.WEIGHT- (UNLOADED) 11000LBS/PROPELLANTS-

UOUID OXYGEN, LIQUID HYDROGENENGINES- SIX A-3THRUST- 90,000LBS.

FIG. 49.46


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TVS-IV PRODUCTION LINE

FIG. 50.

SAT U R N S-IVB STAGE

D I A M E T E R - 21ft. Sin.LENGTH- 59ft.WEIGHT (unloaded)-21,000 Ibs.P R O P E L L A N T S - Liquid hydrogenLiquid oxygenENGINE- J - 2THRUST- 200,000 Ibs

FIG. 51.

N A S A M 4 3 43 *

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Apo llo program in 1966. The vehicle flight-testprogram is needed prim arily for dev elopment ofthe S-IVB second stage, since the first stage willalready be a well-tested vehicle from th e Saturn Iprogram. Saturn V.As mentioned earlier, the SaturnI and Saturn I-B play supporting roles. Thelargest and most powerful launch vehicle is theSaturn V, since it s role is to launch th e lunar ex-pedition spacecraft into a trajectory that will carryit to the vi cin ity of the moon. To do this, we mustaccelerate 45 tons of equipment and men to avelocity of 25,000 miles an hour. The Saturn Vwill be almost 300 feet high and 33 feet in maxi-mum diameter. It is the largest launch vehicleknown to be under design and construction. Itwill be ready for its first flight test early in 1966an d qualified for initial manned flights in 1967.W e would now like to describe the Saturn V ina little more depth by commenting briefly on eachof the launch vehicle's three stages.Figure 52,shows the first stage, th e S-IC, whichweighs 140 tons em pty and over 2,300 tons whe nfueled. It is being designed at M arshall SpaceFlight Center through cooperative efforts betweenMarshall and The Boeing C o. Boeing has alreadydelivered some of the structural elements of the

first ground-test stage. In figure 53 we see a40-foot boring mill which is a rather unusualtool. The mill was built in 1918 and has beenused for making turrets and propellers for navalvessels. It has a long history of changing own-ership between Government and industry .Most of the stages will be assembled by Boeingin tha t company's portion of the M ichoud plant.In figure 54 we see construction in progress on averticle assembly area for S-IC work at theMichoud plant . Fiscal year 1964 will see comple-t ion of one of the ground-test stages, fabricationan d assembly of other ground stages, and initia-tion of work on early flight stages.An enormous test stand for the S-IC is nowunder construction at M arshall. In figure 55, wesee that the work is unde r way. As you know, theM ississippi Test Facility will not be available fo ruse un til 1965. The test stand at M arshall willbe completed by early 1964. Four massive con-crete footings and interconnecting wall founda-tions are in place. They extend 35 feet belowgrade. The lower section of the superstructurewill extend 24 0 feet above grade level and willsupport a structure of steel extending approxi-mately 180 feet above this point.

FIG. 52.48


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S-1C "Y" RING S E G M E N T S ONBORING MILL A T MICHOUD

FIG. 53.

F O U N D A T I O N C O N S T R U C T IO N F O RV E R T I C A L A S S E M B L Y BUILDING A T MICHOUD

FIG. 54.

681342 O63 449


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S T A T U S P H O T O O FS I- C S T A T I C TEST F A C I L I T Y A T MSFC

N A S A M 6 3 5 4 4

S - I C S T A N DA TM I S S I S S I P P I

T E S T F A C I L I T Y

N A S AM 6 3 6 0 2

F I G . 56.50


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M I S S I S S I P P I T E S T S I T E

FIG. 57.

S - l l S T A G EO F SATURNY

DIA ME T E R - 3 3 f tLENGTH - 81'/2ftWEIGHT(onlooded)-75 000 IbsP R O P E L L A N T S - l i q u i d hydrogen-

Liquid oxygenE N G I N E S - F i v e J - 2T H R U S T - 1 O O O OO O Ib s

N A S A MA3-434

FIG. 58.

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In 1964, we plan the first ground firing of thefive F-l engines that pow er the S-IC, asignificantevent since a thrust of 7,500,000 pounds will bepro duced . S-IC stages produced at the Michoudplant will be tested on stands such as depicted infigure 56 , s imi la r to the one described above butlocated at the M ississippi Test Fa cili ty, east ofth e Pearl R iver and 40 miles from M ichoud. Thetesting operations at the M ississippi Test Facilitywill take place on a 13,500-acre Government-ownedcentral site (fig. 57) . NA SA is ob taini ng ease-ments on a 128,000-acre buffer zone which will beuninhab ited, but in which farming and lumberingwill be possible. We are improving 15 miles ofriver channels and constructing 15 miles of canals,15 feet deep and 200 feet wide, to provide wateraccess to the East Pearl River and the IntracoastalW aterway . Land acquisition, site pr eparation,ut i l i ty installations, and test stand design are inprogress at M ississippi Test Facility, which shouldbe ready for use in 1965. Construction will beginlater this year for test stands and various supportfacilities for the S-IC and the S-II stages.Next, figure 58, we see the second stage, theS-II, which is being developed by North Ameri-can at its Downey plant in California. With a

full load of liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogenpropellants, this stage wi

Manned Space Flight, 1963

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