Manitoba Studies in Native History

Manitoba Studies in Native History publishes new scholarly interpretations of thehistorical experience of Native peoples in the western interior of North America.The series is under the editorial direction of a board representative of the scholarlyand Native communities in Manitoba.

I The New Peoples: Being and Becoming Metis in North America, edited byJacqueline Peterson and Jennifer S.H. Brown

II Indian-European Trade Relations in the Lower Saskatchewan River Regionto 1840, by Paul Thistle

III "The Orders of the Dreamed": George Nelson on Cree and Northern OjibwaReligion and Myth, 1823, by Jennifer S.H. Brown and RobertBrightman

IV The Plains Cree:Trade, Diplomacy and War, 1790 to 1870, by John S.Milloy

V Tlie Dakota of the Canadian Northwest: Lessons for Survival, by PeterDouglas Elias

VI Aboriginal Resource Use in Canada: Historical and Legal Aspects, editedby Kerry Abel and Jean Friesen

VII Severing the Ties that Bind: Government Repression of Indigenous ReligiousCeremonies on the Prairies, by Katheririe Pettipas

VIII The Ojibwa of Western Canada, 1780 to 1870, by Laura Peers

IX Women of the First Nations: Power, Wisdom, and Strength, edited byChristine Miller and Patricia Chuchryk, with Marie SmallfaceMarule, Brenda Manyfingers, and Cheryl Deering

X Night Spirits :The Story of the Relocation of the Sayisi Dene, by Ila Bussidorand Ustiin Bilgen-Reinart

XI "A National Crime":The Canadian Government and the Residential SchoolSystem, 1879 to 1986, by John S. Milloy

XII Muskekowuck Athinuwick: Original People of the Great SwampyLand, by Victor P. Lytwyn

XIII Preserving the Sacred: Historical Perspectives on the Ojibwa Midewiwin,by Michael Angel

Albert Little Wolf (Main'ans), Ojibwa Mide from White Earth Reservation, andFrances Densmore, American ethnologist, who cooperated to preserve the"spiritual essence" of Ojibwa culture for future generations (1908). (Photographcourtesy The Smithsonian Institution)

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVESON THE OJIBWA MlDEWIWINpRESERVING

THESACREDM I C H A E L A N G E L

T H E U N I V E R S I T Y O F M A N I T O B A P R E S S

© Michael Angel 2002

University of Manitoba PressWinnipeg, Manitoba R3T 2N2Canadawww.urnanitoba.ca/uofmpressPrinted in Canada on acid-free paper by Friesens.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in anyform or by any means, or stored in a database and retrieval system, without the priorwritten permission of the University of Manitoba Press, or, in the case of photocopying orother reprographic copying, a licence from CANCOPY (Canadian Copyright LicensingAgency), 6 Adelaide Street East, Suite 900,Toronto, Ontario M5C 1H6.

Cover Design: Steven Rosenberg, Doowah DesignText Design: Karen Armstrong and Sharon CaseburgMaps:Weldon HiebertCover photograph: Midewiwin Lodge, Nett Lake, 1946. Courtesy Minnesota HistoricalSociety.

Canadian Cataloguing in Publication DataAngel, Michael, 1940-

Preserving the sacred : historical perspectives on the OjibwaMidewiwin / Michael Angel.

(Manitoba studies in native history ; xiii)Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 0-88755-173-4 (bound).—ISBN 0-88755-657-4 (pbk.)

1. Midewiwin. 2. Ojibwa Indians—Rites and ceremonies. 3. OjibwaIndians—Religion. I.Title. II. Series.E99.C6A63 2002 299'.783 C2002-911112-9

The University of Manitoba Press acknowledges the financial support for its publishingactivities provided by the Canada Council for the Arts; the Manitoba Arts Council; and theManitoba Department of Culture, Heritage and Tour ism.The University of Manitoba Press also acknowledges the financial assistance of the Govern-ment of Canada through the Book Publishing Industry Development Program (BPIDP).The Manitoba Studies in Native History series is published with the financial support ofthe people of Manitoba, through the Department of Culture, Heritage and Tourism,the honourable Eric Robinson, Minister. Manitoba Studies in Native History Board ofDirectors: I. Bear, M. Bennett,J. Burelle,J. Fontaine, G. Friesen, E. LaRocque, P. Kulchyski,W. Moodie, A. Perry, D.Young.

CONTENTS

List of Maps and Illustrations viPreface viiAcknowledgements xiii1. In Search of the Midewiwin 32. Anishinaabe Religion and Society in the 17

Pre- and Early Contact Period3. Midewiwin Origins: 47

Anishinaabe and Euro-American Perspectives4. Midewiwin Ceremonies: Documentary Fragments 77

from Euro-American Observers5. Midewiwin Ceremonies: Ethnographic Records 119

of a Society under Siege6. Toward a New Understanding of the Midewiwin 177Endnotes 187Glossary 231Bibliography 235Index 263

LIST OFMAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS

Maps1. Ojibwa Territories in the Mid-Nineteenth Century / 82. Selected Sites of Midewiwin Ceremonies Noted

during the Pre-Treaty Period / 783. Selected Sites of Midewiwin Ceremonies Noted

during the Post-Treaty Period / 129

IllustrationsFrontispiece: Albert Little Wolf (Main'ans) and Frances Densmore / ii1. Ojibwa Cosmological Chart / 222. Redsky's Migration Chart / 523. View of a 4th-degree Midewiwin Lodge / 704. Niganibines, Mide leader and hereditary chief of the

Pillager band of the Leech Lake Ojibwa / 885. Midewiwin Lodge (Midewigaan), Nett Lake, 1946 / 916. Ojibwa Drums / 947. Ojibwa Mide Rattles / 958. Shingwaukonse / 1039. Interior view of a Midewiwin Lodge / 13610. The Path of Life/ 14711. James Redsky Senior / 168

PREFACE

Few issues provoke as much passion as the question of religious beliefs.Even though there would appear to be many contemporary people whoeither have never given a thought to the meaning of existence, or, havingdone so, believe it to be meaningless, most of us attempt to make somesense of existence and, to the best of our abilities, live our lives on the basisof these beliefs. Probably because these spiritual beliefs are at once so fun-damental and, in many cases, so personal, communication with those whodo not share our beliefs becomes difficult. We often fear they will notunderstand our behaviour, and thus will misconstrue, or, worse still, heapscorn on, our beliefs. Still others, believing so strongly in their own vision,will attempt to convince us that their views are the only correct views, andthat ours are therefore false, or even evil.

Years ago, when I was a young Catholic boy growing up in a small,predominantly Protestant community, I remember trying to explain to myyoung friends what I did as an altar boy "serving mass."The Catholic serv-ice at that time took place entirely in Latin, and was accompanied by thewearing of vestments, the ringing of bells, and the use of incense. Each year,many members of a local Bible College would attend Midnight Mass on

viii PREFACE

Christinas Eve, and the Stations of the Cross on Good Friday, sitting in theback rows, in order to observe our strange rites and customs, which theybelieved to be the work of the Antichrist. How I hated this desecration ofwhat was, for us, the holiest of times, and yet I knew equally little abouttheir beliefs and ceremonies.

Years later (and no longer a Catholic), I have been invited from time totime by friends to participate in some of their religious ceremonies—Prot-estant, Jewish, Islamic, and Hindu—and, in turn, have shared some of minewith them. It has been an opportunity to witness their experience of faithand to realize that, beneath the external differences, we share a commonbelief in a transcendent reality, even though different traditions, condi-tioned by history and circumstance, may emphasize different means of ac-quiring knowledge of this ultimate truth.

Nevertheless, as history reveals, few religious groups have been consist-ently willing to grant that any beliefs other than their own are true. Chris-tian groups have been particularly apt to adopt exclusivist positions andproselytize their neighbours, by force when persuasion failed. For this rea-son, and remembering my own experience as a youth, I've always beenreluctant to attempt any study of North American Aboriginal religion andspirituality.

Yet, as I became more involved in my interdisciplinary studies pro-gram, I came to be increasingly fascinated by the extraordinary strengthand resilience of Ojibwa religious beliefs and practices in the face ofoverwhelming odds during the past several centuries. Surely there wasmore to their belief system than was suggested by the partisan reports byChristian missionaries and the esoteric ethnographic studies of social sci-entists. Many Ojibwa are understandably reluctant to have others under-take to study them further. Nevertheless, I wanted to find out for myself;to give life to the "dry bones" of history from the perspective of a sympa-thetic outsider, who came not to judge, but to learn, and, having learned,to share this knowledge with others.

My main goal in this book is to undertake an historiographical study ofan Ojibwa religious ceremony, the Midewiwin, as it was described by Euro-Americans during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.This work bringstogether the major and some minor texts on the Midewiwin, and estab-lishes their relationship to each other and the wider context within whichthey were written. I have attempted to identify the patterns that occur inthe documents and synthesize the main themes (motifs), to identify andcorrect major misconceptions and instances of misinformation in the docu-ments, and to trace the changing role played by the Midewiwin in Ojibwa

PREFACE ix

society as portrayed by these documents. I have had to become conversantwith postmodernism and post-structuralism insofar as they are used in an-thropology, religion, and literary theory in order to analyze the documents.While I found this a useful exercise in helping to refine my own interpre-tations, the ahistorical approach of postmodernism is at odds with my basicpremise. Moreover, I believe that the language used by many practitionersof these approaches would not facilitate understanding among a variedgroup of readers.

Therefore, while I certainly believe that interpretation of texts and arti-facts is crucial to understanding all human beings, and while I may occa-sionally employ certain terms used in modern literary theory or discourseanalysis, I do not profess to follow any specific approach or school. Thisbook also uses some of the techniques of a post-colonial approach in that Iam engaged in bringing voice to a subjugated people through an analysisof the colonial processes and constructions of knowledge that have mutedtheir voices. However, while I am philosophically in agreement with thepost-colonial approach, I do not employ it exclusively since my focus isprimarily on the Midewiwin as an Ojibwa religious institution per se.

My own interpretation of the religious beliefs and practices described inthe documents is that of a culturally sensitive outsider with a backgroundin history and religious studies, endeavouring to understand a world viewthat is fundamentally different from my own. I agree with Ake Hultkrantz,who, in his essay on the study of Aboriginal American religions (1980),states,"It is essential that we try to understand Indian religions in their ownright, as testimonies of the expression of the human spirit in existentialissues."We may know the narratives, the rites, the outer shell, but we knowlittle of their basic religious sentiments and beliefs. Insofar as it is possible, Ihave tried to let the narratives speak for themselves. In explaining religiousbeliefs and practices, I have tried to rely on the terminology and explana-tions of practitioners whenever possible, rather than to force them intoother philosophical, religious, or anthropological structures. I am acutelyaware of the sacred nature of the ceremonies, scrolls, songs, and objects thatare described and analyzed in the documents, and have made every effortto treat them with the respect they deserve. For this reason, I have avoideddealing with some aspects entirely, and have used a minimum of illustra-tions, all of which have been used previously in other published works.

This work begins by attempting to place the Midewiwin within itshistorical context in order to determine how it changed over time as theOjibwa developed, in relation to both their Aboriginal and Euro-Americanneighbours. The nineteenth century was a formative period for the

x PREFACE

development of the Ojibwa as a people, and the Midewiwin played acentral role in this process. Moreover, this ethnogenesis did not take placein a vacuum, but was influenced by events and ideas that affected theOjibwa and their Aboriginal and Euro-American neighbours alike. Sincethe Ojibwa were a geographically scattered and culturally diverse people,the changes and developments took a number of different forms. More-over, no single Ojibwa leader arose to lead a religious or political protestmovement, as happened with several other Aboriginal groups in north-eastern North America during the nineteenth century. This has meantthat Ojibwa socio-political and religious ideas and practices have notreceived the same attention as their neighbours, since most historiansprefer to focus on key individuals whose impact can be readily traced.Evidence points to considerable religious and political ferment amongthe Ojibwa during the later eighteenth, the nineteenth, and early twenti-eth centuries, but with a few exceptions, it did not manifest itself in openrebellion. Euro-American observers often referred to the reputation ofOjibwa "medicine men" who were feared and respected by Aboriginalneighbours, just as they regularly cited Ojibwa bands that steadfastly re-fused to compromise their beliefs when they were negotiating with gov-ernment officials or debating with Christian missionaries. Nevertheless,with some notable exceptions, Euro-Americans were mainly fascinated(and sometimes repelled) by those aspects of Ojibwa life that were, from aEuro-American perspective, esoteric or mysterious, and often could not beexplained. Rather than trying to understand the Ojibwa world view, Euro-Americans attempted to make Ojibwa beliefs and actions fit into their ownworld view, and passed judgement on the Ojibwa accordingly. Althoughthe individual perspectives of the Euro-Americans varied considerably, al-most all believed themselves to be representatives of a superior culture,writing about a culture that would shortly be absorbed into Euro-Americansociety.

Under such circumstances, it might be better to forget about docu-ments that describe Midewiwin ceremonies and leaders. While I person-ally find many of the attitudes expressed in the sources I've examined to berepugnant, I do not feel that this is sufficient reason to ignore them. Evenwith their various biases and prejudices, the documents provide a convinc-ing picture of a society that had developed an holistic cosmological system,which was embedded in their language and all aspects of their social struc-ture. It is hardly surprising that Euro-Americans were easily confused whenattempting to describe different aspects of the ceremonies and rituals, orthe relationships among the different traditional religious figures, and the

PREFACE xi

overlapping roles of political and social leaders. Nevertheless, certaincommonalities do begin to emerge from the different accounts, and thishas allowed me to make some speculations regarding the structure, history,and geographical distribution of the Midewiwin. Although I make no claimto providing an insider's perspective, I believe that an in-depth examina-tion of the documents and of their historical and geographical settingsprovides a much fuller understanding of the historical role played by theMidewiwin among the different groups of Ojibwa than the usual view ofit as an example of a revitalization movement. Secondly, by identifying anumber of Ojibwa socio-political leaders as prominent members of theMidewiwin, I hope that I have succeeded in transforming an abstract studyof religious beliefs and practices into something that is anchored in timeand place—and which takes on a human face. Finally, I believe that thedocuments provide an excellent means of demonstrating how succeedinggenerations of Euro-Americans from various walks of life have viewed theMidewiwin. As such, they offer an interesting microcosm of changing Euro-American world views.

A word about orthography—because most practitioners of the Midewiwinhave been Ojibwe speakers, I have used Ojibwe terms wherever possible inreferring to different aspects of the Midewiwin. However, Ojibwe speakersare spread over a wide geographic area and speak a variety of related dia-lects. Moreover, because there is no standard orthography for the language,past and present writers have used a number of different systems in anattempt to represent Ojibwe sounds, a number of which are not present inEnglish.

I have, therefore, employed Nichols's and Nyholm's Concise Dictionary ofMinnesota Ojibwe as my guide in spelling Ojibwe terms used in the book.However, I have made a few exceptions to this rule. Thus, I have followedLaura Peers and others in using the term "Ojibwa" when referring to thepeople. Where other authors have used variant spellings, I have indicatedthe spelling they use, followed by Nichols's spelling in parentheses, when itis necessary to avoid confusion. A glossary of key Ojibwe terms precedesthe bibliography.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This book has been a long time in the making, and its appearance in printform is the result of the support, the prodding, and the assistance of manydifferent people. I would like to express special thanks to the followingpeople. Wayne Moodie, Klaus Klostermaier, and Jennifer Brown saw to itthat I received a solid multidisciplinary background and helped shape myresearch efforts. Leo Waisberg, Don Smith, Laura Peers, and Michael Pomedli,among many others, provided me with leads to new original sources, andused their own different backgrounds to offer valuable insights into myearly efforts. John Nichols helped me to decipher Ojibwe words tran-scribed in numerous orthographies, while Eleanor Blain and PaulVoorhisprovided assistance in producing the Ojibwe glossary. Over the years, BarbBennell and her Interlibrary Loan staff at Elizabeth Dafoe Library per-formed great service in tracking down and obtaining obscure materials, asdid the librarians and archivists at the Minnesota Historical Research Center,the Glenbow-Alberta Institute, the Provincial Archives of Manitoba, theNational Archives of Canada, and various other institutions. While I con-fined my research to written accounts, discussions with Charlie Nelson,Peter Kinew, and other Ojibwa helped me to remember that the Midewiwin

xiv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

continues to exist as a living religion, despite the attempts of church andgovernment officials to destroy it.

I would also like to thank the people at the University of ManitobaPress, who have been a pleasure to work with. Gerry Friesen's careful read-ing of my manuscript and his incisive comments gave me the courage toattempt putting it in book form. Dave Carr, Pat Sanders, Sharon Caseburg,andWeldon Hiebert have each, in their own way, contributed to makingthe book readable and visually attractive.

Finally, I must thank my family, who have put up with my obsessionsover the years, whether it was constantly serving as a sounding board, orhelping me to transport my computer, books, and files to a remote north-western Ontario cabin by boat and back. Barbara, my wife, has been espe-cially patient, and always helpful in turning scattered insights into readableprose. I would like to dedicate this book to her.

PRESERVING THE SACRED

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ONE

IN SEARCH OF THE MIDEWIWIN

"My grandson," said he, "the megis I spoke of, means the Me-da-wereligion. Our forefathers, many string of lives ago, lived on the shores ofthe Great Salt Water in the east. Here it was, that while congregated in agreat town, and while they were suffering the ravages of sickness anddeath, the Great Spirit, at the intercession of Man-ab-o-sho, the greatcommon uncle of the An-ishin-aub-ag, granted them this rite where-with life is restored and prolonged— Our forefathers moved from theshores of the great water and proceeded westward.

"This, my grandson, is the meaning of the words you did not under-stand; they have been repeated to us by our fathers for many generations."1

From time immemorial, during the long winter months, the Anishinaabeghad listened to their elders tell narratives such as this one, collected byhistorian William Warren in the early nineteenth century.2 Theseaadizookaanag, or "sacred narratives," were passed on orally from genera-tion to generation precisely in order that the Ojibwa would always knowwho they were, where they had come from, how they fitted into the worldaround them, and how they needed to behave in order to ensure a longlife. Since theirs was a world view that prized stability over change, any

4 CHAPTER ONE

appearance of change was interpreted as a repetition of old themes.3 Thesethemes formed the basis of the stories told by Anishinaabe elders.

The aadizookaanag explained the origin of the world, and the behav-iour of all things, regardless of their outward form. They explained thebirth of the mythic figure Nanabozho, the Ojibwa culture hero and trick-ster, and his role in helping to create a new earth.4 The Anishinaabeg learnedof the birth of the first people, and how their descendants had been taughtmany things by Nanabozho so that they would be able to survive. Theylearned of the power of visions and dreams by which they could commu-nicate with the manidoog,5 or spirits, and they learned to pay respect to theiranimal brethren with whom they shared their existence. Among the mostimportant of Nanabozho's gifts to the Anishinaabeg was the institution ofthe Midewiwin, since practitioners were promised a long life if they fol-lowed its teachings and precepts as taught by the Mide elders.6

Other narratives told of their journey westward from the "shores of thegreat salt water," and of the separation of the original group at the Straits ofMichilimackinac into the three tribes of Ojibwa, Ottawa, and Potawatomi.Still others told of the further division of the Ojibwa into two groups atBowating (Sault Ste. Marie), one moving westward along the northernshores of Gichi Garni (Lake Superior), and the other southwest along thesouthern shores.7 In these aadizookaanag, or formalized stories about thedistant past in which the protagonists took both human and animal forms,what was important was not historical fact as conceived by Euro-Americans,but the truths that were implicit in the stories themselves.The Anishinaabegdistinguished the aadizookaanag from dibaajimoivin, which were chroniclesor anecdotes of personal experience involving human beings.8 Examplesof these can be found in the narratives that Warren collected of exploits ofvarious Ojibwa leaders in their wars with the Sioux and the Fox. However,with the passage of time, the historical present and the distant past ulti-mately merged together, and historical facts were transformed into mytho-logical truths.9

In his History of the Ojibway People (1885),William Warren sought to takethe oral traditions of the Ojibwa people as told to him by their elders, andpublish them in a format that would be understood by Euro-Americanreaders. Of mixed Ojibwa and Euro-American heritage, Warren spokeOjibwa and English fluently. Although a practising Episcopalian himself, hesincerely believed the Ojibwa people's religious traditions were worthy ofrespect, and that the religious movement he termed the Me-da-we(Midewiwin) was central to the Ojibwa world view. Unfortunately,Warrendied before he was able to begin a projected book on the Midewiwin.

IN SEARCH OF THE MIDEWIWIN 5

The exact nature of the Midewiwin was, and continues to be, shroudedin mystery and controversy. It is considered by contemporary Ojibwa schol-ars, such as Basil Johnston, Edward Benton-Banai, and Nicholas Deleary, tobe the traditional religion of the Anishinaabeg.10 Many Euro-Americanscholars, such as Harold Hickerson, have argued that it is a "crisis cult" orrevitalization movement that originated as a reaction to the intrusion ofEuro-Americans and the devastating effects of disease, alcohol, and socialdislocation they brought with them.11 Even the meaning of the name itselfis unclear. Most commentators have concluded that the meaning has beenlost in time, although some modern Ojibwa scholars such as Basil Johnstonbelieve that the name refers to the sound resonance produced by the Midedrum.12 The most common English equivalents are Medicine Society, GrandMedicine Dance, or some variation of these terms.These latter terms iden-tify two features of the Midewiwin that Euro-Americans have paid par-ticular attention to: the fact that participants were members of a structuredsociety, and that gatherings of Midewiwin members featured a dance inwhich new members received the power to cure or harm. In focussing onthese features, Euro-Americans ignored, or attached little importance to,the sacred narratives and the teachings that emanated from them. As a re-sult, they often misinterpreted the role of the Midewiwin in Ojibwa society.

The version of the sacred narrative collected by Warren provides a suc-cinct outline of the basic elements of the Midewiwin. The narrative beginswith a brief description of the story of the migration from the land of theirAnishinaabe forefathers, thus helping to situate the people in a larger uni-verse. Secondly, there is mention of the quest for a long life, free fromhunger, sickness, and enemies, which is the goal of all people. Thirdly, therole of Nanabozho in bringing the Midewiwin ceremonies, which con-veyed "spirit power" to adherents, is made clear. Fourthly, the teachingfunction of the elders in passing on the beliefs and ceremonies of theMidewiwin is established. Not all versions of Midewiwin narratives con-tain all these elements. However, the foregoing is a good basic descriptionof the role of the Midewiwin in Ojibwa society. Attempts to look for his-torical or geographical contexts of this and other particular narratives for-get that every generation is faced with its own form of sickness and suffering,and thus requires help in seeking the good life. The specifics of the narra-tive might vary somewhat in the telling, but the eternal truths concerningthe vulnerability of humans who needed assistance if they were to live along and productive life remained constant, regardless of when or wherethe narrative was recited.

258 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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