Mangroves And Its Environmental Issues With Reference To

Business Setups

INTRODUCTION

Mangroves, consisting of trees and bushes growing below the high water level of spring

tides, are the most typical forest formations of sheltered coastlines in the tropics and

subtropics. They are key components of the interrelated parts of the coastal ecological

systems that attract the attention and appreciation of visitors that are nature-oriented,

research-oriented or are natural scientists. Considered to be unique elements of coastal

ecosystems, mangroves are among the most productive ecosystems, which directly or

indirectly provide economic and ecological benefits to man. They serve as buffers or

inter-tidal protective zones against typhoons, storm surges and tidal waves, preventing

soil erosion and minimizing water pollution; are instrumental in building considerable

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areas of tidal land; and provide unique habitat, sanctuary and breeding ground for

endemic, rare and endangered species of aquatic and terrestrial flora and fauna. Any

disturbance in the structure of any ecosystem causes adverse effects on the dynamics of

the whole system. In some instances, the disturbance exceeds the tolerance limit of the

ecosystem, resulting in resource degradation, which ultimately leads to irreversible and

irreparable damages. Continuous indiscriminate use of mangroves has grave implications

on the stability of coastal-island communities.

In Egypt, mangroves are an important scarce resource. The government of Egypt

recognizes the close link between coral reefs and associated ecosystems, as well as the

wide range of goods and services they provide, including ecotourism development, which

is a boon for the local and national economy. As such, Egyptians have initiatives on

mangrove conservation and protection.

The Ministry of State for the Environment (MSE), through its Egyptian Environmental

Affairs Agency (EEAA), and the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation (MALR)

are the lead institutions. A number of other agencies, institutions and organizations are,

however, also concerned with the mangrove resources of the country.

Mangroves Defined

A mangrove is a tree, shrub, palm or ground fern, generally exceeding one half metre in height,

that normally grows above mean sea level in the intertidal zone of marine coastal environments

and estuarine margins. A mangrove is also the tidal habitat comprising such trees and shrubs.

The word ‘mangrove’ refers to the habitat in the same way as we think of ‘rainforest’ with its

mixture of plant types. Sometimes the habitat is called a ‘tidal forest’ or a ‘mangrove forest’ to

distinguish it from the trees that are also called mangroves. Mangroves are various large and

extensive types of Treess up to medium hight and shrubs that grow in saline coastal sediment

habitats in the topics and subtropics.

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Exploitation and conservation

Mangroves in West Bali National Park , Indonesia.

Approximately 35% of mangrove area was lost during the last several decades of the 20th

century (in countries for which sufficient data exist), which encompass about half of the area of

mangroves. The United Nations Environment Program & Hamilton (2013), estimate that shrimp

farming causes approximately a quarter of the destruction of mangrove forests. Likewise, the

2010 update of the World Mangrove Atlas indicated a fifth of the world's mangrove ecosystems

have been lost since 1980.

Grassroots efforts to save mangroves from development are becoming more popular as

their benefits become more widely known. In the Bahamas, for example, active efforts to save

mangroves are occurring on the islands of Bimini and Great Guana Cay. In Trinidad and Tobago

as well, efforts are underway to protect a mangrove threatened by the construction of a steelmill

and a port. In Thailand, community management has been effective in restoring damaged

mangroves. Within northern Ecuador mangrove regrowth is reported in almost all estuaries and

stems primarily from local actors responding to earlier periods of deforestation in the Esmeraldas

region.

Mangroves have been reported to be able to help buffer against tsunami, cyclones, and other

storms. One village in Tamil Nadu was protected from tsunami destruction—the villagers in

Naluvedapathy planted 80,244 saplings to get into the Guinness Book of World Records.

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National studies

In terms of local and national studies of mangrove loss, the case of Belize's mangroves is

illustrative in its contrast to the global picture. A recent, satellite-based study—funded by the

World Wildlife Fund and conducted by the Water Center for the Humid Tropics of Latin

America and the Caribbean (CATHALAC)—ndicates Belize's mangrove cover declined by a

mere 2% over a 30-year period. The study was born out of the need to verify the popular

conception that mangrove clearing in Belize was rampant.

Instead, the assessment showed, between 1980 and 2010, under 4,000 acres (16 km2) of

mangroves had been cleared, although clearing of mangroves near Belize's main coastal

settlements (e.g. Belize City and San Pedro) was relatively high. The rate of loss of Belize's

mangroves—at 0.07% per year between 1980 and 2010—was much lower than Belize's overall

rate of forest clearing (0.6% per year in the same period). These findings can also be interpreted

to indicate Belize's mangrove regulations (under the nation's) have largely been effective.

Nevertheless, the need to protect Belize's mangroves is imperative, as a 2009 study by the World

Resources Institute (WRI) indicates the ecosystems contribute US$174–249 million per year to

Belize's national economy.

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Mangroves and others:

Mangrove plants are not a single genetic entity because the plant types represented in the tidal

zone are not all closely related. So, while they sometimes look the same, and have similar

function, this tells us more about the environment they live in, rather than their family

relationships. The plants growing in the tidal zone also require serious adaptations for their

continued survival in this habitat. However, this does not preclude other plants from occasionally

being found within the tidal zone. Some are grouped as ‘associates’ where they only occasionally

occur in intertidal sediments and most of the time they are found elsewhere. Others do regularly

also share the tidal niche, like saltmarsh plants, but these are smaller in size. A number of others,

the epiphytes and plant parasites, perch in the branches and stems of mangroves. All these plants

shape and define mangrove habitat.

Mangrove forests are among the world’s most productive and diverse ecosystems. These

salt-tolerant plants thrive in sheltered shores, islands and estuaries of tropical regions. Mangroves

have enormous ecological and economic value. They protect the coast from tropical cyclones.

These forests help to prevent soil erosion, enrich the coastal waters and contribute significantly

to the global carbon cycle. They provide breeding, nursery & feeding areas for aquatic plants and

animals. These forests are a source of firewood, timber, tannins and medicines. They also

provide food and shelter to the local population.

The Mangrove tidal forests are found in the areas of coasts influenced by tides. Mud and

silt get accumulated on such coasts. Dense Mangroves are common varieties with roots of plants

submerged under water. The deltas of Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Krishna, the Godavari, and the

Kaveri are covered by such vegetation. In the Ganga-Bramhaputra delta, Sundri trees are found,

which provide durable hard timber. Palm, Coconut, keora, agar, also grow in some parts of the

delta. Royal Bengal Tiger is the famous animal in these forests. Turtles Crocodiles, Gharials and

Snakes are also found in these forests.

Shoreline Protection

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Mangroves protect shorelines from erosion

Mangroves protect shorelines from damaging storm and hurricane winds, waves, and floods.

Mangroves also help prevent by stabilizing sediments with their tangled root systems. They

maintain water quality and clarity, filtering pollutants and trapping sediments originating from

land

Mangroves serve as valuable nursery areas for fish and invertebrates

Serving as valuable nursery areas for shrimp, crustaceans, mollusks, and fishes, mangroves are a

critical component of Florida's commercial and recreational fishing industries. These habitats

provide a rich source of food while also offering refuge from predation. Snook (Centropomus

undecimalis), gray snapper (Lutjanus griseus), tarpon (Megalops atlanticus), jack (Caranx spp.),

sheepshead (Archosargus probatocephalus), and red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus) all feed in the

mangroves. Florida's fisheries would suffer a dramatic decline without access to healthy

mangrove habitats.

Reforestation

Mangroves in Bohol , Philippines.

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In some areas, mangrove reforestation and mangrove restoration is also underway. Red

mangroves are the most common choice for cultivation, used particularly in marine aquariums in

a sump to reduce nitrates and other nutrients in the water. Mangroves also appear in home

aquariums, and as ornamental plants, such as in Japan.

In Senegal, Haïdar El Ali has started the fr project, which (amongst others) focuses on

reforesting several areas with mangroves.

The Manzanar Mangrove Initiative is an ongoing experiment in Arkiko, Eritrea, part of the

Manzanar Project founded by Gordon H. Sato, establishing new mangrove plantations on the

coastal mudflats. Initial plantings failed, but observation of the areas where mangroves did

survive by themselves led to the conclusion that nutrients in water flow from inland were

important to the health of the mangroves.

Why should we protect mangroves?

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Mangroves, admittedly, are not only important but crucial for the coastal areas. Since estuarine

areas are highly populated areas, the slightest ecological imbalance will take a heavy toll. They

play a vital role in stabilizing these areas. No engineering and technological solutions can be

sought for stabilizing these areas. Even if we negate all benefits of mangroves as forests, their

value as "protector of shore-line" is enough to convince us for conserving them.

Mangroves are buffers between the land and the sea. Coastlines throughout the world are facing

serious problems of coastal erosion and threat of rising sea levels due to global warming have

increased the threats by several folds. To control such assault of the sea on land the nature has

provided what is called as Mangroves, a tropical littoral ecosystem which is more dynamic than

the sea itself.

Mangroves not only help in preventing soil erosion but also act as a catalyst in reclaiming

land from seas. This is a very unique phenomenon, since there is a general tendency of

water to engulf land.

Mangrove forests and estuaries are the breeding and nursery grounds for a number of

marine organisms including the commercially important shrimp, crab and fish species.

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Hence, loss of mangroves not only affects us indirectly but there are direct economic

repercussions through loss of fishing industry.

 

           

Mangrove trees are also used for house building, furniture, transmission as well as

telephone poles and certain household items. When these activities are managed

appropriately it is possible to derive timber products from mangrove forests without

significant environmental degradation, and while maintaining their value as a nursery and

a source of food for commercial capture fisheries.

In many coastal areas including Gulf of Kutch, mangroves are a substitute for fodder.

Thus mangroves reduce pressures from the scarce pasturelands.

Tannin is extracted from the bark of some mangrove species like Rhizophora mucronata,

Bruguiera gymnorrhiza and Ceriops tagal. Indian mangrove trees have 35% tannin in

their bark, which is higher compared to other countries. Extracts from mangrove bark are

used by Indian fishermen to dye their fishing net and enhance its durability.

Mangrove trees have been the source of firewood in India since ancient time. Because of

the high specific gravity of rhizophoraceous wood, the species of Rhizophora, Kandelia,

Ceriops and Bruguiera are preferred for firewood. Heritiera agallocha is used for boat

building, while Avicennia spp. and Rhizophora spp. are used for brick-burning.

Bruguiera spp. are used to make poles. Honey collection from the mangrove forest is a

promising business in India. It has been estimated that Sundarbans mangrove alone

produce 111 tons of honey annually. Honey collected from Cynometra ramiflora and

Aegialitis rotundifolia has a good market value and is in demand. Avicennia spp.,

Phoenix paludosa and Sonneratia caseolaris are used for human consumption and as

cattle feed. Nypa fruticans is tapped for an alcoholic drink. Leaves of Nypa palm are used

for thatching of roofs, Suaeda and Acrostichum leaves are used as green vegetable.

Above all, Mangroves are now looked after by scientists as saviors in the today's scenario

of global warming. We all know that most of the coastal areas throughout the world are

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going to be affected by sea level rise due to global warming. The effects of which are

already visible. Therefore, when most of the coastal areas will be flooded, mangroves can

possibly provide a gene bank for cultivating salt tolerant species of crops which could be

our future resource.

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ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES WITH REFERENCE TO BUSINESS:

Seagrass meadows (including tree-climbing shrimps, synchronously flashing fireflies and

'gardening' seacows), the links between mangrove, seagrass, and other habitats, the evolution,

biodiversity and biogeography of mangroves and seagrasses, and the likely effects of global

Mangroves are woody plants that grow at the interface between land and sea in tropical

and sub-tropical latitudes where they exist in conditions of high salinit.

Effects of oil on mangrove seedlings grown under different environmental

conditions:

The effects of oil treatments (one-time addition of 120 ml per plant and weekly addition of 15 ml

per plant) and environmental conditions at time of oiling (air conditioned laboratory/diffuse light vs hot,

direct sunlight) on the survival and growth of Rhizophora

Use of environmental functions to communicate the values of a mangrove ecosystem

under different management regimes:

Both problems are linked to economic consequences (Fig ... fish production' which emphasizes

environmental goods, and `Aquaculture-waste management' which emphasizes environmental

services ... of flooding increase or erosion of the shoreline occur, the damage control sector ...

Mangrove destruction and shrimp culture systems:

Increasingly responsible and sensitive to environmental issues. With non-governmental

organizations bringing issues to the forefront, the general public is being more receptive to

environment-related information. One of the more popular issues is that of mangrove ecosystems. ...

Do you face any problems because of park? ... as a storm protection measure along the Orissa coast

were ineffective in preventing damage; rather, they caused ... policy makers and officials to know

the attitudes and awareness of stakeholders regarding environmental issues so that ...

Environmental Effects of Canopy Gap Formation in High‐Rainfall Mangrove Forests:

KC Ewel, S Zheng, ZS Pinzon, JA Bourgeois - Biotropica, 1998 - Wiley Online Library

ABSTRACT This study investigated the importance of gap formation in mangrove swamps

on the island of Kosrae, Federated States of Micronesia, in order to understand better both

natural processes of forest development and the effects of harvesting trees for firewood in Mangrove

forests are one of the world’s most threatened tropical ecosystems More than 35% of the world’s

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mangroves are already gone. The figure is as high as 50% in countries such as India, the

Philippines, and Vietnam, while in the Americas they are being cleared at a rate faster than

tropical rainforests.

Effects of Business to mangrove forests and their habitats include:

Clearing : Mangrove forests have often been seen as unproductive and smelly, and so

cleared to make room for agricultural land, human settlements and infrastructure (such as

harbours), and industrial areas. More recently, clearing for tourist developments, shrimp

aquaculture, and salt farms has also taken place. This clearing is a major factor behind

mangrove loss around the word.

Overharvesting : Mangrove trees are used for firewood, construction wood, wood chip

and pulp production, charcoal production, and animal fodder. While harvesting has taken

place for centuries, in some parts of the world it is no longer sustainable, threatening the

future of the forests.

River changes : Dams and irrigation reduce the amount of water reaching mangrove

forests, changing the salinity level of water in the forest. If salinity becomes too high, the

mangroves cannot survive. Freshwater diversions can also lead to mangroves drying out.

In addition, increased erosion due to land deforestation can massively increase the

amount of sediment in rivers. This can overcome the mangrove forest’s filtering ability,

leading to the forest being smothered.

Overfishing : The global overfishing crisis facing the world’s oceans has effects far

beyond the directly overfished population. The ecological balance of food chains and

mangrove fish communities can also be altered.Destruction of coral reefs: Coral reefs

provide the first barrier against currents and strong waves. When they are destroyed, the

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stronger-than-normal waves and currents reaching the coast can undermine the fine

sediment in which the mangroves grow. This can prevent seedlings from taking root and

wash away nutrients essential for mangrove ecosystems.

Pollution : Fertilizers, pesticides, and other toxic man-made chemicals carried by river

systems from sources upstream can kill animals living in mangrove forests, while oil

pollution can smother mangrove roots and suffocate the trees.

Climate change : Mangrove forests require stable sea levels for long-term survival. They

are therefore extremely sensitive to current rising sea levels caused by global warming

and climate change.

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The role of mangroves in New Zealand

Comparisons of the productivity of mangroves from different latitudes worldwide suggest that

productivity and plant biomass decreases with increasing latitude. From this global pattern it is

expected that mangroves in New Zealand, near their southern geographical limit would have

relatively low productivity compared to their tropical equivalents.

Intrinsic and unique values:

Many aspects of New Zealand mangrove systems have not yet been sufficiently studied;

therefore their importance in relation to marine and estuarine species and their role in terms of

ecosystem structure and function is inadequate. The role played by mangroves in New Zealand

estuarine foodwebs is, however, probably significant.

Benthic fauna of mangroves:

Relatively few studies have been undertaken on the benthic assemblages and species of

mangrove forests in New Zealand. The benthic invertebrate fauna of New Zealand’s mangroves

forests appear to be modest in both abundances and species diversity compared to other estuarine

habitats

Fish fauna of mangrove ecosystems:

Recent studies have shown that the temperate mangrove forests of northern New Zealand support

high abundances of small fishes, but that New Zealand support high abundances of small fishes

compared to other estuarine habitats, with most of the small fish assemblage dominated by

juveniles of the ubiquitous yellow-eyed mullet (Aldrichetta forsteri), as well as juvenile grey

mullet (Mugil cephalus) in the west coast estuaries. Nineteen fish species are ‘confirmed’ to be

associated with mangroves, of which three species are probably partially reliant on them as

juvenile nurseries [25] It seems unlikely that New Zealand mangroves are important as spawning

grounds for coastal fish or as habitat for their larvae.

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Use of mangroves by birds:

While many species make extensive use of mangroves for roosting, feeding and breeding, no

bird species is totally dependent on mangroves in New Zealand. The range of bird species that

are found regularly in New Zealand mangroves includes several native species, such as banded

rail, white-faced heron, harriers, kingfishers, welcome swallow and pükeko.

Role of mangroves in sediment trapping and erosion prevention:

This question has not been fully addressed in relation to New Zealand mangroves. However,

previous and ongoing research, is extending the understanding of the role of mangrove

contribution to habitat change. Remains of rows of mangroves planted to stabilize the coast by

early generations of Maoris can still be seen in New Zealand

Mangrove management

The next section briefly discusses how mangrove has been managed today at the international

and national level. Mangrove biodiversity, management and conservation have received

considerable attention in recent years since research has increased the understanding of the

values, functions and attributes of mangrove ecosystems. Mangrove Restoration practices have

also greatly improved over the past several years.

International level

At the International Level, the common approach to major environmental policy issues has been

to formulate conventions, treaties and agreements, which all concerned countries become

signatories to. Mangroves are today a global issue because more than 100 countries worldwide

have mangrove resources. Of the approximately 100 countries that have mangrove vegetation,

around 20 have undertaken rehabilitation initiatives establishing nurseries and attempting

afforestation and re-planting in degraded areas. More than half a dozen international agreements

and various regional agreements are directly relevant to the conservation of mangrove

biodiversity.

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Ramsar Convention

In 1971, a convention to protect "Wetlands of International Importance" was adopted in the

Iranian city of Ramsar. To become a signatory to the Ramsar Convention, a country had to

designate at least one such site and guarantee its protection. Around 110 countries have become

signatories to the treaty. Some 850 "Ramsar sites" have been designated by these countries

covering over 53 million hectares. About a third of these contain mangroves.

Marine Protected Areas (MPA)

Reviewed the global status for mangrove conservation: “There are 685 protected areas

containing mangroves globally, distributed between 73 countries and territories. Countries with

very large areas of mangroves have a significant number of protected areas notably Australia

(180), Indonesia (64) and Brazil (63). Examples of marine reserves in New Zealand where

mangrove form an important component of the protected foreshore vegetation are Motu Manawa

(Pollen Island) Marine Reserve in the Waitemata Harbour, and Te Matuku Bay Marine Reserve,

Waiheke Island; both managed by the Department of Conservation.

National level

Historically the responsibility of mangrove management at the national level in many tropical

mangrove countries have been assigned on a sectoral basis to executing agencies of the

government, institutions for example Forestry, Fishery or Agriculture Departments. The agencies

responsible for administering mangroves differ between each country and even between states

and districts within Countries.

Sectoral management has inevitably resulted in prejudices regarding their objectives, leading to

conflicts of interest, to unsustainable resource use, and to poor and less powerful groups

becoming more disadvantaged and disenfranchised. These limitations are now recognised as a

major constraint to achieving sustainable development of mangrove resources.

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Limitations of management

Lack of knowledge of mangrove ecosystems, their extent, status and linkages to other

ecosystems hampers efforts to conserve and manage mangroves, leading to the unsustainable

exploitation of this productive coastal resources. According to a comprehensive information

database of mangrove biodiversity in each country is necessary to monitor the status of

mangrove biological diversity, realise its economic potential and areas of application. This is

critical in planning an effective management of mangroves.

Economic arguments carry the greatest weight in conservation and management of mangroves.

However, the true economic value of mangrove diversity and natural resources is difficult to

measure and important ecological processes and functions undervalued. All development plans

and policies should include economic valuations that fully reflect the sociological, ecological and

environmental costs of resource use, physical developments and pollution.

In New Zealand for example much of the basic information required to address concerns and

manage mangrove is lacking. Research has established that, regardless of which approach is

decided upon, sustainable management can only be achieved if evaluation of mangrove areas is

undertaken on a site-by-site basis.

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What can I do to save Mangroves?

Get acquainted with the mangroves near your area.

Be vigilant towards activities happening in your surrounding areas and keep an open eye

to note destruction in mangrove areas.

Complain to the local authorities in case you observe any violation.

Mangroves are now protected by law. If you find any kind of mangrove destruction,

complain to the Forest Department or to the police. Both these authorities are equipped to

take action under the Maharashtra Tree Felling Act and Environment Protection Act.

Join organizations like the Mangrove Society of India, which are working specifically for

the conservation of mangroves. Most importantly try to create awareness among as many

people as possible.

Participate in scientific plantations of mangroves flora at all possible areas.

Mangroves are some of the most productive, complex, and beneficial natural wonders of our

planet. They act as filters for our water supply, reduce erosion, serve as nurseries for commercial

fisheries, provide opportunities for recreation, nurture vital marine biodiversity, and can act as

"carbon sinks," which reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

The destruction and degradation of these natural systems--because of factors such as climate

change, development, tourism, wood extraction, and non-sustainable farming--bring about

tremendous ecological, social, and economic losses, the extent of which we are only now just

realizing.

But there is hope for mangroves. The world is starting to notice just how important they are and

is beginning to take steps to prevent further loss.

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Information Inspires Action

Recycling our bottles and cans, water conservation, our carbon footprint--most of us are familiar

with how these parts fit into the puzzle that is climate change. Yet our planet's mangroves are

just as important to the whole picture, and fortunately, more and more is now known about them

and how they can be conserved.

The Marine Ecosystems Services (MARES) program of ForestTrends :

A D.C.-based international non-profit, has been working with the World Conservation

Monitoring Centre in Cambridge and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to

gather information on the status of mangroves. With this data, these groups can make concrete

recommendations on preventing further damage.

The central message of these findings is clear: Mangroves are critical to supporting human well-

being. Under threat from over-exploitation, they are also heavily influenced by land use and

watershed management practices, yet immediate steps can be taken to reverse degradation and

actually improve the capacity of the ecosystem services that mangroves provide.

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Key Take-Aways

Mangroves and the biodiversity they nurture help with climate regulation, food security, and

poverty reduction. More than 100 million people live within ten kilometers of large mangrove

forests. These people benefit from a variety of goods and services provided by mangroves,

including fisheries and forest products, clean water, and protection against erosion and extreme

weather events. These ecosystem services are worth an estimated $33,000 to $57,000 per hectare

per year to the national economies of developing countries with mangroves.

Mangroves are exceptionally good at storing greenhouse gas emissions. When mangroves are

degraded or destroyed, these carbon stocks are released to the great detriment of our atmosphere.

Emissions resulting from mangrove losses make up nearly one fifth of global emissions from

deforestation, causing economic damages estimated in the billions annually.

Mangroves can provide natural defenses against extreme weather events and disasters, helping to

reduce the loss of property and the vulnerability of local communities. In combination with other

risk-reduction measures, such as sea walls and early-warning systems, mangroves are often

cheaper than conventional solutions to such risks, such as jetties or constructed breakwaters.

These structures must be maintained and rebuilt over time. Mangroves can adapt to sea-level

rises and land subsidence in ways that engineered defenses cannot.

Mangroves are consistently undervalued. They are often not a factor in decision-making about

coastal development. Therefore mangroves continue to be destroyed at a rate that is three to five

times greater than global deforestation rates.

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Actions for Change

There are many management and protection measures and tools available for use at national,

regional, and global scales to help ensure a sustainable future for mangroves. Such actions range

from establishing a commission to ensure that mangrove conservation is on the international

development agenda, to creating a Global Mangrove Fund, to the development of international

protocols that promote the protection and sustainable use of mangroves.

Financial mechanisms and incentives could stimulate mangrove conservation, such as carbon

offset markets and corporate and private-sector investments. Economic incentives for mangrove

protection, sustainable use, and restoration activities could be provided as a source of steady

income to local inhabitants of these areas.

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There is also tremendous potential to improve public outreach and education to raise awareness

of the economic and social importance of mangroves and the consequences of their loss.

A new report entitled "The Importance of Mangroves to People: A Call to Action," released by

UNEP with major contributions from Forest Trends' MARES program, details these findings and

provides a solid foundation from which to move forward with actions to save mangroves and

stop the alarming rate at which they are disappearing. Most of these necessary actions are easily

achievable in short time frames.

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Individual Responsibility, Mangroves, and the Future of Our Planet:

At the rate at which mangrove loss is occurring now, there will be significant

consequences for economies and societies through impoverished livelihoods, lower economic

growth, declining human security, and a poorer quality of life for coastal populations. While the

benefits derived from healthy mangroves are mostly experienced by local communities, the loss

of mangroves puts coastal populations, national economies, and the world as a whole at risk.

Mangrove ecosystem health and productivity must therefore be part of global efforts to eradicate

poverty, strengthen food security, and reduce vulnerability to climate change.

For individuals, the connection between mangroves and personal responsibility in the face of

climate change may not seem as clear as it might be when we recycle paper or choose to go to

the farmer's market versus the mega-supermarket. Yet, as with those actions, there are things we

can do to support these endangered ecosystems, and becoming educated about this vital resource

is an excellent start. Mangroves are part of the natural capital that supports life on Earth and

require not only our appreciation for all they do, but also our robust and informed attention and

support.

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Mangroves in Mumbai

History:

Mumbai Historical records indicate that there were several islands around Mumbai during

1670. However, the Britishers, who were ruling the country identified the importance of these

islands for commercial purpose. They deforested the fringing mangroves and reclaimed these

islands into one continuous landmass, which later came to be known as "Greater Bombay".

Since then the developmental and bsequently population pressure rapidly increased and being

the coastal area, it took the toll of mangrove land. During the process of deforestation and

reclamation, a few mangrove patches are still left in the heart of the city, which proves that

today's megacity had a luxuriant past of mangrove forests (fig). Major mangroves are seen

today in Mumbai along the Vasai Creek, Thane Creek, Manori and Malad, Mahim - Bandra,

Versova, Siwari, Mumbra - Diva and few more places.

Mangroves represent the spirit of Mumbai:

They are plucky survivors. But each day, millions of citizens in Mumbai pass these hardy plants

imagining they are little more than dirty, muddy weeds growing pointlessly along the shoreline.

How little people understand just how important mangroves are to the quality of life of the

citizens of Mumbai.

By trapping silt, mangroves maintain the integrity of Mumbai’s shoreline. This is a vital service

to the city of Mumbai as it is very prone to erosion, having been built on reclaimed land that is

battered by the sea on all three sides. The recent rains in Mumbai and the disaster that followed

demonstrated the consequence of tampering with the ecology of fragile ecosystems like

mangroves. Had Mumbai’s Mithi river and Mahim creek mangroves not been destroyed by

builders, fewer people would have died and the property damage would have been dramatically

less. The Koli community in Mumbai worships mangroves because they know that these are

breeding and nursery grounds for the marine organisms on which their sustenance depends.

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Mangrove community of Mumbai

In the early nineties, perhaps over 37 sq. km. of mangroves existed in Mumbai, largely in the

Thane creek, Mahim, Versova, Gorai and Ghodbunder, with sporadic patches in places such as

Bandra, Malabar Hill and Colaba. Mumbai has probably lost 40 per cent of all its mangroves in

the past decade or so, largely because of reclamation for housing, slums, sewage treatment and

garbage dumps. Fortunately, thanks to the Godrej family, we still have excellent mangrove

forests in Vikhroli (Link). Around 20 out of the 35 species of true mangroves found in India have

been identified along the Maharashtra coast and 15 species of these are found in Mumbai.

Because of the high salinity of the soil, something like 60 per cent of Mumbai mangroves

comprise Avicennia marina. Nor surprisingly this species also tolerates pollution including heavy

metals such as lead, mercury and chromium, all found in significant concentrations in the Mithi

river.

Rapid developments like housing, industrialization, pollution and increasing population of

Mumbai has resulted into degradation of mangroves. There are two important creeks, Vasai

Creek towards north and Thane Creek toward south where luxuriant mangrove patches are still

left. Otherwise the State Govt. agencies have failed to protect this important, productive

mangrove ecosystem from building mafias.

The worst affected area in Mumbai is the entire western front excepting Carter Road where the

mangroves have grown and have also registered an increase in height in the last 10 years. This

has been possible due to the participation of citizen’s forums fighting individually.

In India, a legal protection is afforded to this ecosystem by way of legislation in the form of

Coastal Regulation Zone Notification. Recently Mumbai High Court has ordered freeze on

destruction of mangrove forests in Maharashtra and has banned construction within 50 metres of

them. The court has also directed to notify mangrove areas as protected forests. Thus, there is

already a mechanism provided for management of this ecosystem. Unfortunately, however many

a times the legal provisions are not being enforced to curb the illegal activities.

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In such a situation, protection of the mangrove ecosystem is possible only through the

participation of the local community and by building up pressure groups for ensuring

management of this ecosystem and strict implementation of the legal provisions by the

Government. Thereby, integrity of habitats critical for spawning, juveniles and feeding and for

biodiversity, apart from ecological sustainability and community-sustainability could be

maintained.

In the past few years there has been an increase in the awareness of the people in Mumbai.

Residents associations are coming together to spread this awareness. They realize that the rapid

destruction of mangroves along the coast of Mumbai will have far-reaching effects on the city.

The NGOs in Mumbai are making efforts to highlight the issues like sland reclamation, coastal

regulation zone notification and illegal destruction of the mangrove areas through the

interventions of the local state government and a local bodies

Marine Life in Mangroves:

Mangroves are an important habitat, providing food, shelter and nursery areas for fish,

birds,crustaceans and other marine life. They also provide a source of livelihood for many

humans around the world, including wood for fuel, charcoal and timber and areas for fishing.

Mangroves also form a buffer that defends coastlines from flooding and erosion.

Many types of marine and terrestrial life utilize mangroves. Animals inhabit the mangrove's leafy

canopy and waters underneath the mangrove's root system, and live in nearby tidal waters and

mudflats. In the U.S., species found in mangroves include reptiles such as the American

crocodile and American alligator; sea turtles including the hawksbill, Ridley, green and

loggerhead; fish such as snapper, tarpon, jack, sheepshead, and red drum; crustaceans such as

shrimp and crabs; and coastal and migratory birds such as pelicans, spoonbills and bald eagles.

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Government to enact separate law to protect mangroves:

The state’s environment department plans to enact a separate law to protect mangroves because

existing laws have been unsuccessful in curbing large-scale destruction of these protected forest

areas.

The department will soon form a core committee of legal experts, environmentalists and officials

to draft the proposed state legislation. “We need a separate legislation because there is no clarity

in the existing laws about enforcement. The existing penalty of Rs1 lakh is also not a sufficient

deterrent for culprits,” said Valsa Nair Singh, environment secretary.

Singh added that the department gets over 20 complaints monthly about cases of hacking of

mangroves, dumping of debris or other such transgressions.

The city has a total area of 4,865 hectares of mangroves out of which 4,117 hectares is protected

forests. HT had reported on Thursday that in the last two decades, 40% of Mumbai’s mangrove

cover has been lost to construction and encroachments.

There is confusion over the enforcing of existing laws (Environment Protection Act, Forest

Conservation Act, Bombay Police Act).

For instance, the police do not take action if mangrove hacking occurs on protected forests.

Forest officials take cognisance under the forest conservation act, a tedious procedure, only if

such complaints are on notified forests.

The proposed legislation will enable the police to take action against the destruction of

mangroves across the state irrespective of which land it falls under. It will also make offenders

pay through compulsory afforestation, by restoring twice the number of mangroves destroyed.

The penalty for the offence will also be substantially hiked.

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CONCLUSION

In conclusion, it may be noted that mangrove ecosystem must be protected. Intensive

afforestation would certainly ensure formation of rich mangrove forests. Awareness programmes

should be conducted by the Government for conserving the biodiversity of mangrove ecosystem.

There is an urgency to halt their operations now, not trusting in their purported best practices,

which most likely cannot be met. We should not wait for them to go far in their dangerous

enterprise if we hope to avoid the same Asian problems of shrimp farming occurring in Nigeria

There is a need for the Mangrove Forest Conservation Society of Nigeria (MFCSN) to move in

to sensitize the people and we have already started that. More programmes are being drawn up to

tackle the Government and CSO ignorance on industrial shrimp farming and the formation of a

working group with mangrove forest providing the secretariat.

Mangroves fulfil many necessary functions from the productive, protective and social points of

view. Yet increased population pressures in coastal areas and lack of awareness have led to

large-scale conversion of mangrove areas to other uses. Numerous case studies and anecdotal

evidence exist describing mangrove losses over time. However, access to comprehensive

information on the status and trends of mangrove areas at the global level has been limited.

Analysis of the most recent reliable estimate identified for each country and area shows that the

area of mangroves varies from a few hectares to more than 1 or 2 million hectares in individual

countries and that five countries (Indonesia, Australia, Brazil, Nigeria and Mexico) account for

about 47 percent of the global area of these ecosystems. More than 60 percent of the total

mangrove area is found in just ten countries. By region, the largest areas of mangroves are found

in Asia and Africa, followed by North and Central America. The study illustrates the problems

that varying methodologies over time – and lack of recent, reliable information for a few

countries – create in generating reliable trends. The estimate for 2005 is thus indicative and is

likely to change when results from ongoing and future assessments become available.

Nevertheless, the trend analysis indicates that the current mangrove area worldwide has fallen to

about 15.2 million hectares, down from 18.8 million hectares in 1980. The world has thus lost

some 3.6 million hectares of mangroves over the last 25 years, or 20 percent of the extent found

in 1980. The study also indicates that the loss of mangroves continues at alarming rates, but that

the rate of net loss is showing signs of slowing down – in line with the trend in forests (FAO,

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2006a). From about 185 000 ha lost every year in the 1980s, the net loss dropped to some 118

500 ha per year in the 1990s and to 102 000 ha per year (or a loss of 0.66 percent annually)

during the 2000–2005 period, reflecting an increased awareness of the value of mangrove

ecosystems. Most countries have now banned the conversion of mangrove areas for aquaculture

purposes and require environmental impact assessments prior to large-scale conversion of these

areas for other uses. This has led to new legislation, better protection and management and, in

some countries, to an expansion of mangrove areas through active planting or natural

regeneration. Even though mangroves have been often used for the collection of wood forest

products and as a source of subsistence for local populations, wood removal is rarely the main

cause of loss. Human pressure on coastal ecosystems and thus competition for land for

aquaculture, agriculture, infrastructure and tourism are often intense and are among the major

causes of the reported decrease in these forest areas over time. More specifically, the relatively

large losses of mangrove areas in Asia, the Caribbean and Latin America during the 1980s were

caused primarily by large-scale conversion of these areas for aquaculture and tourism

infrastructure.

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BIBL OGRAPHY

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastal_flood

www.ecosystemmarketplcomace./pages/dynamic/article.page.php?

page_id=10623&section=news_articles&eod=1&gclid=CO_I_urwrcQCFQeTjgodFW4A3w

http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/ae213e/ae213e04.htmik

http://mangroveactionproject.org/shrimp-farming-in-the-se-and-sw-of-nigeria/

http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/blue_planet/coasts/mangroves/mangrove_threats/

http://www.mangroves.godrej.com/Whyshouldweprotectmangroves.htmhttp://

www.hindustantimes.com/mumbai/government-to-enact-separate-law-to-protect-mangroves/article1-

705048.aspx

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