Mango

This article is about the fruit. For other uses, see Mango(disambiguation).The mango is a juicy stone fruit belonging to the genus

Unripe mangoes on a mango tree

Mangifera, consisting of numerous tropical fruiting trees,cultivated mostly for edible fruit. The majority of thesespecies are found in nature as wild mangoes. They allbelong to the flowering plant family Anacardiaceae. Themango is native to South and Southeast Asia, from whereit has been distributed worldwide to become one of themost cultivated fruits in the tropics. The highest concen-tration of Mangifera genus is in India.[1]

While other Mangifera species (e.g. horse mango,M. foetida) are also grown on a more localized ba-sis, Mangifera indica—the “common mango” or “Indianmango”—is the only mango tree commonly cultivated inmany tropical and subtropical regions. It originated inIndian subcontinent (present day India and Pakistan) andBurma.[1][2]

It is the national fruit of India, Pakistan, and thePhilippines, and the national tree of Bangladesh.[3] In sev-eral cultures, its fruit and leaves are ritually used as flo-ral decorations at weddings, public celebrations, and re-ligious ceremonies.

1 Description

Mango trees grow up to 35–40 m (115–131 ft) tall, witha crown radius of 10 m (33 ft). The trees are long-lived,as some specimens still fruit after 300 years. In deepsoil, the taproot descends to a depth of 6 m (20 ft), withprofuse, wide-spreading feeder roots; the tree also sends

Cross-section of an apple-mango fruit

A mango tree in full bloom in Kerala

1

2 3 CULTIVATION

down many anchor roots, which penetrate several feet ofsoil. The leaves are evergreen, alternate, simple, 15–35cm (5.9–13.8 in) long, and 6–16 cm (2.4–6.3 in) broad;when the leaves are young they are orange-pink, rapidlychanging to a dark, glossy red, then dark green as theymature. The flowers are produced in terminal panicles10–40 cm (3.9–15.7 in) long; each flower is small andwhite with five petals 5–10 mm (0.20–0.39 in) long, witha mild, sweet odor suggestive of lily of the valley. Over400 varieties ofmangoes are known, many of which ripenin summer, while some give double crop.[4] The fruittakes three to six months to ripen.The ripe fruit varies in size and color. Cultivars are var-iously yellow, orange, red, or green, and carry a singleflat, oblong pit that can be fibrous or hairy on the surface,and which does not separate easily from the pulp. Ripe,unpeeled mangoes give off a distinctive resinous, sweetsmell. Inside the pit 1–2 mm (0.039–0.079 in) thick isa thin lining covering a single seed, 4–7 mm (0.16–0.28in) long. The seed contains the plant embryo. Mangoshave recalcitrant seeds; they do not survive freezing anddrying.[5]

2 Etymology

Green mangoes

The English word “mango” (plural “mangoes” or “man-gos”) originated from the Malayalam word māṅṅa viaPortuguese (also manga) during spice trade with Keralain 1498.[6][7] The word’s first recorded attestation in a Eu-ropean language was a text by Ludovico di Varthema inItalian in 1510, as manga; the first recorded occurrencesin languages such as French and postclassical Latin ap-pear to be translations from this Italian text. The originof the "-o” ending in English is unclear.[8] Mango is alsomentioned by Hendrik van Rheede, the Dutch comman-der ofMalabar (Northern Kerala) in his bookHortusMal-abaricus, a compendium of the plants of economic andmedical value in theMalabar, published in 1678.[9]Whenmangoes were first imported to the American colonies inthe 17th century, they had to be pickled due to lack ofrefrigeration. Other fruits were also pickled and came tobe called “mangoes”, especially bell peppers, and by the18th century, the word “mango” became a verb meaning

“to pickle”.[10]

3 Cultivation

Mango orchard in Multan, Pakistan

Mangoes have been cultivated in South Asia for thou-sands of years[11] and reached East Asia between thefifth and fourth centuries BC. By the 10th centuryAD, cultivation had begun in East Africa.[11] The 14th-century Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta reported it atMogadishu.[12] Cultivation came later to Brazil, the WestIndies, and Mexico, where an appropriate climate allowsits growth.[11]

The mango is now cultivated in most frost-free tropi-cal and warmer subtropical climates; almost half of theworld’s mangoes are cultivated in India alone, with thesecond-largest source being China.[13][14][15] Mangoesare also grown in Andalusia, Spain (mainly in Málagaprovince), as its coastal subtropical climate is one of thefew places in mainland Europe that allows the growth oftropical plants and fruit trees. The Canary Islands are an-other notable Spanish producer of the fruit. Other cultiva-tors includeNorth America (in South Florida and Califor-nia’s Coachella Valley), South and Central America, theCaribbean, Hawai'i, south, west, and central Africa, Aus-tralia, China, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Southeast Asia.Though India is the largest producer of mangoes, it ac-counts for less than 1% of the international mango trade;India consumes most of its own production.[16]

Many commercial cultivars are grafted on to the cold-hardy rootstock of 'Gomera-1' mango cultivar, originallyfrom Cuba. Its root system is well adapted to a coastalMediterranean climate.[17] Many of the 1,000+ mangocultivars are easily cultivated using grafted saplings, rang-ing from the “turpentine mango” (named for its strongtaste of turpentine[18]) to the huevos de toro. Dwarf orsemidwarf varieties serve as ornamental plants and canbe grown in containers. A wide variety of diseases canafflict mangoes.

4.1 Cuisine 3

4 Food

Mangoes are generally sweet, although the taste and tex-ture of the flesh varies across cultivars; some have a soft,pulpy texture similar to an overripe plum, while othersare firmer, like a cantaloupe or avocado, and some mayhave a fibrous texture. The skin of unripe, pickled, orcooked mango can be consumed, but has the potential tocause contact dermatitis of the lips, gingiva, or tongue insusceptible people.

4.1 Cuisine

The “hedgehog” style is a form of mango preparation

Mangoes are widely used in cuisine. Sour, unripe man-goes are used in chutneys, athanu, pickles,[19] side dishes,or may be eaten raw with salt, chili, or soy sauce.A summer drink called aam panna comes from man-goes. Mango pulp made into jelly or cooked with redgram dhal and green chillies may be served with cookedrice. Mango lassi is popular throughout South Asia,[20]prepared by mixing ripe mangoes or mango pulp withbuttermilk and sugar. Ripe mangoes are also used tomake curries. Aamras is a popular thick juice madeof mangoes with sugar or milk, and is consumed withchapatis or pooris. The pulp from ripe mangoes is alsoused to make jam calledmangada. Andhra aavakaaya isa pickle made from raw, unripe, pulpy, and sour mango,mixed with chili powder, fenugreek seeds, mustard pow-der, salt, and groundnut oil. Mango is also used in Andhrato make dahl preparations. Gujaratis use mango to makechunda (a grated mango delicacy).Mangoes are used in preserves such asmoramba, amchur(dried and powdered unripe mango), and pickles, includ-ing a spicy mustard-oil pickle and alcohol. Ripe mangoesare often cut into thin layers, desiccated, folded, and thencut. These bars are similar to dried guava fruit bars avail-able in some countries. The fruit is also added to cerealproducts such as muesli and oat granola. Mangoes areoften prepared charred in Hawaii.Unripe mango may be eaten with bagoong (especially in

the Philippines), fish sauce, or with dash of salt. Driedstrips of sweet, ripe mango (sometimes combined withseedless tamarind to form mangorind) are also popular.Mangoes may be used to make juices, mango nectar,and as a flavoring and major ingredient in ice cream andsorbetes.

A glass of mango juice as served in a restaurant in Patong,Phuket, Thailand

Mango is used to make juices, smoothies, ice cream, fruitbars, raspados, aguas frescas, pies, and sweet chili sauce,or mixed with chamoy, a sweet and spicy chili paste. It ispopular on a stick dipped in hot chili powder and salt or asa main ingredient in fresh fruit combinations. In CentralAmerica, mango is either eaten green mixed with salt,vinegar, black pepper, and hot sauce, or ripe in variousforms. Toasted and ground pumpkin seed (pepita) withlime and salt are eaten with green mangoes.Pieces of mango can be mashed and used as a toppingon ice cream or blended with milk and ice as milkshakes.Sweet glutinous rice is flavored with coconut, then servedwith sliced mango as a dessert. In other parts of South-east Asia, mangoes are pickled with fish sauce and ricevinegar. Green mangoes can be used in mango salad withfish sauce and dried shrimp. Mango with condensed milkmay be used as a topping for shaved ice.

4 5 POTENTIAL FOR CONTACT DERMATITIS

4.2 Food constituents

4.2.1 Nutrients

The energy value per 100 g (3.5 oz) serving of the com-mon mango is 250 kJ (60 kcal), and that of the ap-ple mango is slightly higher (79 kcal per 100g). Freshmango contains a variety of nutrients (right table), butonly vitamin C and folate are in significant amounts ofthe Daily Value as 44% and 11%, respectively.[21][22]

4.2.2 Phytochemicals

Numerous phytochemicals are present in mango peel andpulp, such as the triterpene, lupeol which is under basicresearch for its potential biological effects.[23] An ex-tract of mango branch bark called Vimang, containingnumerous polyphenols,[24] has been studied in elderlyhumans.[25]

Mango peel pigments under study include carotenoids,such as the provitamin A compound, beta-carotene,lutein and alpha-carotene,[26][27] and polyphenols, such asquercetin, kaempferol, gallic acid, caffeic acid, catechinsand tannins.[28][29] Mango contains a unique xanthonoidcalled mangiferin.[30]

Phytochemical and nutrient content appears to varyacross mango cultivars.[31] Up to 25 different carotenoidshave been isolated from mango pulp, the densest ofwhich was beta-carotene, which accounts for the yellow-orange pigmentation of most mango cultivars.[32] Mangoleaves also have significant polyphenol content, includingxanthonoids, mangiferin and gallic acid.[33]

The pigment euxanthin, known as Indian yellow, is of-ten thought to be produced from the urine of cattle fedmango leaves; the practice is described as having beenoutlawed in 1908 due to malnutrition of the cattle andpossible urushiol poisoning.[34] This supposed origin ofeuxanthin appears to rely on a single, anecdotal source,and Indian legal records do not outlaw such a practice.[35]

4.3 Flavor

The flavor of mango fruits is constituted by severalvolatile organic chemicals mainly belonging to terpene,furanone, lactone, and ester classes. Different varieties orcultivars of mangoes can have flavor made up of differentvolatile chemicals or same volatile chemicals in differ-ent quantities.[36][37] In general, NewWorld mango culti-vars are characterized by the dominance of δ−3-carene,a monoterpene flavorant; whereas, high concentration ofother monoterepnes such as (Z)-ocimene and myrcene,as well as the presence of lactones and furanones, is theunique feature of Old World cultivars.[37][38][39] In In-dia, 'Alphonso' is one of the most popular cultivars. In'Alphonso' mango, the lactones and furanones are synthe-sized during ripening; whereas terpenes and the other fla-

Major flavor chemicals of 'Alphonso' mango from India

vorants are present in both the developing (immature) andripening fruits.[40][41][42][43] Ethylene, a ripening-relatedhormone well known to be involved in ripening of mangofruits, causes changes in the flavor composition of mangofruits upon exogenous application, as well.[44][45] In con-trast to the huge amount of information available on thechemical composition of mango flavor, the biosynthe-sis of these chemicals has not been studied in depth;only a handful of genes encoding the enzymes of fla-vor biosynthetic pathways have been characterized todate.[46][47][48][49]

5 Potential for contact dermatitis

Contact with oils in mango leaves, stems, sap, andskin can cause dermatitis and anaphylaxis in suscepti-ble individuals.[50] Mango oil contains mangiferin and aresinol called mangiferol. Those with a history of con-tact dermatitis induced by urushiol (an allergen found inpoison ivy, poison oak, or poison sumac) may be mostat risk for mango contact dermatitis.[51] Cross-reactionsmay occur between mango allergens and urushiol whichis present in mango leaves and stems.[52] During the pri-mary ripening season of mangoes, urushiol is the most

5

common cause of plant dermatitis in Hawaii.[53]

6 Cultural significance

An image of Ambika under a mango tree in Cave 34 of the ElloraCaves

The mango is the national fruit of India,[54] Pakistanand the Philippines. It is also the national tree ofBangladesh.[55] In India, harvest and sale of mangoes isduring March–May and this is annually covered by newsagencies. Frooti is an Indian mango drink, and the Coca-Cola company started their own drink, called "Maaza",to compete with it.[56]

The Mughal emperor Akbar (1556-1605 AD) is said tohave planted a mango orchard having 100,000 trees inDarbhanga, eastern India.[57] The Jain goddess Ambika istraditionally represented as sitting under a mango tree.[58]In Hinduism, the perfectly ripe mango is often held byLord Ganesha as a symbol of attainment, regarding thedevotees’ potential perfection. Mango blossoms are alsoused in the worship of the goddess Saraswati. No Tel-ugu/Kannada New Year’s Day called Ugadi passes with-out eating ugadi pachadi made with mango pieces as oneof the ingredients.Driedmango skin and its seeds are also used in Ayurvedicmedicines.[19] Mango leaves are used to decorate arch-ways and doors in Indian houses and during weddings

and celebrations such as Ganesh Chaturthi. Mangomotifs and paisleys are widely used in different Indianembroidery styles, and are found in Kashmiri shawls,Kanchipuram silk sarees, etc. Paisleys are also commonto Iranian art, because of its pre-Islamic Zoroastrian past.In Tamil Nadu, the mango is referred to as one of thethree royal fruits, along with banana and jackfruit, fortheir sweetness and flavor.[59] This triad of fruits is re-ferred to as ma-pala-vazhai.Urdu poet Mirza Asadullah Khan Ghalib providedmany anecdotes concerning his love for mangoes.[60]Rabindranath Tagore was fond of mangoes and wrote po-ems about its flowers- aamer monjori.In the West Indies, the expression “to go mango walk”means to steal another person’s mango fruits. This is cel-ebrated in the famous song, “The Mango Walk”.In Australia, the first tray of mangoes of the season istraditionally sold at an auction for charity.[61]

The classical Sanskrit poet Kālidāsa sang the praises ofmangoes.[62]

7 Production and consumption

The Food andAgriculture Organization of the United Na-tions estimates worldwide mango production at 42 mil-lion metric tons in 2012 (table below). India is the largestproducer of mangoes with 36% of the world’s production.

7.1 Cultivars

Main article: List of mango cultivarsMany hundreds of named mango cultivars exist. In

'Alphonso' mangoes named after Afonso de Albuquerque, whointroduced the fruit to Goa

mango orchards, several cultivars are often crossedto improve pollination. Many desired cultivars are

6 10 REFERENCES

monoembryonic and must be propagated by grafting orthey do not breed true. A common monoembryonic cul-tivar is 'Alphonso', an important export product, consid-ered as “the king of mangoes”.[56]

Cultivars that excel in one climatemay fail elsewhere. Forexample, Indian cultivars such as 'Julie', a prolific cultivarin Jamaica, require annual fungicide treatments to escapethe lethal fungal disease anthracnose in Florida. Asianmangoes are resistant to anthracnose.The current world market is dominated by the cultivar'Tommy Atkins’, a seedling of 'Haden' that first fruited in1940 in southern Florida. It was initially rejected com-mercially by Florida researchers.[64] For example, 80% ofmangoes in UK supermarkets are 'Tommy Atkins’. De-spite its fibrous flesh and only fair taste, growers world-wide have embraced the cultivar for its exceptional pro-ductivity and disease resistance, shelf life, transportabil-ity, size, and appealing color.'Alphonso', 'Benishaan', and 'Kesar' mango varieties arepopular in India’s southern states, while the 'Chaunsa' va-riety, among others, is popular in the northern states andPakistan.Guatemala markets sell a variety called mango de lechewhich is more resinous outside and inside.Generally, ripe mangoes have an orange-yellow or red-dish peel and are juicy for eating, while exported fruit areoften picked while underripe with green peels. Althoughproducing ethylene while ripening, unripened exportedmangoes do not have the same juiciness or flavor as freshfruit.Like other drupaceous fruits, mangoes occur in bothfreestone and clingstone varieties.

8 Gallery

• Mangoes for sale at a supermarket

• Unripe mangoes on a mango tree

• Mango tree with flowers

• Mature M. indica after annual flowering, note thebudding fruits and residual flowers

• Immature fruit of Mangifera, approximately sixweeks after annual flowering

• A view of M. indica in southern India

• Freshly harvested mangoes and bananas at a fruitstand on the island of Maui

• A mango stand in Merritt Island, Florida

• A nearly ripened purple mango, Israel

• Mangoes being sold in the Philippines

• Green mangoes of the Philippines

• Green mango of Bangladesh

• A mango grown in Bangladesh

• Mango roundabout, Rajshahi

• Saigon mangoes on display at the 15th Annual In-ternational Mango Festival at the Fairchild TropicalBotanic Garden, Florida

• Mango slice

• 'Sidur' mango of Bangladesh

• Ripe mango

• Mango close-up

• A basket of ripe mangoes from Bangladesh

• Ripe Sindhri mangoes from Sindh, Pakistan

• Banganpalli mangoes being sold in Guntur

• Ripe mangoes being sold in a market in the Philip-pines

• Shan-e-Khuda A mango grown in Pakistan

• Mango buds in Bangladesh

9 See also• Aavakaaya South India pickled mango

• Achaar, South Asian pickles, commonly containingmango and lime

• Amchoor, mango powder

• Mangosteen, an unrelated fruit with a similar name

• Mango mealybug

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[6] Mango Merriam Webster Dictionary.“Origin of mango: Portuguese manga, probably fromMalayalam māṅga. First Known Use: 1582”

[7] “Definition for mango - Oxford Dictionaries Online(World English)". Oxforddictionaries.com. Retrieved2012-06-17.

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[37] Pandit SS, Chidley HG, Kulkarni RS, Pujari KH, Giri AP,Gupta VS, 2009, Cultivar relationships in mango based onfruit volatile profiles, Food Chemistry, 144, 363–372.

[38] Narain N, Bora PS, Narain R and Shaw PE (1998).Mango, In: Tropical and Subtropical Fruits, Ed. by ShawPE, Chan HT and Nagy S. Agscience, Auburndale, FL,USA, pp. 1-77.

[39] Kulkarni RS, Chidley HG, Pujari KH, Giri AP and GuptaVS, 2012, Flavor of mango: A pleasant but complex blendof compounds, InMango Vol. 1: Production and Process-ing Technology (Eds. Sudha G Valavi, K Rajmohan, JNGovil, KV Peter and George Thottappilly) Studium PressLLC.

[40] Pandit SS, Kulkarni RS, Chidley HG, Giri AP, Köll-ner TG, Degenhardt J, Gershenzon J, Gupta VS, 2009,Changes in volatile composition during fruit developmentand ripening of ‘Alphonso’ mango. Journal of Science ofFood and Agriculture, 89, 2071–2081.

[41] Gholap, A. S., Bandyopadhyay, C., 1977. Characteriza-tion of green aroma of raw mango (Mangifera indica L.).Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 28, 885-888

[42] Idstein, H., Schreier, P., 1985. Volatile constituents ofAlphonso mango (Mangifera indica). Phytochemistry 24,2313-2316.

[43] Kulkarni RS, Chidley HG, Pujari KH, Giri AP and GuptaVS, 2012, Geographic variation in the flavour volatiles ofAlphonso mango. Food Chemistry, 130, 58–66.

[44] Lalel HJD, Singh Z, Tan S, 2003, The role of ethylene inmango fruit aroma volatiles biosynthesis, Journal of Hor-ticultural Science and Biotechnology, 78, 485-496.

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[46] Pandit SS, Kulkarni RS, Giri AP, Köllner TG, DegenhardtJ, Gershenzon J, Gupta VS, 2010, Expression profilingof various genes during the development and ripening ofAlphonso mango, Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, 48,426–433.

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[49] Kulkarni RS, Chidley HG, Deshpande A, Schmidt A, Pu-jari KH, Giri AP and Gershenzon J, Gupta VS, 2013, Anoxidoreductase from ‘Alphonso’ mango catalyzing biosyn-thesis of furaneol and reduction of reactive carbonyls,SpringerPlus, 2, 494.

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[53] McGovern TW, LaWarre S (2001). “Botanical briefs: themango tree—Mangifera indica L.”. Cutis 67 (5): 365–6.

[54] “National Fruit”. Know India. Government of India. Re-trieved 2010-08-17.

[55] “Mango tree, national tree”. BDnews24.com. Retrieved2010-11-16.

[56] Jonathan Allen (10 May 2006). “Mango Mania in India”.New York Times. Retrieved 4 September 2013.

[57] Curtis Morgan (18 June 1995). “Mango has a long his-tory as a culinary treat in India”. The Milwaukee Journal.Retrieved 4 September 2013.

[58] Tiwari, M.N.P. (1989). Ambika in Jaina arts and litera-ture, New Delhi: Bharatiya Jnanpith.

[59] Subrahmanian N, Hikosaka S, Samuel GJ (1997). Tamilsocial history. p. 88. Retrieved March 23, 2010.

[60] “36_09”. Columbia.edu. Retrieved 2013-06-14.

[61] First tray of mangoes sells for $30,000, Australian Asso-ciated Press via The Sydney Morning Herald, September8, 2010.

[62] “His highness, Mango maharaja: An endless obsession -Yahoo! Lifestyle India”. In.lifestyle.yahoo.com. 2012-05-29. Retrieved 2013-06-14.

[63] “Statistics from: Food And Agricultural Organization ofUnited Nations: Economic And Social Department: TheStatistical Division”. UN Food and Agriculture Organi-zation Corporate Statistical Database.

[64] Susser, Allen (2001). The Great Mango Book. New York:Ten Speed Press. ISBN 1-58008-204-1.

11 Further reading

• Ensminger, Audrey H.; et al. (1995). The ConciseEncyclopedia of Foods & Nutrition. CRC Press. p.651. ISBN 0-8493-4455-7.

9

• Litz, Richard E. (editor, 2009). TheMango: Botany,Production and Uses. 2nd edition. CABI. ISBN978-1-84593-489-7

• Susser, Allen (2001). The Great Mango Book: AGuide with Recipes. Ten Speed Press. ISBN 978-1-58008-204-4

12 External links• Common Mango

• Mango

• Mango Nutrition Information from USDA SR 22database

• Mango-related dermatitis

• Sorting Mangifera species

• Pine Island Nursery’s Mango Variety viewer

10 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

13.1 Text• Mango Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mango?oldid=638053644 Contributors: Vicki Rosenzweig, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Mal-colm Farmer, Andre Engels, PierreAbbat, William Avery, Stepnwolf, Zoe, Hephaestos, D, Liftarn, Ixfd64, Gaurav, Eurleif, Sannse, (,Minesweeper, Kosebamse, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, Ronz, Jimfbleak, TUF-KAT, Jonik, Vanished user 5zariu3jisj0j4irj, Viajero, Geary,SatyrTN, KRS, Marshman, Kaare, Jakenelson, Imc, Rei, Karukera, Samsara, Thue, Zach Garner, Ortonmc, Pollinator, Robbot, Kristofvt, RedWolf, WormRunner, Kowey, Mirv, Babbage, Mottzo, Ashera, DHN, Hadal, Darwen, Lyellin, Alan Liefting, Giftlite, Christo-pher Parham, MPF, YanA, Nichalp, DaB., Wolfkeeper, Bradeos Graphon, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Henry Flower, Gilgamesh, Yekrats,Jason Quinn, Eequor, Prell, Bobblewik, Ragib, Thijs!, Utcursch, SoWhy, CryptoDerk, SarekOfVulcan, Yath, Quadell, Antandrus, Ke-sac, DragonflySixtyseven, Yanamad, Icairns, AmarChandra, Tyler McHenry, Tooki, Neutrality, Vitaleyes, Chmod007, Canterbury Tail,Mike Rosoft, DanielCD, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Cacycle, Autiger, Bishonen, WikitKeeper, Dbachmann, JoeSmack,TOR, CanisRufus, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, Femto, Jpgordon, Bobo192, Fir0002, Smalljim, Electrolito, Chirag, Swamp ig, Nk, Hesperian,Sam Korn, Storm Rider, Alansohn, SlaveToTheWage, Ibn zareena, Sheehan, Arthena, Mceder, Lord Pistachio, Squam256, Ynhockey, Up-stateNYer, Snowolf, CmdrPage, MoraSique, Wtmitchell, Stephan Leeds, Mikeo, Lerdsuwa, Bsadowski1, BlastOButter42, Mmsarfraz, The-Coffee, Blaxthos, Oleg Alexandrov, Bobrayner, Kfitzner, Woohookitty, Ganeshk, Vineet KewalRamani, MONGO, Jerkmonster, Scootey,Sengkang, Macaddct1984, SDC, TheAlphaWolf, Dysepsion, Graham87, BD2412, Chun-hian, Bunchofgrapes, Icey, Enzo Aquarius, Ketil-trout, Affenbart, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Bruce1ee, MZMcBride, Tawker, Burningrome, Ricardo Carneiro Pires, Brighterorange, Yug, Thewub, Toby Douglass, Yamamoto Ichiro, Florihupf, FlaBot, Eubot, RexNL, Brendan Moody, TeaDrinker, Chorny, Le Anh-Huy, King ofHearts, Mhking, Gdrbot, Eweisser, YurikBot, Wavelength, TexasAndroid, Spacepotato, Deeptrivia, Jimp, Phantomsteve, FrenchIsAwe-some, Reo On, Bhny, Piet Delport, Chensiyuan, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Pseudomonas, Cryptic, Kennethtennyson, The HokkaidoCrow, RadioKirk, Anomalocaris, Terra Green, NawlinWiki, Nahallac Silverwinds, Dysmorodrepanis, UCaetano, Snek01, Badagnani,AKeen, Welsh, Aufidius, Howcheng, Cjw0527, Xabriel, PeterDelmonte, JFD, Coderzombie, Blu Aardvark, Marknesbitt, Syrthiss, BOT-Superzerocool, DeadEyeArrow, Graham Jones, Trainra, IceCreamAntisocial, Sandstein, Zzuuzz, Ghpbermuda, Open2universe, Chaseme ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Closedmouth, Malaiya, Tjfloyddc, E Wing, ColinMcMillen, BorgQueen, Chriswaterguy, Fram, Anjoe, Gi-naDana, Eaefremov, Allens, Kungfuadam, RG2, DVD R W, Tom Morris, AndrewWTaylor, Luk, SmackBot, Haymaker, ThreeDee912,Aelfthrytha, 1dragon, Runtape, Tarret, Prodego, Aflm, Hydrogen Iodide, Proficient, C.Fred, Blue520, Thunderboltz, Eskimbot, Chaos-feary, David Farris, Kintetsubuffalo, Edgar181, HalfShadow, Ben506, Peter Isotalo, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Skizzik, Eug, Carl.bunderson,ERcheck, Durova, Keegan, Rkitko, RDBrown, Calliopejen, Pjorg, TheFeds, Jallotta, Ikiroid, Coleopterous, LaurDragon, John Reaves,Smokeyjoey8, Gsp8181, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Nick Levine, Brimba, Snowmanradio, JDiPierro, Orangefoodie, Rrburke, VMSMosaic, Addshore, SundarBot, Thrane, Huon, SnappingTurtle, Shadow1, Howard the Duck, Andrew c, Ashuvashu, Hammer1980, Kei-thB, Zzorse, Springnuts, Cookie90, ChJameel, Thewiikione, Paul 012, ArglebargleIV, Zone, John, Gnt, Wtwilson3, Bydand, JohnI, Fev,Coastergeekperson04, SandyJS, JorisvS, Surfsupusa, Minna Sora no Shita, Mgiganteus1, Green Giant, Ultranaut, Ckatz, Xenure, Shoraru,A. Parrot, Bless sins, Slakr, Kirbytime, Beetstra, George The Dragon, Bawtyshouse, Snorklefish, MrArt, Deepak D'Souza, Mintchoco-latebear, Ryulong, Andrwsc, MTSbot, Jose77, Drabzz, DabMachine, BranStark, Iridescent, Michaelbusch, Rayfield, Spartian, CzarB,Basicdesign, Wjejskenewr, Digitalsurgeon, Splitpeasoup, IvanLanin, Easwaran, HongQiGong, Sam Li, Blehfu, O1ive, Az1568, Courcelles,Ranameraj, Tauʻolunga, Tawkerbot2, LessHeard vanU, Rachitagarwal, JForget, Srini.ms, Moneykandan, Gopherbassist, Nkroongta, Alejrb, Aherunar, CWY2190, Francisds, Dgw, Silal, Fordmadoxfraud, Hemlock Martinis, Equendil, Cydebot, Nandan Kalbag, Oosoom,MC10, Gogo Dodo, JFreeman, MJBoa, Arun athmanathan, Palaeologos, Talu42, Tawkerbot4, Arvind Iyengar, DumbBOT, FastLizard4,Nsaum75, Blackjack48, Landroo, JamesAM, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Dasani, N5iln, Andyjsmith, Mlvalentin, Jeffrey.Rodriguez, Sdream93,MojoHand, Sobreira, Marek69, Brichcja, Dark Enigma, Jameogle, E. 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Hunter, MediniPradhan, Ghost94, Narad, Hamiltonstone, Allstarecho, Japo, Canyouhearmenow,Bharathiya, Glen, DerHexer, JaGa, Philg88, Arulraja, Lenticel, Khalid Mahmood, Thompson.matthew, Mohitshukla1, S3000, MartinBot,Jim.henderson, Rigmahroll, Nissaal, Nono64, ArcAngel, Gunkarta, Ebzlef, Garkbit, Wlodzimierz, J.delanoy, Dpitchai, Fowler&fowler,Oradej, Itzcuauhtli, Extransit, Whitebox, Skumarlabot, Neon white, Ashfaqmuhammed, Captain Infinity, Paris1127, Jojoster, Broken-Sphere, PedEye1, Thomas Larsen, Jigesh, Homeboyrabab, (jarbarf), Darktruth2, NewEnglandYankee, Melmoo8, Bobber0001, Trilo-bitealive, SJP, Hbijlmakers, Ballsmonkey, Cometstyles, RB972, Tiggerjay, Jamesontai, Nivetitha, Moonshadow101, Nomi887, Druu, Hav-agut, Mr.mangoman, Tolstoy143, SoCalSuperEagle, Xiahou, TheFilth, Ale2006, Steel1943, Logic20, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot, X!, Deor,Caspian blue, Cdjames, Pleasantville, Nburden, ROxBo, Chango369w, HeckXX, Breed3011, Ryan032, Aesopos, Barneca, Pulavar, PhilipTrueman, Somanypeople, Chandraravikumar, TXiKiBoT, Pahari Sahib, Praveen.morchhale, Suprah, WatchAndObserve, Xenophrenic,Alan Rockefeller, GroveGuy, Smartreviewer, Abtinb, Technopat, Planetary Chaos, Dmforcier, Sh8oony, Guillaume2303, Nklansek, Eli-norD, GcSwRhIc, Kumarrao, Thecoolgirls, Charlesdrakew, Una Smith, Nawtyeravgjoe, Martin451, Azfuzzball, LeaveSleaves, General-Belly, Muhammad Mahdi Karim, Greenwald3132, Seb az86556, Delbert Grady, Noformation, BotKung, Latulla, Luuva, Waycool27,Maxim, ACEOREVIVED, Eubulides, Devasheesh1, Complex (de), Billinghurst, Tikki hit, Dirkbb, Ultafulta, Meters, Nick9494, Jaguar-laser, Falcon8765, Enviroboy, Vchimpanzee, Warispeace3, Wavehunter, JatRam, Nebraska bob, Neparis, Sjbodell, Arjun024, SieBot,Alessgrimal, EmperorWest, Calliopejen1, K. Annoyomous, Tresiden, Azazyel, Work permit, Paradoctor, Rickjung, Dawn Bard, Caltas,Cwkmail, RJaguar3, Yintan, Arindam.mukherjee, Tanmaya cs, Keilana, Sunny910910, Bentogoa, Flyer22, Radon210, Alexbrn, Nmk-mathan, Speekmonkey, Oda Mari, Mbhangui, Antonio Lopez, Faradayplank, Srikrish32, Lightmouse, Mahbubcsedu, WingkeeLEE, Ho-bartimus, Alex.muller, Mkeranat, Mattmango, Branstu, Spartan-James, Chanceedwards, Capitalismojo, Kiru patel27, Susan118, Super-beecat, Mangastanpaul, Rlest, TheCatalyst31, ImageRemovalBot, CabronUnit, Davidkehr, Faithlessthewonderboy, Bomber Jacket Bill,Church, Bobtheevilhorse, ClueBot, Snigbrook, Ggirl22, Foxj, Deanlaw, The Thing That Should Not Be, Asifniz, RWardy, E-online,EoGuy, Ndenison, Cygnis insignis, Liuzhou, Drmies, Mild Bill Hiccup, Rakeshsumit, Soaringbear, Niceguyedc, Hermionemma, Blan-chardb, Sailujan723, Auntof6, Yogeshzambare, DragonBot, Dr. B. R. Lang, Takeaway, Sanrid, Excirial, Jusdafax, GCO17145, Robbie098,LOLFGT, Eeekster, Leonard^Bloom, Sun Creator, Grey Matter, Bhuvanesh123, Lalitstar, Arjayay, Peter.C, Nvvchar, Rrinsindika, Dx-ism, Sergant spamblocker, Razorflame, Sketetor, Dbasa, H4ckz0rwikip3dia, ChrisHodgesUK, La Pianista, Rui Gabriel Correia, Thingg,Petermichaelwakeling, Goldy locks luver, Retardedchickenwing, Mythdon, Xian englund, SoxBot III, SherAbdul8, Biff MaGriff, Chhe,Alexmaco, Mandeep 619, Zam640, XLinkBot, Mariogillespie, Fastily, Dsvyas, Jed 20012, Roxy the dog, Huggle, Vlachj, Imagine Reason,

13.2 Images 11

Rror, Dthomsen8, 1ifes4v3r, Anturiaethwr, WikHead, A junaid alam khan, AlexNebraska, Alexius08, Foreverknowledge, MystBot, Wy-att915, Aucassin, Addbot, Raiseapply, Some jerk on the Internet, Storm95, Alixh, Jojhutton, Yuvaram, Queenmomcat, Metagraph, C3r4,Fieldday-sunday, Vishnava, Leszek Jańczuk, Skyezx, Download, PranksterTurtle, Monkeyfruit, Chimpchunk1, Sarvagyana guru, Favonian,Foreman 53, Reedmich,West.andrew.g, Mf93, Enthu contributor, Shekure, VASANTH S.N., Tide rolls, Lightbot, Jan eissfeldt, कोल्हापुरी,Mirza Barlas, Gail, Emperor Genius, Mangoluvr, Frehley, PinkFloydFan94, Eat a Mango, Drpickem, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Themfromspace,Wpell, Fraggle81, TaBOT-zerem, Legobot II, Julia W, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Xiongnuchanyu, Wikipedian2, Nirvana888, Mmxx, THENWHO WAS PHONE?, Madzilde, QueenCake, KamikazeBot, Knownot, MacTire02, Kalarimaster, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Nutriveg,Oskulo, Andrick888, Killiondude, Jim1138, IRP, Piano non troppo, Nujynnek, AdjustShift, Apau98, Human4321, It labs, Materialscien-tist, Paranormal Skeptic, TheTechieGeek63, JaKi27, Citation bot, Pomeapplepome, Skdeewan, Frankenpuppy, Neurolysis, ArthurBot,LovesMacs, LilHelpa, Apenrules, Bobbyjoe101, Xqbot, Ali944rana, Greg e 91, Addihockey10, Capricorn42, Gigemag76, Nasnema,Acebulf, DSisyphBot, Moderntamil, Roy.samarendra, Jash121, Bear8it, Ed8r, Rezowan, அருநாடன்2, Shirik, Zefr, Fgjhfgj, Amaury,Vaishali2, Pranav011, Radiantenergy, Rajvaddhan, Wōdenhelm, Etchemzee, Shadowjams, Tophat13, Jarrett319, Oriolus, Ellenois, Fruithero, Cekli829, Smrt320, Rockangle47, Doroxxx, FrescoBot, 94ryanh, Anna Roy, Stephen1017, NiceHotShower, MusicInTheHouse,StaticVision, Recognizance, Burningtoad, MADaboutforests, Sumankv, Ryanh1994, SmackdownFan001, Craig Pemberton, Burrough93,Hasiru, Tetraedycal, Jtrain957, My bro died, Lilaac, Mp3digitalplayer123, OgreBot, Cosmo2593, Intelligentsium, Plantmeister, Sonickart,DrilBot, SpacemanSpiff, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Peroxwhy2gen, Elockid, Edderso, Cosmic Engine, Dantes Pheonix, Magoshago-lago, Calmer Waters, Drelusis, Number Googol, Piandcompany, Meaghan, Tamilan101, Reconsider the static, Saif.shef, Elekhh, FoxBot,Kylemaddens, TobeBot, Krishnachaitanyasadula, OWAIS NAEEM, Jonkerz, Joke1234567890, Lotje, Callanecc, Vikrantkatoch, Vrena-tor, Extra999, Weedgarden, Ychavez2003, Ahmed saade, TRYPPN, Umesh119, Medicherla, Reaper Eternal, Glorioussandwich, Sea-horseruler, Boricuamark, TarenShaw, Praveenkrs, Linguisticgeek, Athene cheval, Tbhotch, Reach Out to the Truth, DancingBrucey,DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Ashwinsbhat, Obsidian Soul, Sparkthecat, Mean as custard, Mangoshake90, RjwilmsiBot, Santultown, Recnalew,Salh474, TjBot, Ripchip Bot, Regancy42, DRAGONBOOSTER,Mangotango4ever, Gogogoa, Binoyjsdk, Tegan600, EmausBot, Dmytrobua, WikitanvirBot, Luiz.bortolan, Goooogler, Akjar13, Anshuman.jrt, Ramon FVelasquez, Tompepper, RA0808, Hieronymus Lex, Dan-nyruss13, Mrs. bourji, Solarra, Slightsmile, Tommy2010, Jorgesca, Karthik1905, Thaumaturgist, Joepacheco, Thecheesykid, Bmella24,HiW-Bot, ZéroBot, BigZ3553, Fæ, Srikumarsc, Traxs7, Shuipzv3, NicatronTg, Oveeja, Sarahhhx3, Samg13, Hazard-SJ, A930913,Jamba135, Masoodarif, Metabrarian, H3llBot, Hive666, Nherold92, Caspertheghost, Wayne Slam, OnePt618, SubZero..Vighu.., Noex-cuses1, Tolly4bolly, Erianna, Videobrain, Harrybrowne1986, Bengalsman2222222224545436346356, VAMANA07, Globepay, George-Barnick, Fishcat92, Fwipo, Rostz, L Kensington, NachoTheTrekkie, Gssgouda, Impro, Lesto101, Donner60, Vsmuthu, Thesaakaja, The-unitofb, Niyamax, ChuispastonBot, Jambolik, Ila Desai, Roei.tabak, Cold surfer, TYelliot, DASHBotAV, Rocketrod1960, Gkinter2000,Ahmad Nauman, ClueBot NG, Smtchahal, Rassilon123, MitchMcM, Echief1, Mattwilis09, LogX, Lepota, Edouard Albert, Pepis3,GoldenGlory84, Teepusultan, Kaidendos9, Aksha67, Widr, GlassLadyBug, Karl 334, Mohd. Toukir Hamid, Anupmehra, Jtrain95777,MerlIwBot, Tawfiqhashemgoussous, Helpful Pixie Bot, 21olp, Fonzieisawsome, ?oygul, AnsarParacha, Zinger556, Msmclear, Titodutta,Davi1109, Ram.kulkarni, S17584, DBigXray, Wikipedirice, Plantdrew, Shadrd, AtefY, Gluonman, Fernando Lopez Anido, Gurt Posh,Matěj Suchánek, MKar, Nikolaiemmanuel, NJasonSmith01, Keyur nitc, Mangoman246, LittleMiss342, ProjectManhattan, Declangi, Mis-leadnot, ANOOP.PUTHUR, Cyberpower678, TheGeneralUser, Frze, Penguindash1, Rdavies434, L435534l, Jahnavisatyan, Compfreak7,Silvrous, Jhfjdhfjhsdfkd, Joydeep, Altaïr, Snow Blizzard, NotWith, Granateple, United States Man, Yodog929, Earendil56, Klilidiplo-mus, Achowat, Shisha-Tom, PsiEpsilon, Krithikapineapple99, Anbu121, Nitrobutane, Hopeoflight, Zaza224, Hardik sawant, Makeu-pagent, MangoMania69, Shekar2548, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, Aliwal2012, Mediran, Yaratam, Miguel raul, StringDTD, Avisbliss,Timelezz, Uday9852, Qskb, Delljvc, Samudrakula, Info.abhishek, Lugia2453, Frosty, HullIntegrity, The Anonymouse, Rivertorch’s EvilTwin, 069952497a, Reatlas, Purplecow96, Anuj52225, Shillumama, Supathugg, NILESHAKABRI, Eca265, Jodibus, Melonkelon, Shake-abishek, Mirdan, Tentinator, Hendrick 99, Jakec, Ukie214, EvergreenFir, ASIF RAZA786, Philvegetarian, DavidLeighEllis, Mangogirl1,Qaz2467, Quinn711, Rajashivaz, Teddywilson33, Kvineet, Ugog Nizdast, Kota666, Ninjamuffin69, Disneylover16, Ibrahim Husain Meraj,AfadsBad, Jackmcbarn, NutrientGirl, Noyoun Ujjaman, HalfGig, Kuasha210, Pragyashah28, Gopakumar.u, Ashishtan, Kosovohp05, Cre-ativeme, Twilight vertu, Fartknocker1323, TsukiKanade, Bernardp1112, Aqaqa, Avteware, Tcmefruit, Magicloveisintheair, Writers Bond,Amalshaji27, Savvyjack23, Monkbot, Fafforfuff, Filedelinkerbot, ThatCheesyTroll, Rakeshyashroy, EnergyMatter, Prakashchandra55555,JoeMCarter, Jkauff, 69cakes, Nimrainayat6290, Mistamazzen, Cheesehead123456, Anupama.sheel, Avvvakurrka123, Instrumentier, Ok-tablemaker, ChamithN, Rover1973, Livthecarrot, Africanmango1 and Anonymous: 1651

13.2 Images• File:Alphonso_mango.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Alphonso_mango.jpg License: Public domainContributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: G patkar at en.wikipedia

• File:Apple_mango_and_cross_section_edit1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Apple_mango_and_cross_section_edit1.jpg License: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Muhammad Mahdi Karim (www.micro2macro.net)Facebook Youtube

• File:Coat_of_Arms_of_the_Philippines.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Philippines.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.op.gov.ph/museum/symbols_coa.asp Original artist: Vectorized byZachary Harden (User:Zscout370).

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

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12 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Flag_of_Indonesia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: Law: s:id:Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 24 Tahun 2009 (http://badanbahasa.kemdiknas.go.id/lamanbahasa/sites/default/files/UU_2009_24.pdf) Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, rewritten by User:Gabbe

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• File:Flag_of_Thailand.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg License: Public domainContributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370

• File:Flag_of_the_People’{}s_Republic_of_China.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/eng/n_flag/design.html Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370

• File:Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg License:Public domain Contributors: The design was taken from [1] and the colors were also taken from a Government website Original artist:User:Achim1999

• File:Flavor_chemicals_of_\char"0022\relax{}Alphonso\char"0022\relax{}_mango.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Flavor_chemicals_of_%22Alphonso%22_mango.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Originalartist: Ram

• File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

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• File:Green_Mango_Rezowan.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Green_Mango_Rezowan.JPG Li-cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Rezowan

• File:MangoImmatureFruits.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/MangoImmatureFruits.JPG License:GFDL Contributors: Photograph taken by a digital camera Original artist: Ram Kulkarni

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