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8/14/2019 Managerial Learning.pdf
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8/14/2019 Managerial Learning.pdf
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[305 ]
Richard Teare
Supporting managerial
learning in the workplace
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
9/7 [1997] 304314
realityofthemiddlemanagersownworld.
Inordertocaptureownworldrealities,
McKennaadvocatestheuseofacomplexity
map.Thecomplexitymapseekstoportray
apersonalizedviewofrealityforeachpar-
ticipantattendingtheforumandasnapshot
ofhowtheirlearningneedsarewovenintoit
andmightbededucedfromit.Inparticular,
themaphelpstoidentifysomeoftheper-
sonalparadigmsandassumptionsthatneed
tobechallengedinordertostretchthe
participant.Insodoing,themapprovidesa
basisforactionbydepictingthereality-
basedrealplaysthatconfront
participants,togetherwiththepatternsand
interrelationshipsonwhichtheyneedtoact
inordertoleveragepersonaldevelopment
andbusinessimprovementgainsfromthe
complexitiesthatsurroundthem.Thisform
ofcognitivemappingoffersadynamicand
personalizedmeansofenablingmanagers
toassesstheircurrentcapabilitiesandlearningneeds.Setinthecontextofa
generativelearningforum,itprovidesa
diagnostictoolforself-managedlearning
anddevelopment.
Dixon(1995a,1995b)relatesastudyofpriva-
tizedfirmstotheculturechangeneededto
releasethepotentialofmiddlemanagers
workinginnewlyprivatizedorganizations.
Sheoutlinesherfindingswithreferenceto
theviewsofmanagersontheneedto:invest
ineducationandtraining;create,translate
andsharethenewstrategicvision;estab-
lishconstructivechannelsforcommunicat-
ingwithseniormanagers;developincentives
andrewards;andbreakwithtraditionby
encouragingmiddlemanagerstoinitiateand
lead.Dixonobservesthat:Theoverwhelm-
ingdemandfrommiddlemanagerswasfor
theorganizationtoinvestineducationforall
levelsofemployee.Therewasanimplication
thattheorganizationneededtobecreativein
thetypeoftrainingandeducationprovided
asthetraditionalapproacheswerenolonger
appropriate(Dixon,1995b,p.11).
Mumford(1994)examinestheproposition
thatmanagerslearninhindsightbyreview-ingtheexperiencestheyhavehadand,less
frequently,learnbyidentifyinginadvance
howtouseopportunitiesforlearningasa
meansofself-development.Heusesevidence
TableI
Managerial learning and work
Authors Focus Sub-themeShenharandRenier Applies a modular approach to defining managerial work and roles Defining managerial
(1996) so that managers can assess the complexities of their own jobs and work
related development needs
Margerisonand Outlines the eight main types of work in organizations (advising, Preferences and
McCann(1996b) innovating, promoting, developing, organizing, producing, inspecting, managerial work
maintaining) and advocates self-profiling or work preferences so as to
understand and work effectively with others
Oshagbemi(1995) Discusses the nature and the reality of managerial work and how Managers use of
managers spend their time their time
Margerisonand Profiles five key communicat ion skil ls enquiring, diagnosing, Communicat ion
McCann(1996a) summarizing, proposing and directing. Relates these skills to either a skills and
problem-centred or solution-centred focus and describes a self - managerial work
assessment resource for use in personal and team development
Dixon(1995a, Summarizes a study undertaken in 46 privatized firms concerned with Middle
1995b) middle managers and their attitudes towards the culture change they management
had experienced during the privatization process potential and
development
Megginson(1994) Considers the challenges posed by helping managers to learn when Planned and
they are reluctant to take responsibility for the direction of their own emergent
development or seem unable to learn from their own experiences managerial learning
Mumford(1994) Investigates how managers learn from experience with reference to Learning from
a study of 21 directors in 15 UK organizations and proposes four managerial
approaches (intuit ive, incidental, retrospective and prospective) experience
Barclay(1996) Emphasizes the value of real world experience in learning about Learning from
management especially interpersonal skills development, learning experience withabout ones organization and industry and learning how to manage learning logs
personal development and self-understanding
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[306 ]
Richard Teare
Supporting managerial
learning in the workplace
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
9/ 7 [1997] 304314
fromastudyconductedoverathree-month
periodbypersonalinterview,with21 direc-
torsfrom15UKorganizationstocharacterize
fourapproachestolearning.Thepurposeoftheinterviewswastodiscusstherespon-
dentsexperiencesatworkandwhattheyhad
learnedfromthemsoastoexplorehowthey
mightusealternativewaysofanalyzingexpe-
riencesandultimatelyenhancetheircapac-
itytolearnatwork.Thefourapproaches
definedbyMumfordare:
Theintuitiveapproach learningfrom
experience,butnotthroughaconscious
process.Learningordevelopmentalissues
arerarely,ifever,mentioned,asthis
approachseesmanagingandgoodbusiness
prac
tices
assynonymous
wi
thlea
rning.
Theincidentalapproach learningby
chancefromactivitiesthatpromptthe
individualtoreflectandreview.Typically,
thisincludesunusualoccurrencesand
plannedactivitieswithunanticipatedor
undesirableoutcomes.
Theretrospectiveapproach learningfrom
experiencebyreviewingwhathappened
andreachingconclusionsaboutit.
Promptedmainlybymishapsormistakes,
butthosewhousethisapproacharemore
inclinedtodrawlessonsfromunexpected
variances.
Theprospectiveapproach includesretro-spectivecomponentsandanelementof
planningtolearnbeforeaneventtakes
place.Here,futureeventsareseennot
merelyasthingstobesuccessfullycom-
pletedbutasopportunitiestolearn.
Mumfordadds:Individualsusingthis
approachareexpectantlearnerswiththeir
antennaeconstantlytunedintothepossi-
bilityoflearningfromawholevarietyof
experiences(p.6).
Theme2:coaching,mentoringandteamdevelopment
Thelearnersupportprovidedformanagers
whetheritbeindividualcoachingandmen-
toringorworkgrouprelated,playsaninte-
gralroleinworkplacelearning.TableIIlists
asetofsub-themesthatspans:theroleof
coachingindevelopingmanagers(including
theapplicationofsportscoachingtechniques
toteam-buildinginbusiness);mentoringand
otherformsoforganizationalsupport;learn-
ingandteamdevelopment;workgroup
dynamics;andlearningandcross-functional
teamdevelopment.
Phillips(1996)examinesthepossibilities
forusingcoachingasamanagementtooland
considersitspartinthemanagement
process.Heidentifiesanumberofapplica-
tionsandoutlinestherolesandresponsibili-
tiesofboththecoachandthosebeing
coached.Heseesflexibilityasthekeywith
thecoachactingasanenabler.Bloch(1995)
relatessoftskillsdevelopmentinthework-placetoenablingemployeestoachievetheir
potentialandsheusesevidencefromastudy
toemphasizetheperceivedvalueofinternal
coachingtoorganizations:Individualswhoaregivenownershipof
theirowndevelopmentandcareermanage-
mentareusuallymorehighlymotivated
thanthosewhosepathsaremappedoutfor
them.Yetthesurveyfoundthatonlyaround
one-thirdofthecompaniessurveyedencour-
agedindividualstotakeresponsibilityfor
theirowndevelopment.Overhalfsaidthe
developmentoffuturetopmanagersshould
bethe
join
tresponsibili
tyofthe
individual,hisorherlinemanager,andthecompany.
However,whatactuallyhappensinpractice
issometimesverydifferent.Asonerespon-
dentremarked:Responsibilityfordevelop-
mentismeanttobetripartite,butwespend
outlivestryingtogetthelinemanager
involved(pp.20-21).
Forretetal.(1996)reviewtheissuesinvolved
inthedevelopmentandimplementationofin-
companymentoringprogrammes,withrefer-
encetointerviewswithmanagersinfive
organizationswhohadestablishedtheirown
programmes.Scanduraetal.(1996)address
thequestion:Whydomentorsengageinmentoring?anddiscusstheroleofleader-
shipinthedevelopmentofleader-supported
mentoringprocesses.Theyofferanarrayof
insightsontheprocessofmentoringandthe
Figure1
Interrelationships between personal and organizational development
ability to understand,interpret and respondto the complexitiesand realities of theorganizational situation
Personal and professional development
Adding value tothe organization
Source:adapted from McKenna (1994, p. 9)
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[307 ]
Richard Teare
Supporting managerial
learning in the workplace
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
9/7 [1997] 304314
Richard Teare
Supporting managerial
learning in the workplace
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
9/ 7 [1997] 304314
rangeofrelationshipsthatneedmanagingif
theprogrammeistoyieldbenefitsformen-
tors,menteesandtheorganizationasawhole.Clawson(1996)presentsmentoringas
avaluableformofsocialdevelopmentand
raisesquestionsabouthowmentoringmight
beshapedbytheeraofelectroniccommuni-
cations.Heviewsmentoringasavitalsup-
portmechanismintheinformationageand
posesanumberofquestionsformentorsto
addressintheinformationage:
Howwillpeoplefindtheirprotgormen-
torcounterpartsinthenewera?Willthey
continuetoworkthroughface-to-facemeet-
ingsorwilltherebeforumssetuponthe
Internetlikethepersonaladcolumnsinnewspapers?
Howlongwilltheserelationshipslast?
(Withe-mailprovidingworldwidesupport,
thereisnoproximityreasonforbreaking
themoffwhenthementeeispromotedor
transferred).
Howcancompaniestakeadvantageofthenewtechnologiesandthenewinsights
aboutmentoringtofosterandencourage
healthy,workingdevelopmentalrelation-
shipsamongtheiremployees?
Howwillcross-culturalmentoringwork
out?Willtherebeearlyexamplestoencour-
ageandguidesubsequentgenerations?
Theme3:competences,manageriallearningandthecurriculum
Theextenttowhichworkplacelearningcan
beformalizedandevenmeasuredinrelationtospecificoutcomesisconsideredhere.Table
IIIdepictsanarrayofsub-themesrelatingto:
theattainmentofcorecompetencesandtheir
relationshiptoindividualperformance;open
TableII
Coaching, mentoring and team development
Authors Focus Sub-themeBloch(1995) Reports that 14 respondents ( from a survey of 39 firms) c ited The role o f
internal coaching as a key method used to develop managers; coaching in
more t han 25 per c ent of t he sample w ere using ex ternal developing
consultants as mentors managers
McNutt andWright Observes numerous parallels between sport and business and Applies sport s
(1995) suggests that the methods used by successful sports coaches might coaching
be used to improve employee performance techniques to
team-building in
business
VealeandWachtel Describes Coca-Cola Foods coaching and mentoring programmes An integrated
(1996) and relates mentoring to human resource development strategy approach to
coaching and
mentoring
Forret,Turbanand Provides a how to overview on the steps involved in setting-up a A practical guide
Dougherty(1996) mentoring programme and outlines the benefits of such a programme to mentoring
for the organization and for the mentees and mentors
Booth(1996) Contrasts mentoring with typical employee/manager relationships Mentoring and
and considers the advantages and disadvantages and how gender other forms of
influences the mentoring process with reference to a case study of organizational
two supervisory mentoring relationships relations
BeebyandSimpson Describes a non-prescriptive means of assisting managers to recognize Cognitive mapping
(1995) and work on change issues. The approach uses a cognitive mapping and learner
technique to draw on the experiences of managers and to define development
causal problems and appropriate responses
Strachan(1996) Reviews the organizational l iterature and ident ifies the ro le of Learning andteamworking in building a learning organization team development
Kur(1996) Depicts patterns of team behaviour using a series of temperaments. Work group
Reflects the dynamic qual it ies o f groups of individuals working dynamics and
separately and interact ing together to achieve ag reed tasks learning
Proehl(1996) Reviews the effectiveness of cross-functional teams in tackling Cross-functional
broad-scale organizat ional problems. Ident ifies some of the team development
difficulties in sustaining cross-functional team effort and considers
the implications for team development
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Richard Teare
Supporting managerial
learning in the workplace
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
9/ 7 [1997] 304314
anddistancelearninginmanagement;self-
managedlearning;relatingmanagement
developmenttocurrentandfutureneeds;
universityandcommunitylearning
networks;thefutureorientationofMBA
programmesandrelatingcoursedesigntoorganizationallearning.
LaneandRobinson(1995)reportonastudy
undertakenonbehalfoftheManagement
CharterInitiative(MCI).Thestudysoughtto
determinethemainareasofdecisiontaking
andactionwhichareofstrategicimportance
toorganizationsandneedtobeimplemented
effectively.
Theseare:
Understandingandinfluencingtheenviron-
ment.Identifyingandevaluatingopportuni-
tiesandthreatsorobstaclesfortheorgani-
zationinrelationtoitsinternalandexter-nalenvironments.
Settingthestrategyandgainingcommit-
ment.Contributionstodevelopingand
communicatingthemission,objectives,
Figure2
Cyc le of key strategic act ions and decisions
Evaluating and improving
Planning and monitoring
Interpreting the environment
Devising strategy
Source:adapted from Lane and Robinson (1995, p. 7)
TableIII
Competences, managerial learning and the curriculum
Authors Focus Sub-themeLaneandRobinson Reviews aspects of the management charter init iative (MCI) and Competences for
(1995) its aim of establishing standards of good practice for managers in managers
the UK
Ashton(1996) Repor ts on how Holiday Inn Worldw ide has implement ed C ore compet enc es
competency-based human resource strategies which provide a and individual
direct link between individual performance and business objectives performance
Davies (1996) Surveys the literature on open and distance learning (includes Open and distance
flexible, self-paced and resource-based learning) and identifies a learning in
gap that might be partially filled by a more comprehensive model of management
open learning in management development
King (1996) Describes IKEAs self-managed learning programme which is being Self-managed
used to support its expansion plans and to strengthen its competitive learning
position
Kilcourse(1995) Decries the rapid proliferation of business schools and asserts that Relating
dynamic, continuous change poses new challenges for managers, management
requiring a different form of manag ement development development to
current and future
needs
Critten(1996) Makes a case for a new kind of partnership between universities and University and
their local communities within which organizat ional as wel l as community learning
individual learning can be recognized, developed and accredited networks
Carnall(1995) Examines the changes which are likely to occur in MBA programmes The future
during the coming decade. Predicts that the third generation MBA orientation of
will place more emphasis on the learning process than its curriculum MBA programmes
and contentZuber-Skerritt (1995) Explores ideas and issues related to management education and Relating course
development for the new learning organization and presents an design to
example of a course design for experienced managers which is organizational
work-based learning
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[311 ]
Richard Teare
Supporting managerial
learning in the workplace
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
9/7 [1997] 304314
traditionalbusinesscurriculum,adynamicsyllabusforwork-basedaction
learningseekstoaddressspecific,relevant
questionsfortheorganizationanditsmem-
bers,ratherthanfollowingaprescribed,
staticlistoftopics.Adynamiccurriculum
guidesindividualstodrawfromthebodyof
knowledgeandanarrayofothersources
(suchascompanyliteratureandothercon-
textualizedinformation).Dilworth(1996)sees
aneedtointerrelateacademicandworkplace
domainsandarguesthatbyaddressingeither
domaininrelativeexclusionfromtheother
riskscreatingaworkplacecontextwhere
learnersareabletograspreal-worldprob-
lemsbutlacktheunderlyingacademic
knowledgetosolvethem.
Limericketal.(1994)considerthecharac-
teristicsofanactionlearningorganizationin
termsofitsbiasforreflection-in-action,for-
mationoflearningalliances,developmentof
externalnetworks,multiplerewardsystems,
thecreationofmeaningfulinformation,indi-
vidualempowerment,leadershipandvision.
Theyconcludethattheknowledge-generating
organizationthatengagesinthesekindsof
activitiesismorelikelytobeabletosurvive
inturbulentmarketconditions.McNultyandCanty(1995)foreseethat
tomorrowsmanagerswillhavebe:simul-
taneouslyandconsecutivelyspecialistsand
generalists,teamplayersandself-reliant,able
tothinkforthemselvesasabusinessofoneandplanaccordingly.Theybelievethatto
succeed,managerswillhavetocommitthem-
selvestoalifelonglearningcareer,atthe
heartofwhichwillbe:knowingonesself
andknowingwhatonehastoofferinthede-
jobbedmarketplace.Thisnewemphasis
demandsdifferentkindsofdevelopment
programmes:thosewhichemphasizelearn-
ingnotteaching,actionnottheoryandbusi-
nessresultsnotclassroomresults.
WillsandOliver(1996)describehowaction
learningsfocusoncompany-specificissues
makesiteasiertoreviewthehardreturn
oninvestmentfortheenterprise.Theycon-
cludethattraininganddevelopmentman-
agerscanandshouldmeasurethevalue
addedbyevaluatingtheorganizationaland
financialimpactoftheirownorganizations
investmentinmanagementeducation.Inso
doing,theyfeelthatabudgetarilysupport-
ivecultureismorelikelytoemerge.This
approachwouldalsohelptohighlightthe
rangeofsofterpersonalbenefitsderivedby
individualparticipants.Theseinclude:
changedbehaviours,growthinconfidence
andlearningfromfellowmembersofthe
smallactionlearninggrouporset.PetersandSmith(1996)alsoconsiderwaysofachieving
thebestreturnonalearninginvestment.
Theysuggestthattheorganizationshould
identifyitsself-motivated,high-potential
TableIV
Work-based action learning
Authors Focus Sub-themeHarrison(1996) Crit ically examines the concepts of action learning (AL) and the Using action
learning organization and concludes that AL offers the potential learning in the
to develop strategic awareness and thinking even in turbulent learning
environmental conditions organization
Chan(1994) Relates an act ion learners experience of act ion research and Relat ing act ion
discusses how AL and action research deliver a balance of knowledge research to
and action, academic rigour and managerial relevance managerial
development
Reeves (1996) Compares two companies use of action learning, one primarily for Action learning
individual staff development, and a second where action learnings and its impact on
questioning, problem-solving ethos had pervaded corporate life corporate culture
Howell(1994) Presents a case study of the International Management Centres Using action
(IMC) and shows that its graduate managers can operationalize AL learning and
and action research to bring about organizational, professional and research skills in
personal development as wel l as product iv it y improvements the workplace
Mumford(1996) Identifies a gap in the current literature on action learning re: drawing Contributions from
contributions from set members as distinct from facilitators. Offers the learning set in
a method that might be used to overcome this bias action learning
Wills andOliver Report on a four-year impact analysis of act ion learning MBA Measuring return
(1996) programmes. The findings reveal an array of benefits for employing on investment from
organizations and show that individual managers gained a variety management
of soft benefits education
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[314 ]
Richard Teare
Supporting managerial
learning in the workplace
International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality
Management
9/ 7 [1997] 304314
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potentialstaff:anactionlearningapproach,
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Phillips,R.(1996),Coachingforhigherperfor-
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Pierce,C.,HannonP.andWilson,L.(1995),The
standardsofcompetenceforseniormanage-
ment:fieldtestresults,ExecutiveDevelop-
ment,Vol.8 No.6,pp9-12.
Proehl,R.A.(1996),Enhancingtheeffectiveness
ofcross-functionalteams,Leadership&
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Reeves,T.(1996),Roguelearningonthecompany
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Scandura,T.A.,Tejeda,M.J.,Werther,W.B.and
Lankau,M.J.(1996),Perspectivesonmentor-
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Shenhar,A.J.andRenier,J.(1996),Howtodefine
management:amodularapproach,Manage-
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pp25-31.
Strachan,P.A.(1996),Managingtransforma-
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teamworking,TeamPerformanceManage-
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Veale,D.J.andWachtel,J.M.(1996),Mentoring
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