Manabe - Representing Japan

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Representing Japan: national

style among Japanese hip-hop DJsN O R I K O M A N A B EDepartment of Music, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08540, USAE-mail:[email protected]

Abstract

Based on ethnographic interviews, this paper examines how Japanese hip-hop DJs distinguish

themselves in the global marketplace in ways that reflect on Japans two self-images: its impene-

trable uniqueness and its adeptness at assimilating other cultures (cf. Ivy, Iwabuchi). Followingthe autoexoticist strategies of Takemitsu and Akiyoshi, DJ Krush and Shing02 draw on

Japanese uniqueness by integrating Japanese instruments (e.g. shakuhachi, shamisen, taiko),genres (biwa narrative), and aesthetics (ma, imperfection) into their works; Evis Beats takes amore parodic approach. At the DMC World Championships, Japanese DJs including DJ Kentarhave competed on the basis of eclecticism and originality in assimilating multiple sound sources.While countering the stereotype of the Japanese as imitators, this emphasis on originality may

place some contestants too far from prevailing trends, putting them at a disadvantage. Both strat-egies imply that Japanese artists experience anxieties regarding their authenticity, necessitatingstrategies to differentiate themselves.

Since the beginning of Westernisation in the mid-1800s, Japanese musicians haveavidly adopted a variety of foreign genres, including Western concert music, jazz,rock, salsa and hip-hop. However, apart from some notable exceptions, many ofthem have had difficulty in gaining recognition in the West, particularly in NorthAmerica. Although the Japanese have been playing these genres for decades, oneencounters with regularity Western writers who assume that Japanese musiciansare mere imitators who are uncreative and inauthentic, able to capture the technique

but not the soul of these genres. Take, for example, English writer GarrySharpe-Youngs description of Japanese heavy metal in Metal: The Definitive Guide

(emphases mine):Critics pointed towards alack of feelingin the music, perhaps betraying alack of blues foundation.While Japanese guitar gurus could match and outstrip their Western counterparts, it oftenseemed that their technicality masked a dearth of true passion. Somehow, it seemed that the

Japanese had been able toemulate and expand the heavy metal formula, but somehow failedto get the gut instinct and individuality that was the very heart and soul of it . . . the Eastremains anenigma. (Sharpe-Young2007, p. 408)

However, the same author views this lack of blues foundation and coldness aspositives for German metal:

. . .

what set German metal apart was a strictnon-reliance on the blues. . .

[The Germans] naturalaptitude and fondness for heavy industry meant that Teutonic metal was as cold andunforgivingas it could get. (Sharpe-Young2007, p. 332)

Popular Music (2013) Volume 32/1. Cambridge University Press 2013, pp. 3550

doi:10.1017/S0261143012000530

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Similarly, Atkins (2001) and Condry (2006) provide many examples of dismis-sive commentary regarding the authenticity of Japanese jazz and hip-hop artists.

Why are Japanese artists prone to accusations of inauthenticity and inferiority,evidently more so than European artists performing foreign styles? One answer liesin the Wests persistent perception of Japan as a perpetual Other. Marilyn Ivy cites a

Time article describing Japan as

exclusive, homogeneous,. . .

tribalas evidence thatAmericans perceive Japan as culturally not modern (Ivy 1995, p. 2). Moreover,

Japan is complicit in this exoticised view, as it cherishes its own image of uniqueness,thereby living up to its difference; it also revels in its image as the master assimilator,taking in foreign cultures yet retaining its cultural core (Iwabuchi 1994, 2002; Ivy1995, pp. 1, 9). Hence, when the Japanese adopt Western cultural forms, the Westsees a mimicking people who are almost, but not quite, Western, to paraphraseHomi Bhabha (1987). They are continually playing catch-up: as Atkins explains,

Japanese jazz artists, by virtue of their different ethnicity, are placed on a lowerrung of aesthetic hierarchy, because jazz is considered to be American (Atkins2001, p. 11). Even Japanese critics including the artists themselves critique

Japanese jazz and hip-hop as being inauthentic and inferior to American perform-ances (Atkins2001; Condry2006).

Coupled with these issues is the idea that the Western marketplace prefers tosee non-Western artists providing exotic cultural products rather than their unco-loured rendition of a globalised genre (Stokes 2004). Often, the musicians whohave incorporated the textures, timbres, scales and aesthetic principles of traditional

Japanese music which many non-Japanese identify with pre-20th century genresinvolving the shakuhachi [Japanese end-blown flute] or shamisen [Japanesethree-stringed instrument], or festival-related taiko drums1 have garnered themost attention internationally; Japanese composers Yamada Ksaku and

Takemitsu Tru, or jazz musician Akiyoshi Toshiko (Atkins 2001), come to mind.2Indeed, autoexoticism has historically been a successful strategy for composers out-side Western Europe, such as Chopin, Albniz, Piazzolla and Tan Dun (Locke2009;Born and Hesmondhalgh2000).

In addition, Japanese artists have achieved success by projecting an imagealong expected stereotypes, often ironically. In the late 1970s the members ofYellow Magic Orchestra orientalised themselves under the hyper-technocratic stereo-type of Japanese; the video for Firecracker, their electronic cover of Martin Dennysexotica (1959), features visions of giant cranes and laser-lit pagodas, while that forTechnopolis shows spaceships landing in a futuristic, neon-lit Ginza.3 Similarly,

the hip-hop unit Geisha Girls two men dressed as geisha played on stereotypesof Japanese held abroad (Yasuda 2000, p. 54). Other performers have played on

Japanese cuteness (e.g. Puffy AmiYumi) or been received by fans as such (e.g.Shnen Knife) while Matsuzaki Satomi of the San Francisco band Deerhoof hasincorporated Japanese words and tais [Japanese group exercise] moves into herperformance.

In vocal genres like rock or rap, Japanese artists must choose between perform-ing in Japanese making their music difficult to understand for non-Japanese audi-ences or in English, in which they may not be fluent. This language barrier maycontribute to the stereotypes attributed to some performers. But with no such barrier

to overcome for their music to be appreciated, Japanese hip-hop DJs and producerswould seem relatively better positioned for international stardom. Indeed,DJ-producers such as DJ Krush and DJ Kentar have established large cadres of

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overseas fans, while others have bases abroad, such as DJ Tatsuki in London or DJHonda in New York. These DJs have collaborated, as producers and performers,with African-American artists such as the Roots and the Pharcyde; there is mutualadmiration between DJs in Japan and those in the West, such as the friendship

between DJ Muro and Pete Rock (Rock, pers. commun.). Furthermore, Japanese turn-

tablists such as DJ Kentar

, DJ Co-ma, DJ Akakabe and the duo Kireek have beenplaced at the top in DMC World competitions perhaps the most recognised inter-national tournament of hip-hop and electronic dance turntablists.

In building their overseas reputations, these DJ-producers have engaged indifferent strategies. DJ Krush has incorporated Japanese instruments and aestheticsin some of his works, in a path reminiscent of the aural nationalism of Takemitsuor Akiyoshi. On the other hand, DJ Kentar having catapulted to fame throughthe DMC World Competition has built on ber-performance, based on virtuosity,eclecticism and originality. As with Japanese musicians in other genres, both strat-egies reflect to borrow Du Boiss term a multiple consciousness of facingforeigners expectations of Japanese balanced against the preferences of the

Japanese audience, awareness of global trends in hip-hop, and the performersown national pride and musical strengths.

Based on ethnographic interviews with the artists, coupled with musical analy-sis, this paper explores the aesthetics of Japanese DJs, considering how Japanese DJshave positioned themselves overseas and defined a nationalstyle. Firstly, I considerthe incorporation of the Japanese soundscape in hip-hop tracks, exploring the motiv-ations of the artists and identifying the existence of Japanese aesthetics through musi-cal analysis. I contrast this strategy against that of Japanese DJs at the DMC WorldChampionships, which requires virtuosity rather than obviously nationalisticsounds.

Japaneseness in DJ-ing

DJ Krush (n Ishi Hideaki, b. 1962) is considered one of the pioneers of hip-hop inJapan. Born into a working-class family in Tokyo, he had been working in the under-world (Bojko2007) when he saw the movieWild Stylein 1983, which inspired him to

become a hip-hop DJ. Beginning by performing in Tokyos Yoygi Park on Sundays,he formed the Krush Posse with DJ Muro and other artists in 1987. As a solo artistfrom 1992 onwards, Krush gained attention for using the turntable as a live instru-

ment, trading licks onstage with musicians. Known for his atmospheric tracks, hehas garnered an international fan base and is perhaps Japans best-known DJ.Since the release of his first album Krush in 1994, he has released eight albums andseveral remix albums.

During his first tours overseas in the early 1990s, journalists kept asking Krushwhy he was not incorporating traditional Japanese music into his sets. Heresponded that it was simply not the music of his environment.

It wasnt the music Id been listening to since I was a kid. We never listened to shakuhachi,shamisen, or other traditional Japanese music at home. We listened to Westernised music,like kaykyoku [Japanese popular song in Western style] and anime songs. If I had featured

traditional Japanese music in my tracks just because Im Japanese I would have felt thatI was lying to myself. People overseas think that all Japanese listen to such musicconstantly. But since I hadnt been listening to it, to bring out Japanese music in capital

Representing Japan: nationalstyle among hip-hop DJs 37



letters, just because Im Japanese, would have been very obnoxious right? So I didnt wantto use Japanese music. I was embarrassed to do it. Very embarrassed. (DJ Krush, pers.commun.)4

The turning point was his collaboration with African-American rapper C.L. Smooth,5

Only the Strong Survive, included on Krushs album Meiso (Meditation, 1995).

Sensing that the track needed another sound to complete it, Krush claims headded a shakuhachi because its timbre matched Smooths voice.6 He also felt aneed to differentiate himself:

I didnt want to imitate American hip-hoppers. If I came up with a sound that was no differentfrom the American one, the American audience would definitely not appreciate it. On the otherhand, if I could return a track with a sound from traditional Japanese music, it would be inkeeping with the philosophy of representing in hip-hop.

Of all the Japanese sounds, I thought that the shakuhachi was most fitting, with its senseof ma [the Japanese aesthetic of space]. I thought it would command more attention fromAmerican hip-hoppers. It was the first time I had worked with an American rapper, and Iwanted to produce something that left a ripple in the water. (DJ Krush, pers. commun.)

This experience encouraged Krush to continue experimenting with Japanese soundsand aesthetics. He explains his change in stance as follows:

In going to various countries, and in learning about different genres of music, I ended uptaking another look at Japan. When youre in Japan, you cant see your own fields so well.But when you leave your country, you start to see the good and the bad of the place moreobjectively. So I came to believe that if I thought the music of my own country was good, Ishould study it, listen to its many types, and absorb it.

I listened to the shakuhachi as if my life depended on it, trying to figure out why it hadthat atmosphere, that sense of space. I listened to the shamisen a lot, too. I also started to

listen to older Japanese jazz, when the artists tried to combine traditional Japanesemusic with jazz. I realised that many people before me had tried to do what I am trying todo. Jazz players were also experimenting with Japanese instruments. (DJ Krush, pers.commun.)

Krushs discovery of his Japanese roots following time spent abroad echoes theexperiences of other autoexoticising composers such as Takemitsu, whose interestin incorporating Japanese music was stimulated, among other influences, by JohnCage; as he recounted, . . . for a long period I struggled to avoid being Japanese,to avoid Japanese qualities. It was largely through my contact with John Cagethat I came to recognise the value of my own tradition (Narazaki and Kanazawa

2002).

Simulating heterophony

Krush subsequently released three albums that made extensive use of Japanese aes-thetics and instruments. The first, Kakusei (Awakening, 1998), not only sampled

Japanese instruments such as theshakuhachi, shamisen andkoto [Japanese zither], butalso employed aesthetics reminiscent of Japanese music. As with many Asian musics,traditional Japanese music is played heterophonically, where each voice or instrument

plays a variation of a basic melody; performers need not be in synchronisation witheach other instead anticipating or lagging behind other voices nor be in perfecttune with one another.

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DJ Krush often achieves a similar aesthetic by juxtaposing sampled musicalloops of different timelines. In Kakusei, Krush experiments with small differencesin timing. As he claims:

I displace timing on purpose. I totally aim for it. I m sure if someone who doesnt know listensto it, theyll think theres something wrong [laughs]. I really like this sort of slight slippage in

timing when its slipping, but it works. The music sometimes goes this way [he leans to oneside] and then back [he returns upright]. These slight differences give off a sensation thatchanges the landscape of the music, if you listen closely. . . . Much of regular hip-hop isprecisely looped. But sometimes, its more interesting to have that bit of slippage, as if youwere being pulled in another direction. . . . I wanted to conduct these types of experimentswith sound to see, using hip-hop as a base, the variety of scenes I could paint with music.(DJ Krush, pers. commun.)

In Parallel Distortion Krush displaces the loops of several instruments from oneanother the steady drum beat, the opening string-like riff, and an echoing high-pitched sound. In Deltaforest he places a synthesised sound reminiscent of geese

on a different timeline from the rest of the rhythm track. Perhaps the most extremeexample is Interlude, where he overlays a drum beat and heavily reverberated gui-tar line, at 80 bpm (beats per minute; Figure 1), on a shamisen melody at 100 bpm(Figure 2). As the former loop is four measures long while the latter is five, their

beginnings coincide; however, because of the conflicts in tempo, theshamisensoundsas if it is floating freely.

Krush has also experimented with changing the timing within a particular loop,particularly on Kakusei. For example, he would take a 4/4 drum beat and make thethird beat come in slightly early: For every song on that album, I looked at thecrack between drumbeats with a microscope and made music. . . . Im really inter-ested in seeing to what extent I can crush existing rules. The frame of hip-hopalone isnt enough (DJ Krush, pers. commun.).

Krush also plays with juxtaposing pitches that do not match, as he has appliedon the lower notes of Kemuri (Strictly Turntabilised, 1994). Rather than using thedials of the sampler to correct differences in the pitches of loops, he actually enjoysputting them in: If you match all the pitches so perfectly, then its just too sparklingclean. Its more hip-hop to leave in those little differences. It s the feel of it. But of

Figure 1. DJ Krush, Interlude(1998), drum loop.

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course, if you make it too different, it feels bad. Theres a range where its OK andfeels good (DJ Krush, pers. commun.). Examples of such detuned loops includeEscapee, Inorganizmand 1200, onKakusei.

While non-matching loop lengths and pitches are all imperfections that occur

naturally in the course of working with samples, I find it interesting that insteadof correcting them through technology, Krush has actively sought them out andis proud of the results. Although Krush has not studied traditional Japanese musicformally, he has nonetheless sensed and incorporated its aesthetics the sense ofma, differences in timing and tuning, the preference for imperfections into ahip-hop format. From his point of view, it is his attention to these details thesedifferences that makes him Japanese; it also compensates for what he perceivesas a physical disadvantage relative to Americans:

The Japanese pay attention to details. Americans are more into coming in with power

BOOM! They tend not to pay so much attention to details. But if we [Japanese] dependedonly on power like that, wed lose. The other side will hit more and more [baseball] hits,and we wouldnt be able to compete. The way we can distinguish ourselves and competeeffectively is not through power alone, but in attention to details. And I like dealing withthose details. (DJ Krush, pers. commun.)

Using Japanese instruments

Following Kakusei, Krush released the Japan-inflected albums Zen (Gradual, 2001)and Jaku (Nirvana, 2004), the latter of which features Japanese instruments most

prominently. The concept of this album is wa

not so much in the sense of wa() = Japan but rather wa () = ring, meaning we are all connected. To illus-trate this concept of connectedness, he included both Japanese and Westerninstruments.

Krush invited top instrumentalists Morita Shzan for shakuhachi; NaitTetsur of Kod, Japans most famous taiko troupe; and Kinoshita Shinichi, masterof tsugaru shamisen [folk shamisen of Northern Japan] to improvise continuously,rather than to play a single line to sample and loop. As Krush explained,

Sometimes Ill adjust what the soloists have played to make a hook. But if you loop it andtamper with it too much, theres no point in having brought in a live instrumentalist. When

I call in a soloist, Im trying to capture something that doesnt exist in my world; I want toget that persons special essence [aji, flavor] in my track. I want to capture that groove, soI dont cut it. (DJ Krush, pers. commun.)

Figure 2. DJ Krush, Interlude (1998), shamisen loop.

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Out of these improvisations, Krush constructed a series of tracks connected melodi-cally through recurring motives another manifestation ofwa. In the opening trackStill Island, the strings play a recurring theme (Figure 3).

Morita Shzo improvises a melody based on this theme on the shakuhachi,emphasizing the D-E-D motive heard at the beginning. This motive recurs through-

out the album, appearing in

Road to Nowhere,

The Beginning

and

Univearth

; inaddition, the tritone at the end of the theme is heard obsessively in Nosferatu.

Furthermore, the entire Still Island theme is improvised upon by jazz pianist KenShima in Stormy Cloud. As a result of these recurring motives, the album gains asense of unity in a manner often seen in Western musical works.

Recurring Japanese timbres provide a second unifying factor for the album. Inaddition to Still Island, Moritas haunting melodies onshakuhachiare heard in TheBeginning, Univearth and Song 2, and sampled for Kill Switch. Anotheroften-occurring timbre is taiko, on which Nait improvises extensively onUnivearth. Taiko also provides a matsuri [festival] rhythm in Distant Voices, andtaiko-like powerful drumming can be heard on The Beginning, Kill Switch andBeyond Raging Waves; the latter song also features an improvisation bytsugaru sha-misenmaster Shinichi Kinoshita against a pre-recorded synthesiser and drum. In Slitof Cloud, a lament is sung inminy [folk song] style to ancient poetry:

Yakumo tatsuIzumo yaegakiTsumagomi niYaegaki tsukuruSono yaegaki o[Many clouds rising,Many layered clouds raising a manifold fence,Hiding my bride from sight.Clouds are forming a manifold fence.Oh, that manifold fence!](Susa no Onomikoto, in Kojiki [712]; translation from Marra [2007, p. 27])

Miwataseba hana mo momiji mo nakarikeriUra no tomaya no aki no ygure[Looking out past where there arecherry blossoms or crimson leaves,To the grass-thatched huts by the bayClustered in the descending autumn dusk.](Fujiwara no Sadaie, inShin kokin wakash [1216]; translation from Heine [1997, p. 57])

Minyreappears in sampled and looped form in Passage. Finally, sounds of nature, animportant aspect of Japanese aesthetics, occur frequently in the album, withtaiko,pianoand synthesisers evoking rain (Still Island, Road to Nowhere, Stormy Cloud) andinsects (Still Island). All of these sounds are integrated with hip-hop beats.

Figure 3. Still Islandtheme.

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Krushs use of Japanese instruments has opened the way for other Japanese DJsto explore these sounds. DJ Kentar has performed live with tsugaru shamisen andtaiko players and scratched out the Sakura melody on two turntables. Similarly,DJ Ono of Tha Blue Herb uses a shakuhachi loop in Jidai wa kawaru (The TimesThey Are Changing, 2000).

Parodic reinterpretations

Having grown up in the ancient capital of Nara, Evis Beats has a strong affinity totemple sounds; in the track Hannyashinky Rap (Amida, 2008), a loop ofshmy[Buddhist chant] develops into a rap of spiritual thoughts. Much of his use of

Japanese music is parody, particularly those tracks he made for the Osaka hip-hopgroup Infumiai Kumiai. The central rhythm of their Oatsui no ga osuki ([TheLady] Likes It Hot,Jangaru, 2003) is the 6/8 rhythm ofmatsurimusic, with a distortedshamisenlooped throughout the song. The matsurimotive is picked up by Infumiais

rappers, who rap humorously about picking up girls during summer festivals andinterject typical matsuri-associated calls (Ho, ho!). For Evis Sound (Jangaru,2003), Evis sampled a miny, deriving the beat from the shamisen accompanimentand looping the call yoi yoi at a distortedly high pitch.

Eviss concept of Japanese also includes Western-based or syncretic Japanesemusic from another generation. Happyakuman (Eight Million, 2008) features amatsuri-like rhythm and loop, which he obtained not from matsuri music, but fromthe theme song of the television anime, Obake no Kytar (Q-Tar the Ghost),which aired from 1966 to 1985. His track for Shingo Nishinaris Shosenpai no katakara no okotoba (Words from My Mentors) is a parody of a dy [Western-style

childrens song], with a marimba playing a simple tune; picking up this reference,

Shingo rapped the opening words to the well-known dy Yyake koyake (Glowof Sunset).

Adopting historical genres

The rapper-producer Shing02 (nAnnen Shingo, b. 1975) has taken DJ Krushs workwith Japanese instruments a step further in incorporating them into a concept piece.The son of a Mitsubishi Corporation executive, Shingo was raised in Tanzania,England, suburban Tokyo and northern California, where he finished high school

and earned a degree in electrical engineering and computer science from theUniversity of California at Berkeley. He currently splits his time between LosAngeles and Japan, and he raps in both Japanese and English.

As a long-term resident of California, Shing02 is conscious of his Japanese iden-tity and the Asian-American experience, which is manifested in his work. In his 1998song Pearl Harborhe narrates the battle from the vantage point of a young Japanesepilot participating in the attack, describing the strict obedience he has been taught,the precision of executing orders and the acceptance of probable death, with an anti-war message appended.

In his albumWaikyoku(2008), Shing02 asserts his Japanese identity in a differ-

ent way. This concept album, whose title means

warped song

, contains vignettes ofa distorted society or mind. As shown on the back cover of the CD ( Figure 4), the titleto each song has been carefully chosen to be one to threekanji[Chinese characters], so

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that when put in sequence, they form a symmetrical design. The layout of the music,too, is symmetrical. The first half of the album is composed of songs generally aboutfrustration and aggression, musically illustrated through looping tritones in Jk(Muzzle of a Gun), the busy bass line of Katsub(Earnest Desire), and fast tem-pos. The second half is about human warmth and relationships, e.g. Kushi to kanza-shi (Comb and Hairpiece) and Nagusame (Comfort).

At the centre of the album areParts IandIIof Bijou, a metaphorical chronicle.The track is performed on the satsuma biwa [lute], whose narrative repertory drawsfromThe Tale of the Heike, an epic of feudal wars in the 12th century. Typical themes

of this repertory are impermanence, the fall of the mighty, destruction and pillage,and death in war.

Bijou I and IIare about a mysterious princess who crosses a forbidden borderzone and visits a hunter, bringing war and destruction in her wake. The title is a punon the French bijou [jewel], for the pendant she wears, and (bij, beautiful

beast), into which she transforms to disguise herself. Both Parts I and II open andend in the manner of a satsuma biwa narrative, as performed by NishiharaKakushin, who is a former student of biwa master Tsuruta Kinshi and a punkrocker. Shing02 then recites the story in the manner of a dramatic poetry reading,taking on the character of different characters, on top of hip-hop beats coloured at

key points by a shakuhachi. The story itself, with its theme of needless death inwar, is in keeping with the essence ofbiwa narrative. Shing02 acknowledged thatthe piece was inspired by another featuring biwa and shakuhachi November

Figure 4. Shing02,Waikyoku(2008), back cover. Used with permission from Mary Jay Recordings.

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Steps (1967) by Takemitsu, whom he humorously calls the DJ Krush of his time.Thus, in Shing02s work, Japaneseness goes beyond a sample of a traditional instru-ment or a beat, to a modern-day version of a traditional genre.

Hence, Japanese DJ-producers have incorporated Japanese soundscapes in var-ious ways. Some of them including traditional instruments, incorporating Japanese

aesthetics likema, or performing a take on a genre

have also been attempted in con-cert music and jazz. Others, like distorted sampling or prolonged juxtapositions ofdifferent tempos, are products of hip-hop-related technologies and are innovationsin the rendering of musical nationalism. But how does national identity come intoplay in the virtuosity-based setting of an international competition?

Japanese DJs in global competition: Japanese DJs and the DMCChampionship

When Japanese DJs compete in international contests, they eschew obvious refer-ences to Japanese music, yet they believe they exhibit a Japanese style. A case inpoint is DJ Kentar, who in 2002 became the first person from Asia to win theDMC DJ World Championship the most widely recognised international compe-tition for electronic dance turntablists. Founded in 1985 by Tony Prince, it is heldannually in London. To qualify, contestants must place at the top of competitionsheld by DMC branches in their home countries. In the 2008 competition, 33 countriesfrom six continents were represented; 10 DJs made the cut to the final round, wherethey each performed a six-minute solo routine.7

It is difficult to watch Kentars performances without being awestruck. Thespeed and split-second precision with which he juggles sounds on multiple turnta-

bles is nothing short of breathtaking a virtuoso performance that has resultedfrom several hours daily practice (DJ Kentar, pers. commun.). In the openingpart of his winning performance in the2002 DMC DJ World Championship, he skil-fully times the words on one vinyl record against the bass line on the other, repeatingthe words, The subject we are going to be talking about today is, in smaller andsmaller segments, before finishing with the punch line, style (0:30).8 He thenscratches two records to form four-measure phrases of varying bass rhythms andarpeggios (1:02). Changing disks, he takes a simple horn line, repeating progressivelyshorter sections of it into rhythmic four-measure patterns, punctuating the end ofthese sequences with scratches (2:002:39). Next, he scratches two records simul-

taneously, scratching a kick-drum sound with one hand and a horn sound withthe other a rarely seen, risky feat, as the metre must be maintained solely by theDJs scratches (2:403:12). He then generates several different tempi out of two per-cussion disks (c. 4:004:58). Next, he takes two reggae disks (complete with the quin-tessential Jamaican vulgarity bumbaclot) and generates a skank, graduallytransitioning to a fast-paced electronic dance sequence (c. 176 bpm). The performancefinishes with the pre-recorded tagline, No wall between the music, which isKentars motto. For that performance, Kentar earned the highest score everrecorded in the history of the DMC DJ World Championship.

An unusual feature of Kentars performance is the variety of music he used. By

No wall between the music

, he means that a variety of musical genres, includingthose from Japan, could be mixed to make good music. In that performance, heplayed house, reggae, hip-hop, drum n bass and rock, illustrating their common

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features through the juxtapositions in his six-minute set. Kentars motto arguesagainst narrow definitions of popular genres, in favour of a more inclusive ideal, har-kening back to the origins of hip-hop as a sample-based sound:

Hip-hop originated as a free kind of music, where you could freely sample all sorts of music rock guitar, soul, electronica. I want to make music with that kind of attitude, combining drum

n bass, reggae, hip-hop, R&B, soul, etc., through my own filter to make something original.(DJ Kentar, pers. commun.)

As the Director of the DMC branch in Japan since 1996, who has attended everyDMC World Championship and worked with many Japanese DJs, OzakiTomohiko is an authority on the styles and reception of Japanese DJs. He describesKentars eclecticism itself as Japanese, in a way that recalls Japan s self-image as themaster assimilator of foreign cultures. As Ozaki puts it:

Japan can bring in many musics, absorb the best parts of them, mix them well, and put themout as new products. [Kentars performance] showed that you can take the basic elements of a

drum kick and a hi-hat to make any sort of rhythm hip-hop, reggae, drum nbass, or house.Kentar showed the relationships among the musics. I was really glad that he was able toclaim the championship with this very Japanese approach [nihonjin rashii kanji]. (OzakiTomohiko, pers. commun.)

Indeed, North American fans of Japanese rock have told me that they like theseartists eclecticism and bravery in venturing out of the box in a genre. Similarly,Ozakis impression at the DMC championships is that the non-Japanese audienceexpects Japanese DJs to be unusual: these fans have told Ozaki that they buy theDVDs of the Japanese DMC Championships rather than those of the UK or WorldChampionships, because they find Japanese contestants to be more creative, musical

and distinctive in character than those in other contests.Since Kentars victory in the 2002 DMC World DJ Championship, several

other Japanese have also won top honours in DMC competitions. In the DMCWorld Battle Championships, where two DJs spar by trading 90-second perform-ances, DJ Akakabe won the title in 2004, as did DJ Co-ma in 2006. In addition, theduo Kireek (DJ Yasa and DJ Hi-C) have won the DMC World Team Competition,where a group of two to four DJs perform together, for five consecutive yearsfrom 2007 to 2011. Nonetheless, since Kentars victory in 2002, the Japanese have

been unable to recapture the coveted top prize of the single DJ championship,often occupying runner-up positions: DJ Izoh ranked third in 2005 and second in

2011; DJ Yasa (of Kireek) ranked second in 2006 and 2007; and DJ Co-ma rankedthird in 2008 and 2011, and second in 2009 and 2010.9

There are two issues that may put the Japanese at a disadvantage. One is thejudging process at DMC. Unlike, say, a gymnastics competition, where difficulty,execution and artistry are accorded a certain number of points, there are no specificcriteria for judging the DMC competition. Typically, judges assess technical skills on

beat juggling and scratching, originality, musicality and stage presence, but eachjudge has his or her own preferences (DJ Shiftee, pers. commun.). Judges writedown the name of the DJ they rank first, second and third. Each first rank is accordedthree points; a second rank, two points; and a third rank, one point. The sum of the

scores from all the judges determines the winner.Furthermore, the judges are drawn from finalists in other DMC competitions(i.e. the finalists in the battle and team competitions are judges for the singles




competition, and vice versa). Additional judges are included in the panel but, as thecompetition is based in London, many of them are from the UK or Western Europe.As a result, Europeans make up the majority of the 17 judges.

As the contestants and judges are peer DJs, they tend to know each other andsocialise at the championships; afterwards, they stay in contact, exchanging emails

and samples. According to DJ Shiftee, the American DJ who won the DMC WorldBattle Championship in 2007 and the DMC World DJ Championship in 2009,There is a lot of socialising. Particularly after the battles, the bar is very rowdy. Itdoesnt hurt to be friends with people who can end up judging you (DJ Shiftee,pers. commun.). But while Kentar and his manager (and brother), who have rela-tives in Michigan, are competent English speakers, those Japanese DJs who are notconfident about their English do not socialise so much with the other DJs, puttingthem at a disadvantage in forming global networks. For example, DJ Co-ma whocontinues to work as a rice farmer in the northern prefecture of Niigata can be rela-tively reserved. Ozaki claimed that at DMC some Japanese would pick up fast fooddinners and eat alone in their rooms while the Europeans partied. Given the unstruc-tured nature of judging and the human tendency to favour ones friends, it seemslikely that a lack of personal connections or being outside the dominant Europeansphere would put Japanese DJs at a disadvantage. The opinion of DJ Shiftee, whoserved as a judge for the DMC World finals in 2010, was that DJ Co-ma shouldhave won in 2010 rather than placing second again. As Ozaki explained:

DJ Izoh cant speak English and is very shy about speaking with the foreign DJs even thoughhes a nice, outgoing guy in Japanese. I think he would do well to spend a year in New York.Then hed be able to talk to the other contestants, and theyd realise hes a friendly guy. At the2005 World DJ Championship, he performed a great routine in the single championship butcame in third. I told the judges I didnt understand the scoring, since the audience was so

enthusiastic about his performance. That was one disappointment where I really felt sorryfor the guy.

But language isnt always an impediment to communication. Take Kireek. One of the DJscant speak English one bit, but given his Kansai-guy abandon, it doesnt keep him frompartying with the French DJs until seven in the morning, making them laugh until the tearsroll down their faces. Kireek has won the team competition four years in a row becausetheyre both great DJs, they give off a great vibe, and they form a warm rapport with theaudience. Theyre also good friends who perform together all the time; they even breathesynchronously. But I think the rapport theyve built with the international DJ communitydoesnt hurt. (Ozaki, pers. commun.)

Secondly, the regions differ in what performance styles are judged to be good.

According to Ozaki, The Europeans focus more on skills, like the number of times aDJ scratches. On the other hand, Japanese turntablism is about making it easy to listento the performance and understand it. Japanese audiences like to hear quotes they recog-nise, mixed in a new way(Ozaki, pers. commun.). DJ Izoh agrees, The Japanese tend to

be more individualistic (DJ Izoh, pers. commun.). According to DJ Shiftee, theEuropean style is a hard electronic sound centred on scratching and drumming and ade-emphasis on beat juggling; the British style features cutting-edge, bass-orientedmusic, with emphasis on scratching; the American style is more rooted in traditionalhip-hop, with classic beat juggling; and the Japanese style is highly individualistic,centred on beat juggling with an eclectic mix of music (DJ Shiftee, pers. commun.).

If these observations that the Europeans focus more on scratching techniquewhile the Japanese concentrate on individual style based on beat juggling are true,

46 Noriko Manabe



then they would represent a fundamental difference in what is considered note-worthy in DJ contests between these two regions. In judging domestic competitions,the Japanese tend to favour originality over sheer technique as do Americans (Katz2010, p. 136). At the Shibuya No. 1 DJ Championship in December 2008, I was sur-prised when one of the contestants with an excellent scratching technique failed to

place in the top three. On the other hand, a DJ who had used a Disney track,which I personally found corny in the hip-hop context, was awarded second place.According to DJ Co-ma, That DJ was the most original guy in the competition.What counts is originality. DJ Izoh chimed in, If a contestant does something thatis very similar to what I, DJ Co-ma, or other champions have done before, its notoriginal. You must have your own original style (DJ Izoh and Co-ma, pers. com-mun.). The skilful contestants routine was not seen as sufficiently original.

This premium placed on originality seems at odds with recent trends at DMC.In 2006 DJ Netic won the DMC World Championships with a routine based on beatsfrom the French producer Le Jad. Several competitions since then have been domi-nated by the French electronic music boom. In 2007 the German DJ Rafik also wonusing Le Jads breaks, even though he is said to have made mistakes during his per-formance. In 2008 every one of the finalists except for the Japanese DJ Co-ma usedsamples by Le Jad (DJ Co-ma, pers. commun.); in 2009, six out of nine finalists usedthis same sound (DJ Shiftee, pers. commun.). Its gotten to the point where if you useanother sound, it really sticks out. . . .It wasnt just the Europeans; the Brazilian andSingaporeans also used it (Ozaki, pers. commun.). By not conforming to the major-itys sound, one wonders to what extent Japanese contestants may be penalised fortheir eclectic musical choices which defy the imitator stereotype.

In addition, the Japanese sensibility of austerity and simplicity seems to be theopposite of the current vogue in European dance music. Echoing Krush, DJ Co-ma

cultivates the Japanese sense ofma, thinking in rests rather than filling every spacewith sound. On the other hand:

The European sound is to fill every bit of that six-minute routine gasha, gasha!so theres noma, theres no pulling back. It tires me out, listening to it. The ma helps you pace yourself.Because you make space, the mountain that comes next is entertaining. The Japanese preferthat style to save it, save it, and bang! (DJ Co-ma, pers. commun.)

Ozaki and the Japanese DJs have said that they sense no ethnic discrimination atDMC World, whose past champions include Caucasian Europeans and NorthAmericans of Jewish, African-American, Latino and Filipino backgrounds.

Nonetheless, I find Ozakis statement that a stunning performance conquers all tobe revealing:

Before Kentar, it wasnt a situation where a Japanese could become number one. The feelingwas that the Japanese were interesting players who could rank in third to fifth place. ButKentars performance was so overwhelming, so phenomenal, that it got the entire audiencevery excited. Theres no way that the judges could have ignored that level of response.People would have questioned them as to why Kentar wasnt given first prize. It wouldhave reflected badly on the judges. Kentar won with a panel of European and American

judges. So if you give a performance that knocks people over, your nationality doesntmatter. (Ozaki, pers. commun.)

In my opinion, Ozakis comment actually confirms the fact that Japanese DJs areoperating on an unequal footing: they feel their achievements will be ignored unless




they perform at a significantly higher level than others. As previously mentioned,Kentars performance was so exceptional that he received the highest score everin the history of the competition. Very few contestants from any continent couldreasonably be expected to match that level of performance; in fact, several championshave made mistakes during their performances. Furthermore, Ozakis comments

reveal an acceptance of this need to over-perform.

Conclusion

Japanese DJs and producers, with their wordless beats, should be able to compete inthe global marketplace without being hampered by language, yet the strategies thatsome have followed imply that the international markets are not a level playing field.Like Japanese classical, jazz and rock musicians before them, some hip-hop artistssense that some non-Japanese (and Japanese) see them as inauthentic, due to theirnationality, and imitators, given the national stereotype. Some producers haveresponded by incorporating the traditional Japanese soundscape, underlining theimage of Japans uniqueness and perhaps giving the Western marketplace what itexpects from non-Western artists; it also replicates a successful strategy followed

by Takemitsu, Akiyoshi and artists of other genres before them. Some turntablistshave aimed for eclecticism, underlining Japans image of the master assimilator,while contradicting the stereotype of being imitative and unimaginative.

Ivy has surmised that to many Japanese, traditional Japan represents a pastthat is lost in modernity (Ivy1995, p. 10). To some extent, I sense this desire to recap-ture a lost ideal in DJ Krushs evocation of Japanese aesthetics and Shing02s version-ing ofbiwa narrative. I find it interesting that Tokyo-based Krush, who often toursabroad, and California-based Shing02, who has lived abroad for much of his life,

take this interest in Japanese aesthetics, while Nara-native Evis Beats, who grewup in an environment where traditional music is heard more commonly, prefers ahumorous approach to sampling Japanese music. Indeed, not all manifestations ofautoexoticism are the same, and it is enlightening to consider, through musical analy-sis, the ways in which Japanese aesthetics such asmaand imperfection are conceivedand moulded into an international genre.

The case of Japanese DJs at the DMC World Championships raises additionalissues regarding international markets and national style. In pursuing originalitywhich both counters stereotypical expectations and plays on the hip-hop ideal ofrepresentingoneself as a foremost goal, I wonder to what extent some contestants

have deviated too far from expected norms by refusing to conform to current trends.This difference may be symptomatic of a more basic problem of communication,where some Japanese players may be left out of global loops simply because of differ-ences in language. Perhaps success in wordless genres is not completely independentof words, after all.

Postscript

In September 2012, DJ Izoh won the 2012 DMC World DJ Championship with anoverwhelming margin over the second-place winner, DJ Precision of the United

States (http://www.dmcdjchamps.com/news-view.php?n=NDg0 ). However, theYouTube video of his winning performance (http://youtu.be/qdkq8ZFot74) attracteda number of negative comments. Many of these comments were aimed at DJ Izohs

48 Noriko Manabe
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use of a computer and pre-recorded discs, which are now the norm at DMC World;in contrast, the video of DJ Vajra, the American winner in 2011 who used the samesetup, attracted little such criticism (http://youtu.be/HHJJxvPHVqs). One commentatoreven mentioned DJ Izohs Asianness as a sign of DMCs deterioration. Suchcomments demonstrate that even if global contests have become more open to all

nationalities, the global marketplace remains an uneven playing field for Japaneseor Asian DJs.

Acknowledgements

The author thanks the SSRC/JSPS Fellowship for funding this research; HosokawaShhei for acting as host at Nichibunken; Ishida Miho for transcribing interviews;Peter Manuel, William Rothstein, Mark Spicer, and Jane Sugarman for their com-ments on a prior version of this paper; the guest editors and reviewers for their sug-gestions; and the DJs/producers for their time in interviews.

Endnotes

1. Henceforth, I will use the term traditionalJapanese music to refer to this image ofJapanese music before Westernisation. In actual-ity, many Japanese would identify Westernisedor syncretic music, such as shoka (school songs)or enka [sentimental song], as traditional orJapanese.

2. Japanese names are presented with the familyname first.

3. See Hosokawa ( 1999) regarding HosonoHaruomis exoticist albums prior to YellowMagic Orchestra.

4. All translations from the original Japanese aremine.

5. Japanese hip-hop fans greatly admire C.L.Smooths collaborations with Pete Rock. Their

T.R.O.Y. (They Reminisce Over You) remains aclub favourite.

6. The shakuhachi had previously been used byPeter Gabriel (Sledgehammer, 1986), amongothers.

7. Rules of the competition can be found on theDMC website at http://www.dmcdjchamps.com/rules.php.

8. Time indications follow the recording of DJ

Kentaros performance on the video, DMCPresents: 2002 DMC World DJ Championship.

9. As a matter of comparison, American DJs, whoseconcepts of style also differ from Europeans, have

won the World DJ championship four times overthe past 10 years. A full list of past winners is athttp://www.dmcdjchamps.com/champions.php .

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Discography

Amida (Evis Beats),Amida. 2008DJ Krush, Meiso. MoWax, MW039CD. 1995DJ Krush, Kakusei. Sony Japan, AICT25. 1998DJ Krush, Zen.Sony Japan, SRCL 4995. 2001DJ Krush, Jaku. Sony Music Works, COL5175782. 2004DMC Presents: 2002 DMC World DJ Championship Video. DMC Records, VWF02. 2002Infumiai Kumiai, Jangaru. P-Vine, PCD-5852. 2003Shing02,Waikyoku.Mary Joy Recordings, IDCM 1045. 2008

Selected interviews

DJ Co-ma and DJ Izoh, December 2008DJ Kentaro, December 2008DJ Krush, June 2008, September 2009, October 2010, March 2011DJ Ono, January 2009DJ Shiftee, September 2010, November 2010Evis Beats, January 2009Infumiai Kumiai, April 2008Pete Rock, May 2008Shing02, June 2008, September 2008

50 Noriko Manabe
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Manabe - Representing Japan

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