Mamun Rahman Final Thesis Planning for Sustainability of ... · planning for sustainability of non...

PLANNING FOR SUSTAINABILITY OF NON MOTORISED

PUBLIC TRANSPORT IN A DEVELOPING CITY

Mamun Muntasir Rahman

Bachelor of Urban & Regional Planning (B.URP)

Master of Urban & Regional Planning (M.URP)

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

School of Civil Engineering and the Built Environment

Science & Engineering Faculty

Queensland University of Technology

2013

PPLLAANNNNIINNGG FFOORR SSUUSSTTAAIINNAABBIILLIITTYY OOFF NNOONN MMOOTTOORRIISSEEDD PPUUBBLLIICC TTRRAANNSSPPOORRTT IINN AA DDEEVVEELLOOPPIINNGG CCIITTYY

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Dedicated to

Maa (Afroza Rahman), Baba (Md. Matiar Rahman)

& My Wife (Zeeshan Rahman)


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KEYWORDS

non motorised transport (NMT), non-motorised public transport (NMPT), motorised transport

(MT), motorised public transport (MPT), sustainable transport, sustainable planning, non

motorised public transport integration, developing city, developing country, developed city,

developed country, Dhaka, integrated multimodal planning framework, planning framework,

decision tool, functional hierarchy, road hierarchy


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ABSTRACT

Most large cities around the world are undergoing rapid transport sector development to cater

for increased urbanization. Subsequently the issues of mobility, access equity, congestion,

operational safety and above all environmental sustainability are becoming increasingly crucial

in transport planning and policy making. The popular response in addressing these issues has

been demand management, through improvement of motorised public transport (MPT) modes

(bus, train, tram) and non-motorized transport (NMT) modes (walk, bicycle); improved fuel

technology.

Relatively little attention has however been given to another readily available and highly

sustainable component of the urban transport system, non-motorized public transport (NMPT)

such as the pedicab that operates on a commercial basis and serves as an NMT taxi; and has

long standing history in many Asian cities; relatively stable in existence in Latin America; and re-

emerging and expanding in Europe, North America and Australia. Consensus at policy level on

the apparent benefits, costs and management approach for NMPT integration has often been a

major transport planning problem. Within this context, this research attempts to provide a

more complete analysis of the current existence rationale and possible future, or otherwise, of

NMPT as a regular public transport system.

The analytical process is divided into three major stages. Stage 1 reviews the status and role

condition of NMPT as regular public transport on a global scale- in developing cities and

developed cities. The review establishes the strong ongoing and future potential role of NMPT

in major developing cities. Stage 2 narrows down the status review to a case study city of a

developing country in order to facilitate deeper role review and status analysis of the mode.

Dhaka, capital city of Bangladesh, has been chosen due to its magnitude of NMPT presence. The

review and analysis reveals the multisectoral and dominant role of NMPT in catering for the

travel need of Dhaka transport users. The review also indicates ad-hoc, disintegrated policy

planning in management of NMPT and the need for a planning framework to facilitate balanced

integration between NMPT and MT in future.

Stage 3 develops an integrated, multimodal planning framework (IMPF), based on a four-step

planning process. This includes defining the purpose and scope of the planning exercise,

determining current deficiencies and preferred characteristics for the proposed IMPF, selection

of suitable techniques to address the deficiencies and needs of the transport network while


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laying out the IMPF and finally, development of a delivery plan for the IMPF based on a selected

layout technique and integration approach. The output of the exercise is a planning instrument

(decision tool) that can be used to assign a road hierarchy in order to allocate appropriate traffic

to appropriate network type, particularly to facilitate the operational balance between MT and

NMT. The instrument is based on a partial restriction approach of motorised transport (MT) and

NMT, structured on the notion of functional hierarchy approach, and distributes/prioritises MT

and NMT such that functional needs of the network category is best complemented.

The planning instrument based on these processes and principles offers a six-level road

hierarchy with a different composition of network-governing attributes and modal priority, for

the current Dhaka transport network, in order to facilitate efficient integration of NMT with MT.

A case study application of the instrument on a small transport network of Dhaka also

demonstrates the utility, flexibility and adoptability of the instrument in logically allocating

corridors with particular positions in the road hierarchy paradigm. Although the tool is useful in

enabling balanced distribution of NMPT with MT at different network levels, further

investigation is required with reference to detailed modal variations, scales and locations of a

network to further generalise the framework application.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Keywords ................................................................................................................................................. ii

Abstract .................................................................................................................................................. iii

Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................... v

List of Figures ......................................................................................................................................... ix

List of Tables ......................................................................................................................................... xiii

List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................. xvi

Statement of Original Authorship ......................................................................................................... xx

Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................................ xxi

Publications from this Research ......................................................................................................... xxiii

SECTION A: INTRODUCTION AND GLOBAL REVIEW OF NON –MOTORISED PUBLIC TRANSPORT

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Research background and problem statement............................................................................ 1

1.2 Research hypothesis .................................................................................................................... 3

1.3 Research questions ...................................................................................................................... 4

1.4 Research aims and objectives ...................................................................................................... 5

1.5 Research scopes and limitations .................................................................................................. 6

1.6 Thesis Outline .............................................................................................................................. 8

1.7 Summary .................................................................................................................................... 10

CHAPTER 2: NON-MOTORIZED PUBLIC TRANSPORT: WHAT CAN WE LEARN FROM A GLOBAL

REVIEW? ........................................................................................................................................ 11

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 11

2.2 NMPT status analysis: Perspective on developing cities ............................................................ 13

2.3 NMPT status analysis: Perspective on developed cities ............................................................ 35

2.4 Findings and the way forward ................................................................................................... 49

2.5 Summary .................................................................................................................................... 50

SECTION B: NON –MOTORISED PUBLIC TRANSPORT IN CASE STUDY DHAKA, BANGLADESH

CHAPTER 3: OVERVIEW OF DHAKA CASE STUDY 52

3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 52

3.2 General overview of case study: Dhaka, Bangladesh ................................................................ 54

3.3 NMPT history of Dhaka: Evolution and current status .............................................................. 57

3.4 Summary .................................................................................................................................... 60


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CHAPTER 4: REVIEW OF LITERATURE-ARGUMENTS FAVOURING NMPT IN DHAKA ........................ 61

4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 61

4.2 NMPT role review ...................................................................................................................... 61

4.3 Policy and integration initiatives ................................................................................................ 74

4.4 Summary .................................................................................................................................... 80

CHAPTER 5: REVIEW OF LITERATURE-ARGUMENTS REJECTING NMPT IN DHAKA ........................... 81

5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 81

5.2 Insights from research literature ............................................................................................... 81

5.3 Government policy and implementation initiatives to restrict NMPT ....................................... 82

5.4 Summary .................................................................................................................................... 86

CHAPTER 6: ANALYSIS OF NMPT ROLE AND ASSOCIATED ATTRIBUTES IN DHAKA .......................... 87

6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 87

6.2 Social role analysis ..................................................................................................................... 87

6.3 Economic role analysis ............................................................................................................... 90

6.4 Employment role analysis .......................................................................................................... 92

6.5 Environmental role analysis ....................................................................................................... 93

6.6 Analysing transport role ............................................................................................................. 95

6.7 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 118

CHAPTER 7: ANALYSIS OF NMPT INTEGRATION AND RESTRICTION IN DHAKA ............................. 119

7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 119

7.2 Analysing NMPT integration initiatives .................................................................................... 119

7.3 Analysing NMPT restriction initiatives ..................................................................................... 121

7.4 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 132

CHAPTER 8: STAKEHOLDER VIEWPOINT ON ROLE OF NMPT AND EXPECTED QUALITIES FROM

FUTURE TRANSPORT SYSTEM - DATA COLLECTION & ANALYSIS METHOD .................................... 134

8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 134

8.2 Participants and sample size .................................................................................................... 134

8.3 NMPT operators, drivers and users ......................................................................................... 138

8.4 Procedure and instrument for data collection ......................................................................... 142

8.5 Processing of data .................................................................................................................... 142

8.6 Procedure and tools for data analysis...................................................................................... 143

8.7 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 146


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CHAPTER 9: STAKEHOLDER VIEWPOINT ON ROLE OF NMPT AND EXPECTED QUALITIES FROM

FUTURE TRANSPORT SYSTEM - RESULTS OF ANALYSIS & DISCUSSION ......................................... 148

9.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 148

9.2 Present and future NMPT condition analysis........................................................................... 148

9.3 Preferred characteristics for future Dhaka transport system .................................................. 163

9.4 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 167

CHAPTER 10: INFERENCES AND RECOMMENDATIONS FROM DHAKA CASE STUDY ANALYSIS .... 169

10.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 169

10.2 Inferences from literature review ............................................................................................ 169

10.3 Inference from viewpoint analysis ........................................................................................... 178

10.4 The way forward ...................................................................................................................... 179

10.5 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 180

SECTION C: INTEGRATED PLANNING FRAMEWORK DEVELOPMENT FOR CASE STUDY DHAKA

CHAPTER 11: OVERVIEW OF THE PLANNING FRAMEWORK 181

11.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 181

11.2 Conceptual planning process in deriving IMPF ........................................................................ 183

11.3 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 187

CHAPTER 12: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY RATIONALE……………………………………………………………….188

12.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 188

12.2 Review of broad research approaches..................................................................................... 189

12.3 Review of research methodology literature ............................................................................ 190

12.4 The research framework design .............................................................................................. 192

12.5 Coherence of the preferred approach for research design to standard theoretical inference203

12.6 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 210

CHAPTER 13: APPLICATION OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ......................................................... 212

13.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 212

13.2 Initial planning process for framework development .............................................................. 214

13.3 Building scene for planning framework ................................................................................... 214

13.4 Structure and functioning of the framework ........................................................................... 221

13.5 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 223

CHAPTER 14: BUILDING SCENE FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTEGRATED PLANNING FRAMEWORK

..................................................................................................................................................... 224

14.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 224

14.2 Comprehension of desired characteristics for the proposed framework ................................ 225

14.3 Selection of suitable technique to replicate desired features of the framework .................... 243

14.4 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 247


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CHAPTER 15: INTEGRATED MULTI-MODAL PLANNING FRAMEWORK- CONSTITUTES AND

FUNCTION .................................................................................................................................... 249

15.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 249

15.2 Structure and constituence of the framework ........................................................................ 249

15.3 Application of the framework .................................................................................................. 273

15.4 Implementation strategy to suppport the framework ............................................................ 279

15.5 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 283

SECTION D: CONCLUSION

CHAPTER 16: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION .............................................................................. 285

16.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 285

16.2 Research summary and conclusions ........................................................................................ 285

16.3 Contribution to knowledge ...................................................................................................... 296

16.4 Future research ........................................................................................................................ 298

16.5 Research Close ......................................................................................................................... 299

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................. 300

APPENDICES ................................................................................................................................. 327


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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Major available rickshaw types ……………………………………………………………………………….2

Figure 1.2: A conceptual overview of the whole research undertakings…………………………………….7

Figure 1.3: Document map of the research……………………………………………………………………………….9

Figure 2.1: Flowchart of key steps in the NMPT status review process…………………………………….12

Figure 2.2: NMPT Usage in the Streets of developing cities …………………………………………………….14

Figure 2.3 Multifunctional bicitaxis in Bogota………………………………………………………………………….20

Figure 2.4: New Rickshaw Type ‘Soleckshaw’ in India……………………………………………………………..23

Figure 2.5: Use of ITDP Designed Modern Rickshaw in Vrindavan……………………………………………24

Figure 2.6: Elecsha in India …………………………………………………………………………………………………….24

Figure 2.7: Use of Modern Becak in Yogyakarta………………………………………………………………………25

Figure 2.8: Market share of NMPT usage in selected Cities……………………………………………………..34

Figure 2.9: NMPT in developed countries (improved design, traditional look) (New York,

London)……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….38

Figure 2.10: NMPT in developed countries (improved design, modern look) (Sydney, Berlin)….38

Figure 2.11: New pedicabs in Japan………………………………………………………………………………………..39

Figure 2.12: Market share of NMPT usage in selected cities……………………………………………………40

Figure 3.1: Flowchart of key steps in the NMPT status review process for Dhaka…………………….53

Figure 3.2: Location of Dhaka in Bangladesh (inset) and location of Dhaka Metropolitan Area

with respect to surroundings………………………………………………………………………………………………….55

Figure 3.3: Location map of DCC area (with major suburbs and road network)………………………..56

Figure 3.4: NMPT usage in the streets of Dhaka ……………………………………………………………………..57

Figure 3.5: NMPT growth trend in Dhaka………………………………………………………………………………..58

Figure 3.6: NMPT fare pattern in Dhaka………………………………………………………………………………….59

Figure 3.7: Comparison of NMPT rental cost versus typical revenue in Dhaka…………………………60

Figure 4.1: Contribution of vehicle types to emission in Dhaka………………………………………………..69

Figure 4.2: Vehicular composition in Dhaka…………………………………………………………………………….71

Figure 4.3: Mode share of accidents in Dhaka and Bangladesh………………………………………..........73

Figure 4.4: Suggested NMPT priority location in three areas of Dhaka………………………….............76


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Figure 4.5: Example of staggered crossing (left) and Hook turn (right)…………………………………….78

Figure 5.1: Existing and Proposed NMPT-Free Corridors in Dhaka……………………………………….....85

Figure 6.1: Share of loaded NMPTs used by non-working female travelling alone……………………89

Figure 6.2: Share of loaded NMPTs used by students passengers……………………………………………89

Figure 6.3: Relationship between income level per annum and mode usage…………………………..90

Figure 6.4: Per day gross revenue from NMPT vehicle operation (adjusted to 2011 monetary

unit)……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..91

Figure 6.5: Comparative earnings of NMPT drivers compared to other key wage indicators…...91

Figure 6.6: Estimated share of NMPT industry in employment sector of Dhaka……………………….92

Figure6.7:Estimated share of direct dependent population of NMPT industry with

reference to total population of Dhaka…………………………………………………………………93

Figure 6.8: Primary non walk trip share for Dhaka: comparative trend…………………………………….96

Figure6.9: Stop based level of service for NMPT and other available modes………………………….103

Figure6.10: Route based level of service for NMPT and other available modes……………………..107

Figure6.11: System based comparative level of service for NMPT and other available

modes……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….111

Figure 6.12: Comparative total journey time by travel distance of modes……………………………..114

Figure 6.13: Unit travel (user) cost of different modes…………………………………………………………..115

Figure 6.14: Comparative user out of pocket trip cost by travel distance of different modes…115

Figure 7.1: Comparative status of total NMPT to unlicensed NMPTs in operation………………….121

Figure 7.2: Shortest path for NMPT with no NMPT restriction on Corridor 2

(Mirpur Corridor)……………………………………………………………………………………………….128

Figure 7.3: Shortest path for NMPT with alternative route after NMPT restriction on

Corridor 2(Mirpur Road)…………………………………………………………………………………….129

Figure 7.4: Percentage shift from NMPT to different modes after NMPT restriction on Mirpur

Road…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..132

Figure 8.1: Distribution of respondents under government organisations……………………………..137

Figure 8.2: Distribution of respondents under non-government organisations………………………137

Figure 8.3: Application of MCA and AHP to the selection and scoring of criteria…………………….146

Figure 9.1: Assessment regarding current NMPT role in transport system of Dhaka………………149

Figure 9.2: NMPT dependency level of Dhaka transport users for regular trips………………………151


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Figure 9.3: Functionality of existing restriction of NMPT in Dhaka…………………………………………153

Figure 9.4: Future service role perception of NMPT in Dhaka transport system…………………….155

Figure 9.5: Preferred control level for NMPT in future Dhaka transport system…………………….157

Figure 9.6: Suggestions of NMPT stakeholders for future management improvement of the

mode…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………159

Figure 9.7: Suggestions of NMPT stakeholders for future policy and planning improvement of

the mode……………………………………………………………………………………………………………161

Figure 9.8: Overall status of quality preference in future transport system of Dhaka……………..163

Figure 9.9: Comparative quality preference by stakeholder category in future transport system

of Dhaka…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….165

Figure 10.1: Process towards the decision on development of an integrated planning

framework………………………………………………………………………………………………………179

Figure 11.1: Flowchart of key steps in the IMPF development process for Dhaka………………….182

Figure 11.2: The conceptual planning process as the platform for developing the IMPF………..186

Figure 12.1: The research framework design and link to case study application…………………….189

Figure 12.2: Inter-linkage among elements of enquiry and derivation of research approach and

design process from these elements………………………………………………………………..204

Figure 12.3: Inter-linkage among elements of inquiry, derived research approach and design

process……………………………………………………………………………………………………………210

Figure 13.1: Key methodological stages in framework development process………………………..213

Figure 13.2: The study area with selected corridors for land use-traffic interactivity

analysis……………………………………………………………………………………………………………216

Figure 14.1: Study area network with different attributes…………………………………………………….218

Figurer15.1: Broader arrangement for mode-road functional hierarchy framework………………251

Figurer15.2: Breakdown of broader arrangement of mode-road functional hierarchy

framework……………………………………………………………………………………………………..252

Figurer15.3: Conceptual approach toward deriving the suitable mode – road interactivity

decision for individual corridors in Dhaka transport system………………………………262

Figurer15.4: Approach toward deriving the suitable mode – road interactivity decision for

Primary Road type I……………………………………………………………………………………….263


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Primary Road type II………………………………………………………………………………………264


Secondary Road…………………………………………………………………………………………….265


Collector Road………………………………………………………………………………………………266

Figurer15.8: Approach toward deriving the suitable mode – road interactivity decision for Local

Road……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..267


Narrow Road…………………………………………………………………………………………………268

Figure15.10: An easy to use diagram for determining desired network governing characteristics

and their intensity for the proposed road hierarchy in accordance to the planning

framework…………………………………………………………………………………………………….269

Figure15.11: An easy to use diagram for determining desired network mode distribution and

their intensity for the proposed road hierarchy in accordance to the planning

framework…………………………………………………………………………………………………….270

Figure15.12: Test network with current road hierarchy and traffic composition……………………274

Figure15.13: Test network with proposed road hierarchy and traffic composition in accordance

with framework tool……………………………………………………………………………………..275


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LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Trend in NMPT activity and policy in selected cities……………………………………………….27

Table 2.2: Key arguments rejecting NMPT and responsible major city governments……………….30

Table 2.3: Degree of and shift in NMPT usage in selected cities………………………………………………33

Table 2.4: Degree of and shift in NMPT usage in selected cities………………………………………………40

Table 2.5: Trend in NMPT activity and policy in selected cities………………………………………………..43

Table 2.6: Selected major cities with NMPT relevant regulations…………………………………………….44

Table 2.7: Summary of NMPT condition and future needs in developed cities…………………………48

Table 2.8: Summary of NMPT condition and future needs in developing cities………………………..49

Table 4.1: Maximum passenger flow using different modes…………………………………………………..72

Table 6.1: Travel characteristics of market segments in Dhaka and corresponding mode

preferences………………………………………………………………………………………………………….88

Table 6.2: Transport modes in Dhaka City (excluding walk) based on mode share, mechanics and

fuel usage…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….94

Table 6.3: Per annum growth trend of vehicular composition of NMPT in Dhaka compared to

other available modes………………………………………………………………………………………….95

Table 6.4: Comparative per annum work output of NMPT to other major modes in Dhaka……..96

Table 6.5: Average road space per vehicle and per passenger for NMPT compared to other

modes………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….97

Table 6.6: Transit Quality of Service Framework for Dhaka modes – Primary measures…………..98

Table 6.7: Level of service guideline for service frequency…………………………………………………….100

Table 6.8: Level of service for service frequency in Dhaka……………………………………………………..101

Table 6.9: Level of service guideline for passenger loads……………………………………………………….102

Table 6.10: Level of service for passenger loads in Dhaka……………………………………………………..102

Table 6.11: Level of service guideline for hours of service……………………………………………………..104

Table 6.12: Level of service for hours of service in Dhaka………………………………………………………105

Table 6.13: Level of service guideline for reliability (on-time performance)……………………………106

Table 6.14: Level of service for reliability in Dhaka………………………………………………………………..107

Table 6.15: Level of service guideline for service coverage…………………………………………………….109


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Table 6.16: Level of service for service coverage in Dhaka…………………………………………………….109

Table 6.17: Level of service guideline for safety and security…………………………………………………110

Table 6.18: Level of service for safety and security in Dhaka………………………………………………….111

Table 6.19: LOS guideline for travel time difference of a mode in comparison to auto…………..113

Table 6.20: Level of service for travel time difference between auto car and other modes in

Dhaka for a 3 km trip length……………………………………………………………………………….114

Table 6.21: Operational performance of different modes in Dhaka based on level of service…116

Table 7.1: Summary of roads made NMPT free in Dhaka before 2002…………………………………..122

Table 7.2: Summary of roads made NMPT free in Dhaka under DUTP Phase II, between 2002

and 2010……………………………………………………………………………………………………………123

Table 7.3: Summary of roads made NMPT free in Dhaka in 2011 under DUTP Phase II, and future

direction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….124

Table 7.4: Summary of roads proposed to be made NMPT free in Dhaka in future………………..125

Table 7.5: Comparative directness (distance) of the NMPT route………………………………………….129

Table 7.6: Comparison of travel time for motorised transport in Mirpur Corridor………………….130

Table 7.7: Comparison of travel time for bus in Mirpur Corridor……………………………………………130

Table 7.8: Road space temporal occupancy impacts of DUTP on Mirpur Demonstration

Road……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………131

Table 8.1: Characteristics of sample GO & NGO stakeholders……………………………………………….136

Table 8.2: Distribution of sample NMPT operators………………………………………………………………..139

Table 8.3: Distribution of sample NMPT drivers…………………………………………………………………….140

Table 9.1: Stakeholder category based perception on current NMPT role in transport system of

Dhaka…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....149

Table 9.2: Difference in preference on current NMPT role by stakeholder group…………………..150

Table 9.3: Stakeholder category based perception on NMPT dependency level of Dhaka

transport users for daily trips……………………………………………………………………………..151

Table 9.4: Difference in preference on NMPT dependency level by different stakeholders……152

Table 9.5: Stakeholder category based perception on existing restriction functionality of NMPT

in Dhaka transport system………………………………………………………………………………….153

Table 9.6: Difference in preference on existing restriction functionality of NMPT by different

stakeholders…………………………………………………………………………………………………......154


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Table 9.7: Stakeholder category based perception on future service role perception of NMPT in

Dhaka transport system……………………………………………………………………………………..155

Table 9.8: Difference in preference on future service role of NMPT by different stakeholders.156

Table 9.9: Stakeholder category based perception on future preferred control level of NMPT in


Table 9.10: Difference in preference on future preferred control level of NMPT by different

stakeholders………………………………………………………………………………………………………158

Table 9.11: Stakeholder suggestions on future operation and management improvement for

NMPT…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………159

Table 9.12: Stakeholder category based suggestion on future NMPT management

improvement…………………………………………………………………………………………………….160

Table 9.13: Stakeholder suggestions on future policy and planning improvement for NMPT…161

Table 9.14: Stakeholder category based suggestion on future NMPT management

improvement…………………………………………………………………………………………………….162

Table 9.15: Quality preference hierarchy by stakeholder groups for future transport system of

Dhaka…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………164

Table 9.16: Difference in opinion between stakeholder groups on preferred quality for future


Table 10.1: Comparative advantages and disadvantages of NMPT as a mode in Dhaka…………170

Table 10.2: Comparative advantages and disadvantages of NMPT restriction in Dhaka…………175

Table 10.3: Advantages and disadvantages of current NMPT management proposal

in Dhaka…………………………………………………………………………………………………………...177

Table 13.1: Continuous Fuzzy Set with scale division and corresponding scores…………………….218

Table 14.1: Land use- traffic interactivity for different road categories………………………………….230

Table 14.2: The alternative transport strategies with NMPT restrictions and suitability result.235

Table 14.3: Desired performance level of major governing attributes across road network

levels……………………………………………………………………………………………………………......237

Table 15.1: Proposed framework road hierarchy/integration layer and its comparison to the

existing scheme………………………………………………………………………………………………….253

Table 15.2: Implementation strategy to support the planning framework for Dhaka……………..280


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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Abbreviation Description

ADB Asian Development Bank

AFP Agence France-Presse

AHP Analytical Hierarchy Process

AM Access and Mobility

ANOVA Analysis of Variance

AUD Australian Dollar

BBS Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics

BIDC Bangladesh Rickshaw Industry Company

BRT Bus Rapid Transit

BRTA Bangladesh Road Transport Authority

BUET Bangladesh University of engineering and Technology

CBN Cost of Basic Needs

CIA Central Intelligence agency

CMERI Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute

CSIR Council of Scientific and Industrial Research

DAP Detailed Area Plan

DCC Dhaka City Corporation

DHUTS Dhaka Urban Transport Network Development Study

DITS Greater Dhaka Metropolitan Area Integrated Transport

Study

DMA Dhaka Metropolitan Area

DMP Dhaka Metropolitan Police

DTCB Dhaka Transport Coordination Board

DTMR Department of Transport and Main Roads

DTRS

DUTP

Commonwealth Department of Transport & Regional Services

Dhaka Urban Transport Project

ELECSHA Electric Rickshaw


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Abbreviation Description

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

ES Environmental Sustainability

FCD Focus Group Discussion

FR Full Restriction

GDA Greater Dhaka Area

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GEF Global Environment Fund

GHG Greenhouse gas

GMU Gadjah Mada University

GO Government Organisation

Gt Billion Tons

GTZ Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (German Agency for

Development Cooperation)

HDRC Human Development Research Centre

IMPF Integrated Multimodal Planning Framework

IMPRA Improved Pedal Cycle Rickshaw

IMTP Integrated Multi-Modal Transport Policy

INSTRANS Institute of Transportation Studies

IP Intellectual Property

ITDP Institute of Transportation and Development Policy

JICA Japan international Cooperation Agency

LOS Level of Service

MADM Multi-Attribute Decision Making

MAPRA Motor Assisted Pedal Rickshaw

MAWTS Mirpur Agricultural Workshop and Technical School

MI Modern City Image

MPT Motorised Public Transport

MRT Mass Rapid Transit

MS Microsoft

MT Motorised Transport


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Abbreviation

Description

MPT Motorised Public Transport

MRT Mass Rapid Transit

MS Microsoft

MT Motorised Transport

NARI Nimbkar Agricultural Research Institute

NGO Non-Government Organisation

NLTP National Land Transport Policy

NMT Non-Motorised Transport

NMPT Non-Motorised Public Transport

NR No Restriction

O-D Origin-Destination

OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development

PCE Passenger Car Equivalent

PCSE Passenger Car Space Equivalent

PR Partial Restriction

PR(E) Partial Restriction (Existing)

PT Public transport

PTV Planung Transport Verkehr

PUSTRAL Centre for Transportation and Logistic Studies

QBL Quadruple Bottom Line

QUT Queensland University of Technology

RAJUK Rajdhani Unnayan Katripakhkha

RETA Regional Technical Assistance

ROD Rickshaw Oriented Development

ROW Right of Way

SE Social Equity

SPM Solid Particulate Matter

SPSS Statistical Package for Social Scientist

STP Strategic Transport Plan

TAZ Traffic analysis Zone


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Abbreviation

Description

STP Strategic Transport Plan

TAZ Traffic analysis Zone

TBL Triple Bottom Line

TCQSM Transit Capacity and Quality of Service Manual

TE Traffic Operational Efficiency

TfL Transport for London

Tk Bangladesh Taka

TT Tourist Transport

UK United Kingdom

UN-HABITAT United Nations Human Settlements Programme

UNCRD United Nations Centre for Regional Development

UNFCC United Nations Framework on Climate Change

USA United States of America

WB Work Bank

WBB Working for Better Bangladesh Trust

WCED World Commission on Environment and Development

STATEMENT OF O

The work contained in thi

an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and

belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except

where due reference is made.

Signature:

Date: 07/01/2013

PPLLAANNNNIINNGG FFOORR SSUUSSTTAAIINNAABBIILLIITTYY OOFF NNOONN MMOOTTOORRIISSEEDD PPUUBBLLIICC TT

ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP

The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet requirements for



where due reference is made.

07/01/2013

TTRRAANNSSPPOORRTT IINN AA DDEEVVEELLOOPPIINNGG CCIITTYY

Page xx

s thesis has not been previously submitted to meet requirements for




Page xxi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First of all, I acknowledge my principal supervisor Associate Prof. Dr Jonathan Bunker for his

guidance, knowledge and contribution, all of which have enabled me to achieve this piece of

work. I would also like to acknowledge the contribution and valuable guideline of my external

supervisor Prof. Glen D’Este, associate supervisors Prof. Simon Washington and Dr Zuduo Zheng

in realising this work.

I am grateful to the Australian Government for providing me with the prestigious International

Postgraduate Research Scholarship. I also acknowledge with gratitude the Science and

Engineering Faculty for supporting me with scholarship funding and additional resources for

conducting this research, especially the data collection process.

I am thankful to Dhaka City Corporation, Dhaka Transport Coordination Board, Bangladesh Road

Transport authority, Capital Development Authority (RAJUK), Dhaka Metropolitan Police, World

Bank- Bangladesh, Asian Development Bank- Bangladesh, Japan International Cooperation

Agency - Bangladesh and Working for Better Bangladesh Trust, for their cooperation and

support during data collection process. My gratitude to Md. Matiar Rahman, Executive Director,

Concord, Dhaka and Mr. M. Jahangir Kabir, Managing Director, Insights & Ideas Ltd., Dhaka for

their kind support during the data collection process. I am also grateful to the operators, drivers

and users of different transport services in Dhaka who shared their valuable time and

experience during the field interview process.

I am thankful to Mr. Darmaning Tyas, Izzul Waro of Institute of Transportation Studies

(INSTRANS) & the transport research group at Centre for Transportation and Logistic Studies

(PUSTRAL)- Gadjah Mada University (GMU), Indonesia; and Mr. David Burgin, Mr. Steve Kenway

and other staff of Greencabs, Brisbane, Australia for their valuable insight during data collection

in Indonesia and Australia respectively.

My thanks to Mr. Mike Hyslop, Prof. Edward Chung and Dr. M. Alauddin for providing me with a

comfortable working environment which has allowed me to balance my work and research

commitments.


Page xxii

I thank my fellow postgraduate students at Queensland University of Technology (QUT),

colleagues at Planung Transport Verkehr (PTV) - Asia Pacific and all my friends in Bangladesh

and Australia for making this journey a pleasant one.

I am indebted to my parents (Afroza Rahman and Md. Matiar Rahman), and my siblings (Mahin,

Moin and Anika) for their continuous love, faith and encouragement. Last but not least, I am

thankful to my wife Zeeshan Rahman for being a constant source of support and

encouragement during the whole tenure of my PhD candidature.


Page xxiii

PUBLICATIONS FROM THIS RESEARCH

Refereed conference papers

Rahman, M.M, D’Este, G. and Bunker, J. (2008). Problems and prospects of non-motorized

public transport integration in developing cities. In proceedings of the 30th Conference of the

Australasian Institute of Transport Research, Perth, Australia, December 10 -12.

Rahman, M.M, G.D’Este and Bunker, J. (2009). Non-motorized public transport development:

present scenario and future approach in developing cities. In proceedings of the 3rd Smart

Systems Postgraduate Student Conference. Brisbane, Australia, September 29 – October 1.

Rahman, M.M, D’Este, G. and Bunker, J. (2009). Is there a future for non-motorized public

transport in Asia? In proceedings of the 8th International Conference of the Eastern Asia Society

for Transportation Studies. Surabaya, Indonesia, November 16 - 19.

Rahman, M.M, D’Este, G. and Bunker, J. (2010).Non-motorized public transport: A global review

and analysis of trends and issues. In proceedings of the 12th World Conference on Transport

Research. Lisbon, Portugal, July 11 - 15.

Rahman, M.M, D’Este, G. and Bunker, J. (2010).Non-motorized public transport: The past, the

present, the future. In proceedings of the 33rd International Conference of the Australasian

Transport Research Forum. Canberra, Australia, September 29 – October 1.

Rahman, M.M, D’Este, G. and Bunker, J. (2011).Implication of policy restriction on non-

motorized public transport performance in Dhaka: An analytical discourse. In proceedings of the

1st International Postgraduate Conference on Engineering, Designing and Developing the Built

Environment for Sustainable Wellbeing. Brisbane, Australia, April 27 - 29.

Conference presentation

Rahman, M.M, Bunker, J. and D’Este, G. (2011). Policy restriction impact on non-motorised

public transport performance in Dhaka. 4th

PTV Vision Asia-Pacific User Group Meeting,

Brisbane, Australia, November 17.

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CCHHAAPPTTEERR 11:: IINNTTRROODDUUCCTTIIOONN

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SECTION A: INTRODUCTION AND GLOBAL REVIEW OF

NON –MOTORISED PUBLIC TRANSPORT

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Sustainable transport systems encompass comprehensive integration of policy, system

development and management to achieve a diverse and balanced mix of transport modes

(motorised and non-motorised) while enabling social equity, cost effectiveness, energy

conservation and mobility (Replogle, 1991a). This research focuses on achieving such equity

among transport modes within a mixed traffic environment, with emphasis on operational

optimization of non-motorized transport (NMT), more specifically non-motorised public

transport. Section A introduces the research and provides a global review of the NMPT status.

This chapter (Chapter 1) outlines the background and problem context of the research, the

underlying hypothesis stemming from the problem statement, relevant research questions to

investigate the hypothesis, subsequent aims and objectives to achieve those research

questions, and also delineates the scope and limitations within which the study is conducted.

Finally, it concludes with an outline of how the whole thesis is structured to meet these needs

and boundaries.

1.1 Research background and problem statement

This section provides a brief introduction to the common needs in place within the transport

system of cities in the global context and the possible problem areas in which such need

indicates address, in order to attain transport sustainability. Such background and problem

identification set the scene for the research study.

Over the last few decades, most large cities around the world have been experiencing rapid and

sometimes imbalanced transport sector development induced by high automobile dependency.

This has resulted in severe congestion, resulting in poor level of service and environmental

degradation. In fact, emissions from the transport sector represent the fastest source of

greenhouse gas (GHG) emission (Wright & Fulton, 2005). Realising the severity of the problem,

transport sector policies have been re-oriented to make them more sustainable for the future.

The most common response under these circumstances has been to focus on better planning,

development and management of public transport (PT) modes and on better traffic control



Page 2

measures. Public transport development approaches have usually focused on higher cost

approaches- mass transit systems. These include prototype buses, trains and sophisticated new

generations of Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) and rail-based Mass Rapid Transit (MRT). But, on a

relevant spectrum there is another paradigm of traditional, low-cost transport systems that can

also add to the initiative towards a sustainable transport future for cities; emission-free, non-

motorised transport (Replogle, 1991a). In particular, the NMT mode that is similar in service

type and operating character to that of motorised public transport (MPT) is three-wheeler, cycle

rickshaws. This paid category of NMT, henceforth termed as non-motorised public transport

(NMPT) can be another potential mode towards facilitating the sustainable transport future of

cities, meeting in various ways and with varying success, the mobility needs of human

communities(Replogle, 1991c). However, it is important here to distinguish between two

possible categories of NMPT/rickshaw mode available, cycle rickshaws (peddle-powered three-

wheeler) and human-pulled rickshaws (human-pulled three-wheeler) as depicted in Figure 1.1.

Note that this research supports the banning of human-pulled rickshaws, due to the crude

nature of their operation (pulling of the vehicle by a person on foot) and specifically excludes

them from the category of NMPT.

Figure 1.1: Major available rickshaw types (Left: Cycle rickshaw, right: Human-pulled rickshaw )

Source: Gupta (2005); Fotosearch (2011)

The benefits and costs of NMPT have long been a major transport planning problem in most

major developing cities and appear as a concern in a considerable number of major developed

cities. NMPTs are perceived to have an important role in many major developing cities of Asia

and Latin America due to their long-lasting history, substantial fleet size and popular demand.

The demand of the mode is observed to be multi-sectoral. The mode has preference and

acceptability by significant market segments (e.g. women, children and the elderly); favoured by

non-car owners for relative cost effectiveness compared to paratransit and private vehicles, and

have significant employment generation effect. In addition, the mode is claimed to be suitable



Page 3

for short trips (2-3km); occupy lower road space compared to private vehicles; is more

appropriate in narrow network structure, has operating flexibility; and most significantly, offers

zero GHG emission .These operating attributes are said to have instigated the re-emergence

and popularity of the mode in the major developed cities of Europe, North America and

Australia in the last decade.

But at decision level MPT is often preferred over NMPT as a preferable mode for addressing the

travel demand and for future transport network planning. In developing cities, the non-

preference is based on the notion of NMPT being inefficient and backward; an impediment to

progress; and inconsistent with a modern urban image. Further criticisms of the mode have

included their slow operating speed, congestion-generating character as a vehicle, and for the

drivers a sense that they are undertaking an ‘inhuman’ profession. As a result, policy measures

to restrict or eliminate NMPT from urban arterials and other feeder networks have been

implemented in cities as diverse as Dhaka, Delhi, Bangkok, Jakarta, Manila, Surabaya and Beijing

with mixed success. In developed cities such as New York, Seattle and London there are also

disputes among transport professionals and policy makers on the degree of acceptability for the

mode, its need rationale and the extent of its possible role within the transport system.

Given the international significance of the problem and the scarcity of studies focused on it, the

present research will attempt to provide a more complete analysis of the current existence

rationale and future possible role or otherwise of NMPT in the transport system, using Dhaka as

a case study. The lessons learned regarding the negative implications of pro-motorised

transport policies on quality of life and the growing emphasis for a sustainable transport future

as argued by Wright & Fulton (2005) also demands a rigorous investigation of the suitability of

NMPT as a sustainable transport alternative for the future. This research may provide the

necessary information and guideline for a fundamental rethink of policy and planning practice

towards NMPT in developing and developed cities.

1.2 Research hypothesis

Based on the problem statement, the hotly contested paradigms of existence or elimination of

NMPT were therefore considered as a constructive basis towards developing the hypothesis of

this research. The endeavour is towards developing a ‘balanced transport system’ providing

good accessibility, satisfactory mobility and greater connectivity to the majority of its users

while ensuring operational improvement, safety, economic efficiency and eco-sustainability. In

this light, the research investigated these aspects by setting up and analysing the following

hypothesis-



Page 4

‘There is an ongoing significant role of NMPT as a regular public transport and it can effectively

contribute towards sustainable transport with respect to social equity, economic independence,

environmental security and traffic operational efficiency, if integrated appropriately into the

transport system’.

1.3 Research questions

This study has attempted to investigate the following four questions so that they can lead

towards resolution of the hypothesis.

1. What is the present state of NMPT in the urban transport system, focusing primarily on

developing cities and to a lesser extent on developed cities?

Research question 1 leads to the following key issues, to be addressed in resolving the posed

hypothesis,

a. What are the degrees and patterns of use of NMPT in the overall transport system of these

cities with emphasis on Dhaka?

b. Does such use indicate a significant contribution and therefore rationale for continuation of

NMPT as a regular public transport mode in these cities, with emphasis on Dhaka?

c. What has been tried in the past regarding planning and management of NMTs especially

NMPTs in these cities with emphasis on Dhaka and what are the end results?

2. What should be the future role of NMPT in the urban transport system, focusing primarily on

developing cities and to a lesser extent on developed cities?

Research question 2 leads to the following key issues, to be addressed in resolving the posed

hypothesis,

a. If there is ongoing future role for NMPT as a regular public transport mode, then what should

be that role, with emphasis on Dhaka?

3. How can NMPT best perform a continuing role as a regular public transport mode in the

present and future context of a developing city such as Dhaka?

4. How can NMPT contribute to sustainable transport in the present and future context of a

developing city such as Dhaka?



Page 5

Research questions 3 and 4 lead to the following key question and associated issues for address

in resolving the posed hypothesis,

How to design a framework that can optimise the sustainable coexistence of NMPT as a regular

public transport mode with motorised transport (MT) in Dhaka?

a. What are the necessary characteristics of a framework or decision tool to achieve integration

of NMPT with MT so that it can be applied to address current network deficiencies, using the

case study of Dhaka?

b. What technique(s) best suit development of the tool, so that it can achieve integration using

the case study of Dhaka?

1.4 Research aims and objectives

The aforementioned research questions posed are expected to be addressed by structuring the

research around the following aims and objectives in the course of the study.

1.4.1 Research aims

The research aims to investigate the role of NMPT as a mode within the transport spectrum of

major cities of developing and developed nations in response to the research hypothesis and to

formulate an appropriate methodology for its efficient incorporation within a mixed traffic

environment, if the contribution of the mode is found to be justified and significant.

1.4.2 Research objectives

The objectives are-

1. To analyse and define the current role and future suitability of NMPT in the transport system

context, primarily in developing cities and to a lesser extent in developed cities (addressing

research question1, 2).

2. To analyse and define the current role and future suitability of NMPT in the transport system

context, using the Dhaka case study (addressing research question1, 2).

3. To evaluate and determine the suitable network environment for integration of NMPT with

other modes (addressing research question 3, 4).

4. To examine and select appropriate techniques for development of an integrated multimodal

decision tool (addressing research question 3, 4).

5. To develop a functional framework for the proposed decision tool to facilitate sustainable

NMPT coexistence with MT (addressing research question 3, 4).



Page 6

1.5 Research scope and limitations

It is known that the operational performance evaluation for a network involves analysing each

mode’s contribution to the transport task in terms of role, impact, opportunities and

constraints. The scope of this research is focused more towards evaluating the impact of the

NMPT as a regular public transport in the performance of a transport network in response to

conjecture regarding its possible suitability and significance from multiple viewpoints (social,

economic, environmental, political; traffic and lane use/transport interaction); and if NMPT

contribution is found to be justifiable but non-cohesive with other motorised modes, it is then

also preferable to develop an integration method that best enhances multimode coexistence. It

is understood that such process can involve planning solutions as well as design guidelines. This

research however, has chosen to emphasise development of a planning oriented integration

framework due to its broader strategic implications. Due to time and resource constraints, the

research has been prioritised to focus on developing the framework for a most vulnerable city,

Dhaka, rather than for multiple major cities which might also have requirements for integration

frameworks. However, to minimize the limitation, the framework is proposed as being arranged

such that it is flexible to be adopted in other traffic environments. Figure 1.2 illustrates the

process of the whole research undertaking.



Page 7

Figure 1.2: Conceptual overview of research undertaking

What is the status of

NMPT in urban transport

system?

Primary focus:

Developing cities

Secondary focus:

Developed cities

Lessons learned

Is NMPT significant

as a regular public

transport mode?

Y

Is there any

satisfactory framework

for incorporating

NMPT into mixed

traffic system?

N

Investigation Ends

Develop planning

framework that can

facilitate coexistence of

NMPT with MT and

adoptable elsewhere

Does that

framework meet

its needs?

Does it enable balanced

distribution of NMPT and

MT across network?

Is it applicable to other

cities?

Y

Y

Investigation Ends

N

Investigation

continues

Focus on a case

city: Dhaka

Investigation required

on shortcomings

N

Y

N



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1.6 Thesis Outline

The thesis is organized into sixteen chapters, divided into four sections corresponding to

research aim and set objectives. Section A (Chapters 1 and 2) introduces the research and

presents a global review of NMPT. Section B (Chapters 3 to 10) provides a detailed review and

analysis of NMPT in case study Dhaka. Section C (Chapters 11 to 15) presents the integrated

planning framework development process for case study Dhaka. Section D (Chapter 16) outlines

the concluding remarks for the research.

Chapter 1 describes the background and underlying problems, relevant hypothesis, research

questions, aims and objectives and scopes and limitations of the research. Chapter 2

investigates the status of NMPT in a global perspective by examining the arguments for and

against the mode with primary focus on developing cities; identifies key learning and determine

gaps that need to be addressed. Based on these understandings and recommendations,

Chapters 3 to 9 provide a detailed overview of the mode for the case study of Dhaka, the capital

city of Bangladesh and arguably the most NMPT intensive city in the world. Chapter 3 provides

an overview of NMPT status in Dhaka. Chapters 4 and 5 report the literature arguments on

NMPT, for and against the mode respectively. Chapters 6 and 7 provide in-depth analyses based

on these reviews. Chapters 8 and 9 discuss the NMPT stakeholder viewpoints on the current

role of NMPT, the future desired coexistence pattern of NMPT with MT and the preferred

attributes for a future Dhaka transport system. The inference from the discussion of Chapters 3

to 9 is summarised in Chapter 10. The discourse also leads to the role definition of NMPT in

Dhaka, identification of deficiencies that demand addressing and the need for a planning

framework for future of Dhaka.

Chapters 11 to 15 describe the planning framework development process for case study Dhaka.

Chapter 11 provides an overview of the planning framework including the desired outcome,

directions and planning steps. The methodology for development of the framework tool is

presented in Chapter 13, preceded by methodology rationale in Chapter 12. The tool

development process is elaborated across Chapter 14 and 15. Chapter 14 discusses the

selection of a suitable network environment, and layout tool for the framework. The desired

attributes expected from the framework are also derived in this chapter. The structure and

functioning of the framework is elaborated in Chapter15. Chapter 16 outlines the conclusions

from the study and identifies scope for future research. The layout of the thesis is illustrated in

Figure 1.3 in the form of a document map.



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Figure 1.3: Document map of the research

CHAPTER 1

Research inception

and structure

CHAPTER 2

NMPT Status analysis:

Global review

CHAPTER 3

NMPT overview in

case study Dhaka

CHAPTER 4

Review of arguments

favouring NMPT

CHAPTER 5

Review of arguments

rejecting NMPT

CHAPTER 6

Analysis of NMPT

role in Dhaka

CHAPTER 7

Analysis of NMPT policy-

planning in Dhaka

CHAPTER 8

Stakeholder viewpoint:

Analysis methodology

CHAPTER 9

Stakeholder viewpoint:

Analysis results

CHAPTER 10

Inference and

recommendations

CHAPTER 11

Overview of

planning framework

CHAPTER 12

Research

methodology rationale

CHAPTER 13

Application of

methodology

CHAPTER 14

Building scene for

framework development

CHAPTER 15

Framework constituents

and function

CHAPTER 16

Discussion and

Conclusion Section A: Introduction &

global review of NMPT

Section B: NMPT in case

study Dhaka

Section C: Planning framework

development for Dhaka

Section D: Conclusion



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1.7 Summary

This chapter presented the preliminary background to formulation of the research, the

subsequent problem statement and hypothesis development to analyse the validity of the

concerns. Three major research questions were formulated in this regard to further assist in

resolution of the posed hypothesis. The first research question was formulated to investigate

the current status of NMPT as a regular mode of public transport. The second research question

was formulated to examine the future potential role of NMPT as regular public transport,

assuming the present status of the mode is proved significant. The last research question was

devised to investigate and develop a suitable methodology for integration of NMPT and MT

within a mixed traffic environment, assuming the first two research questions satisfied the

hypothesis.

Research aims and objectives corresponding to resolving the research questions were then

developed. The scopes and limitations of the study were also defined to clarify the extent of the

research. The chapter concluded with an illustrative representation of the structure of the

whole thesis and the inter-linkage between chapters. With this research backdrop and in

accordance with the document map (Figure 1.3), the following chapter explores the global

status of NMPT as a mode of transport and its other relevant aspects.

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2CHAPTER 2: NON-MOTORIZED PUBLIC TRANSPORT: WHAT CAN WE

LEARN FROM A GLOBAL REVIEW?

2.1 Introduction

“Motorised transport and non-motorised transport are not separate alternative

transport modes. Rather, both of them, including public transport, should be dealt with

together. Certainly, the numbers of automobiles will inevitably increase in most

countries, but it should be pointed out that even with highly motorised societies, a

certain percentage of person trips in urban areas would be done by walking, cycling and

riding buses.”

(Kubota & Kidokoro, 1996)

Chapter 1 has set the scene and the need for a comprehensive status analysis of non-motorised

public transport (NMPT) for future urban transport system planning. This chapter focuses on

determining the global condition on NMPT as a mode of transport. The review is initiated by

developing city context (Section 2.2) and then continues with reference to developed city

scenarios (Section 2.3). Within each category of analysis, arguments favouring and rejecting the

existence of NMPT are presented. The research literature, development trend, policy

approaches and planning initiatives in the management of the mode are discussed in this

regard. Such benefits and cost analyses allows us to portray an unbiased view on the need for

this mode, or otherwise. This investigation is followed by key lessons learned from the literature

and the gaps yet to be addressed (Section 2.5).It should be noted that though the term NMPT

will be generally applied to express the cycle rickshaw in this research (as referred in Section

1.1), this Chapter will use the country specific names of the mode as well, while using relevant

discussions and quotes from different sources.

This discourse is an initiative towards a two-tier status review of the mode and its potential

suitability analysis within the urban transport spectrum, especially as a regular public transport

form. Chapters 3 to 10 provide the scenario for the Dhaka perspective as a part of the detailed

condition analysis of developing cities. The output from such analysis is expected to address

research questions 1 and 2 and indicate whether research question 3 is required to be


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addressed or not. A flowchart of the key steps within the status analysis process is presented in

Figure 2.1

Figure 2.1: Flowchart of key steps in the NMPT status review process

Primary focus:

Developing cities

Secondary focus:

Developed cities

Lessons learned Lessons learned

SECTION A: Status analysis of NMPT:

Global condition review and learning

Y

SECTION B:

Gaps to address

Detailed status analysis

of developing cities

with Dhaka case study-

Lessons learned

Gaps to address

How to address it?

Way forward for research

Why Dhaka?

What is NMPT status?

Analyse the reasons

and suggest rational

alternative mode

Y

N

N

Hypothesis test

Is NMPT significant

as a regular public

transport mode?

Analyse the reasons

and suggest rational

alternative mode

Hypothesis test

Is NMPT significant

as a regular public

transport mode?


Page 13

2.2 NMPT status analysis: Perspective on developing cities

The transport system in developing countries’ cities can be classified into two broad categories,

namely motorised transport and non-motorised transport. The motorised category includes

public transport, paratransit and private transport. The non-motorised transports (NMTs) have

two distinct patterns, private NMTs and public NMTs. According to World Bank (2002), the two

major modes of NMTs in developing cities are walking, and various forms of cycling, which can

be personal or public transport. NMPT has long been a major transport planning problem in

developing cities (Replogle, 1991b). Particularly, the debate on its suitability to continue or

otherwise has been hotly contested and has gained greater significance in recent years with a

new perspective of the transport sector as a key component of sustainable development and

poverty eradication (Whitelegg & Williams ,2005).With this backdrop, a review of NMPT status

is presented in the following sections, describing its strengths and weaknesses to enable an

understanding of the need or otherwise of the mode as regular public transport. The current

status of relevant management initiatives in place is also discussed.

2.2.1 Concept and evolution of NMPT

Because of the long lasting and continuous history of existence of NMPT until today, it is

considered necessary to show preliminary background on the concept and evolution of the

mode to set the scene for its status analysis.

Concept of NMT and NMPT

Non-motorised transport is a transport form that is fossil-fuel free and uses human labour as a

direct driving force in movement operation. Guitink, Sussane and Lebo (1994) has defined non-

motorised transport (NMT) as any form of transportation that provides personal or goods

mobility by methods other than the combustion motor. The NMTs in developing cities can

broadly be divided into two major forms namely private NMTs such as bicycle and walking, and

public NMTs such as cycle-rickshaws.

The word ‘rickshaw’ comes from the Japanese jin riki sha, which means literally ‘man-powered

vehicle’. The name was originally given to the hand-pulled rickshaws which thronged Asian

cities in the late 19th and early 20th centuries but later it was also applied to the cycle-rickshaws

as known in India and Bangladesh (Gallagher, 1992) These vehicles are also known as trishaw

(China), pedicabs (Philippines), samlor (Tahiland), cyclos (Cambodia and Vietnam), becak

(Indonesia), saika (Myanmar), pinyin (Malaysia), bicitaxi (Columbia, Chile) and ecologico

(Mexico) . They come in many different designs, with two wheels, either in front or back, but

developed from the same penny-farthing bicycle concept applied to early tricycles of late 19th


Page 14

century. They are capable of carrying a driver and two to four passengers or freight loads of up

to 250 kg at speeds of 5 to 12 km/hr over distances of up to 40 km (Replogle, 1991b).

Conceptually, NMPT offers a high degree of individualised service, in a relatively cost-efficient

manner, using renewable energy with no adverse environmental impacts (STP, 2005a). They are

effectively a non-motorised taxi operating as a hail-and-ride system, providing door-to-door

service for which passengers pay (Figure 2.2).

Figure 2.2: NMPT Usage in the Streets of developing cities (Left: Yogyakarta, right: Mexico City

Source: Rahman (2009), Rickshawforum (2009)

Evolution of NMPT

The rickshaws initially introduced in developing cities were hand pulled, first observed in Japan

in 1869 (Warren, 1986). This concept was then used in other cities such as Yokohama, Peiking,

Shanghai, Hong Kong, Canton, Singapore, Rangoon and Calcutta (Warren, 1986; Fung,

2005).The NMPTs were first introduced in Singapore in 1886 known as the Upton Park

passenger tricycle ( Flower,1984).

However the NMPTs were not widely prevalent in these parts until around 1929 when they

were first used on a large scale in Singapore (Warren, 1986). NMPT was then onwardly seen to

be used as popular public transport in Calcutta (around 1930), Jakarta (1936), Dhaka (1938),

Hong Kong (mid 1940s) and Canton (1946). By 1950 cycle-rickshaws had spread to every

country in South and East Asia and their growth picked up during the 1960’s and 1970’s (Rashid,

1986; Rimmer, 1986; Gallagher, 1992). NMPTs are still observed in large numbers in the

transport system of many major cities in developing countries, servicing daily trips (Hook, 2005).

2.2.2 Arguments in favour of NMPT

There has been increasing consciousness over the last decade on the significance of inclusion of

NMT mode forms within the mainstream transport policy and planning of cities around the

world, based on sustainability grounds. According to Kalthier (2002):


Page 15

“Urban transport policy and planning over the last few decades has been anything but

sustainable in most of the developing countries. Following the example set by the

industrialised countries, developments have been biased towards promoting the

motorised private transport ….. Non-motorised transport (footpaths, bicycles,

rickshaws, etc.), which accounts for more than 50 percent of the total traffic volume in

cities with more than a million inhabitants, especially in Asia and Africa, was hardly

considered in communal transport infrastructure planning.”

This section analyses the arguments in support of NMPT as a transport mode. The discussion

commences with a significant linkage of the mode to the notion of sustainable development

and transport sustainability as revealed in different literature. This is followed by a discussion of

research supporting NMPT. A review of global trends and policy initiatives in place towards

management of the mode is then conducted.

Linkage between urban transport sustainability and non-motorised public transport

In line with the notions of sustainable development and transport sustainability (See Appendix

A for details on these notions), Replogle (1991c), World Bank (2002), Whitelegg and Williams

(2005) argued that the concept of urban transport sustainability does not call for new

technologies or massive new projects. Instead it demands emphasis on achieving a balanced

mix of non-motorised and motorised transport modes to ensure sustenance in mobility needs,

while attaining social equity, economic independence and environmental sustainability.

Kalthier’s (2002) and Efroymson and Rahman (2005) added that the mobility solutions in

developing cities should include issues regarding minimum energy consumption, safety and

poverty reduction.

NMPT is the primary means of transport and source of employment for people in many

developing countries and accordingly is essential in the design of urban transportation systems

(Guitink et al., 1994). World Bank (2002) highlighted the social and economic strength of NMT

including NMPT in transport sustainability, arguing that in many cities of the developing world,

non-motorised transport is the main mode for the general masses and in some cases a

significant source of income for them. This sector therefore has a very important impact on

poverty reduction. Where NMPT is the main transport mode for work journeys of the poor, it is

also critical for the economic sustenance of the city. Replogle (1991c), Whitelegg and Williams

(2005) and Wright and Fulton (2005) argued that the rising fuel price globally has made

NMT/NMPT even more viable economically and the need for NMT/NMPT stating that

developing countries still have a chance to avoid the mistakes made by many industrial


Page 16

countries in developing inefficient urban forms and creating reliance on expensive transport

systems that require imported and ultimately scarce fuels. Moreover, recognising the

environmental impact, World Bank-Global Environment Fund (GEF) (2003) recommended a

modal shift in developing countries to low emission, less polluting vehicles like NMT/NMPT.

These pervading linkages of NMT/NMPT with key sustainability measures of triple bottom line

(TBL) demand consideration in the overall transport system. Moreover, in developing countries,

where the majority of modal shares in urban areas are a mixture of private NMT (walk and

bicycle) and in many cases NMPT (cycle rickshaws), such integration together with strong

political commitments and good governance can be crucial in meeting quadruple bottom line

(QBL) sustainability notions. However, finding the right combination of local public transport

mix (motorised public transport and NMPT) to optimise the diverging targets for the system as a

whole is a challenge that urban transport and traffic planning in developing cities has to address

(GTZ, 2002).

Insights from the research literature

A considerable amount of research work has been conducted emphasising the role of NMT as a

key component of sustainable transport systems, focusing on the bicycle. However, outside

Asia, few of these works have focused on NMPT. The thematic discourse of the research

insights are discussed below, as initiated by the global viewpoint and then concentrating on

some country-specific studies.

Global viewpoint

Warren (1986), Rimmer (1986) and Gallagher (1992) have published extensive works relevant to

NMPT. Each of these has examined a specific case study, with Warren focussing on Singapore,

Rimmer on South Asia and Gallagher on Bangladesh. They all share a common outlook towards

the suitability and rationale of the mode, from its very early days. Warren (1986) suggested that

NMPT became popular in Singapore since it offered convenient service and cheap fares to the

public at large, particularly on journeys of up to two miles Rimmer (1986) highlighted that

NMPT is suitable in South Asian cities and cities with similar socio-economic, physical network

character, as a convenient, readily available and low cost transportation mode for short

distance trips. Gallagher (1992) further argued on the future suitability of the mode for

developing cities, pointing to their low fare compared to comparative available modes

(motorised paratransits) and economic efficiency in catering for the demand for multi-

destination passenger/goods travel.


Page 17

Replogle has conducted extensive research on NMT and its sustainability and transport policy

planning for Asian cities. He has consistently emphasised the notion of planned integration of

NMTs in the mixed traffic environment of Asian cities and other developing cities with similar

traffic conditions, for maximising functionality. Replogle (1991b) provided an overview of the

then current use of NMTs in Asian cities, the characteristics of NMTs and facilities that serve

them and policies that influence their use. The research also identified conditions under which

NMT use should be encouraged for urban transport, obstacles to the development of NMTs,

and suggested steps that might be taken to develop an NMT Strategy for a city or region, in Asia

and other parts of the world. Replogle (1991a, 1991c) highlighted the sustainability implications

of NMTs, especially for NMPTs in comparison to MTs, and has been one of the pioneers in

promoting the notion of inter-modal integration of motorised and non-motorised modes.

Policies, adopted across much of Asia, that promoted rapid motorisation and repression of

economically and environmentally sustainable low-cost non-motorised transport modes have

been analysed in a later research by Hook and Replogle (1996). The research has also identified

how the influence of foreign investment and deficient policy planning of Governments can lead

to systematic elimination of NMTs in Asian cities with China, Japan and Indonesia as case

studies. Highlighting the environmental implications that NMPT removal could make, Hook

(2000) used a case study of Agra, India. Using Chilean-specific emission data he concluded that if

all NMPT trips were reallocated to highly polluting, two-stroke internal combustion (IC) engines

(e.g. the auto-rickshaw) then the annual totals of pollutants in Agra would increase by 11

tonnes of lead, 4,000 tonnes of particulates, 20,000 tonnes of carbon monoxide and 150 tonnes

of NOx. Taking from the lessons of his previous studies, Hook (2002, 2005), Replogle

emphasised the need to have an integrated approach towards the planning, infrastructure

design and development of NMTs and NMPTS in developing cities.

Hook (2005) further provided a broad guideline on the major steps to be considered as a part of

rational planning approaches to ensure that NMT improvement interventions are realised in a

systematic order and investments are prioritised for the necessary facilities. The key steps

recommended include establishment of a non-motorised task force, selection of areas to be

improved upon, an inventory of existing regulations and conditions, development and

prioritisation of planned improvements, selection and design of facilities and testing of facilities

after implementation. However, he highlighted the fact that application of these steps, in

particular selection and design of NMT facilities for each location would depend on the local

environment and other relevant factors, and needs to be different for NMPTs than for NMTs.


Page 18

Guitink in his research on NMTs has focused on the mobility contribution and emphasised its

improvement. Guitink et al. (1994) showed the mobility significance of NMTs, emphasising its

improvement and how it can be an effective tool towards confronting poverty. This research

further argued that it is essential for NMTs to be considered in the design and modernisation of

transportation systems in developing cities. As a continuation of this research, other research

works followed, among which Guitink (1996) is noteworthy. This study explicitly set out policy

goals and strategies for an NMT model for ensuring that the benefits which they can bring to

the transport scene are realised, particularly by concentrating at different organisation levels,

and stresses the importance of solid financial backing. In line with Replogle and Guitink, Kubota

and Kidokoro (1996) also emphasised these dimensions, stating that although the number of

motorised vehicles will inevitably increase in most Asian cities, they cannot be treated as a

separate alternative to NMT. Rather, both of them should be treated together for balanced

system development.

Wheeler and l'Anson (1998) have provided a more vivid portrayal of NMPT heritage in Asian

cities, highlighting its existence and functional sphere with reference to 12 key NMPT-dominant

cities of Asia in their monograph on NMPT. The cities under discussion included Agra, Calcutta,

Hanoi, Macau, Penang, Singapore, Beijing, Dhaka, Hong Kong, Manila, Rangoon, and Yogykarta.

They have explained the history of the NMPT, why it remains such a popular and omnipresent

form of Asian transport, and how it varies from country to country with reference to case study

cities. The great diversity in vehicle configuration, design, vehicular ownership and operating

custom, issues of licensing, and regulatory and institutional deficiencies in managing the mode

have also been described.

World Bank (2002) in its publications ‘Cities on the Move’ has recognised the global significance

of NMTs (walk, cycle and NMPT) for mobility, economy, social equity and eco-sustainability; and

emphasised the need for infrastructure investment, traffic management and financial measures

to make them safer and more attractive.

A similar school of thought has been echoed by GEF, a trust fund of World Bank and United

Nations. World Bank-GEF (2003) in its operational program, suggested a global strategy for

modal shift to more efficient and less polluting forms of public and freight transport, one of

which is towards preserving and expanding the NMT options (walk, cycle and NMPT). The

functionality and role of NMPT and other paratransits as feeder services to the traditional public

transport system has also been highlighted in this research, further reinforced by Laquian

(2005) and Shima (2009). In particular, these later efforts have highlighted the fact that such an


Page 19

approach can be a great strategy for upgrading informal settlements in Asian Cities where

sometimes provision of traditional public transport has proved to be less productive as well as

impractical.

Studies by Sperling and Clausen (2002) and Gwilliams (2003) explored a different dimension of

this role debate of NMTs. They have tried to compare the traffic scenarios between developed

and developing cities to investigate the question on NMT requirements in developing cities.

Both have concluded that rapid motorisation has actually become a problem in both developed

and developing cities. In developing countries where the NMTs already exist as a core transport

option, transport policies should look forward to their systematic incorporation in the transport

system rather their elimination. More precisely, Sperling and Clausen (2002) stated that the

government investment mechanism, technical support, policy planning and capacity building

should be in favour of sound NMT industry development. Gwilliams (2003) blamed weak policy

and poor institutionalization behind traffic congestion in developing cities instead of NMT

existence; and reinforced the notion that concerted effort towards NMT improvement is

needed.

Recognising the aspect of road safety to promote an NMT friendly transport environment has

been the core of the research by Mohan (2002), who used the Asian cities as his case study. The

research emphasised for intelligent separation of NMTs from MTs for safety and sustainability,

without much detail on how to administer such segregation. In this regard, some road

infrastructure design guidelines for mixed traffic stream, incorporating pedestrian, bicycle and

cycle-rickshaw, are recommended by Tiwari (2002) as outlined later in the discussion.

In a similar manner, Hidalgo (2002) showed significant strategic insights towards utilising NMTs

in converting the automobile-based transport system of Bogota and other Latin American major

cities into safe, sustainable, environmentally-friendly transport environments. Hook (2003)

suggested that the introduction of bicycle-taxi or bicitaxi (Colombian version of NMPT) as a

feeder to TransMilenio (bus rapid transit) has proven to be very effective in Bogota. Britton

(2010) and Ceaser (2010) have however highlighted that the deficiencies in proper regulatory

frameworks and operational planning guidelines have led to sub-optimal utilisation of the mode

as a feeder to TransMilenio. They have also emphasised the requirement for a better service

performance from NMPT bicitaxis. Figure 2.3 shows the multi-purpose usage of the bicitaxi in

Bogota.


Page 20

Photo 2.3a: Passenger bicitaxi in Bogota

Photo 2.3b: Goods bicitaxi in Bogota

Figure 2.3 Multifunctional bicitaxis in Bogota

Source: In Bogota (2011)

Research conducted by Tiwari (2002), and Laquian (2005, 2008) strongly recommended that

introduction of a rapid transit system alone will not be the ultimate solution towards developing

an integrated transport system in developing cities, particularly those places where people are

more inclined towards walking, bicycling and using NMPT. Rather, the usage of these modes

together with rapid transit (bus/ train) in an intelligent, integrated manner would cater to a

more efficient solution to the issues of cost effective, sustainable, user friendly public transport

system development. Pardo (2005) further emphasised the potential significance of

technologically improved NMPT as a feeder service to public transport in the future for

developing and developed cities.

Country specific case studies

India, Bangladesh and Indonesia are worth examining in detail due to their considerable

number of NMPTs and the active interest of researchers. The discussion on Bangladesh with

reference to the capital city Dhaka is elaborated in Chapter 3. India has the largest number of

users of NMTs especially NMPT cycle rickshaws, exceeding Bangladesh. According to Replogle

(1991b), a projection of the Indian Planning Commission indicated the number of NMPT was

estimated as growing to 2.2 million in 2001 from 1.3 million in 1979. The research by Rajvanshi

(2002) estimated it to be around two million, corresponding to the growth expectation of the

commission. The latest statistics reveal the figure to be about seven million [Roche, 2009;

United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT), 2010].Delhi can be termed as

the NMPT capital of India with a fleet size of over 500,000 and a total dependant population of

five to six million in the industry (Page, 2007). All of these figures are quite demanding and as

expected, some significant research has been made in India on this sector and its future. Tiwari

(1999) argued how planned incorporation of NMTs (bicycles and NMPT) through traffic


Page 21

management and appropriate road design can increase traffic capacity, reduce congestion,

increase safety and reduce pollution.

Design improvement insights have been provided in another research by Tiwari (2002), though

that is primarily limited to physical segregation proposals and separate lanes for MTs and NMTs.

Delhi has been used as a case study in both research studies. Brar and Chopra (2008) also

emphasised this factor and suggested some road design guidelines such as the use of separate

lanes and the dimension and location preferred for those lanes. Research works by Whitelegg

and Williams (2005), Centre for Science and Environment (2006) and Sinha (2008) portrayed the

overall NMPT scenario in different cities of India, criticised their movement restrictions and

subsequent implications by highlighting the significant role it imparts on the overall system and

providing policy proposals towards their integration in the transport system in a holistic

manner.

Moving to Indonesia, Parikesit (1999) and Parikesit and Djarwoningrum (2002) in their research

provided condition analysis on NMPT becak in different Indonesian cities including Yogyakarta.

They have highlighted the issues such as positive user perspective, increasing demand, eco-

friendly character, improved safety offered by the mode for student population, necessity for

suitable management and regulatory frameworks in place for sustainable future development

of the mode. The later research also promoted the use of NMPT in the city centre to reduce

traffic pollution, and enhance traffic safety while maintaining mobility and accessibility. The

research monograph by Kartodirdjo (1981) argued that NMPT provided an effective and

possibly long term, low cost transport solution to the mobility problem of Yogyakarta According

to him:

“For a few years after its invention the becak was well adopted to performing its

function, i.e. to provide transportation between residential areas and other sections

and residential areas and places of work in medium size cities. There was plenty of

manpower to operate the becak. The cost of such passenger transportation is relatively

low. It’s faster than walking and relatively comfortable. Such becak transport is better

than anything the city had had before to solve the problem of travel over distances too

great for walking. It has made a substantial contribution to the solution of the intra-city

transportation problem of a medium-sized city.”

In addition, Joewono and Kubota (2005) argued that NMPT provides mobility for women,

students, low-income users, and a job opportunity for people with limited skills and education.


Page 22

According to these researchers, NMPTs are still highly accepted by the community in medium

sized cities such as Bandung and large cities such as Surabaya.

General outlook and policy initiatives on NMPT

Outlook towards current and future role

In addition to the findings of research literature, the general attitudes towards NMPT are

positive among a majority of the transport users, and non-government organisations including

donor agencies. Even in their early days, in cities like Singapore and Canton, NMPTs were the

most popular ways to commute, make social rounds and move around the markets (Warren,

1986; Fung, 2005). NMPT still continues to be a substantial component of traffic composition in

many developing cities. Becaks in prominent Indonesian cities (e.g. Yogyakarta, Bandung,

Surabaya ), pedicabs in many cities in the Philippines (e.g. Laguna, Los Banos), and cyclos in

most Cambodian cities and some parts of Vietnam are examples of places in East Asia where

NMPT continues to have a historically significant role in the urban transport system (Crossing

Cambodia, 2006; Chakravarty, 2008; Rahman, D’Este & Bunker, 2008; 2009a; 2009b). Many

parts of India (Calcutta in West Bengal, Matheran in Maharastra, Agra in Uttar Pradesh, Madras

in Tamilnadu, states of Kerala, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh) also have a large population of

cycle-rickshaws which serve as a major mode of travel (Gadepalli, 2008). The transport system

of all major cities and urban centres of Bangladesh, including the capital city Dhaka, comprises

NMPT cycle-rickshaws. According to Wipperman and Sowula (2007), NMPTs are the most

common form of transport to move around the cities of Bangladesh. Although comprehensive

statistics are difficult to obtain, it is estimated that there are currently more than 20 million

NMPT drivers in Asia, estimated based on UN-HABITAT (2010) and Alam (2011). Public demand,

lack of feeder services to reach conventional public transport, absence of short distance travel

alternatives and the poor conditions of traditional public transport system (privacy, comfort,

safety) particularly for vulnerable social groups including the elderly, women and children, have

further enhanced the potential of this mode in catering for future travel demands (Gallagher

1992; Hossain & Susilo, 2011).

In Latin America, NMPT has been operating for at least 40 years and has a moderate but

growing role in the transport system for both day-to-day trips by residents and for tourist trips

(Rahman, D’Este & Bunker, 2010b). Countries including Columbia, Mexico, Costa Rica and Cuba

have persisted with their local version of the NMPT bicitaxi, and pedicabs operate in most parts

of these countries including the capital cities of Bogota (Columbia), Mexico City (Mexico), San


Page 23

Jose (Costa Rica) and Havana (Cuba) (Urban Thinking, Urban Policy, & Translating Policy into

Law, 2009).Gallagher (1992) estimated a total of more than 0.3 million goods tricycles being in

use in Latin America. At present, there is no sign of them or their passenger version

disappearing in near future. In fact, they are flourishing in cities such as Bogota, where

according to a recent statistics by Britton (2010):

“More than 5,000 bicitaxis are manoeuvring in the city streets of Bogota compared to

450 in 2004. Today there is a bicitaxi for every three buses and a bicitaxi for every nine

taxis.”

Policy and integration initiatives

With increased recognition of the sustainability implication of NMPT and its potential to reduce

GHG, government and non-government organisations in various cities have taken initiatives to

improve the mode, primarily its operating technology to suit future needs. One such new form

of rickshaw is called ‘solecshaw’, developed in India by the state-run Council of Scientific and

Industrial Research (CSIR) that started operating from October, 2008 (Singh, 2008; Prakash,

2009, AFP, 2008 & Roche, 2009) (Figure 2.4).

Figure 2.4: New Rickshaw Type ‘Soleckshaw’ in India

Source: Roche (2009) ; Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute (CMERI) (2011)

Even before that, since 2002 the Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP)

under its Indian Cycle Rickshaw Improvement Program had successfully initiated and introduced

modernised NMPTs with technological upgrades in more than ten cities across India. Presently

over 300,000 modernised NMPTs are operating in nine of India’s major cities, including Delhi,

Agra, Bharatpur, Brindavan, Mathura, Jaipur and Chandigarh (Gadepalli, 2008) (Figure 2.5)

.


Page 24

Figure 2.5: Use of ITDP Designed Modern Rickshaw in Vrindavan

Source: Gadepalli (2006)

Hook (2000) and Gadepalli (2006, 2008) clearly demonstrated the significant results of the

program especially improvements in speed, convenience in pedal by addition of a multi-gear

system; and reduction in physical labour by more than 30 percent.

These in turn enhanced operational efficiency and together with successful market integration

and optimum re-utilisation of the existing fleets have gained acceptance even among anti-

rickshaw communities. A recent research project by Rajvanshi (2002) argued the utility of a new

type of cycle-rickshaw which, instead of eliminating existing rickshaw fleets, should be added to

that as replacement for pollution-generating, auto-rickshaws. The research centred on the use

of electric cycle rickshaw of three new varieties namely a) Improved pedal cycle rickshaw

(IMPRA); b) Motor assisted pedal rickshaw (MAPRA); and c) a completely battery-driven

rickshaw called ELECSHA (Figure 2.6).

Figure 2.6: Elecsha in India (Left: old version, right: new version)

Source: Rajvanshi (2002); Nimbkar Agricultural Research Institute (NARI) (2011)

The latest improvement to these efforts has been the development of the electric-motor

assisted pedal-driven tricycle by the Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute (CMERI),

Durgapur, India. Maji, Banerjee, Banerjee and Maity (2010) argued that the combination of

pedal and electric motor reduces the drudgery of rickshaw drivers, minimises the utilisation of


Page 25

electric energy and produces almost zero GHG. These are touted to provide a non-polluting,

energy efficient, cost effective and silent transport system for urban and rural areas of India,

demonstrating the ongoing and potential of the mode for future.

There are a few other instances of NMPT encouragement initiatives in cities like Phnom Phen,

Cambodia and Yogyokarta, Indonesia. The cyclos in Phnom Phen have no movement restriction

(Crossing Cambodia, 2006). Initiatives are more proactive and holistic in Yogyakarta, Indonesia.

Realising the significance of NMPT in city transport, the Yogyakarta City Council has undertaken

a comprehensive legal/regulatory framework for becak operational improvement. This includes

setting requirements for vehicle and driving permits at regular intervals, annual inspections,

operating safety requirements, traffic enforcement measures, design improvements to upgrade

driver ergonomics and provision for its routing, parking and safe operation (City of Yogyakarta,

2009). The design improvements were initiated by ITDP following its success in India and under

the project known as Yogyakarta Becak Improvement Project with Gadjah Madah University

(GMU), Centre for Tourism Studies, Yogyakarta as executing agency and ITDP as the technical

support organisation. The key focus areas were improvements to weight, manoeuvrability, and

passenger and operator comfort (PUSTRAL UGM, 2002) (Utz & Petersen, 2003). The

implementation of this initiative commenced in 2004 and continues successfully. More than

12,000 modern rickshaws are currently plying their trade in the streets of the city (City of

Yogyakarta, 2009) (Figure 2.7).

Figure 2.7: Use of Modern Becak in Yogyakarta

SourceHook (2003); Zudianto and Parikesit, (2006)

Zudianto and Parikesit (2005) demonstrate the substantial positive implication of air quality

improvement (SO2, HC, PB and CO reduction) in Yogyakarta as a result of Becak policy

promotion and design improvement initiatives through their study during the period 2002-

2006. The city government has future plans to restrict becak numbers based on market demand


Page 26

analysis and development of an integrated transport planning framework for becak and bicycle

operation, linking them with transit services. An ADB funded study is already in progress to

realise the process [Regional Technical Assistance (RETA), 2011].

Bogota, Columbia is another example where policy initiatives have been undertaken to

integrate NMTs and NMPTs into the transport system, particularly as a feeder service to the Bus

Rapid Transit, TransMilenio (Hidalgo, 2002; Bari & Efroymson, 2007). It has 350 kilometres of

bikeway, the largest dedicated bikeway in the developing world (Penalosa, 2005; Ho, 2007).

Hook (2002) indicated that the bikeways were designed so that they are wide enough to

accommodate both bicycles and bicitaxis. Such strategies have promoted social equity and

improved the environment for the city.

This literature review has revealed that, at a transport user level and more commonly at non-

government agency level, NMPT is becoming favoured and promoted due to its cross sectoral

utility and sustainability. The promotions were however more limited to regulatory framework

development and vehicle technology improvement. It has also been observed that the least

active stakeholder in this process is commonly the relevant government agency. It is therefore

necessary to understand the reasoning behind their reluctant approach, to have a better

comprehension of the whole NMPT scenario.

2.2.3 Arguments rejecting NMPT

Converse to the above arguments, it is often observed that the existence and operation of

NMPT has historically been seen as a nuisance by the policy makers and regulators. Particularly,

several authorities have found NMPT to be an inappropriate mode in major cities and have

taken a strong stance to control this mode, compared to bicycle and other motorised traffic

modes. According to Hook (2005):

“Cycle rickshaws in their various forms, by contrast to bicycles, have been subjected to

particularly tight restrictions on their access to certain streets or certain zones of

various cities.”

Table 2.1 provides a historical trend of NMPT activity and inactive/restrictive policy initiatives in

selected cities.


Page 27

Table 2.1: Trend in NMPT activity and policy in selected cities

Bogota Rickshaw

Growth started

Slow Growth.

Not very supportive and not well integrated.

Not much policy support.

Partially Integrated in

2002

Neutral since 2006

Growth continues

Havana Rickshaw

Growth started

Slow Growth.

Not very congenial and not well integrated.

Not much policy planning

Dhaka

Introduced 1938

Early growth

Positive Policy

Cycle Rickshaw growth started and

continued steadily

Positive Policy

Rapid Growth

Adverse Policy and Measures

Rickshaw Ban on

Main roads in 2002

Growth continues

Delhi

Introduced 1947

Growth started

Positive Policy

Steady growth continued

Rapid Growth

Negative Policy and several phases

of bans until 2008

Ban lifted in some

areas.

Growth continue

Calcutta

Introduced

before 1947

Positive Policy

Steady growth

Policy initiatives to restrict rickshaws

from 1976

Growth

Continues.

Negative Policy.

Hand-pulled

rickshaws

banned in 2007

Cycle rickshaw

continues.

Growth continues.

Jakarta

Introduced in

1940

Positive Policy

Steady growth continued Negative Policy

Banned in 1988

Ban lifted in 1998 but

reversed immediately

Manila Rickshaws

Banned

Some re-

emergence

before banning

again

Hanoi Rickshaws introduced in 1939

Slow growth

Banned from main

roads in 2008

Singapore

Introduced 1929,

positive policy

Restricted since

1936

Slow growth

Slow growth

continued

Almost

disappeared

Hong Kong

Introduced in

mid 1940s

Positive policy

Growth decline

after 1945

Decline in

growth

No new license

since 1975

Beijing Rickshaw

Banned in 1949

Karachi Rickshaws

Present

Rickshaw

Banned in 1962

Bangkok Rickshaws

Present

Rickshaw

Banned in 1960

Kuala Lumpur Rickshaws Present.

Steady growth Banned in 1970

Phnom Penh Rickshaw present and steady growth

Government Policy inactive

1950 and earlier 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000


Page 28

Most of the bans or restrictions on NMPT movement have been based on common underlying

reasoning. It is therefore necessary to understand these arguments to have a clear picture of

the NMPT condition in developing cities .Singapore was the first country to limit NMPTs and in

1936 a maximum allowable limit of 7000 was set on the fleet size (Warren, 1986).The growth

then onwards was slow until 1960s after which they almost disappeared (Wheeler & I’Anson

1998). India also considered the abolition of the mode as early as 1945. A Labour Investigation

Committee set up by the colonial government recommended such a proposal for both hand-

pulled and cycle-rickshaws in favour of motorised rickshaws (Gallagher, 1992). Manila banned

them initially in the 1950s but some of them re-emerged after the economic crisis in the 1990s

on local streets before complete reimposition in 1998 (Bari & Efroymson, 2005a). Karachi

banned them in 1960 and Bangkok in 1962. Hong Kong has stopped the issue of NMPT licenses

since 1975 and they are almost extinct now, replaced by high quality public transit mechanisms

(Vittacchi, 1998). In Chinese cities such as Canton, pedicab movement has been restricted since

the 1970s (Fung, 2005).

Indonesia followed suit. In Jakarta, abolition started in 1970 when there were around 150,000

NMPT becaks. The manufacture of new NMPT was prohibited and existing NMPTs were given

different colours and each restricted to a particular colour zone. In 1972, they were restricted to

the city centres, high-class residential areas and finally banned in 1988 (Gallagher, 1992). The

decision was lifted briefly in 1998 before reversal (Whitelegg & Williams, 2005). They were

primarily replaced by motorised three-wheelers such as baby-taxis. In Surabaya, Bandung,

Semerang and Ujung Pendang (Indonesia’s third, fifth and seventh largest cities respectively),

abolition was actively pursued from the 1970s onward (Gallagher, 1992).They are restricted

from selected major arterials and highways through specific decrees (Hook, 2002; ITDP, 2009).

In Malaysia, Penang’s local government in 1980 was reducing NMPT trishaws through natural

wastage (Rimmer, 1980). Moreover, in Kuala Trengganu the government introduced a pilot

project in 1979 to replace some of the 1400 trishaws with motorised three-wheelers (Rimmer,

1986).

Among Indian cities, Delhi forbade NMPTs to operate anywhere apart from within the Old City

controlled by the Municipal Corporation of Delhi and their numbers are capped at 5200

(Gallagher, 1992; Sarkar, 2002).The plying allowance was also revoked in 2007, though this has

not been enforced (ITDP, 2009). In Madurai, Tamil Nadu’s second largest city, a ceiling of 2100

licenses was imposed in 1980. In Madras, a ceiling was fixed on NMPT licenses in 1958 at 1004

and in 1970 it was recommended they be abolished altogether (Gallagher, 1992). Presently, the

status remains unchanged in these places. They are also banned in Ahmedabad, Mumbai and


Page 29

Bangalore (ITDP, 2009). Similar restrictive approaches have been adopted by city authorities in

African cities, such as Dakar, the major Vietnamese city of Ho Chi Minh City in the 1990s and in

2008 NMPTs were delimited from manoeuvring on most major streets of Hanoi (Hook, 2002;

Chakravorty, 2008). Chinese cities such as Shenyang, Guangzhou, have followed this trend.

However, an interesting regulatory situation is observed in many of these cities (ITDP, 2009):

“In China and Vietnam, cycle rickshaws generally operate in a legal limbo. They are not

strictly legal or regulated in many cities, but they exist and are tolerated to varying

degree by local police following no particular logic.”

Restriction policy on NMPT movement on major arterials and some other secondary streets has

existed in the capital city of Bangladesh, Dhaka, since 2002 (Efroymson & Bari, 2005b).

According to the policy makers of these cities, the bans and/or stringent controls of NMPT

movements are attributable to several reasons. These include slow speed of the vehicle and the

subsequent implication for traffic congestion; poor discipline of the peddlers that aggravates

traffic chaos and poses safety hazards , inhumane nature of the profession and the negative

image of a backward transport system that this portrays to the outside world (Warren, 1986;

Rimmer, 1986; Fung 2005; Chakaravorty, 2008; ITDP, 2009; Gozun & Guillen, 2010). The

argument of the Indonesian authorities, as explained by Rimmer (1986), that is behind NMPT

restriction, summarises the perspective of most city authorities:

“Pedicabs were considered…to be inefficient, incompatible with other traffic, and

inhumane. They were the cause of traffic congestion because of low cruising speed (10-

15kph), low acceleration rates and the poor discipline of pedallers. The pedallers were

difficult to police because any attempt at enforcement of regulations would have

triggered social tensions…Also pedalling was considered to be a humiliating occupation

which created an image of ‘underdevelopment’.”

In addition to these objections, NMPT has also been considered to be a nuisance when not

operating on the streets due to ‘obstruction’ and ‘loitering’ (Gallagher, 1992). These problems

have been highlighted to make NMPT appear inefficient and incompatible with motorised

transport, thus needing to be removed in order to achieve better transport network efficiency.

A tabular representation of the key arguments against NMPT, with responsible major city

governments are summarised in Table 2.2.


Page 30

Table 2.2: Key arguments disfavouring NMPT and responsible major city governments

Reasons for disfavouring NMPT Responsible governments of selected major cities

Slow moving, uneconomical and hazardous Singapore (Singapore)

Inhumane, portrays poor city image and a painful

remnant of semi colonial past of China

Beijing, Canton, Shenyang, Guangzhou (China)

Slow moving, uneconomical and hazardous Hong Kong (Hong Kong)

Inefficient and incompatible with other traffic,

inhumane, portrays poor city image

Jakarta ,Surabaya, Bendang, Ujung Pendang

(Indonesia)

Primary contributor to traffic congestion, traffic

chaos and poor city image

Manilla (Philippines)

Slow moving and primary congestion contributor Bangkok (Thailand)

Slow moving and primary contributor to traffic

congestion, poor city image

Penang, Kuala Terengganu(Malaysia)

Slow moving, road space inefficient, primary

contributor to congestion and low occupancy

Ho Chi Minh City, Hanoi (Vietnam)

Primary contributor to traffic congestion Delhi, Madras, Madurai, Ahmadabad, Bangalore,

Mumbai (India)

Slow moving, road space inefficient, primary

congestion stimulator, expensive, unsafe, poor city,

inhumane and image

Dhaka (Bangladesh)

Slow moving and congestion generator Dakar (Senegal)

Source: Derived by the author based on previous discussions

The above discussion reveals the common interest and logic of several cities’ authorities

towards pursuing a transport system that is ‘modern’ and ‘fast’; by trading off NMPT as a

solution to address the traffic congestion and associated transport problems.

2.2.4 Inference from the discourse

Amidst such debate for and against the existence of NMPT a number of questions still remain. Is

the reasoning behind NMPT restriction valid enough? Have efforts of policy makers to limit

NMPT or blanket ban their movement been successful in improving traffic performance and

overall network mobility?

The common grounds for restriction of NMPT have always been its slow speed and congestion

implication, poor operational discipline, the inhumane character of the riding profession and


Page 31

the mode’s representation of a backward city image. The issue of slow speed is a relative factor.

Whether a vehicle is considered slow or fast depends on trip distance. If the trip distance is

relatively long for most of the travel demand spectrum, a mode like NMPT with average speed

of 10-15 km/hour might be considered relatively slow. However, in developing country cities

where most of the trips are predominantly short, around 60 percent of the trip lengths are less

than 3 km (Hook, 2002), and NMPT ought not to be considered as a slow moving vehicle mode.

Low speed might become an issue in high speed corridors such as arterials, however this can

either be addressed through traffic management measures or if deemed necessary, NMTs can

be diverted based on circumstances with appropriate alternative route options rather than

pursuing blanket bans (ITDP, 2009).

From the viewpoint of road space utilisation, NMPTs are the second most efficient transport

form after motorised public transit vehicles (e.g. bus, train, tram) (Gallagher, 1992).They take

lower passenger-to road-occupancy than private car, taxi, auto-rickshaw or other paratransit

modes. As a result, we can observe a productivity of 14,000 passengers/hour on arterials of

motorised Taipei, compared to 24,000 passengers/hour on the arterials of motorised transport

(MT)-NMT mixed Kunming Hook (2002) argued:

“While fully occupied public transit vehicles are the most efficient users of road space,

bicyclists use less than a third of the road space used by private motor vehicles…even

cycle rickshaws use considerably less road space per passenger than motorised taxis

and single occupancy vehicles.”

Rimmer (1986) indicated the ineffectiveness of eliminating becak on alleviation of traffic

congestion in Jakarta. According to him, NMPT removal did not reduce congestion in central

areas of Jakarta as private cars created new levels of traffic overcrowding. Half a century ago,

similar efforts and outcomes were also observed in Singapore. NMPTs were being discouraged

from plying trade on major roads, and literally forced off their own streets. But nothing was

done to make motorised traffic avoid the NMPT areas after 1920 despite the fact that cars and

trucks caused most of the accidents and traffic congestion on Singapore’s roads (Warren, 1986).

Singapore’s NMPT were eventually removed in the 1970s. The key reason for their success in

removing NMPT were long-term replacement of the mode with a good quality public transit

system including mass rapid transit and relatively low sizes of the NMPT fleets (around 7000).

Considering the disorderly nature of vehicular operation, it cannot only be attributable to NMPT

alone, rather it is a common feature applicable to all modes of developing cities (Gallagher,

1992). So it is quite unreasonable to accept that limiting NMPT alone can alleviate traffic


Page 32

congestion. The requirement is more towards effective lane control-based traffic management,

associated planning measures, improved design standard and tighter enforcement measures to

enable more orderly traffic flow (ITDP, 2009).

The notions of inhumane character and image modernisation are also controversial. Where a

considerable proportion of the population lives well under the poverty level with increasing

unemployment, and where NMPT generates significant non-skilled employment, the rationale

of displacing this cohort of the low-income society without any better alternative must be

questioned (Whitelegg & Willams,2005)

Moreover, with technological innovation, efforts such as those administered for the

modernisation of NMPT in India and Indonesia have made these vehicles much lighter,

relatively easy to manoeuvre and thereby reduced labour intensiveness of the driving process.

These technological innovations are also being realised very rapidly. The old notion of inhumane

character labelled to this profession may lose ground, especially when combined with the socio-

economic condition of these cities and the prevalence of more labour intensive professions

such as pulling hand-pull rickshaws, push carts and day labouring (Bari & Efroymson, 2006).

Similarly, when developed cities are embracing the sustainability need of NMTs and moving

away from car dependency, it is quite illogical of developing cities’ governments to encourage

and assist in pursuing transport policies linked to the notion of modernisation, based on

automobile dependency (Guitkin, 1996; Whiltelegg & Williams, 2005).

It is therefore not surprising to observe that most cities such as Dhaka, Delhi, Bangkok, Jakarta,

Surabaya, Manilla, Ho Chi Minh City and Hanoi, which imposed NMT bans, were unable to solve

traffic problems by doing so (Bari & Efroymson, 2005b). This is particularly applicable with

reference to overall traffic congestion, accessibility problems of the common users and GHG

emission. In most cases the situation has worsened as NMTs were replaced by pollution-

generating motorcycles and motorised three wheelers. The modal share of these vehicles in

many of the developing cities in Asia accounts for 35 to 70 percent of the total vehicles (Bari and

Efroymson, 2007), which is more or less similar to that of NMPT in Dhaka (41 percent). However

such motorised capital cities like Delhi, Bangkok, Jakarta, Manilla and Hanoi are notorious for

traffic congestion and pollution (GTZ, 2003; Bari & Efroymson, 2005b). A recent study by Apte et

al. (2011) demonstrated the continuing air quality degradation of ambient and micro-transport

environment in low income cities such as Delhi, due to rapid increase of motorised transport.

Moreover, in places where blanket bans on NMPT persist, the sense of dissatisfaction amongst

transport users often prevails, e.g. Delhi, Jakarta (Hook, 2005).


Page 33

In Manilla, even after the official curbing of NMPT, it is still observed as a popular transport

mode. According to Guillen (2000), there are more pedicabs in highly urbanised areas such as

Manilla than in urbanised localities like Los Banos, Laguna, a town 63 km to the southeast.

Moreover, pedicabs are found in city roads that lead to commercial or business districts (e.g.

shopping malls) and used as feeder services to cater for the mobility needs of inhabitants.

Similar situations are also observed in Indonesian cities such as Surabaya, Bandung, Ujung

Pandung (presently known as Makassar), Indian cities such as Madras, Nagpur, Madurai and

Delhi and Chinese cities such as Shanyan and Beijing. In these cities, NMPTs could not be

abolished, nor could their restrictive ceilings be maintained due to their demand and lack of

appropriate alternatives. Continuous and long-term stringent measures to remove them from

entire cities or zones have resulted in their reduced operation in some places and change in

market share (e.g. Hanoi, Chiang Mai, Beijing ), but they have remained strong and dominant in

a number of other cities (e.g. Dhaka, Delhi, Calcutta, Yogyakarta, Ho Chih Minh City, Havana).

Table 2.3 shows current usage pattern of NMPT and Figure 2.8 portrays market share of the

mode in selected major cities encountered by restrictions, based on aforementioned literature

review and relevant analysis.

Table 2.3: Degree of and shift in NMPT usage in selected cities

Source: Developed by the author from literature review;

Relative level of usage: � Low � Medium � High; Usage Shift Indicator: �

Location Degree of Usage Shift in Usage

Country Major Cities

Tourist

Transport (TT)

Public

Transport (PT)

TT �

PT

PT �

TT

No

Change

Mexico Mexico City and other major cities � � -

Cuba Havana and other major cities � � -

Costa Rica San Jose and other major cities � � -

Colombia Bogota and other major cities � � -

Bangladesh Dhaka and other major cities �� -

India Delhi, Calcutta Chandigarh, etc. � � -

Thailand Chiang Mai � � �

China Beijing, Shanyan � � �

Indonesia Surabaya, Yogyakarta, Bandung � -

Jakarta � -

Malaysia All Cities � �

Vietnam Hanoi � � � -

Ho Chi Minh City � � �

Philippines Manila � �

Cambodia Phnom Penh � � -


Page 34

Figure 2.8: Market share of NMPT usage in selected Cities

Source: Developed by the author from literature review

Failure to realise the expected benefits in congestion reduction and operational efficiency, and

reversals of decisions that now allow NMPT have been observed in cities as TraVinh, Vietnam

(Chakaravorty, 2008) and Surabaya, Indonesia (Bari & Efroymson, 2005b). A recent instance

involves the Government of India, which has reintroduced NMPT in Chandni Chowk of Old Delhi

in 2008, realising its importance as a sustainable mode of transport and with the backdrop to

improve the local environment, after being declared India’s most polluted residential area. But

the revamp process is not keeping pace with demand (Singh, 2008).

The analysis thus far, clearly establishes the role of integrated NMPT as a regular form of public

transport as well as its utility and the need for it to be retained as a part of sustainable transport

systems in many cities of developing countries. Wright and Fulton (2005) observed:


Page 35

“ Most developing-nation cities still possess the basis for a more sustainable future.

Public transport and non-motorised transport still command a dominant share of travel

in developing cities. Thus, a central principle behind a more efficient and sustainable

transport future in developing cities must be the preservation of existing mode shares

of public transport and non-motorised options.”

But despite such importance of NMPT, the previous discussions showed lack of initiatives in

including the mode in formal transport planning process. The strategic approaches and policies

undertaken so far in managing the mode have been mostly biased and ad-hoc. Biased, because

the objective of the regulators was to get rid of the mode and stemmed from some wrongly

perceived assumption on its operating character and appearance; supplemented with NMPT

replacement by pollution-generating, motorised private vehicles, which has proved to be

greater nuisance in generating traffic congestion, road accidents and health hazards. Yet, their

operation has never since been confiscated or limited and an imbalance in treatment of modal

distribution is therefore in existence (e.g. Dhaka, Delhi, Surabaya, Manilla). Ad-hoc, as no

integrated planning, based on sound demand-supply analysis of the transport system, and

suitable to local travel character and network pattern, was undertaken in any of the cities under

discussion while managing the mode. It is understood that a few initiatives exist in integrating

NMPT such as those of Indonesia or India. But these are more limited to design improvement of

the mode (e.g. Yogyakarta, Chandigarh) and development of some broad regulations to manage

their operation (e.g. Yogyakarta). An integrated planning framework to enable efficient co-

existence of NMPT with MT is not available.

2.3 NMPT status analysis: Perspective on developed cities

The compositions of traffic mixes in developed country cities are fundamentally different from

those in developing country cities. Traditionally, the transport systems in developed cities are

primarily divided into three distinct classifications; private transport, public transport and active

transport (bicycle, walking). But in the last few years, a new form of transport has emerged in

these cities which can be categorised under the public transport class, being NMPT pedicabs.

Though their spread and service extent is small compared to the scenario in developing cities,

they have caught the eye of numerous government transport agencies and professionals due to

their growing popularity. There is also growing debate that NMPT can play an important role in

attaining the integrated, sustainable transport spectrum for which developed cities are striving

(Replogle, 1991b). This argument is becoming stronger with the drive of developed cities to shift


Page 36

away from their established culture of automobile dependent societies to more sustainable

transport alternatives (Wright & Fulton, 2005).

With these influences in mind, it is felt necessary that an overview of the arguments favouring

the rise of the mode and the problems encountered in incorporating it be made, to have an

understanding of its current suitability, future potential and management status. This overview

would also assist in completing the global status summary of this mode.

2.3.1 Evolution of NMPT

Though NMPTs have attracted widespread attention in the last decade or so, their existence is

not new in developed country cities. In fact, Japan was the pioneer of the hand pulled rickshaws

of the late 19th century as already discussed in Section 2.2.1. Even the cycle-rickshaw that is the

focus of this research, is also said to have been invented there and first appeared in developed

cities elsewhere. Gallagher(1992) stated:

“In 1696 a magazine in Amsterdam showed what was probably the world’s first

pedicab. It was described as a ‘horseless carriage’ and attributed to Dr. Elie Richards of

La Rochelle, France. One was seen in Paris, but it was very cumbersome, and

presumably never got beyond the experimental stage.”

It was not until the 1860s when the first operable form of NMPTs truly appeared and continued.

These were goods tricycles based on the improvements made to the Draisiennes’ (the first

working bicycle built in 1817) pedals and front wheels by two Frenchmen, Pierre and Ernest

Michaux. These early NMPTs are known as ‘velocipedes’ or ‘boneshakers’ and were used in

France, USA and Britain (Gallagher, 1992). Later, they were technologically developed to

‘penny-farthing’ bicycles, some of which were made into tricycles and there were attempts to

introduce them as NMPT in both England and Asia (Gallagher, 1992).”

Britain then pioneered the design and engineering of NMPTs. In late 1870s, James Starley in

England developed a more compact tricycle with a crude cycle chain, better wheel design to

make it stronger yet lighter, and a differential (which allowed the wheels to turn at different

speeds when cornering).This was followed by second generation tricycles known as Humber

Cripper (1885), and the third generation equipped with steel tubes, ball bearings and pneumatic

tyres in 1892 (Retro Pedal Cars, 2011). Gallagher (1992) pointed out that the tricycle

innovations and design improvements made at that time in Europe, Britain in particular,

remained as the base technology for most of the NMPTs plying in developing cities today.

Though goods NMPTs were used in Europe, passenger NMPTs never caught on during that


Page 37

period or until a considerable time afterwards. Gallagher (1992) explained the reasoning behind

such non-pursuance of NMPT, attributable to a higher living standard, better public transport,

higher wage level among labourers and lower employment level.

After a long break they re-emerged on the scene in the 1980s in cities such as London, England

and San Francisco and USA. In Australia, it was in Cairns, North Queensland, Australia, as tourist

transport (Gallagher, 1992; Merlin Coast Pedicab, 2002). Since the late 1990s and early parts of

this century, their operation has become noticeable. They are most commonly known as

pedicabs in Australasia, North America and some parts of Europe e.g. United Kingdom (UK),

Denmark and Netherlands. They are also called as velotaxi or curt fitzler in Germany and trixi in

Spain. NMPTs are currently a common occurrence, in the transport system across many

developed country cities.

2.3.2 Arguments in favour of NMPT

As already stated, there is a growing endeavour in achieving global sustainability. The emphasis

and responsibilities are vested more on developed country cities due to their century-old

industrial activity and resultant emission of GHG in the atmosphere. A milestone commitment

to this end has already been demonstrated by the developed cities through the Kyoto Protocol

under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) in 1997. But the

proportion of transport generated emissions is still rising (Vinnot & Coussey, 2009).

Transport sectors of developed city countries belonging to the Organisation for Economic Co-

operation and Development (OECD) are considered as the second highest emitting sector

following energy, an amount of more than 4 billion tons (Gt) compared to the total sectoral

emission of 7 Gt. in 2005(International Energy Agency, 2008). The transport authorities in these

cities have understandably extended their efforts to reduce dependency on the automobile

and encourage use of sustainable transport, such as NMTs. The re-emergence and increasing

popularity of NMPT in the same era is therefore not surprising; rather it demonstrates the

common orientation of the developed cities to move towards more sustainable transport. This

section discusses the general outlook and policy initiatives undertaken towards the

development of the mode.

General outlook and policy initiatives

Outlook towards current and future role

Active non-motorized modes like the bicycle are widely used in the developed world and are

increasingly incorporated as an integral part of the overall transportation system. Especially in


Page 38

Western European countries such as the Netherlands (Amsterdam, Delft), Germany (Berlin),

France (Paris and Lyon) and Austria; North American cities such as Portland, Oregon and

Edmonton, Alberta; and Asian cities such as Tokyo, bicycles are used widely for work and non-

work purposes. In this continuation of the pro-NMT transport environment, NMPT has re-

emerged and gained popularity since the late 1990s in the form of pedicabs. Companies like

Orient Express Rickshaw, Manhattan Rickshaws, Portland Cascadia Pedicabs (USA); Velotaxi

(Germany); and Bugbug (England) have sprung up across Europe, Australia, the Middle East,

Asia and the Americas, offering an environmentally friendly way to sightsee, go shopping, avoid

traffic, deliver packages, and return home after an evening out (Figure 2.9,2.10).

Figure 2.9: NMPT in developed countries (improved design, traditional look) (New York, London)

Source:Rickshawforum (2009)

Figure 2.10: NMPT in developed countries (improved design, modern look) (Sydney, Berlin)

Source: Keseling (2008); Rahman et al. (2010b)

Exact and up-to-date figures for NMPT use are difficult to obtain, but in many cities there is a

definite upward trend. NMPT velo-taxis started operating in Berlin in 1997, and by 2007 the

market had grown to a fleet size of around 200 vehicles with passenger carriage of some

250,000 trips per year (Westall, 2007). In London, NMPTs started operation in 1998 and by the

end of 2005, the UK fleet had grown to an estimated 500 vehicles and marketed more than a

million journeys per year in London (UK Parliament, 2005). Epstein (2009), Grynbaum (2009a;


Page 39

2009b) estimate that there are currently around 1,000 NMPT pedicabs cruising New York City.

There are also growing numbers of NMPTs in major cities in Europe (Paris, Amsterdam,

Barcelona, Budapest, Edinburgh, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Copenhagen, Milan, Rome and Dublin),

Australasia (Brisbane, Sydney, Auckland, Wellington) and North America (Boston, Charleston,

Chicago, Oklahoma City, Philadelphia, San Diego, Seattle, Vancouver, Washington D.C.,

Massachusetts) [United Nations Centre for Regional Development (UNCRD), 2005; Rahman et

al., 2010b; Wellington NZ, 2008; Huntington Beach Marketing Visitors Bureau, 2008; Ibike,

2009; RickshawForum, 2009 ]. A more recent growth country has been Japan, the originator of

the rickshaw mode (see Figure 2.11).

Figure 2.11: New pedicabs in Japan

Source: RickshawForum (2009)

According to Japan for Sustainability (2006), NMPT services have been adopted in 13 major

cities in Japan, starting with Kyoto in 2002 and including Tokyo, Matsumoto, Osaka, Nara, Naha,

Hiroshima, Kitakata, Sendai, Nagoya, Miyazaki, Kurashiki, and Kobe, as well as in the town of

Ioujima in Nagasaki and Fukuoka city in 2006. There were also proposals to allow NMPT to

operate in areas which had restrictions or bans on motorized traffic during the London Olympics

2012, (Chandran, 2009) following the application of the same at the Vancouver Winter Olympic

Games 2010 (Vancouver Organizing Committee, 2010).

In most of these developed cities, NMPTs are used predominantly as a tourist and recreation

mode, where the NMPT trip is seen as an experience itself. However this situation is gradually

changing, especially in larger cities, such as Berlin, Frankfurt, London and New York, where

NMPTs have a small but increasing role as public transport for city dwellers taking normal day-

to-day trips (Pommereau, 2005; Kugler, 2006;Rebling, 2011; Milefaster, 2011). Table 2.4 shows

the usage pattern of NMPT while Figure 2.12 depicts the market share of the mode, based on

the aforementioned literature review and relevant analysis.


Page 40

Table 2.4: Degree of and shift in NMPT usage in selected cities

Location Degree of Usage Shift in Usage

Country Major Cities

Tourist

Transport

Public

Transport

TT �

PT

PT �

TT

No

Change

Australia Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane � -

New Zealand Auckland, Wellington

Germany Berlin, Frankfurt, Hamburg etc. � � �

England London � � �

Netherlands Amsterdam � -

Other parts of

Europe

Madrid, Milan, Paris, Dublin etc � -

USA New York, San Francisco, San Diego � � �

Canada Vancouver, Ottawa � -

Japan Kyoto, Nagoya, Osaka � � �

Singapore Singapore � -

Taiwan Kaohsiung � -

Source: Developed by the Author from Literature Review;

Relative Level of Usage: � Low � Medium � High Usage Shift Indicator: �

Figure 2.12: Market share of NMPT usage in selected cities Source: Developed by the author from literature review


Page 41

In either case, NMPT is highly suitable for short distance trips and where it is catering for a trip

that would have otherwise been made by a motorised mode (whether for visitor trip or

resident), it delivers sustainability benefits from reduced fuel use and pollution. Emphasising the

benefit and application suitability of NMPT for developed cities, Replogle (1991b) commented:

“Even in high income motor-vehicle dependent cities, there are opportunities for

appropriate use of cycle-rickshaws for short distance person and goods movement and

as the basis for microenterprises providing goods and services at dispersed

locations…they will find greatest utility in dense pedestrian oriented neighbourhoods or

central areas with slow traffic speeds, in large factories and shopping districts, and

areas where private vehicles are restricted.”

It is not surprising therefore, to observe that in cities such as New York, San Diego, San

Francisco, London and Berlin where NMPT may have been seen as an obsolete mode

previously, it is currently maintaining its growth as a tourist NMT mode; and with potential for

further growth due to its unique operating attributes and the dynamics it adds to the urban

fabric.

Policy and integration initiatives

The emerging popularity of NMPT in these regions has led to new transport policy/planning

initiatives for their regulation, operation, integration and management (Rahman et al., 2010b).

In many cities in USA, Europe and Australia, the introduction of NMPT and their subsequent

growth has taken place without regulations. For instance New York has had pedicabs since the

1990s, mostly used for tourist travel, but they became noticeable to the city authorities around

the early-to-middle 2000s due to their growing market demand, shift of use as a regular

passenger transport and for small scale goods delivery. These, together with emerging

operational issues, requirements of passenger and driver safety and subsequent enforcement

due to accident occurrence, led to the formulation of NMPT regulation in 2007, later amended

and improved in 2009 (Rahman, D’Este & Bunker, 2010a). The regulation ( Section 20-259, local

law no. 19) ( New York City Council, 2007) has clearly defined NMPT as a vehicle similar to a

bicycle (therefore required to abide by all bicycle laws) with restrictive coverage area due to

service character; outlining operating and safety requirements including vehicle permit, driver

skill requirement and liability insurance requirements. There are also punitive measures for

violations. These regulations have made NMPT operation much safer in New York City.

When introduced into London in 1998, NMPT could legally ply for hire as stage carriages under

the Metropolitan Public Carriage Act 1869 without the need for a street trading licence required


Page 42

by motorised modes providing a similar service (London Assembly, 2005). This exemption was

subsequently tested in court and upheld. An NMPT-related module had later been incorporated

into the National Cycling Standard Level 3 in 2005 for operational regulation (Selection

Committee on Committee on the London Local Authorities and Transport for London Bill

Minutes of Evidence, Section 80-99 2005) (United Kingdom Parliament, 2005).At present a

number of initiatives are in process to regulate and incorporate NMPTs within a regulatory

regime.

For instance, voluntary registration has been in effect since 2009 by Westminster City Council in

consultation with the NMPT industry. Under this scheme, NMPT operators sign up to a

voluntary code of practice to which they and their riders must adhere. This covers driver

background checks, cycle training (including the Highway Code), agreement of fares in advance

and keeping rider records. In return, those within the scheme were given permit access to

pedicab parking bays located across the City of Westminster. The London Local Authorities and

Transport for London (TfL) (No. 2) Bill , which is in the process of approval, would allow for more

effective enforcement of moving traffic offences and parking contraventions against NMPTs by

treating them as “motor vehicles” for the purposes of these contraventions (Rahman et al.,

2010a).

The growth in NMPT activity in many other cities across Europe, North America and Australasia

has also reached a point where it has come to the attention of planners and regulators. Major

cities in Germany (Berlin, Frankfurt, Hamburg for instance) have formal annual registration,

licensing, safety inspection and operating standards for NMPT, similar to that for any motorised

vehicles since 2004 (Pommereau, 2005; Velotaxi, 2010). NMPT specific regulations have also

been promulgated in USA cities such as San Francisco (1986 and amended in 2010), Austin

(1992), Ashland (2003), Boston (2007), Phoenix (2008),San Diego (2010), and Washington D.C.

(2010) (City and County of San Francisco, 2010; City of Austin, 1992; City of Ashland, 2003;

Boston Police Department, 2007; City of Phoenix, 2008; New York City Council 2007; 2009; City

of San Diego, 2009; Austin Pedicab Alliance, 2010; Roth, 2010; Neibauer, 2010); and in Canadian

cities such as Ottowa (2002), Vancouver (2009), Toronto (2010) (City of Ottowa, 2011; City of

Vancouver, 2011; City of Toronto, 2011 ).

All these regulatory systems typically require annual registration, renewal and safety inspection

for vehicles, licensing of pedicab drivers, requirements for public liability insurance including

provision for personal injury and property damage; detailed rider operating and vehicular safety

rules; loading requirements; sanitary requirements; agreed upon and public display of fare


Page 43

schedules; provision of punitive measures, and in some cases limits on the number of pedicab

licenses (San Francisco for instance). Other major USA cities such as Seattle and Portland are

also considering/ processing measures to introduce regulatory regimes for NMPTs (Anderson,

2009; Maus, 2009; City of Portland, 2010). Australian cities such as Perth, Brisbane, Gold Coast

and Melbourne have followed suit with modified application of bicycle regulations for NMPT

control. These include Road Traffic Code 2000 and Road Traffic (Bicycles) Regulations 2002 in

Western Australia (since 2002)(Department of Transport, 2002), Local Law No. 11 (Road and

malls) 2008 Subordinate Local Law No. 11.1 (Interference with a Road) 2008 in Gold Coast (since

2008) (GCC, 2009), Queensland Transport Operations (Road User Management-Road Rules)

Regulation 1999 in Brisbane (since 2009) (State of Queensland, 2009) and Road Safety Road

Rules 2009 Part 15 in Victoria (since 2009) (VicRoads, 2009). These moves to regulate NMPTs

can be seen as a positive approach in incorporating the mode within the formal transport

planning process. Table 2.4 summarises the policy trend and Table 2.5 provides a brief of major

cities with completed formalised NMPT relevant legislations, or cities in the process of achieving

the same.

Table 2.5: Trend in NMPT activity and policy in selected cities

1950 and earlier 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Brisbane Started

1988 Disappeared

Re-emerged 2008

Growth increase

Positive policy

Auckland Positive policy

Berlin Started in

1997

Growth increase

Positive policy

Regulated

London Started in

1998

Growth increase

Supportive

Moves to Regulate

Amsterdam Started in late

1990s

Generally

Supportive

Barcelona, Milan,

etc.

Started late

1990s

Generally

supportive

New York Started in

1996

Growth increase

Positive policy

Regulated

Ottawa Started 1992 Growth increase

Positive policy

Regulated

Kyoto Started in 2002

Positive Policy


Page 44

Table 2.6: Selected major cities with NMPT relevant regulations

Major cities with pedicab regulation Year of introduction

Berlin, Frankfurt, Hamburg (Germany) Since 2004

San Francisco, Austin, Ashland, Boston, Phoenix,

New York, San Diego, Washington D.C. (USA)

1986 (amended in 2010), 1992,2003,2007, 2008,

2007 (amended in 2009), 2010, 2010

Ottowa, Vancouver, Toronto (Canada) 2002, 2009, 2010

London (England) In process

Seattle, Portland (USA) In process

Sydney, Brisbane, Melbourne (Australia); pedicab

regulated through bicycle regulations

2000,2008, 2009

In addition to legal initiatives, another positive aspect of this region is the technological

integration of the mode. These are modern in makeover and operating technology including

hydraulic brakes, suspension, complete lighting systems, seat belts, full weather canopies, steel

frames and fibreglass bodies (Modianot-Fox, 2007).(Figure 2.9, 2.10).

The review so far demonstrates the growing presence of NMPT, its increased popularity among

users across a wide variety of developed cities and longer sustenance of the mode compared to

its first appearance in the 19th century. The analysis also reveals the relatively early response of

the city authorities in regulating and integrating the mode. Yet, there continue to be concerns

about future incorporation and management of the mode among the policy makers. An

understanding of these is therefore necessary in obtaining a clearer picture of the overall NMPT

status.

2.3.3 Difficulties of blending NMPT

As explained, in Europe, North America and Australia, a number of legal and management

initiatives are underway or already in place to incorporate NMPT within a regulatory regime.

But mostly they are incomplete. Epstein (2009) observed:

“…there remain significant legal, planning and enforcement issues that require

addressing such as the need for and type of regulatory and enforcement measures,

suitable coverage areas for the mode, whether pedicab number to be capped or leave

to be self regulated by market force and its interaction with existing modes such as taxi,

bus, car, bicycle etc.”

Pressure to fully address these issues is becoming more acute in resolving the existing conflicts,

as the mode is gradually becoming prominent. But the responses are not entirely


Page 45

comprehensive as can be observed by revisiting the implementation difficulties of key NMPT

cities. Referring back to the New York NMPT regulation, there are issues that still demand more

close examination. For example, NMPT capping is fixed to 325 at any given time according to

Section 20-251, Local Law no. 19 (New York City Council, 2007), inconsistent with the current

market demand and existing fleet size of around 1000. This causes illegal operations; conflicts

between the operators and city authorities; loss of council revenue; and pressure on the

regulators to increase the cap limit. The Local Law no. 19 (Section 20-259) also allows for

officials to restrict NMPTs in ‘unusually heavy pedestrian or vehicular traffic’. This means that

NMPTs, which are vehicles under the law, are subject to removal while other vehicular traffic is

permitted to remain, creating unequal plying facilities. Epstein (2009) further argued that the

effect of such measures together with high end safety and insurance regulations might be to

drive the economic competitors to cabs, buses and livery services off the street, NMPTs in

particular. The issues of parking, fare, planned movement and interfacing with other vehicles

are also not well defined. Rahman et al. (2010b) observed that this is leading to traffic chaos

when incorporated with fast moving vehicles; illegal occupancy and conflict for parking area

with private vehicles and taxi services; obstruction of on-street vehicular traffic movements due

to undesignated loading/unloading of passengers. The allegation of charging unfairly in some

instances is also prevalent due to unclear regulatory directives on fare structure.

With relation to the Transport for London (No.2) Bill, the Bill only deals with traffic

enforcement issues and does not itself set up a licensing or registration scheme for NMPTs. This

issue has been examined by TfL and they suggested that neither a stage carriage nor a hackney

carriage licensing regime is appropriate for the NMPT industry, especially when service public

transport characteristics are considered for the former while compliance and enforcement costs

are taken into account for the latter. TfL suggested to Government that it should determine

necessary safety and licensing standards for NMPTs as it does for other passenger carrying

vehicles including formulation of primary legislation for NMPTs (TfL, 2009).This eventually led to

a complex and confusing situation regarding the place of the mode within the transport

spectrum, leading to illegal operation for a large portion of the fleet as they would be without

any registration/licensing and subsequent operational safety implications. On safety grounds

due to the vehicular classification confusion, there are no passenger limitations, obligation for

seat belts, or third party insurance to cover accident injuries, posing a threat to passengers and

drivers. In addition, the number of and coverage area for NMPT operations still remains an

unsolved issue, creating confusion and chaos on traffic management.


Page 46

Similar operational and management concerns to those of New York or London or a

combination of some issues from each, might emerge with future growth of the mode in other

cities that already have NMPT regulation (e.g. Ashland) or cities with bicycle regulations applied

for pedicab management (e.g. Brisbane);and not comprehensive enough to suit public transport

movement needs. An interview with Green Cabs, a Brisbane NMPT operator, revealed critical

enforcement problems on licensing and registration, and allegations of plying inequality in

comparison to other public transport such as taxi,bus and NMT like bicycle (Green Cabs, 2010).

2.3.4 Inference from the discourse

The review has indicated positive intention at both user and policy levels towards NMPT due to

commitment of these cities in achieving future transport sustainability and fuel free nature of

NMPT to facilitate this end. Moreover, there is no doubt that NMPT is conducive to further

growth with a certain character that many of these cities possess, including relatively flat

topography (in at least part of the city); receptive community; densely built up inner city areas;

high levels of tourism; pro-sustainable transport strategy; and the possibility of future

restrictions on car use in central areas. The early response of the decision makers in these cities,

in regularising the mode and the attempt to bring the industry under a more systematic

regulatory regime demonstrates the positive intent. On the contrary, the discourse also

revealed the practical difficulties and deficiencies in effective implementation of the process to

incorporate the mode, especially in situations where they are expanding their activity and

extent of operation without clear legislative framework; and when their interaction needs to be

managed with other NMTs, MTs and under highly congested motorised environment.

If we accept based on the current situation and international case studies that NMPT has a

small but emerging trend primarily as a tourist transport, it is critical for decision makers to

decide on the role pattern they would like the mode to cater (keep as a tourist transport or

expand to cater as formal public transport), and the measures to tackle its implementation

difficulties as currently encountered. The review of the current situation, together with

international case studies, has highlighted a range of general issues likely to be associated with

the expansion of NMPT activity:

• The most important of these is the necessity to look ahead and decide early

about defining the future major role of NMPT in the city transport system,

whether as regular or a tourist mode of transport, and to bring the industry under

a more consistent and inclusive regulatory regime in accordance with this

definition. In many cities (such as London and New York), NMPT has emerged as a


Page 47

significant mode under the regulatory radar and officials have been playing catch-

up in developing a suitable policy, planning and regulatory framework.

• This leads to the second major issues which is a comprehensive legal framework

to ensure that NMPT operates within the law and is consistent with community

expectations. NMPT uses streets and carries passengers, which suggests

consideration of guidelines on vehicular classification for NMPTs; and the

corresponding set up of registration and, licensing requirement; vehicular and

operational safety standards; rider skill requirement, insurance level and extent;

acceptable fare structure; and enforcement provision in case of non-compliance.

The debate as to whether the NMPT industry should be allowed to be self-

regulated or not, such as that arising in Chicago and New York, should also be

scrutinised before regulatory decisions are finalised.

• The issues of consistency in implementing the policy and managing the transition

from current situation are also crucial in addressing the provision of suitable

infrastructure supply, including but not limited to, dedicated lane provisions;

designate routing; appropriate signage and signals; parking and waiting facilities,

backed up by integrated planning and road network hierarchy if required. An

interesting issue is the extent to which NMPT should be allowed in pedestrian

precincts and bicycle paths, transit lanes and other mode-specific infrastructure.

• Focus should also be provided on continuous improvement in design standards

and technological upgrades to facilitate safety, operational ease and sustainable

ergonomics.

2.4 Findings and the way forward

The status review suggests that just 15-20 years ago, the outlook for NMPT would have been

poor in developed cities. It played little or no role, having never existed or having disappeared

long ago. The situation since then has gradually changed and it has established its place as a

prominent tourist, non-motorised transport, in major cities of Europe and North America. The

popularity of the same is also growing in Australia and New Zealand. The status review

however, found a small shift of NMPT usage to also serve as a regular public transport in some

selected cities (e.g. New York, London, Berlin), this being insignificant in scale.

Irrespective of magnitude of operation, in all these cities where NMPT are present, a need to

incorporate them as a part of formal transport planning process is commonly felt amidst rising


Page 48

operational and legislative conflicts between the NMPT and other motorised modes. A number

of response measures have already been undertaken by city authorities in this regard, including

adoption of a regulatory framework and introduction of ergonomically improved vehicles. The

need for more integrated planning framework is revealed, a) to better balance operational

distribution and coordination of NMPT in a highly motorised and congested road environment;

and b) to better manage interaction between NMPT and other non-motorised modes (walking,

cycling). A summary of NMPT condition and future needs are depicted in following table.

Table 2.7: Summary of NMPT condition and future needs in developed cities

City name &

category

Role of NMPT Corresponding features Challenges

New York,

London, Berlin

Significant as

tourist NMT with

small incline to as

regular public

transport

-Short history of sustenance

and user demand

-Initiated as tourist transport;

currently also used as regular

public transport on a small

scale

-Low market share but rising

-High growth of trips

A clear and integrated planning

framework for,

-managing pedicab operation in highly

motorised and congested road

environment

-managing interaction between NMPT,

other NMT and MT

-

Boston, San

Diego,

Vancouver,

Amsterdam,

Brisbane, Kyoto

Moderate as

tourist NMT with

incline in

popularity

-Short history of sustenance

and user demand

-Initiated as tourist transport

maintaining the trend

-Low, steady market share

-Moderate growth of trips


framework for,

-managing pedicab operation in highly

motorised and congested road

environment

-managing interaction between NMPT,

other NMT and MT

Source: Developed by the author based on status review of Section 2.3

On the contrary, developing cities’ findings suggest that NMPT has long been sustained as a

significant part of the regular public transport system for several of the cities. Yet most often it

has been a neglected mode of transport to the city regulators, many cities having already

banned NMPT or taken active steps to discourage them. The perceived reasons are many and

varied, including rickshaws being considered inhumane and inconsistent with the image of a

modern city, and having been accused of creating congestion and safety hazard. However the

discussion of Section 2.2 has demonstrated the inappropriateness of these views compared to

the ongoing and potential future benefits that NMPT can offer as a daily public transport.

The status review also suggested that even though due to continuous policy adversity, the

significance level of NMPT as a regular public transport has declined in some cities (e.g.

Surabaya, Hanoi), it still is dominant in market share, trip growth and usage pattern in many

other cities (e.g. Dhaka, Delhi, Calcutta, Yogyakarta, Bogota). The ongoing and future necessity

of the mode in catering day-to-day trips in these cities is therefore undeniable. The analysis


Page 49

thereby brings forward two distinct aspects. Firstly instead of dying, NMPTs are maintaining or

increasing their role significance as a regular public transport in a number of major cities of

developing countries; and secondly, there is strong future potential of the mode in catering

day-to-day public transport service in these cities. The first part of the hypothesis in Section 1.2

is thereby validated and research questions 1, 2 (Section 1.3) thus answered.

Another interesting dimension revealed from the NMPT status review on developing cities is

that there is no formal decision mechanism developed by the city authorities for orderly

management and operation. The approach practiced instead is based on disaggregated

decisions. These led to increased conflict between MT and NMPT irrespective of the degree and

pattern of their usage and raised the requirement of an integrated planning framework. A

framework that can optimise the coexistence of NMPT with other motorised transports, by

enabling their balanced distribution and rationale prioritisation, achieves better overall network

efficiency. A summary of NMPT condition and future needs are depicted in Table.2.8.

Table 2.8: Summary of NMPT condition and future needs in developing cities

City name &

category

Role of NMPT Corresponding features Challenges

Dhaka,

Chittagong

Delhi,

Calcutta,

Chandigarh

Critical as

regular public

transport

-Long history of sustenance and user

demand

-City wide, extensive usage as public

transport

-High market share

-Moderate to low growth of trips

-A clear and integrated planning

framework for efficiently managing

high level interaction between

NMPT, other NMT and MT

-Supported by regulations and

technology improvement

Yogyakarta,

Surabaya,

Phnom Phen,

Bogota,

Havana, Agra,

Madurai,

Significant as

regular public

transport


demand

-Considerable level of usage as public

transport in most city parts

-Significant to moderate market share

-Moderate growth of trips

-A clear and integrated planning

framework for efficiently managing

high level interaction between


-Supported by regulations and

technology improvement

Hanoi, Ho Chi

Minh City,

Shanyan,

Moderate

significance as

regular public

transport with

gradual decline

in trend


demand

-Used as public transport in back streets

-Low market share

-Low growth of trips


framework for,

-efficiently managing moderate level

interaction between NMPT, other

NMT and MT

-assist in managing possible transition

to less NMPT dominant situation

Beijing,

Jakarta

Kualalampur

Primary tourist

role

-Completely ban and no sign of

resurgence

-Infrequently used as a tourist transport

-No market share

-Negative growth of trips


framework for,

-managing pedicab operation in

highly motorised and congested road

environment

-managing interaction between


Source: Developed by the author based on status review of Section 2.2


Page 50

The status review further revealed that despite the need for such an integrated planning

framework, the major share of the research on NMT industry has been on determining internal

and external problem factors to consider utilising non-motorised vehicles particularly bicycles.

The studies specifically focusing on NMPTs were mostly on signifying its location and sector

specific importance and formulating strategic arguments on their incorporation in an existing

system in the best possible way. Very few research works towards NMPT integration in

countries like India and Indonesia have been done. They however have focused only on the

design improvement of the fleet itself, on their marketing aspect and the necessity of their

physical separation from MTs through design guidelines. None of these has developed any

framework that can be adopted or applied as a tool to determine the best location and priority

for MT and NMPT operation across network.

To summarise, the above discussions clearly indicate the need to develop an integrated

planning mechanism that can provide support as a decision tool for efficient integration of

NMPT with motorised transport; complementing the process of relevant regulatory framework

development and design measures implementation. Understandably, due to time and resource

constraints and considering the detailed background examination required to ensure

applicability of the proposed framework, it is tenable to narrow down the focus of the proposed

framework to a specific case study.

Developing cities with long lasting, dominant current and future NMPT role significance as a

regular public transport are therefore believed to be more suitable in administering the exercise

and better corresponding to the set hypothesis. There are a number of candidate cities in this

regard. But following the same principle of priority needs based on criticality of the current

situation and scale of the problem, Dhaka, the capital city of Bangladesh, is assumed to be most

suitable. It should be noted that the case study chosen, has to go through the process of status

review and hypothesis testing to validate the suitability of the selection, before an attempt can

be made to develop an integrated planning framework.

2.5 Summary

This chapter described the status of NMPT industry with reference to cities in developing and

developed countries. The focus was on analysing the suitability and role contribution or

otherwise of the mode in a global context and determining the relationship of the inference

from such investigation to the set hypothesis and research questions. The condition analysis


Page 51

began with developing cities, followed by developed cities. Arguments favouring and rejecting

the mode were presented in order to derive an objective conclusion on the status of the mode.

In developing the city status analysis section, the review started with arguments that favoured

NMPT operation. The arguments were studied with reference to the concepts of sustainable

development and transport sustainability, followed by the perspectives of previous research

literature and their findings, and concluded with a general outlook towards the mode, and

policy initiatives undertaken to integrate the same. The reasons for rejecting the mode were

then presented with reference to the perspectives of previous research literature and the

viewpoint of the city regulators. Detailed examination of these arguments with in-practice

scenario found negligible validity of this reasoning and rather, importance of the mode as a

regular public transport under an adverse policy environment, in many major cities. The review

also found the need for an integrated planning framework to better manage this mode, to

improve its operational efficiency and to minimise its conflicts with other available modes.

In developed city status analysis section, the arguments favouring NMPT were analysed with

reference to their general role status in the transport system and policy initiatives undertaken in

accommodating it. The difficulties and challenges of blending NMPT within such a highly

motorised traffic environment were then discussed. The review revealed the primary role of the

mode as a tourist transport and not such a significant contribution as a daily travel mode. But

the analysis agreed on one underlying fact i.e. the need to have a well-integrated planning

framework to improve the interaction of NMPT with MTs and other NMTs. It was also clearly

seen from the discussion that, in order to realise the endeavour to formulate a detailed

planning framework, a case study approach would be preferable under time and resource

limitations. Dhaka, the capital city of Bangladesh, was chosen in this regard. The forthcoming

section (Section 3 to 10) presents the review and analysis of NMPT in the Dhaka context. As a

start to the process, the next chapter (Chapter 3) provides an overview of the Dhaka case study.

SSEECCTTIIOONN BB:: NNOONN ––MMOOTTOORRIISSEEDD PPUUBBLLIICC TTRRAANNSSPPOORRTT IINN CCAASSEE SSTTUUDDYY DDHHAAKKAA,, BBAANNGGLLAADDEESSHH

CCHHAAPPTTEERR 33:: OOVVEERRVVIIEEWW OOFF DDHHAAKKAA CCAASSEE SSTTUUDDYY

Page 52

3SECTION B: NON –MOTORISED PUBLIC TRANSPORT IN

CASE STUDY DHAKA, BANGLADESH

CHAPTER 3: OVERVIEW OF DHAKA

CASE STUDY

3.1 Introduction

“Dhaka’s transport system is dominated by the rickshaw. In 1988 there were twice as

many rickshaws as all motor vehicles put together. They carried about two-thirds of all

passengers in the city, and accounted for over one-third of the total transport outputs.”

(Gallagher, 1992)

Is the condition similar today? Section A, Chapter 2 established the significance of non-

motorised public transport (NMPT) as a regular public transport mode with reference to

developing cities. The chapter also emphasised the need for an integrated planning framework

to optimise the role of NMPT and the necessity to focus on a case study city from a developing

country to assist in formulating a practice-oriented planning framework. Dhaka was identified

as a preferable case choice. This Chapter and the following five Chapters (Chapters 4 to 9) focus

on the rationale of such selection and the lessons revealed through condition analysis of NMPT

with reference to Dhaka, the capital city of Bangladesh. The discussion begins with an overview

of the mode (this chapter), followed by review of relevant literature (Chapters 4, 5) and analysis

of literature (Chapters 6, 7). The stakeholder viewpoint on the role of NMPT and expected

benefits from the future transport system of Dhaka are also analysed (Chapters 8, 9). Inference

and recommendation on NMPT of case study Dhaka are presented in Chapter 10. This discourse

is the closing thread to the two-tier status review on current condition, future role and policy

planning situation of the mode. The objectives are to comprehend the significance or otherwise

of the mode as a regular public transport in Dhaka; and to determine whether any relevant

deficiencies in management of the mode exist and require addressing. It should be noted that

the term NMPT will be used throughout this chapter and the following ones, to express cycle-

rickshaw, but the term rickshaw or cycle rickshaw will be kept unchanged when in quotes that

are used from different literature.



Page 53

The discussion of this chapter is focused on reporting a brief understanding on the evolution,

growth and current status of NMPT industry in Dhaka to portray a historical perspective of the

mode. The endeavour is to set the scene for status review of the mode in the chapters to

follow. The key steps followed in NMPT status review process for Dhaka (this section) and its

link to the forthcoming Section of the thesis is presented in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1: Flowchart of key steps in the NMPT status review process for Dhaka

SECTION B

Status analysis of NMPT:

Dhaka condition review

Gaps to address

How to address it?

Way forward for research

Hypothesis test

Is NMPT significant

as a regular public

transport mode?

Analyse reasons and

suggest rational

alternative mode

provisions

Y

Inference & lessons learned

Review and analysis

of literature

NMPT Stakeholders’

viewpoint analysis

Review of arguments

in favour and against

NMPT

Analysis and

insights from

literature

Data collection

and analysis

methodology

Results of analysis

and discussion

CHAPTER 3 to 7 CHAPTER 8, 9

CHAPTER 10

SECTION C

Planning Framework

Development

Overview on

Dhaka case

study

N



Page 54

3.2 General overview of case study: Dhaka, Bangladesh

Dhaka is the capital and the largest metropolitan city of Bangladesh. It is located in central

Bangladesh at 23°42′0″N and 90°22′30″E. According to the definition of the Capital

Development Authority (RAJUK), the principal city planning authority of Dhaka, Dhaka

Metropolitan Area (DMA) comprises an area of 1529 square kilometres, with a total

approximate population of around 14.5 million in 2010 (BBS, 2011). The DMA comprises 24

thanas (subdistricts) of Dhaka, four subdistricts of Narayanganj andtwo2 subdistricts of Gazipur.

This was the study area of the previous major transport planning studies of Dhaka including

Strategic Transport Plan (STP) 2005 and Dhaka Urban Transport Network Development Study

(DHUTS) 2010. Since these studies are major secondary data sources for literature review in the

current research, particularly for multi-sectoral role evaluation of NMPT, DMA data is adopted

for convenience of relevant comparative review and analysis.

For review and analysis of NMPT policy and integration initiatives, primary data-based

stakeholder viewpoint analysis and the forthcoming section-Section C’s - planning framework

development (given the need for the same arises), the area focus has been narrowed to a

specific portion of DMA, Dhaka City Corporation (DCC) area and its surroundings. This area

comprises 366 square kilometres; a population of approximately 7 million; surrounded by the

Turag River to the west, Buriganga River to the south and Balu River to the east; and is known as

Greater Dhaka Area (GDA) (STP, 2005c; DHUTS, 2010).Such selection is used as rationale since

GDA has been the centre of focus for all recent transport planning strategies attributable to its

functional significance as the key socio-economic and traffic generator of the region; fastest

growing nature in terms of population; and due to the hub of every NMPT restriction relevant

transport policy decisions in last four decades (DHUTS, 2010). Figure 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4, shows

location of the case study area.



Page 55

Figure3.2: Location of Dhaka in Bangladesh (inset) and location of Dhaka Metropolitan Area with respect to surroundings

Source: Source: GraphicMaps (2011) (inset image); STP (2005c)

GDA /DCC

DMA



Page 56

Figure 3.3: Location map of DCC area (with major suburbs and road network)

Source: DCC (2009)



Page 57

3.3 NMPT history of Dhaka: Evolution and current status

Hand pulled rickshaws were the original version of the rickshaw mode, first introduced in Japan

in 1870 (see Chapter 2 for details). Gallagher (1992) argued that they were, however, never

common in Dhaka, though some were used briefly in Chittagong and Rangpur. The rickshaw

form that has always been widely used in Bangladesh, including Dhaka, is NMPT (cycle-

rickshaws). In Bangladesh, NMPT appeared first in Mymesingh and then Narayanganj in the

early 1930’s, before being introduced on the streets of Dhaka in the later part of the decade.

According to Rashid (1986):

“In 1938 a Bengali zamindar of Sutrapur and a Marwari gentleman of Wari purchased

about six rickshaws each and attempted to introduce them in Dhaka City. It is not clear

why, but Dhaka was the third city…to introduce rickshaws. Both Mymensingh and

Narayanganj had rickshaws before Dhaka, which is surprising because Dhaka was a

bigger city than either of them.”

The earlier NMPTs were imported from Calcutta and were different to today’s models; with

wider seat space, a khaki canvas hood and the pipe iron frame, painted green or black. The

NMPTs of Dhaka had their present look and vehicular design by around the 1950’s with local

manufacturing in process (Figure 3.5). According to Gallagher (1992):

“It was not until the 1950’s that colourful decorations were added. It was easy to see

where the design had come from. It was a marriage between a hand-pulled rickshaw

and a bicycle. Soon the blacksmiths and mysteries (mechanics) in Dhaka were copying

it, though a few changes occurred in the process: for example, an angled iron replaced

steel pipe in the frame, and mild steel replaced high carbon steel in the springs.”

Figure 3.4a: NMPT as Passenger Carriage Figure 3.4b: NMPT as Freight Carriage

Figure 3.4: NMPT usage in the streets of Dhaka (Left: passenger carriage, right: freight carriage

Source: Fotosearch (2011)



Page 58

The NMPT population in Dhaka has grown gradually at its early stage of arrival and then at a

high rate in the last three to four decades. The city had only 37 NMPT in 1941 and 181 in 1947

(Banglapedia, 2006). The NMPTs have gradually displaced the horse-drawn carriages to become

a more efficient, popular form of regular public transport since the late 1950’s. In 1972 the total

number of NMPT in Dhaka increased to 14,667 which gradually doubled to 28,703 in 1982, but

thereafter increased rapidly to reach the figure of around 200,000 in 1988 (Gallagher, 1992).

Gallagher (1992) forecasted the NMPT numbers in Dhaka to reach the figure of around 300,000

in 2000. This was quite close to the original scenario at that time. The growth trend

corresponded to the countrywide rise where the NMPT fleet was estimated to have grown from

two-thirds of a million in 1988 to over one million by 2000. According to the latest available

statistics, there are around 2.04 million NMPT in Bangladesh (Bose & Rahman, 2009).

The bulk of NMPT growth is in Dhaka. ITDP (2005) and STP (2005) suggested the estimated

NMPT fleet size of Dhaka to be around 500,000 in 2005 in addition to around 5,000 NMPT vans

that were used exclusively for freight carriage. The most current official statistics sourced from

Dhaka Metropolitan Police (DMP) suggests the NMPT figure has escalated to 1,100,000 in 2011.

(Alam, 2011).This historical growth of NMPT in Dhaka is illustrated by Figure 3.6.

Figure 3.5: NMPT growth trend in Dhaka

Source: Derived by author after Gallagher (1992); DITS (1994a); DUTP (1996a),;STP (2005b) & Alam (2011)

In Dhaka, NMPTs are operated with Wheel Tax Draft Bye-laws under sections 118 and 119 of

the DCC Administration Ordinance 193, 1983 (STP, 2005b). The Wheel Tax Draft Bye-laws (DCC,

2011) set guideline for required structural attributes of the vehicle, its licensing, operational,

and safety requirement. See Appendix B for detailed description of the Draft Bye-laws.

0

200000

400000

600000

800000

1000000

1200000

1941 1947 1952 1970 1980 1990 2000 2005 2011

NM

PT

fle

et

size

Year

NMPT growth trend



Page 59

A total of 86,000 NMPTs are presently licensed to operate and this official ceiling has been fixed

for NMPT since 1986 (Alam, 2011). The length of NMPT trips varies between 1 km and 5 km

with an average trip length of 2.3 km (STP, 2005c). The average trip served by a NMPT is 26 per

day [Greater Dhaka Metropolitan Area Integrated Transport Study (DITS), 1994] and distance

traversed by an NMPT is around 117 passenger/km per day (Ahmed, 2005; Hoque, Ahsan,

Salam & Hossain, 2006). The fares for using a NMPT in Dhaka are presented in Figure 3.7.

Figure 3.6: NMPT fare pattern in Dhaka

Source: Derived by author after STP (2005c)

It is observed from the above figure that NMPT charges around Bangladesh Taka (Tk) 5

[Australian Dollar (AUD) 0.10] for 1 km of travel, Tk8 (AUD 0.16) for 2 km of travel, and then

approximately Tk2 (AUD 0.04) for each additional kilometre. Based upon this rate structure, the

total fare for a trip of 5 kilometres is estimated to be Tk14 (AUD 0.29).Note that there is no

formal fare structure in effect for NMPT in Dhaka (Field interview, 2009; Field survey, 2009).

Only 5 percent of the NMPT drivers own their vehicles. This is due to the cost of the vehicle

which is around Tk8,000 (AUD 165) for a new one while that is around Tk6,000 (AUD 124) for

the NMPT van. The larger proportion, about 95 percent, is owned by different investors, a

majority of which are influential people in society. The daily operation of NMPT usually takes

place on an 8 hour shift or a 16 hour shift, i.e. rented to a driver for the mentioned time period

(Gallagher, 1992; STP, 2005c).There are no statistics to indicate the proportion of drivers

undertaking a shift type, but usually the greater proportion of drivers prefer 8 hour shifts (Field

survey, 2009). Figure 3.7 shows the shift-wise comparison of rental cost to typical revenue for

NMPT.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

1 2 3 4 5

Fa

re (

in T

ak

a)

Trip length (km) Total fare

AUD 0.00

AUD 0.04

AUD 0.08

AUD 0.12

AUD 0.16

AUD 0.20

AUD 0.24

AUD 0.28

AUD 0.32



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Figure 3.7: Comparison of NMPT rental cost versus typical revenue in Dhaka

Source: Derived by author after STP (2005b, 2005c)

It is observed that the normal rental charge that a driver/non-owner pays to the owner for the

use of an NMPT for an entire workday (about 16 hours) is generally fixed and ranges between

Tk60 and Tk80 (AUD 1.23 to AUD 1.65). For an 8 hour shift, the rental charge of is about Tk40

(AUD 0.84).The typical revenue (excluding rent cost) per NMPT for these shifts was estimated to

be around Tk143 (AUD 2.95) and 287(AUD 5.92) respectively (see Appendix C.1 for calculation

details). Significant numbers of people, apart from the owners and drivers, are employed in

NMPT related activities such as repairs, manufacture, sales, spare parts (STP, 2005c)

.

3.4 Summary

This chapter provided an overview of the NMPT industry in case study Dhaka. The review

revealed around eight decades of NMPT presence as a regular public transport mode. The

development trend of NMP indicated a two-phase growth situation, with gradual increase in its

first four decades since evolution in Dhaka and a steep rise during the last four decades. The

review also presented some other key aspects of NMPT industry such as the regulation in effect

for operational control of the mode, usual trip length and daily productivity of NMPT, fare

structure, ownership and rental practices in place, operating hours and typical revenue from the

mode. The discourse set the scene for in-depth review and analysis of the industry and

assessment of the status of NMPT from a multidimensional perspective. The next chapter

presents the arguments favouring NMPT existence in Dhaka, with reference to the literature

review.

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

8 hour shift (per day) 16 hour shift (per day)

Am

ou

nt

(T

ak

a)

NMPT operating pattern (by driver engagement)Rental cost Typical revenue (excluding rent cost)

AUD 0.00

AUD 3.09

AUD 4.12

AUD 5.15

AUD 1.03

AUD 2.06

AUD 6.18

CCHHAAPPTTEERR 44:: RREEVVIIEEWW OOFF LLIITTEERRAATTUURREE--AARRGGUUMMEENNTTSS FFAAVVOOUURRIINNGG NNMMPPTT IINN DDHHAAKKAA

Page 61

4CHAPTER 4: REVIEW OF LITERATURE-ARGUMENTS FAVOURING NMPT

IN DHAKA

4.1 Introduction

Chapter 3 presented an overview on the non-motorised public transport (NMPT) industry of

Dhaka, both in historical perspective and with reference to key features of the industry.

Literature has often suggested that NMPT has been occupying a prominent share of Dhaka’s

traffic composition for decades (Wipperman and Sowula (2007).

“Buses, auto-rickshaws and taxis are the most common motorised transport forms.

Bicycles, cycle-rickshaws, rickshaw-vans and push-carts are common forms of non

motorised transport observed in the traffic composition of Dhaka, in addition to the

most basic mode, walking. Among them, rickshaws are the most common non-

motorised form and one of the primary public transport modes in the traffic

environment of Dhaka.”

It is therefore not surprising that NMPTs were suggested to be included as a part of the formal

transport planning system of Dhaka over a long period (Quium, 1994). This claim is based on its

perceived multidimensional contribution to the current and future transport system. In

alignment with this notion, this chapter reports the arguments favouring the need of NMPT

according to different literature sources. The chapter discussion is divided into two major

sections. In the first segment of Section 4.2, insights of relevant key research and transport

planning studies are reviewed to understand the generic role of NMPT. This is followed by a

sector-specific, detailed review of the contributions in the later part of the section. The major

integration initiatives proposed and practised so far to facilitate NMPT management are

discussed in Section 4.3.The endeavour is to ensure comprehensive discussion of the issue.

4.2 NMPT role review

Extensive research conducted in the field of NMPT has demonstrated positive views towards

the current and future utility of the mode for Dhaka. The major studies highlighting the role

contribution of the mode are covered in the NMPT role review.


Page 62

4.2.1 General role review

Perspective of major research studies

A number of studies have examined the overall role contribution of rickshaws in Dhaka. Rashid

(1986) has made a preliminary condition analysis of the NMPT industry in Dhaka city including

its historical evolution, sector-wise contribution, policy initiatives to manage the industry and

the future of the mode in Dhaka. The research was primarily oriented towards developing a

working database for the NMPT industry and to provide an informed assessment of the

situation for the same. The study concluded with strong emphasis on the ongoing and continual

significance of the mode in the transport sector of Dhaka.

In his study on NMPTs, Gallagher (1992) has conducted a holistic investigation of Bangladesh

rickshaw transport in its technological, economic, social and political context. The research has

focused more on developing a database of NMPT industry, providing generic outlining of the

then-existent problems and providing broad guidelines in addressing the identified issues. The

research has addressed all facets of NMPT in the Bangladesh context, ranging from the

sociology and economics of NMPT industry to its licensing mechanisms; changing and

competing technology issues to regulatory policies and institutional involvement. The various

factors relevant to NMPT sector- users, manufacturers and repairers, decorative artists ,

investors, owners, policy makers and regulators, workers (the ‘drivers’) and their unions and

cooperatives have been reviewed as well. The research suggested that role significance of the

mode be accepted by the policy levels; and improvements in operating condition and policy

planning in favour of this industry be made, due to its indispensable place in the transport

system of Dhaka, rather than trying to eliminate them.

The general role and importance of non-motorised transport (NMT) and NMPT in the social,

economic and travel facades of daily life in Dhaka are depicted in the research works of

Relplogle (1991a; 1992a). Both studies highlighted the large scale influence NMPT has in

supporting the livelihood of the poor, in balancing the travel demand and travel quality needs of

lower and middle income population, and in catering for the typical small freight movement

requirements. The studies argued that such employment and travel dependencies are not

readily replaceable due to an already overburdened employment structure and the poor mode

alternatives (e.g. overcrowded buses) of Dhaka. The studies also criticised the bias of

regulations and policies, including higher taxes and import duties for NMPT spare parts

compared to motorised vehicles, and the unplanned approach of city authorities to restrict

NMPT licensing and registration procedure. The studies concluded by suggesting the future

potential of the mode in countries like Bangladesh.


Page 63

Wheeler and I’Anson (1998) in their study found that the dominance and influence of the

rickshaw in the city system of Dhaka is undeniable, particularly as local traffic compared to

other public modes such as auto-rickshaw, taxi or bus. Recent research by Hodgkinson and

Walton-Ellery (2008) stated the problems of urbanisation in Bangladesh, particularly in Dhaka,

and highlighted the characteristics and advantages of NMPT that can contribute to addressing

such situations. The study discussed issues of pollution, congestion and traffic accidents, health

problems, accessibility and mobility problems, safety and security concerns and the potential of

NMPT in tackling these deficiencies in Dhaka and other rapidly growing urban centres of

Bangladesh.

The survey findings on NMPT users of Dhaka by Hossain and Susilo (2011) showed the possible

future role impact of NMPT removal. The results suggested that in the case of an NMPT free

scenario, 84 percent of females suggested that it would be difficult to make work trips without

NMPT, while 92 percent of students, of which 77 percent were female, also suggested that it

would be difficult to undertake work or study-related travel. For social trips, 56 percent of the

respondents, out of which 70 percent was female, suggested possible difficulty if NMPT was not

available. As well, 72 percent of elders (45 and above) using NMPT predicted similar concerns.

In the case of prospective mode shift trend under an NMPT free scenario, the results showed

that most modal shifts would move towards auto-rickshaw or taxi (68 percent) due to their

door-to-door service nature and better level of service compared to public transport. The bus

share was least preferred and would be reduced to 14 percent. Explaining the implication of

such possible trend in choice, the authors explained:

“…rickshaw would be replaced mainly by its motorised rival the auto-rickshaw or

taxicab but not bus; thus resulting in more environmental pollution, probably resulting

in unchanged or increased level of congestion. Although the rickshaw policies

implemented by the transport authority in Dhaka were intended to reduce the

congestion.”

Perspective of major transport planning studies

The first comprehensive transport study for Dhaka, Greater Dhaka Metropolitan Area

Integrated Transport Study (DITS) (1994a) has acknowledged an ongoing and possible future

role contribution of NMPT in the transport system of Dhaka. The study has opposed the anti-

rickshaw sentiment and ad-hoc decisions of the government to restrict NMPT from time to time

and has criticised the notion of the government to promote a blanket ban on NMPT in the long


Page 64

term. Rather, the study advised putting greater emphasis on public transport improvement,

both motorised and non-motorised.

Phase 1 of Dhaka Urban Transport Project (DUTP) (1996b), the implementation project of DITS,

has also accepted the importance of NMPT in Dhaka and emphasised the need for supporting

facilities to improve their operation. According to DUTP (1996b),

The main vehicular mode in Dhaka is however rickshaw with 47% of all vehicular trips

and moving some 1.6 million passengers per day… rickshaw is not only the traffic mode

for movement of passenger but also for movement of goods, and the combination of

both. They together with a fleet of rickshaw vans and pushcarts assure the distribution

of goods from the wholesale to the retail markets and shops…but hardly any facilities

exist especially for the NMT in general and the rickshaw especially.

The Strategic Transport Plan (STP) 2005, developed as a part of Phase 3 of DUTP has also found

the similar significance of NMPT in Dhaka in both the current context and future perspective .

According to STP (2005b),

Rickshaws are a very significant mode of transport in Dhaka. In addition, rickshaws

represent an important source of employment and income. Conceptually, rickshaws

offer a high degree of individualized service, in a relatively cost efficient manner, using

renewable energy with no adverse environmental impacts.

Other relevant studies such Detailed Area Plan Preparation for Dhaka Metropolitan Area (DAP)

(2008); the NMT policy component of the Draft Integrated Multi-Modal Transport Policy (IMTP)

(2008) and Dhaka Urban Transport Network Development Study (DHUTS) (2010) have also

given acknowledgement of the overall socio-economic and traffic dependency of the Dhaka

population on NMPT.

4.2.2 Issue specific role review

Social equity and poverty alleviation

The majority of the research and transport studies have shed light on the sector-specific

contribution of NMPT in Dhaka’s transport system. A detailed review in this regard, in light of

the available research is described below.

2

Research literature by Gupta (1981), Rashid (1986), Gallagher (1992), Replogle (1991b) DITS

(1994a), STP (2005b) and DHUTS (2010) have emphasised the key social role of NMPT.

According to these authors, NMPTs are the preferable travel mode by a majority of the

vulnerable social groups - women, children and the elderly – due to cultural practice (limited


Page 65

bicycle riding), multi-destination trip character, goods carriage convenience; safety, security and

comfort of NMPT compared to other comparable alternatives (e.g. auto-rickshaw, human

hauler and bus). Replogle (1991b) reported:

“Depending on location, between 8 and 18 percent of rickshaws carried passengers

with small children. Nearly one-third of all cycle rickshaws carried female passengers,

with nearly one-fifth carrying females alone. Many of the remaining share of trips were

by males travelling as passengers without goods, often for short distance trips on

irregular routes.”

STP (2005a) found that nearly 40 percent of the loaded NMPTs in Dhaka are being used by

women and children. Another 30 percent are used by its student population. Recent statistics

by DHUTS (2010) suggest this figure to be 52 percent.

Explaining the social and cultural issues hindering the use of shared public transport and

appropriateness of NMPT for this vulnerable social group, Kabir (2006) stated that:

“it is socially difficult for women to share crowded buses with mainly male riders

because of the religious seclusion of women. Furthermore, women also encounter

difficulties boarding moving buses, and not getting seats due to the very limited

number of seats reserved for women, some of which are taken by men. Whilst, it can

be argued that such safety which is provided by rickshaw can also be provided by auto-

rickshaw or taxi as well, these motorised vehicles are not as cheap as rickshaws and

therefore may not be preferred by many housewives in Dhaka city.”

A recent study by Hossain and Susilo (2011) explored the social role of NMPT and the possible

impacts that may occur if the NMPTs were banned from Dhaka city. Descriptive and

multivariate (binomial and multinomial logit models) analyses were applied to explore the social

impacts of NMPT on various population groups. The study suggested that NMPT is playing a

crucial role in the Dhaka transport system, particularly in catering for the need of females,

students and people from low and middle income groups, echoing the deductions of

aforementioned studies. The study also suggested that if NMPT is removed most of the modal

shift would be forced towards more costly auto-rickshaw and taxi cabs, limiting the mobility of

these social groups.

The role of NMPT and bicycle in reducing poverty and achieving social equity for Dhaka and

other urban parts of Bangladesh has been emphasised through a number of studies. These

studies have focused on the equity contribution of NMPT industry from perspectives of people

connected to NMPT trading. The study by Efroymson and Rahman (2005) suggested that any


Page 66

major decrease in rickshaw would mean a huge increase in poverty and likely crime (as people

have no choice but to turn to theft to replace their lost income

Begum and Sen (2005) stated that as a livelihood, the importance of NMPT driving has

increased over the past decade in Dhaka. According to them, the poverty line in Dhaka has

increased by around 6 percent in the last decade with reference to daily capability of food

intake and Cost of Basic Needs (CBN) affordability perspective. NMPT industry has provided

reasonable earning to a large portion of the poor in the city. Wipperman and Sowula (2007)

argued the crucial importance of NMPT in supporting the livelihood of highly vulnerable and

marginalised social groups- the NMPT drivers, repair workers and their dependents - who are

characterised by low human capital, low or no education and low skill level. The authors

concluded that the industry is enabling better social balance compared to ‘without NMPT’

condition. Similar significance of NMPT in social equity preservation of NMPT traders is reported

by Rashid (1986), Gallagher (1992) and Whitelegg and Williams (2005).

Contribution to economic improvement

Gupta (1981) provided an economic impact analysis of NMPT in Dhaka, particularly its effect on

employment and the financial market of Dhaka, to demonstrate the importance of the mode

from economic role contribution perspective. The role of rickshaw as a component part of the

informal financial market in Bangladesh was investigated by Masum (1988).The study identified

NMPT to be a significant sector of the non-crop, rural economy, after poultry farming, fish

farming, livestock farming etc. and suggested its potential as a major future economic

contributor. The study conducted by Ali and Islam (2005) suggested substantial, continuously

growing contribution of NMPT industry to the informal urban economy and emphasised better

investment support and capacity building to improve future conditions of the industry.

Gallagher (1992) reported that NMPTs contribute 34 percent of the total value added from the

transport sector in Bangladesh, or approximately Bangladesh Taka (Tk) 9840 million [Australian

Dollar (AUD) 203 million]. According to him, this is more than double the contribution of all

motorised modes, 12 times the contribution of Bangladesh Railway and 12.5 times the

contribution of Bangladesh Biman, the national airlines. Ali and Islam (2005) have estimated

that 6 percent of Bangladesh’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) can be accounted for by NMPT

driving. In Dhaka alone, around Tk20 million (AUD 0.413 million) is transferred between NMPT

drivers and passengers per day. Demonstrating the sensitivity of NMPT industry to the macro-

economic improvement of Dhaka, DITS (1994a) estimated that a 10 percent improvement in


Page 67

NMPT operational performance due to design improvement can add Tk3 million daily (AUD

0.062 million) or Tk1100 million annually (AUD 22.91 million) to the city’s economy.

Efroymson and Rahman (2005) argued that from a micro-economic perspective of Dhaka, the

cash flow generated by the NMPT industry to the individual drivers is significant in maintaining a

livelihood which otherwise would have subject to starvation and helplessness. The study

showed an average income decrease of 15 percent for a job shift from NMPT driving. The

authors inferred from their study that NMPT not only provides a regular earning source to the

low skilled, marginalised urban population of Dhaka but also offers higher total revenue

compared to other professions such as day labouring, hawking etc. A recent Japan International

Cooperation Agency (JICA) study, DHUTS (2010) revealed an average monthly earning of

Tk6,300 (AUD105) for a person driving NMPT for six-to-eight hours per day with maximum 35

percent earning between Tk5000 and Tk7000 (AUD 83-AUD 117) while peak 8 percent earning

is over Tk10,000 (AUD167). The study further suggested that this average wage is comparatively

better than the monthly wage of an average garment worker of Tk1662.50 (AUD 28), a major

formal sector of employment in Dhaka; and is greater than many other wage services such as

that of police constables or second-tier government officers. According to Sultana (2009):

“The study demolishes the myth that the rickshaw pullers are one of the lowest earning

working groups in the city, regularly portrayed as “oppressed” and “deprived” people in

the country’s popular media.”

Contribution to employment generation

Gallagher (1992) has suggested that, directly and indirectly, NMPTs support 5 million people in

Bangladesh (4.5 percent of the population of Bangladesh at that time). The latest available

statistics as reported in literature suggest that there are around two million NMPT pullers across

Bangladesh (Ali & Islam, 2005) and that around 19.6 million (14 percent of the Bangladeshi

population at that time) relied indirectly on NMPT pulling for their livelihoods (their families,

manufacturers, garage owners, painters, repair men) (Wipperman & Sowula, 2007).

According to Whitelegg and Williams (2005), NMPTs are one of the most important sectors of

Dhaka’s as well as Bangladesh’s economy and provide a means of subsistence for groups of

people for whom there are quite literally no alternatives. Ubaidur, Kabir and Mutahara (2005)

reported that 65 percent of the population of Dhaka exists in an informal economy with a

number of other studies noting that the most important informal economy occupation held by

migrants to Dhaka from rural areas is that of NMPT pulling (Siddiqui, Ahmed, Awal & Ahmed,

2000; Begum, 1997).Replogle (1991b) stated that NMPT pullers and those employed in ancillary


Page 68

services related to NMPT, account for almost 25 percent of all employment in metropolitan

Dhaka. Gallagher (1992) puts the figure at 23 percent. DITS (1994a) estimated about 0.375

million people (18-20 percent of Dhaka’s working population) to be engaged in NMPT industry.

Kabir (2006) estimated a total engagement of 800,000 NMPT drivers in this industry, with 3.2

million people dependent on the NMPT pulling profession. The study further reported that

survival of more than 5 million people are directly dependent on this industry if rickshaw

owners, mechanics, spare parts traders and their families are included.

According to Wipperman and Sowula (2007), 20 percent of Dhaka’s population relies on NMPT

pulling, directly or indirectly. This amounts to about 2.5 million people. It should be noted here

that statistical discrepancies are found in the reporting of the literatures on NMPT dependence

figures in Dhaka. This is believed to be due to the absence of specific data on this industry, for

which individual studies have assumed different figures while estimating the NMPT population,

and their scale of engagement.

Better environment and NMPT

The environment friendly character of NMPT mode for Dhaka has been depicted by Melden

(2005) and Rahman (2006). The latter research has reinforced the promotion of NMTs (bicycle

and NMPT) as a key measure in reducing the emissions from mobile resources of Dhaka. The

study has signified the need for NMPT inclusion in national transport policy planning, in

achieving environmental improvements. Begum, Rumana and Ali (2010) on the other hand

analysed the potential of NMPT as an energy-efficient measure to curb the effect and impact of

non-renewable energy consumption and emissions. The study concluded by noting that greater

NMPT usage can save the environment of Dhaka from more air pollution and can assist in

developing a healthy quality of life.

Studies by Paul and Quader (2002), Nasir (2006) and Begum et al. (2010) have portrayed the

progressively degrading environmental condition of Dhaka, particularly through air pollution,

attributed to transport sector emission and its impact on human health. Paul and Quader(2002)

stated

Air pollution particularly by transport mode has been identified as the major source of

air pollution in Dhaka, the capital city of Bangladesh. Pollution standard in Dhaka has

been exceeded comparing to the pollution standard decided for Dhaka by the USEPA

(United States Environmental Protection Agency) and WHO (World Health

Organization)


Page 69

According to Nasir (2006), among different vehicular mixes in Dhaka, there are 300,000

motorised vehicles that primarily contribute to the deterioration of Dhaka’s air quality. An

estimated 200,000 tonnes of air pollutant is emitted per annum from these motor vehicles

alone. Among these, diesel exhaust emissions are considered a probable human carcinogen.

Gaseous pollutant concentration (CO, NOx etc.) could also become a problem in the future if

not managed. Figure 4.1 demonstrates the contribution of different vehicles to air pollution in

Dhaka.

Figure 4.1: Contribution of vehicle types to emission in Dhaka

Source: Nasir (2006)

*Others include covered vans and human haulers

Begum et al. (2010) added:

“Dhaka city’s SPM levels are about two times higher than the accepted standard of 200

microgram/m3 in residential areas and ten times higher than the WHO guidelines of 120

microgram/m3 (24 hours) in commercial areas…the density of lead in the air of Dhaka

city in the dry season reaches 463 nanograms per cubic meter, the highest in the world

in comparison to 383 and 360 nanograms in Mexico City and Mumbai respectively.”

Highlighting the health impact of such pollution, Nasir (2006) and Begum et al. (2010) stated

that public exposure to air pollution in Dhaka city is estimated to cause 15,000 premature

deaths and several million cases of illness every year. Moreover, the economic cost of such

illness and premature death, according to Begum et al. (2010) could reach around AUD 608.16

million per year. Under such circumstances, Nasir (2006), Hodgkinson and Walton-Ellery (2008)

and Begum et al. (2010) have suggested strategic guidelines for reducing human exposure to

vehicular pollution, including better technology for vehicles, better emission control standards

and promotion of sustainable transport such as bicycle and NMTPs.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Bus/Truck Car/Vans Auto-Rickshaw Others*

Sh

are

(%

)

Mode

CO

HC

NOx

PM


Page 70

Travel demand, trip share and other utilities

Travel demand character and NMPT

The short distance trip character, operational flexibility in service and other attributes of NMPT

is highlighted by a substantial number of studies . DITS (1994a) and STP (2005a) reported that

most trips in Dhaka are short (1-5km) and scattered, however the public transport modes are

more fixed in their routes of operation (bus, human hauler). Paratransits (auto-rickshaw, taxi)

are relatively flexible, but are often reluctant to travel shorter distances (Gallagher, 1992;

Begum et al., 2010). NMPT, on the contrary, are characterised by short trip lengths, offering

flexibility by which passengers can choose a specific route and time along with door-to-door

service [Human Development Research Centre (HDRC), 2004].The studies have inferred that

NMPT is more convenient, cost and time efficient to cater for the trip character of Dhaka.

Emphasising a similar argument, Hossain and Susilo (2011) stated that three-quarters of total

trips in Dhaka are short and local; and the number of people travelling together is generally

small. As a result, for short trips and trips that are scattered, NMPT is often preferred as it is

economical in time as well as money. It should be noted that Gallagher (1992) found average

trip length of NMPT to be 2.5 km while STP (2005c) reported the value to be 3.4 km.

Hoque (1997) and Aftabuzzaman, Muromachi, Harata and Ohta (2001) have depicted how

selected travel and associated attributes of NMPT such as short distance suitability, easy

availability, comparatively lower cost and door-to-door service characteristics makes it

attractive to users and how these influence users’ relative behaviour to other competing

modes, from the perspective of mode choice modelling. Other major research that has

highlighted the utility of NMPT in catering the travel demand character and mobility needs,

particularly for short distance trips, includes Bari (2004; 2008), Hoque ,Khondokar and Alam

(2005), Bari and Efroymson (2007) and Hodgkinson and Walton-Ellery (2008).

Passenger travel and goods movement

Quium (1994) has recognised the crucial role of NMPT in catering certain passenger trip

demands in the Dhaka transport system, particularly its role in filling the gap left by inadequate

and poor transit systems:

“…Rickshaws are the backbone of the system, fill the gap left by inadequate and poor

transit system, serve the needs that any transit system cannot effectively meet, and act

as a bridge between personal travel modes and transit modes.”

DITS (1994a) reported that 54 percent of total non

(2005c) estimated it to be 40 percent. The latest DHUTS (2010) study revealed that considering

total trip demand (walk and non

catering for more than one

million trips. The following

Gallagher (1998) found that a typical NMPT in Dhaka ma

shifts per day, with a daily output of approximately 117 passenger kilometres per day. Replogle

(1991b) showed that each

goods movement. DUTP (1996) found approximately 14 percent of NMPT trips are goods trips

that is, 600,000 trips per day. Research by Hoque et al. (2006) found a share of 22 percent for

NMPT primarily carrying freight (with passenger or without passengers) at

Road space utility

The road space efficiency of NMPT compared to other comparable modes such as baby taxi

(three wheeler autorickshaw)

using the passenger car space equi

These researches indicated the benefit of better road space utilisation of NMPT compared to

these modes. Gallagher (1992)

based on observation.

BusAuto-rickshaw/Auto TempoNMPT*Motorcycle

CCHHAAPPTTEERR 44:: RREEVVIIEEWW OOFF LLIITTEERRAATTUURREE--AARRGGUUMMEENN

DITS (1994a) reported that 54 percent of total non-walk trips in Dhaka are made

) estimated it to be 40 percent. The latest DHUTS (2010) study revealed that considering

total trip demand (walk and non-walk), NMPTs are the most dominant travel mode in Dhaka

catering for more than one-third (38 percent) of the total daily trips, which is approximately 21

. The following figure provides the current vehicular composition in Dhaka.

Figure 4.2: Vehicular composition in Dhaka

Source: BRTA (2011);*Alam (2011)

Gallagher (1998) found that a typical NMPT in Dhaka makes about 14 to 15 trips per shift in two


) showed that each NMPT in Dhaka annually accounts for around

. DUTP (1996) found approximately 14 percent of NMPT trips are goods trips

600,000 trips per day. Research by Hoque et al. (2006) found a share of 22 percent for

NMPT primarily carrying freight (with passenger or without passengers) at


(three wheeler autorickshaw) and cars under different traffic composition are demonstrated,

using the passenger car space equivalent (PCSE) concept, in the studies by Bari (2005a


Gallagher (1992) provided maximum passenger flows of major

17,770 34,558 16,18210,682

1,100,000

232,135

249,707

Truckrickshaw/Auto Tempo Taxi

Car and other private 4 wheelersMotorcycle

NNTTSS FFAAVVOOUURRIINNGG NNMMPPTT IINN DDHHAAKKAA

Page 71

walk trips in Dhaka are made by NMPT. STP

) estimated it to be 40 percent. The latest DHUTS (2010) study revealed that considering

walk), NMPTs are the most dominant travel mode in Dhaka

, which is approximately 21

provides the current vehicular composition in Dhaka.

kes about 14 to 15 trips per shift in two


NMPT in Dhaka annually accounts for around 190 Net-tonne-km of

. DUTP (1996) found approximately 14 percent of NMPT trips are goods trips,

600,000 trips per day. Research by Hoque et al. (2006) found a share of 22 percent for

any given instance.


and cars under different traffic composition are demonstrated,

valent (PCSE) concept, in the studies by Bari (2005a; 2005b ).


major modes on road,

Car and other private 4 wheelers


Page 72

Table 4.1: Maximum passenger flow using different modes

Vehicle Operating speed (kph) Persons(per metre width of road space per hour)

Bus in mixed traffic 10-15 2700

Bus in separate bus lane 35-40 6600

Rickshaw* in a rickshaw lane 8-12 1000

Car^ in mixed traffic 15-25 370

Car on a one-way street 15-25 470

Pedestrian 4 3600

Source: Gallagher (1992); Occupancy- *1.6, ^2.2

Based on the comparative passenger flow, Gallagher emphasised the better road space utility of

NMPT compared to vehicles such as the car in the crowded urban streets of Dhaka. He

suggested that because cars are often prioritised over NMPT, it is logical to highlight the

comparative status of NMPT with cars to better demonstrate the road space utility of former.

Similarly, the Hoque et al.(2006) study stated that NMPT occupies 38 percent of total road

space compared to cars’ 34 percent while carrying a much higher passenger share.

Serving of narrow networks

The appropriateness of the mode in catering for mobility and accessibility on the narrow

network structures of Dhaka is also worth mentioning. Habib (2002) stated:

“There are areas in Dhaka where most roads are very narrow, on such lanes hardly one

car can move but two rickshaws can operate from opposite directions quite efficiently.”

Particularly for the older parts of Dhaka and other areas that are characterised by very narrow

street patterns and rights of way, usually varying between 3m-3.6m width, NMPT probably

serves need best due to its relatively lower physical dimension and greater manoeuvrability

(Gallagher, 1998). STP (2005c) reveals an average traffic volume of 1,250 veh/h on roads in

other sections of Dhaka while that is doubled to around 2,500 veh/h in older parts of the city.

During the hours of highest volume (peak hour), volumes of 2,000 to 4,000 NMPT/hour are

common in these parts. The document suggested that the requirement of small headway and

greater flexibility in operation enabled the catering of heavy demands in Old Dhaka by NMPT.

Saito (1993) added, 85 percent of all vehicular traffic in this part of the city constitutes NMPT.

Feeder to public transport

Karim and Mannan (2002) has highlighted the feeder service functionality of NMPT to mass

transit, such as existing railway facilities in addressing the transport problems of Dhaka. STP

(2005c) has suggested consideration of mass rapid transit (train) to be introduced as part of the


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20 year master plan (2005-2025) in primary recommendation no.3, section 8.5 on integrated

mass rapid transit system. DHUTS (2010) has an ongoing feasibility study in this regard. Both

studies have clearly suggested the high significance of NMPT as a feeder mode of transport to

succeed the proposed mass transit initiative. Other recent studies such as Bari and Efroymson

(2007), DAP (2008) and Shima (2009) emphasised the usefulness of NMPT as a support mode

for feeding commuters to and from the proposed transit facilities to be developed.

Miscellaneous utilities

Other utilities of NMPT as found from literature include its usage round the year and under

special situations i.e. during flood and strikes (Gallagher, 1992; Manchetti, 2005).

Safety and NMPT

A number of studies have explored the comparable safety of NMPT, with reference to accident

involvement. Gallagher (1992) showed:

“Rickshaws are not the main source of accidents. In almost 90% of road accidents

causing death, a bus, truck or minibus was involved… rickshaws are not the most risky

mode of transportation in Dhaka and that risks that do pertain to rickshaws are related

to the motorised traffic with which they share the roads.”

DMP (1996) statistics suggest 90 percent of the road deaths in Dhaka involve a bus, truck or

minibus ,which accounts for 4 percent of total vehicles. More recent statistics by Maniruzzaman

and Mitra (2005) on road accident share by modes in Dhaka are presented in Figure 4.3.

Figure 4.3: Mode share of accidents in Dhaka and Bangladesh

Source: Maniruzzaman and Mitra (2005)

0

5

10

15

20

25

Min

i Bu

s

Ca

r

Bu

s

He

avy

Tru

ck

Oth

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Ric

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aw

Pic

k U

p V

an

Mic

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us

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p

Mo

tor

Cyc

le

Ba

by

Ta

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Tru

ck

Bic

ycle

Pu

sh c

art

Te

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Tra

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rce

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tota

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Mode

Bangladesh

Dhaka


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The authors suggested from above graphical analysis that minibus, car, bus, and trucks are the

top four contributors to modal share of accidents in Dhaka with an involvement of 19.9 percent,

17 percent, 16.8 percent and 13.5 percent respectively, accumulating a total of 67 percent

accidents. NMPTs were the sixth contributor to this share with 6.7 percent (Figure 3.13).

In terms of fatalities, Binnie Partners (1994) found that motorcycles are the most vulnerable

vehicles prone to accidents, accounting for 0.17 fatalities per million-passengers and this is

followed by NMPT passengers. These findings also correlate to the NMPT users’ survey result

conducted by Hossain and Susilo (2011). According to the study finding, safety was considered

as one of the main reasons for using NMPT yielding more than 50 percent of the responses.

The insights from the role review of NMPT in Dhaka can be summarised by the statement of

Whitelegg and Williams (2005):

“There is no replacement of rickshaw in much of Dhaka...rickshaws are cheap, reliable,

and consumer friendly, providing flexible, door-to-door service with many route

options. Rickshaws operate in all weather and at all times of day and night. They are

particularly useful for women, the elderly, frail, disabled, and children; they provide

safe and reliable transport to school, every trip by rickshaw means not travelling by a

polluting vehicle, and means providing employment to the poorest.”

4.3 Policy and integration initiatives

In recognition of the need of NMPT in Dhaka’s transport system, a number of policy and

integration initiatives have been proposed, in research literature and transport plans of Dhaka,

over the recent few decades. They are described below.

4.3.1 Proposed recommendations: From research literature

Gallagher (1992) suggested broad improvement guidelines in four major dimensions for better

integration of NMPT. Firstly, he provided strategic guidelines for reforming the NMPT licensing

system e.g. the need to revisit the ceiling approach on NMPT numbers to make it adoptable to

market demand; and necessity for new legislations to ensure NMPT’s operating safety, and

enforceability. Secondly, he recommended the need for improvement of regulatory and traffic

management measures such as design of NMPT lanes and a need for their separate routes. He

provided a generalised traffic management design for a road junction in Dhaka with cars, NMPT

and buses to illustrate his concept. Thirdly, he recommended detailed guidelines on the specific

technological faults that can be amended to improve its ergonomics. Finally, he suggested


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specific measures such as improvement in ownership pattern, provision for pension schemes

and formation of cooperatives, to improve the condition of the people engaged in the NMPT

industry, in particular the NMPT pullers.

Quium (1994) proposed some specific operational guidelines in facilitating the integration of

NMPT with motorised transport (MT). The study suggested segregation of the whole

metropolitan area into a suitable number of traffic cells bounded by physical barriers, restriction

of NMPT movement within these cells and allowance of inter-cell movement at designated

crossing points across arterials to facilitate proper interactivity between NMPT and other

motorised transports. He also suggested the need for a mixed-use, multi-centred, land-use

planning approach in enabling the success of such an integration initiative.

Akhtar and Yordphol (1999) investigated the speed impact that NMPT have on other vehicles in

Dhaka using a speed-density-flow relationship and emphasised the planned segregation of

NMPT from MT to enhance better operational efficiency. Bari and Efroymson (2005a) suggested

unrestricted NMPT movement across all city roads and the need for their balanced integration

with other sustainable transports such as bus and bicycle, through providing some a generalised

lane allocation guideline. The study also recommended restriction on car movements, on the

grounds of its road space inefficiency and greater contribution to traffic congestion.

Wipperman and Sowula (2007) have proposed a comprehensive nationalisation and

rationalisation of NMPT industries for Dhaka and other major urban centres of Bangladesh. The

study argued that such a formalisation process would raise the social and economic status of

NMPT dependent workforces, leading to wide-scale poverty alleviation and progressive social

changes. The strategies in achieving the target sustainability of this industry included proper

licensing arrangements, facilitating a better earning environment, improving the quality of

supportive infrastructure, including NMPT within formal transport planning processes and

creating new public agencies to acquire, manage and run infrastructure and economy of the

NMPT industry.

Hodgkinson and Walton-Ellery (2008) suggested prioritising NMPT and closing MT in selected

streets of three sections of Dhaka, namely Motijheel, Gulshan and the area around Moghbazar

through to Minto Road. For Motijheel, three street segments were selected that are

commercial in nature and here it was suggested that MT operation be closed off. The NMPT

priority was recommended because it a highly congested zone and the measures would reduce

congestion, noise and pollution of those streets. In Gulshan, one street segment was selected to

be prioritised for NMPT and a segregated lane was suggested for essential MTs, e.g. delivery


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vans and emergency vehicles. The NMPT priority was made as it is an affluent area, and the

measure would add higher social value to the NMPT pullers. For the third section, four streets

between Panthapath and Moghbazar, that create an enclave, were designated to NMPT only

traffic. This section was selected for NMPT priority because it is the focal point of international

business travellers and it would showcase the use of NMPT as an environmentally sound

transport mode, an indigenous and decorative symbol of city life to a wider, international

community. Figure 4.4 shows the suggested locations in Dhaka map.

Figure 4.4: Suggested NMPT priority location in three areas of Dhaka

Source: Derived by author after Hodgkinson and Walton-Ellery (2008)

Gulshan section

Section between

Panthapath &

Moghbazar

Motijheel

section


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Shima (2009) suggested the development of Rickshaw Oriented Districts (ROD) for narrow

network parts of Dhaka and other Asian cities as an approach to upgrade informal settlements.

The research recommended the need for NMPT stands at the centre of the ROD, supported by

walk-based primary movement and a coherent socio-economic network to realise the concept.

4.3.2 Proposed recommendations: From transport sector studies

Recommendations of Task Force Report on Traffic and Transport Problems of

Bangladesh 1991

The Task Force Report on Traffic and Transport Problems of Bangladesh (1991) urged that a

more adaptive approach be taken to the sustenance of NMPT amidst its wider socio-economic,

environmental and transport roles, rather than elimination. Volume 3 of the report suggested:

“In view of the inadequacy of mechanised road vehicles, their harmful effect on human

body and atmosphere, deprivation of the rickshaw-pullers of the earning for their

sustenance, the Task Force recommends retention of rickshaws in the less busy roads

and streets avoiding the main through fare and…constructing separate lanes for such

slow moving vehicles where feasible.”

Recommendation of DITS 1994

DITS (1994b) recommended NMPT supportive infrastructure development and network

planning for integration of NMPT in the transport system. The study provided four key

directions:

• Firstly, the greatest priority should not be the withdrawal of NMPTs, but the

creation of bus-only lanes and reduction of less road space-efficient vehicles such

as cars to better accommodate NMPTs and buses.

• Secondly, if it is felt necessary to restrict non-motorised traffic on some roads,

then this should be done based on detailed demand supply analysis and as flexibly

as possible; with due consideration to the needs of the diverted traffic. In

particular, the study recommended that adopting simple traffic management

measures based on pre-studied evidence, such as the diversion of NMPTs from

busy intersections with proper diversion routes, limiting their right-hand turn in

places and restricting them at certain sections in busy peak hours, might be better

rationale than their complete ban from a road block.

• Thirdly, segregation of NMPTs from motor traffic by means of special NMPT lanes

where appropriate, to safeguard the operation of both vehicle forms.


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• Finally, the decision to limit or change people’s right to use certain roads, by

delimiting NMPT, should be subject to wide consultation. The guideline suggested

the formation of road users’ consultative groups and the development of a special

working party including the NMPT trade unions and owner representatives, to

investigate different restriction options before any measures to control NMPTs

were undertaken.

Recommendation of DUTP 1996

DUTP (1996a), has developed an NMPT route network strategy under ‘component e’ of the

DITS immediate action plan (IAP) for some sections of Dhaka city. The proposal mostly

corresponded to those outlined in DITS (1994a) and focused on developing different design

standards for NMPT facilities at links (lane width, lane separation elements) and at nodes (e.g.

crossing types, support infrastructure); suggested traffic management measures such as

avoiding busy intersections to minimise intermodal conflicts, provision for satisfactory diversion

routes for NMPT to maintain the continuity of the mode across the city, application of different

turning measures at junctions such as staggered crossing at ‘T’ junctions or hook turns at four

legged junctions for right turning NMPTs (Figure 4.5). Some intersection-specific treatments for

traffic control (e.g. Mohakhali intersection, Moghbazar intersection, Tejgaon intersection) were

also proposed to facilitate NMPT movement at these locations.

Figure 4.5: Example of staggered crossing (left) and Hook turn (right)

Source: DUTP (1996a)

The document also prescribed that NMPT restrictions in future should be replaced by

alternative route options before the restrictions were made. The alternative route is advised to

Minor road

Major road

MT

Minor road

Minor road

NMT


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be less than 1.3 times in distance of the original one and be well connected with major

generators (e.g. educational institution, retail centres, offices etc).

Recommendation of STP 2005

The following long-term strategy for the urban transport sector of Dhaka, STP (2005b), has

recommended a number of strategies (key strategies 16-21 under ‘Urban Transport Policy’) to

improve operations of NMPT. In support of these strategies, a ‘Draft Rickshaw Policy’ was

developed. The key suggestions are,

• No cap be made on the number of NMPT licenses issued and the size of the fleet

should be allowed to adjust to fit the market and the travel demand

• Separation of NMPT from motorised traffic at major arterials and provision for

suitable alternative diversion routes where required, to facilitate operational

efficiency (corresponding key policy #17).

• Provision of proper licensing for both vehicles and drivers, including provision for

smart chip-embedded, non-forgeable and legal licenses; regular inspection to

ensure road worthiness of the vehicles and driver training-based licensing to

ensure road safety for all (corresponding key policies #18 to 20).

• Improved maintenance of NMPTs through micro-finance, grant-based

development of communal workshops.

• Financial assistance for development of improved NMPTs (corresponding key

policy #16)

• Proper fare structure and passenger limit per vehicle

• Provision of appropriate waiting and parking areas from NMPTs.

4.3.3 Practiced recommendation: NMPT design improvement projects

Some initiatives have been undertaken in the past to improve NMPT technology. These include

the NMPTs designed by the Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET) in

1979-80 and the cycle rickshaw design improvement project conducted by the Canadian non-

government organisation, Inter Pares, in 1985 (Gallagher, 1992). At the same time, other efforts

undertaken in this regard include the alternative NMPT designs by Mirpur Agricultural

Workshop and Technical School (MAWTS) and Bangladesh Rickshaw Industry Company (BIDC)

(DITS, 1994a). Agence France-Presse (AFP) (2008) reported that Bangladesh Diesel Plant, an

agricultural farm tool manufacturer owned by the country's army, was developing and planning

to launch electric NMPTs in Dhaka in the near future.


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4.4 Summary

This chapter reported the arguments favouring NMPT existence in Dhaka, based on a review of

the literature. The general role review was reported with reference to the viewpoints of

selected individual researchers and to that of previous transport sector studies and plans of

Dhaka. Issue-specific role review was reported with reference to social, economic, employment,

environmental, transport and safety viewpoints of the mode as found by different studies, both

at an individual research level and by the transport plans. The research highlighted the large

scale influence NMPT has in supporting the livelihood of the poor and in their economic self-

reliance, in sustaining the environment, in balancing the travel demand and travel quality needs

of lower and middle income populations and in catering the typical small freight movement

requirements. The literature also highlighted road space utility of NMPT in relation to

comparable other modes such as auto-rickshaw or taxi, suitability to narrow network structures

of the city, potential as a feeder to public transport services and its better safety record

compared to the other major transport modes. The discussion was completed with reporting of

policy and integration proposals put forward for NMPT at individual research levels and by the

transport plans, to facilitate its effective co-existence with other modes. The regulatory, traffic

management and vehicular design improvement guidelines proposed and practiced in this

regard were reported. The next chapter discusses the argument rejecting NMPT existence.

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5CHAPTER 5: REVIEW OF LITERATURE-ARGUMENTS REJECTING NMPT IN

DHAKA

5.1 Introduction

Chapter 4 discussed the potentials and contributions of non-motorised public transport (NMPT)

in the Dhaka transport system according to different literature. But over the years, literature on

the Dhaka transport system and NMPT also identified several reasons rejecting the operation

and continuity rationale of the mode, of different degrees and scale. A number of restriction

measures were undertaken, by the DCC and the DMP, to control NMPT operation on city

streets. This chapter reports the arguments behind the restriction on NMPT in Dhaka in light of

available literature. The discussion is divided into two major sections. Section 5.2 presents the

perspective of relevant key individual research. Section 5.3 presents the perspective of

government behind the restriction of NMPT, the policies formulated in this regard and the

implementation strategies in place. The endeavour is to enable a comprehensive status

portrayal from this aspect of the argument.

5.2 Insights from research literature

Habib (2002) promoted the campaign of banning NMPTs from the streets of Dhaka by depicting

its disutility. In his research, he compared five alternative planning options (including

elimination of rickshaws from main urban roadways) for alleviating traffic congestion and to

improve air pollution in Dhaka. Based on the output of analysis, he recommended that removal

of NMPTs can best alleviate traffic congestion of Dhaka by reducing total travel demand i.e.

vehicle-hour of travel. The study also delineated that NMPT elimination can have some

contribution to indirect pollution impact by reducing the CO emission rate of other motorised

vehicles, though it also noted that the pollution improvement would be least with this

alternative, compared to others.

Similar proposals on NMPT removal from major roadways, because of its slow speed and

congestion contribution, have been depicted by Habib and Alam (2003a; 2003b). Hossain (1996)

suggested that NMPT removal from major traffic corridors can substantially improve motorised

vehicle operation by reducing travel time, increasing passenger capacity and road space.


Page 82

Research by Begum and Sen (2004; 2005) determined the health impact of NMPT driving on the

NMPT drivers of Dhaka. Survey findings by Begum and Sen (2004) on NMPT drivers of Dhaka

revealed that, on average about 60 percent of the sample NMPT drivers ‘feel good’ about their

current health status; 20 percent feel ‘not so good’ and another 20 percent feel outright ‘bad’.

The study also revealed physical weakness and fatigue being the two key reasons for perceived

bad health of the drivers. Begum and Sen (2005) found that the perception towards own health

by drivers becomes gradually negative with their years of engagement in the profession and is

worst for the group engaged for more than 15 years. With these contexts in mind, the studies

advocated gradual shift of profession from NMPT driving, on the grounds of its long term,

detrimental health impact and the inhumane nature of the profession.

5.3 Government policy and implementation initiatives to restrict

NMPT

Some of the major government documents and transport studies related to Dhaka have

demonstrated consistency in their viewpoint on restricting NMPTs and have put forward a

number of key reasons similar to those aforementioned.

.

5.3.1 Government policy and recommendations

Recommendation by Second Five Year Plan and Third Five Year Plan

During the Second Five Year Plan (1980-85), considering the detrimental role of NMPT and with

the objective of removing them eventually, none of the 300 transport projects within the plan

had NMPT management or infrastructure improvement provisions (Gallagher, 1992).

The concept of phasing out of NMPT from the city streets of Dhaka was first introduced in the

Third Five Year Plan. Dismissing the role of NMPTs, the Third Five Year Plan (1985-90) (Planning

Commission, 1985) suggested the gradual elimination of slow moving vehicles such as pedal-

rickshaws and pulling carts through development of automotive vehicles; and training of

existing operators for such vehicles.

Recommendation by Special Committee on Traffic Problems of Dhaka

In 1985, the Martial Law Government constituted a special committee comprising

representatives from all major institutions with transport responsibilities in Dhaka, to

investigate the traffic problems of Dhaka city. Though not all of their recommendations were

implemented, the Committee’s report is considered one of the most important policy


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guidelines followed in management of NMPTs in Dhaka (DITS, 1994a). A summary of the

recommendations of this committee included,

• No further NMPT license to be issued

• Strengthening the NMPT driver testing procedure

• Restricting NMPTs to one of the three zones in Dhaka

• Banning NMPTs from some main roads

• NMPT lanes in some places

• Replacing the withdrawn NMPTs with auto-rickshaws, tempos and buses.

DITS (1994a) suggested that all of these proposals have been widely supported in government

circles since their formulation and except for the third recommendation all others have been

applied in combination or separately. This is true of the current practice on NMPT management

in Dhaka, which actively applies the first and last three recommendations.

Recommendation by Fourth Five Year Plan

Following suit with the 1985 report and the preceding plans, The Fourth Five Year Plan (1990-

95) (Planning Commission, 1995) suggested a similar stance and called for measures for gradual

elimination of slow-moving vehicles by stages.

Recommendation by DUTP 1996, Land Transport Policy 2004 and DAP 2008

DUTP (1996c) Phase 2 developed detailed engineering design and guidelines for future

transport development of Dhaka, and recommended the phasing out of NMPT from arterials

and major roads of Dhaka. Explaining the objective of the initiative, Bari and Efroymson (2005a)

stated:

“The aim was to improve traffic flow by making more space for motorised transport

since rickshaws are considered to be slow moving vehicles that occupy much road

space and create congestion.”

National Land Transport Policy (NLTP) (2004) emphasised gradual reduction of NMPT from all

parts of the country on grounds of its inefficiency and inhumane nature. Policy no.9.2.4 of the

document suggested the reduction of NMPT trips by 50 percent by 2014 and advised relevant

agencies to take necessary steps in realising this target. DAP (2008) provided further

recommendations to impose NMPT restriction on some other parts of the Dhaka network.


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5.3.2 Implementation strategies

Licensing control

The Government started to curb NMPTs, initially through licensing control, between the 1950’s

and the early 1980’s (Rashid, 1986). Describing the situation Gallagher (1992) stated:

“There has been restriction in rickshaws in Dhaka for nearly as long as there have been

rickshaws …4000 rickshaw licenses were issued in up to 1952, but after that the

authorities stopped issuing new licenses altogether…in 1969, the number stabilised at

14,407 … meanwhile, throughout the 1970’s, Dhaka’s authorities carried out regular

crackdowns and elimination campaigns to restrict rickshaws…the new ceiling of 14,407

licenses remained in force up till 1982.”

In this process, the last official licensing ceiling was set at 86,000 in 1986 (Replogle, 1991b; DITS,

1994a; STP, 2005a). The status has remained unchanged until the present time.

Rise in import duties for spare parts

By the early 1980’s, the Government started to impose high duties on bicycle component parts

such as mild steel wire, mild steel strips, mild steel seamless pipe, brass wire and electroplating

chemicals, also used for NMPT manufacturing (DITS,1994a). According to Gallagher (1992),

most of the bicycle and NMPT components were taxed at 50 percent, greater than that of baby-

taxi, tempo or bus. Since 1987, the tyres were taxed at 150 percent, compared to that of baby

taxi (35 percent), bus (50 percent) and cars (100 percent).

Physical restriction measures

The first NMPT restriction in Dhaka was imposed in 1980 near Kakrail Mosque towards Baily

Road, but withdrawn later due to the detrimental effects (e.g. detours or NMPT congestion on

other roads or unavailability of transport for passengers). Similar initiative with likewise result

was observed for Motijheel Commercial Area (Dainik Bangla to Bangladesh Bank), DIT Avenue

(Bangabhaban to Naya Paltan) and Gulistan (Fulbaria to Vetinary Hospital) (DITS, 1994a). In April

1987, Dhaka Municipal Corporation announced plans to ban NMPT from city on safety grounds.

This ban did not materialise for political reasons and due to public opposition (Replogle,1991c).

2

Until 2002, the Government was able to make five roads NMPT free including New Airport

Road, Hare Road, Abdul Gani Road, Crescent Lake Road and Tongi Diversion Road (Mohakhali to

Moghbazar) (DITS,1994a; STP,2005a).Following the trend and In line with the recommendations

of DUTP (1996c) and NLTP (2004), DCC (the city Government) in 2002 adopted a plan to phase

out NMPTs from 11 major arterials of Dhaka, comprising a total of 120 km (Figure 5.1).


Page 85

Figure 5.1: Existing and Proposed NMPT-Free Corridors in Dhaka

Source: DCC (2009)

The vacuum created by NMPT removal and need for extra public transport was filled by

minibuses that operate on a stop-and-go service. These minibuses offer stop-and-go service


Page 86

whereby passengers can request to stop at any point along the corridor where NMPT is

restricted. The car numbers also grew on the roads where NMPT was restricted. (HDRC, 2004).

Gallagher (1992) indicated that policy makers at the decision level discouraged NMPTs on the

grounds that they were a symbol of underdevelopment that tarnished the city’s image to the

outside world, as ‘inhuman’, ‘unhealthful and degrading’; costly and space inefficient. DITS

(1994a) and Sarker (2005) also purported similar reasoning when explaining the government

decision on NMPT restriction measures and approaches. The ultimate endeavours of NMPT

restrictive policies were to improve traffic flow and better replicate the city image to outside

world (Manchetti, 2005). However, due to various concerns and political sensitivity associated

with the removal of NMPT from major roads, DCC has periodically adjusted target dates to

complete the process in phase (STP, 2005c) (Figure 3.9).This NMPT phase out process has

continued to the present.

5.4 Summary

This chapter reported the arguments rejecting NMPT existence in Dhaka, based on literature

review. The review was made with reference to individual research studies and government

policies made to control NMPT. The literature revealed key underlying reasons such as slow

speed, road space inefficiency, congestion contribution, poor city image and inhumane nature

of the profession behind rejecting the mode, and need for its restriction. The government policy

recommendations to control NMPT were then reviewed, with reference to different key

document and plans. The Second and Third Five Year Plans suggested complete removal of

NMPT, the Special Committee Report and Fourth Five Year Plan suggested their removal from

major roads and restriction to some specific zones, DUTP Phase 2 suggested removal of NMPT

from 11 major arterials of the city encompassing 120 km of roadway and National Land

Transport Policy encouraged nationwide reduction of NMPT trips by half by 2014.

The review was completed with reporting of the implementation strategies in place for

management of NMPT. Licensing control was found to be the first approach applied to curb

NMPTs and has been in effect since 1950s. The rise of import duties on spare parts of cycles and

NMPT was applied in the early 1980s and has continued. Physical restrictions on NMPT

operation were introduced in the 1980s as well and have been more rigorous in practice since

2002. The literature review also found it to be the primary restriction strategy in effect for

controlling Dhaka NMPT movement. The next chapter analyses the literature reviewed with

reference to the NMPT multi-sectoral role in order to ascertain an in-depth understanding of

relevant NMPT status.

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6CHAPTER 6: ANALYSIS OF NMPT ROLE AND ASSOCIATED ATTRIBUTES

IN DHAKA

6.1 Introduction

Chapters 3 to 5 presented a comprehensive review of literature relevant to non-motorised

public transport (NMPT) engagement, operation and management in the Dhaka transport

system. Chapters 6 and 7 provide a more detailed analysis of the literature to have a greater

comprehension of the already reported information and present new relevant information on

NMPT status. This chapter presents detailed analyses of the NMPT role with reference to the

reviewed multi-sectoral attributes of the mode.

The Chapter discussion is divided into five major sections. Section 6.2 analyses the social role of

NMPT. This is followed by economic role analysis (Section 6.3), employment role analysis

(Section 6.4) and environmental role analysis (Section 6.5).The process concludes with transport

role analysis (Section 6.6).

6.2 Social role analysis

The literature review in Chapter 4 revealed that NMPT has a social role in catering for the

multidimensional trip market of Dhaka. Based on this finding, it is rational to have more in-

depth analysis of the travel characteristics, modal preference and usage pattern of different

sub-markets of Dhaka to better understand conditions. Table 6.1 summarises the general travel

characteristics of market segments in Dhaka and their relationship to the associated factors.


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Table 6.1: Travel characteristics of market segments in Dhaka and corresponding mode preferences

Market Segments Modes Type Use Dominant Mode Usual Trip

Destination

Trip Length*

Commuter Train (proposed),

Bus, Human hauler Employment

centres/ CBD Long

Intra-city working

population

Train (proposed),

Bus, Human hauler

NMPT, Auto

rickshaw, Taxi,

Car, Motorbike

Local and regional

employment

centres/ CBD

Variable

(short -long)

Student population

NMPT

Bus,

Car

Educational

institutions

Variable

(short -

medium)

Non-working

female travelling

alone or with pre-

school children

NMPT

Auto rickshaw

Car

local and regional

centres &

residential areas

Short to

medium

Elderly Population NMPT,

Auto rickshaw

Car

local and regional

centres &

residential areas

short

Unemployed

Bus, Human hauler,

NMPT

local and regional

centres

variable

(short -

medium)

Source: Developed by author based on STP (2005c)

Legend:

Public Transport (Metro Train, Bus, Human Hauler, CNG Auto rickshaw, NMPT (Rickshaw) & Taxi)

Private transport- (Car, Motorbike)

*Note: Based on DITS (1994a) and STP (2005a) trip lengths of up to 3km are defined as short, trip lengths

between 3 to 5 km are defined as medium and trip lengths greater than 5 km are defined as long .

From Table 6.1 it can be seen that the general trip character and modal preference in Dhaka is

diverse. No one conventional public transport (e.g. bus or NMPT) can cater for the demands of

the range of sub-markets; rather, a balanced mix of them is required. The table reveals that for

short-to-medium distance trips and for particular sub-markets (represented with shaded rows

in the table- students, females, elderly). NMPT has a modal advantage over other public

transport modes, echoing the findings of the literature from Chapter 4. Trend analysis of NMPT

usage by this submarket is presented in Figures 6.1 and 6.2.


Page 89

Figure 6.1: Share of loaded NMPTs used by non-working female travelling alone

or with pre-school children

Source: Developed by author after Gallagher (1992); DITS (1994a); STP (2005c)

Figure 6.2: Share of loaded NMPTs used by students passengers

Source: Developed by author after Gallagher (1992); STP (2005c); DHUTS (2010)

Figure 6.1 suggests that the trend of NMPT usage by the female population has been

considerable for a long time (since early 1990s) and a gradual increase of 10 percent in this

trend has been observed over the most recent, 13 year analysis period. The acceptance of the

mode has escalated rapidly for students compared to its modest share in the early 1990s

(Figure 6.2). An increase of 400 percent has occurred and currently this market is the most

dominant cohort (52 percent) in the loaded NMPT share. There are no statistics available to

suggest the trend of elderly population, but on the evidence of poor conditions of bus and

32

28

40

0 10 20 30 40 50

1992

1994

2005

Percentage share

Ye

ar

Female travelling alone

or accompanying

children

12

30

52

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

1992

2005

2010

Percentage share

Ye

ar

Students as

NMPTpassengers


Page 90

human hauler, and higher total travel cost aspects of taxi and auto-rickshaws, it is possible that

there has been a corresponding increase of NMPT mode usage by the elderly population.

The aspect of affordability was also found to be an influencing factor, according to the literature

review, which encourages people with earning constraints to choose NMPT. An analysis of the

relationship between income level and primary non -walk mode split of Dhaka population is

presented to understand this social aspect, in Figure 6.3.

Figure 6.3: Relationship between income level per annum and mode usage

Source: Developed by author after STP (2005a)

*Non-transit includes auto-rickshaw, taxi, car, motorcycle

NMPT is used as a primary non-walk travel mode by more than one-third of the low income

population. This is almost double the non-transit mode share and quite close to the public

transit share. Among the middle income population, it holds a higher share than transit and is

comparable to the non-transit mode share. It should be noted that NMPT is a door-to-door

service provider and transit is not. Therefore, if we consider the door-to-door service scenario

by mode, the transit mode-based trips are expected to have multiple segments i.e. use of

feeder modes such as walk and NMPT to reach to bus stops. From this perspective, it can be

inferred that the total share of NMPT would be higher compared to the transit mode share as

displayed.

6.3 Economic role analysis

The literature review of Chapter 4 showed that NMPT has contributed to the macro and micro

economy of Dhaka. On a macro-economic perspective, the gross revenue was found to be

substantial. An analysis of this revenue scale and growth trend is presented in Figure 6.4. For

this analysis, gross revenue means the per day revenue from NMPT vehicle operation

0

20

40

60

80

100

Low <Tk12,500 Medium Tk12,500-

Tk55,000

High >Tk55,000

Sh

are

in

pe

rce

nta

ge

Income class

NMPT Transit Motorised (Non-transit*)

AUD <260 AUD >1140 AUD 260-AUD 1140


Page 91

Figure 6.4: Per day gross revenue from NMPT vehicle operation

(revenue in “real terms” adjusted to 2011 values)

Source: Estimated by author based in DITS (1994a), STP (2005a) and DHUTS (2010)

The figure shows that gross revenue from NMPT industry is substantial and inclining. The

growth has been rapid during the analysis period and 211 percent growth rise occurred during

the last five years. The present annual revenue is estimated to be around Bangladesh Taka (Tk)

3720 million [Australian Dollar (AUD) 45.93 million) (see Appendix C.2 for calculation detail).

From a micro-economic perspective, the review suggested better economic self-reliance of

people engaged in the NMPT industry compared to some other key formal and informal sector

professions. Figure 6.5 and its following discussion presents the comparative per capita monthly

earning of the NMPT drivers compared key economic indicators such as average per capita GDP,

national income of Bangladesh and average urban income to better understand this scenario.

Figure 6.5: Comparative earnings of NMPT drivers compared to other key wage indicators

Source: Derived by author after DHUTS (2010); BBS (2005)

155

1910

3720

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

1994 2005 2010

Mil

lio

n t

ak

a

Year Revenue

5145

69756300

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

National

income

Urban

income

NMPT drivers

income

Am

ou

nt/

mo

nth

Items of comparison Monthly wage level

AUD 12 million

AUD 24 million

AUD 36 million

AUD 48 million

AUD 0 million

AUD 50

AUD 50

AUD 75

AUD 100

AUD 0


Page 92

Bangladesh’s per capita GDP was United States Dollar (USD) 620 (AUD 720) in 2009-2010

financial year or nearly Tk3600 (AUD 60) per month (Sultana, 2009). Figure 6.5 highlights that

average monthly earning of an NMPT driver is nearly twice the average per capita national GDP

of the country. The earnings of NMPT drivers are also reasonable compared to the latest official

statistics on urban average earning per earner of Tk6,975 (AUD 116) per month and are higher

by 23 percent than the national average earning per earner of Tk5,145 (AUD 86) per month.

.

6.4 Employment role analysis

Reporting of literature depicted NMPT as a contributor to employment generation in Dhaka.

Within this context, the share and trend of NMPT employment (NMPT drivers, owners and

people engaged in ancillary activities) and their dependence (family members of the NMPT

trading personnel) is analysed and presented in Figure 6.6 and 6.7.

Figure 6.6: Estimated share of NMPT industry in employment sector of Dhaka

Source: Derived by author after DITS (1994b); BBS (2005); DHUTS (2010); Alam (2011) and BBS (2011)

The figure shows continuous growth in share of the NMPT industry within the employment

sector of Dhaka. More than 700,000 new jobs were created between 1994 and 2005. This is a

12 percent rise in total employment share of Dhaka by NMPT industry during analysis period

and annual employment growth rate of 17 percent for the industry compared to annual

population growth rate of 4.2 percent (STP, 2005c). The total engagement of NMPT industry

was 1.11 million people at 2005. The total NMPT industry employment has almost doubled, to

around 2.31 million between 2005 to 2011, and currently more than half of the employment in

Dhaka is provided by this industry [estimates for 2005 and 2011 employment share are based

on statistics of STP, 2005c; DHUTS, 2010; BBS, 2005; BBS, 2011, Central Intelligence agency (CIA)

18

30

50

0 20 40 60

1994

2005

2011

Percentage share of NMPT industry in total Dhaka employment

sector

Ye

ar

Empoyment by

NMPT industry


Page 93

2011 & Alam, 2011] [see Appendix C.3 for relevant calculation details].This relates to a rise in

total NMPT employment share of 22 percent since 2005 with annual employment growth rate

of 18 percent for the industry, compared with similar population growth rate in 2005, of around

4 percent (DHUTS, 2010).

Figure 6.7: Estimated share of direct dependent population of NMPT industry with reference to total

population of Dhaka

Source: Derived by author after DITS (1994b), BBS (2005), DHUTS (2010), Alam (2011) and BBS (2011)

If we consider the gross dependence of the NMPT sector, the total number of family members

of the NMPT traders, the figure stands at 7.44 million or 52 percent of Dhaka population at

present compared to 1.43 million (share 24 percent) in 1994 (see Appendix C.3 for calculation

details). This dependence figure is a rise of more than twice and 1.5 times, compared to those

of 1994 and 2005 respectively.

6.5 Environmental role analysis

The literature review found that the least debatable of all roles of NMPT has been its emission-

free operating nature and positive contribution to a cleaner environment. Some of the

literature also argued the advantage of NMPT in carrying a substantial portion of Dhaka’s trips

without having any direct impact on the environment. This aspect therefore demands deeper

analysis. Table 6.2 presents the relationships between mode share and fuel usage pattern of

available modes.

24

31

52

0 20 40 60

1994

2005

2011

Percentage share of direct dependence on NMPT industry

Ye

ar

Direct dependence on

NMPT industry


Page 94

Table 6.2:Transport modes in Dhaka (excluding walk) based on mode share, mechanics and fuel

usage

Travel

Mode

Mode

share

Type Fuel Usage Pollution

role

Motorised Non-

motorised

Fuel Dependent Fuel

Free

Fossil Fuel

(other

than CNG)

Natural

Gas

Hybrid

Bus

46*

� � � � Emits 83% &

44% of total

NOx & SPM

pollutant

respectively

Human

hauler � �

Auto

rickshaw

6*

� � �

Emits 50% of

total HC

pollutant

Taxi � � � Emits 63% of

total CO

pollutant Car

� � �

Motorbike Data not

available � �

Data not

available

Bicycle Data not

available � �

None

NMPT 48* � � None

Source: Developed by author after STP (2005c), Nasir (2006) and DHUTS (2010)

*Of available data

The table demonstrates that NMPT caters for almost half of the total non-walk trip shares of

Dhaka without any fuel requirements and thereby is free from emissions and from human

waste which would occur without NMPT. The table also shows motorised modes share the

other half of the trips, but are responsible for the transport sector’s emissions. Buses and

human haulers contribute mostly to NOx and solid particulate matter (SPM) emission, cars and

similar vehicles to CO emission and auto-rickshaw to HC emission.

The literature review also found the detrimental health impact of MT on general population and

ambient concentration. Such impact, if analysed in depth and compared to the mode specific

pollution role of Table 6.2, shows that it is likely that due to the unenclosed nature of NMPT, the

NMPT drivers and users are most vulnerable to pollutant exposure and are thereby subject to

greater health risks, compared to their minimum or no contribution in generating the same.


Page 95

6.6 Analysing transport role

The literature review on transport sector role of NMPT in Chapter 4 provided an understanding

of NMPT as a mode in the vehicular composition, trip share and travel demand spectrum of

Dhaka. This discussion analyses these aspects in more detail to yield deeper insight on the place

of NMPT within the transport system spectrum of Dhaka.

6.6.1 Vehicle composition, trip share and work output

The literature review found NMPT to have a fleet size of 1.1 million and non-walk trip share of

48 percent. More detailed trend analyses are presented in this context in Table 6.3 and Figure

6.8. The growth trend of NMPT with reference to different vehicles of Dhaka is presented in

Table 6.3.

Table 6.3: Per annum growth trend of vehicular composition of NMPT in Dhaka compared to other

available modes

Mode Type 2005 2011 Growth rate per

annum

(percentage)

Bus (including human

hauler)

12,067 17,770 7.9

Truck 22,883 34,558 8.5

Auto-rickshaw/Auto

tempo

13,170 16,182 3.8

Taxi 9,901 10,682 1.3

NMPT 500,000* 1,100,000^ 20

Car and other private

4 wheelers

136,041 232,135 11.8

Motorcycle 140,050 249,707 13

Source: Derived by author after *STP (2005c), ^Alam (2011); and BRTA (2011)

The table depicts that the size and growth rate of NMPT has been substantial during the

analysis period and is higher than all other modes. They have grown 7 percent per annum more

than motorcycles and 8.2 percent more than cars. The population growth rate of Dhaka in the

same period was around 4 percent (DHUTS, 2010).

The non-walk trip share trend of NMPT in comparison to other major modes is shown in Figure

6.8.


Page 96

Figure 6.8: Primary non walk trip share for Dhaka: comparative trend

Source: Derived by author after DITS (1994a); DUTP (1996b); STP (2005c) and DHUTS (2010)

Note: *included car and other 4 wheeler private vehicles, motorcycle, auto-rickshaw and taxi; DHUTS

(2010) study did not include motorcycles in the trip statistics

^ includes bus and human hauler; ^^ NMPT share estimated based on total fleet size of 500,000

The trend demonstrates that NMPT had the highest trip share during most of the analysis

period and currently holds the highest trip share in Dhaka. It is also found that transit modes

(bus, human hauler) have a steadier incline in their combined share during the analysis period.

The total work output (passenger-km) served by NMPT daily, with reference to other major

passenger modes of travel is depicted in Table 6.4.

Table 6.4: Comparative per day work output of NMPT to other major modes in Dhaka

Mode Type Work output

(passenger-km)

Share (%) Work output

(person-trip)

Share (%)

Bus * 2,648,608,740 96.6 278,800,920 93.9

Auto-rickshaw 26,583,504 0.97 3,127,471 1

NMPT^ 48,155,260 2 12,672,437 4.3

Car , other private 4 wheelers and taxi 19,931,133 0.73 2,344,839 0.8

Source: Derived by author after STP (2005a); STP (2005c) and DHUTS (2010)

^the trip statistics is derived from DHUTS study which made trip calculation based on NMPT fleet of

500,000

Note: Trip statistics for human hauler and motorcycle are not available

The analysis shows that NMPT has better productivity than its comparable modes, auto-

rickshaw, or taxi, and is second to buses. With reference to passenger-km of travel, the NMPT

13

22

6

31

40

46

54

38

48

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

1998 2005 2010

Sh

are

(%

)

Year

Non-transit*

Transit^

NMPT^^


Page 97

work output is 45 percent higher than auto-rickshaw and 59 percent higher than cars and taxis.

With reference to person-trips, the NMPT work output is 75 percent higher than auto-rickshaw

and 82 percent higher than cars and taxis (see Appendix C.4 for calculation details of mode

specific work). It should be noted here that NMPT has more than a double share of work output

in person trips than passenger-km of travel. This is because NMPT is predominantly a short

distance travel mode and therefore though their distances of travel are less, and passenger

carriage is comparatively higher.

6.6.2 Road space utilisation

The literature review in Chapter 4 claimed that NMPT is a space efficient vehicle compared to its

competitive modes such as auto-rickshaw, taxi or car. A more detailed analysis is presented in

Table 6.5. The table shows the average road space per vehicle in passenger car equivalent (PCE)

and road space per passenger to provide better insight on the situation.

Table 6.5: Average road space per vehicle and per passenger for NMPT compared to other modes

Mode Type PCE Value *(average road

space over time per

vehicle)

Average no. of

passengers per vehicle ^

Average road space

over time per

passenger

Bus 1.8 45 0.04

Auto-rickshaw 0.8 2.3 0.35

Taxi 1 2.2 0.45

NMPT 0.18 1.6 0.12

Car 1 2.2 0.58

Motorcycle 0.5 1.2 0.42

Source: Derived by author after STP (2005b); Bari (2005), Ali (2005), and DUTP (1996b)

*The PCE values were taken from PhD research of Ali (2005) which is the latest research that analysed and

estimated the space impact of different vehicles under the mixed mode road traffic condition of Dhaka.

^ Estimated based on STP (2005 b) & DUTP (1996b)

Note: PCE value for human hauler is not available

The analysis shows that after bus, NMPT has the least impact on road space use over time.

According to the table, the average NMPT passenger uses 66 percent less space than an auto-

rickshaw passenger and almost 75 percent less space than a taxi passenger. A car passenger

uses 80 percent more road space than a NMPT passenger. The author estimated that with

eightfold trip numbers per day to that of car, NMPTs occupy less road space (32 percent) than

that of cars (38 percent) (see Appendix C.5 for calculation details).


Page 98

6.6.3 Comparative mode operational characteristics

The discussion literature on NMPT has suggested short distance suitability of the mode, its

service flexibility, accessibility, time effectiveness, comfort etc on a broader perspective. A more

detailed analysis of the key NMPT operating attributes is given in this section, in comparison to

other available modes.

According to the Transit Capacity and Quality of Service Manual (TCQSM) 2003 (Kittelson and

Associates, KFH Group, Parsons Brinkerhoff ,Quade and Douglas Inc and Hunter-Zaworski, 2003)

, there are different viewpoints on the evaluation of public transport performance including

operator point of view, vehicle point of view and passenger point of view, more commonly

known as quality of service. This later quality of service approach was chosen for this analysis

because the objective is to measure passengers’ perception on the availability, comfort, and

convenience of NMPT. In addition, this approach has established and accepted performance

measures which can be used as reference to derive level of service (LOS) for NMPT and

compare the same with other vehicles. Since different levels of transport network require

different performance measures, the analyses were divided into three categories as

recommended in TCQSM 2003 (Kittelson and Associates et al., 2003): at stop level, at route

segment level and at system level. Stop level measured availability and convenience at a single

location. Route level measured availability and convenience at multiple locations along a route.

System level measured availability and convenience along different city parts and routes of

travel. Among the different performance measures recommended by the manual for assessing

service quality of a mode, this research chose the following measures (henceforth termed as

service measures) to develop its quality of service framework for modes.

Table 6.6: Transit Quality of Service Framework for Dhaka modes – Primary measures

Category of

performance measures Service elements and measures

Stop Route segment System

Accessibility Frequency Hours of service Service coverage

Quality Passenger loads Reliability Safety and security

Total journey time

Source: Derived by author after TCQSM 2003 (Kittelson and Associates et al., 2003) and local condition

analysis

The service measures were chosen within the preferred measures of TCQSM 2003. The

selection of specific service measures were based on the general recommendation put forward

by the manual for performance measures which best reflects passenger perception, the

availability of LOS reference values set in the manual and the availability of relevant local data.


Page 99

The analysis thus included quantitative and qualitative approaches. For example, it was not

possible to collect or estimate data for system-based measures, service coverage due to

unavailability of secondary data. The safety and security was also very difficult to quantify, but

was found important to large travel markets of Dhaka based on field discussion with transport

users, the literature review previously presented and the local experience of the researcher. So

for these service measures, a qualitative approach was adopted and LOS was derived

accordingly. One additional quantitative service measure, total door-to-door travel time was

assessed at system level, to have a more complete picture of the service quality dimension of

the modes. Quantitative approach and TCQSM 2003 LOS was followed for journey time LOS

measurement and for all service measures at stop and route levels.

The following section describes the process of analysis and derivation of LOS for each service

measure. The analysis is presented according to three predefined service elements for the

modes. However, because of the different characteristics of the modes, different measures

were used to define LOS for each service type, as described in TCQSM 2003(Kittelson &

Associates et al., 2003) .Conventional public transport such as bus and human hauler were

assessed against the LOS set for fixed routes, as recommended by the TCQSM 2003. NMPT and

other demand responsive public transport, termed as paratransit in the manual, were assessed

against the LOS set for non-fixed route paratransit, as recommended by the TCQSM 2003.

Private vehicles were assessed based on the LOS values assigned for either paratransit as

deemed rational or LOS values recommended by TCQSM 2003 for comparison of all other

modes. Descriptive LOS values were commonly applied to defined system level performance

analyses for all modes.

Stop level analysis

Frequency

From a user’s perspective, frequency determines the number of times during an hour when a

user has access to a public transport mode. It also measures the convenience of service to the

choice rider and is one component of overall trip time. For fixed route, scheduled transit

services such as bus and human hauler, headway was used as LOS measure of frequency

according to the manual. For non-fixed route public transports such as NMPT, auto-rickshaw

and taxi, access time to reach these modes and start a journey from the point of origin was used

as LOS measure of frequency. Note that this is a variation from the manual guideline, which

suggests access time to be the minimum amount of time from when a passenger first requests a

service to the time a pick-up can be guaranteed. The variation was necessary in Dhaka, as none


Page 100

of these modes has such pick-up service. Taxis have the option, but that is rarely practised as

found from the local use of transport services in Dhaka by the researcher. For private transport

such as car, motorcycle and bicycle, their service frequency LOS was measured with reference

to the access time indicator. This was found rational as availability to these personalised modes

is better represented by access time than headway. The LOS threshold values recommended by

TCQSM 2003(Kittelson and Associates et al., 2003) for service frequency measurement are

presented in Table 6.7.

Table 6.7: Level of service guideline for service frequency

LOS Headway (min) for

fixed route scheduled

transit service

Comment Access time (hour)

for paratransit

services

Comment

A <10 Passengers do not need

schedule

0-0.5 Fairly prompt access

B 10-14 Frequent service 0.6-1.0 Acceptable access

period

C 15-20 Maximum desirable time

to wait if bus/train

missed

1.1-2.0 Tolerable access

period

D 21-30 Service unattractive to

choice riders 2.1-4.0 Poor access, may

require advance

planning

E 31-60 Service available during

hours 4.1-24.0 Require advance

planning

F >60 Service unattractive to

all riders >24.0 Service not offered

every weekday or at

all

Source: TCQSM 2003 (Kittelson and Associates et al., 2003)

The headway value for bus and human hauler was derived based on morning peak hour

(6.30am to 9am) survey results of STP (2005b) for major routes passing through Asad Gate,

Mohammadpur suburb and Rampur Bridge, Rampura suburb. The access time for-NMPT, auto-

rickshaw and taxi was assessed based on general walk and wait time to reach these modes, as

found from field observation and consultation with users of these modes in three randomly

selected suburbs of Dhaka, namely Dhanmondi to the west, Uttara to the north and Old Dhaka

to the south. For car, motorcycle and bicycle, the access time was assumed to be less than 10

minutes. This time was found reasonable after consultation with some owners of these

vehicles, randomly chosen from the aforementioned three suburbs. The results of the indicators

and corresponding LOS are presented in Table 6.8.


Page 101

Table 6.8: Level of service for service frequency in Dhaka

Mode type Service Frequency measures LOS

Headway (min) Access time (hour)

Bus 10 Not applicable B

Human hauler 11 Not applicable B

Auto rickshaw Not applicable 10-20 A

Taxi Not applicable 20-30 A

NMPT Not applicable 5-10 A

Car Not applicable 1-10 A

Motorcycle Not applicable 1-10 A

Bicycle Not applicable 1-10 A

Source: Derived by author after literature analysis, survey data analyses and Table 6.7

The tabular analysis reveals that the frequency of service is satisfactory for the fixed route

public transport services. Buses have LOS B and are frequent. Human hauler is marginally less

frequent compared to buses. Access to all the demand-responsive public transports were found

to be fairly prompt (LOS A) with NMPT being the most accessible mode and taxi least accessible.

Private transport modes were better accessible than other modes, with reference to time, and

have LOS A, because of their ready availability for personal usage at the origin of the trip.

Passenger loads

From a passenger’s perspective, passenger loads reflect the comfort level of the on-board

vehicle portion of the trip – both in terms of being able to find a seat, carriage of luggage and in

overall crowding levels within the vehicle. For public transports, passenger load often affects

travel time and service reliability. For all modes, passenger load LOS was measured using the

load factor i.e. passenger per seat condition. This was recommended as a suitable option by

TCQSM 2003 (Kittelson and Associates et al., 2003) in the case of making a comparative comfort

level and crowdedness condition analysis of different modes with reference to buses. The LOS

threshold values recommended by the manual for passenger loading measurements are



Page 102

Table 6.9: Level of service guideline for passenger loads

LOS Passenger per seat Comment

A 0.00-0.50 No passenger need to seat next to other

/high comfort level and very low crowding

B 0.51-0.75 Passengers can choose where to seat/reasonable

comfort level and low crowding

C 0.76-1.00 All passengers can sit/ not much space for luggage

D 1.01-1.25 Acceptable standing load if vehicle design permits/

crowded condition

E 1.26-1.50 Maximum load

F >1.50 Crush load


Passenger load factors for all the vehicles were derived based on occupancy values of respective

modes, found from STP (2005a), cross-examined by Field Survey in 2009; and average seat

capacity of the vehicles as published in STP (2005c) (see Appendix C.6 for calculation ). The

results of the indicators and corresponding LOS are presented in Table 6.10.

Table 6.10: Level of service for passenger loads in Dhaka

Mode type Passenger per seat LOS

Bus 1.60 F

Human hauler 0.89 C

Auto rickshaw 0.77 C

Taxi 0.75 B

NMPT 0.75 B

Car 0.55 B

Motorcycle 0.8 C

Bicycle 1.0 C


The tabular analysis shows that LOS is poor for fixed route public transport modes. Bus has the

lowest LOS (LOS F). Most buses operate at crush load and remain highly crowded. Human

hauler has a comparatively lower loading (LOS C) and passengers usually have the opportunity

of a seat. Non-fixed route public transport modes (auto rickshaw, taxi, NMPT,) have better

comfort levels than bus or human hauler. Auto rickshaw has LOS C but better load factor than

human hauler. Taxi and NMPT have higher LOS (LOS B) .The general loading condition and


Page 103

comfort levels for these three modes were very close to each other. Private car and motorcycle

were found to have the best on-board comfort level. It was interesting to find that bicycles had

a higher load factor to other private modes, attributable to being a one-seater vehicle. Figure

6.9 provides a combined picture of the LOS status found for different modes at stop level.

Figure6.9: Stop based level of service for NMPT and other available modes

Source: Derived by author after Table 6.7 to 6.10

Figure 6.9 reveals that for a single location, the car has better availability and comfort level

compared to other modes. NMPT was found to be most accessible and comfortable among the

public transport modes, followed by auto rickshaw and taxi. Bus was found to have lowest

overall LOS at stop level, followed by human hauler. These two modes had frequent peak

period services similar to other public modes, but on-board comfort was poorer than others.

Buses were found to be mostly operating at crushing load and therefore were always very

crowded. For human haulers, though the loading was reasonable, local experience of the users

suggested that because of the very tight design inside the vehicle, passengers were often not

comfortable, particularly female passengers and passengers accompanying luggage.

F

E

D

C

B

A

F E D C B A

Passenger loads

Se

rvic

e f

req

ue

ncy

Bus Human

Hauler

Car Motor

cycle

NMPT

Taxi

Auto rickshaw

Bicycle


Page 104

Route level analysis

Hours of service

Hours of service, also known as service span, is the number of hours during the day when

service is provided by a public transport mode along a route, a segment of a route, or between

two locations. It plays an important role as frequency and service coverage in determining

availability of a mode to users. In the following TCQSM 2003 (Kittelson and Associates et al.,

2003), for fixed route services such as bus and human hauler, LOS is measured based on the

number of hours per day in which the service is provided at least once an hour. For non-fixed

route public transports such as NMPT, auto-rickshaw and taxi, LOS is based on the number of

hours per day the service is provided. For private transport such as car, motorcycle and bicycle,

LOS is also measured based the number hours per day the vehicle is available to provide service.

The LOS threshold values recommended by TCQSM 2003 (Kittelson and Associates et al., 2003)

for hours of service measurement are presented in Table 6.11.

Table 6.11: Level of service guideline for hours of service

LOS Hours per day Comment

A 19-24 Services provided throughout day and night

B 17-18 Day time and late evening services provided

C 14-16 Day time and early evening services provided

D 12-13 Day services provided

E 4-11 Peak hour service/limited midday service

F 0-3 Very limited or no services


Common hours of service for buses and human haulers were derived based on STP (2005b) and

cross-examined by field survey with operators in 2009. Service hours for NMPT were derived

based on general field survey and interview of NMPT operators, drivers and users. Service hours

for taxi and auto rickshaw were derived from STP (2005c) and cross-examined by discussion

with operators during field survey in 2009. Due to the personalised nature of ownership, private

vehicles were found to be available all day to the owner, as revealed by random consultation

with the owners of these vehicle categories, and LOS is measured accordingly. The results of the

indicators and corresponding LOS are presented in Table 6.12.


Page 105

Table 6.12: Level of service for hours of service in Dhaka

Mode type Hours of service/Schedule LOS

Bus 14-16 C

Human hauler 14-16 C

Auto rickshaw 12-14 C/D

Taxi 12-14 C/D

NMPT 17-18 B

Car 19-24 A

Motorcycle 19-24 A

Bicycle 19-24 A


The tabular analysis suggests that among public transports, NMPT has highest availability (LOS

B) while auto rickshaw and taxi has lowest availability (LOS C/D). Fixed route services such as

bus and human haulers were also reasonably available (LOS C). Common hours of service for

NMPT were found to be 17 to 18 hours based on field survey 2009. The operating hours

spanned between 6am and 12 midnight. The usual operating hours for bus and human hauler

were found to be between 6 am to 10pm.The total service hours of auto rickshaw and taxi were

found to be 12 to 14 hours, spanning between 8 am to 10 pm. Private vehicles were found to be

available at all times of the day and night (LOS A).

Reliability

Several different measures of reliability are used by transit systems. According to TCQSM 2003

(Kittelson and Associates et al., 2003), the most common of these is on-time performance. For

fixed route services such as bus and human hauler, reliability of LOS considers on-time to be a

departure of 0 to 5 minutes after the expected scheduled time for the departure, or an arrival at

the end of the route no more than 5 minutes after the scheduled time. The condition applies to

routes with vehicle headways greater than 10 minutes. No published schedule was available for

most of the buses in Dhaka which include 5000 plus minibuses and 250 plus large buses almost

operated by the private sector (STP, 2005c). The response of on-time percentage was therefore

derived based on assumption of the researcher’s local knowledge of buses and human haulers’

usage and limited user survey on routes with greater than 10 minutes headway. For non-fixed

route services such as NMPT, auto rickshaw and taxi, reliability LOS considered on-time to be


Page 106

the possibility of starting a journey within 20 minutes of looking for the mode. Note that this is a

variation from the manual guideline that suggested on-time to be arrival within 20 minutes of

scheduled pick-up time. The variation was necessary, since in Dhaka, none of these modes has

such pick-up service. Taxis technically have the option, but this is rarely the practice as found

from local use of transport services in Dhaka by the researcher and in consultation with users of

these transport modes. For private transport such as car, motorcycle and bicycle, on-time is

considered as the opportunity to start a journey upon deciding to do so. The LOS threshold

values recommended by TCQSM 2003 (Kittelson and Associates et al., 2003) for on-time

reliability performance measure are presented in Table 6.13.

Table 6.13: Level of service guideline for reliability (on-time performance)

LOS On-time percentage

A 97.5-100%

B 95.0-97.4%

C 90.0-94.9%

D 85.0-89.9%

E 80.0-84.9%

F <80%


On-time percentage values for buses and human haulers were, as aforementioned, derived

based on the researcher’s previous experience of using these vehicles on some of the routes

that had headways greater than 10 minutes. These included Mirpur 12 to Gulistan, Nabinagar

to Motijheel and Motijheel to Gazipur. Route based headway information was derived from STP

(2005a). A phone survey was also conducted with 20 regular users who make at least four

round trips within these routes every week. Among them, eight users were from Mirpur 12 to

Gulistan route, six users were from Nabinagar to Motijheel route and six users from Motijheel

to Gazipur route. On-time percentage values for non-fixed route services and private vehicles

were derived from consultation with the same users who were previously interviewed for

receiving access time information for the modes. The results are presented in Table 6.14.


Page 107

Table 6.14: Level of service for reliability in Dhaka

Mode type On-time percentage LOS

Bus <80% F

Human hauler <80% F

Auto rickshaw 80.0-84.9% E

Taxi <80% F

NMPT 97.5-100% A

Car 97.5-100% A

Motorcycle 97.5-100% A

Bicycle 97.5-100% A


The tabular analysis shows that among public transport options, NMPT has very reliable and

timely service quality with LOS A. This is much higher compared to all other available public

transport modes. The nearest public transport LOS is that for auto rickshaw (LOS E), which

represents considerably lower reliability. The analysis also shows that most of the fixed route

services such as buses and human haulers are consistently late along multiple points along a

single route and at multiple routes. Private vehicles had similar reliability LOS to that of NMPT

due to their ownership by the user. Figure 6.10 provide a combined picture of the LOS status

found for different modes at the route scale.

Figure 6.10: Route based level of service for NMPT and other available modes


F

E

D

C

B

A

F E D C B A

Reliability

Ho

urs

of

serv

ice

Bus Human Hauler

Car

Motor cycle

NMPT

Taxi Auto

rickshaw

Bicycle


Page 108

Figure 6.10 reveals that for a route segment or multiple locations along a route, car, motorcycle

and bicycle have better accessibility and reliability compared to other modes. NMPT was found

to be the most accessible and reliable among the public transport modes, very close to private

transport modes. Among the other non-fixed route transport services, auto rickshaw and taxi

had similar accessibility but the former was found to have greater reliability. Both bus and

human hauler were found to have very low overall LOS at the route level, indicating their poor

quality of service and availability at multi-points of a journey path. An interesting insight from

route level analyses is that greater quality of service differences are observed between NMPT

and other public transport modes at this scale compared to the stop scale.

System level analysis

Service coverage

Service coverage is the measure of the area, covered by transit services. According to TCQSM

2003 (Kittelson and Associates et al.,2003), service coverage LOS is measured by estimating

percentage of transit supportive area covered by public transport service. Note service coverage

is the area within 0.4 km of local bus service and a transit supportive area is one that has

sufficient population and/ or employment density to require service at least once per hour.

2

Theoretically, such an approach to service coverage estimation is based on the assumption that

comprehensive data on households and jobs of a traffic analysis zone (TAZ) level is available to

delineate transit supportive area for that TAZ. It is also assumed that scaled TAZ maps would be

available for estimation of an analysis area. It is further assumed that fixed public transport

stops are available for each locality along a route. In practice, data was inaccessible at TAZ level

and there are very few fixed stops for public transport services in any locality in Dhaka. Most

stops are undesignated or randomly chosen by services for passenger boarding or alighting.

Therefore this approach to LOS measurement was not possible.

A qualitative approach was then used to obtain an idea of the service coverage situation for

different modes. The service coverage for analysis purposes is defined as the spatial extent of a

city area that is possible to be accessed by an individual mode. Service coverage LOS for all

modes is thus designated. The setting up of LOS categorisation as such is descriptive in nature

and derived based on local experience of the researcher as both a transport professional and

user of the transport services of Dhaka. The hierarchy of LOS is structured with the aim of

designating highest service coverage mode with LOS A and sequentially descending to LOS F for

modes that have no or negligible coverage. Table 6.15 presents the threshold for service

coverage LOS.


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Table 6.15: Level of service guideline for service coverage

LOS Service coverage (spatial extent of accessibility by mode)

A All city parts including narrow streets

B All city parts excluding narrow streets

C Major city parts excluding major arterials or narrow streets

D Limited city routes excluding major arterials or narrow streets

E Special areas only

F No or negligible service coverage

Source: Derived by author after local experience and understanding of transport system

Designation of service coverage for each mode was made based on judgement of the

researcher and with reference to a number of aspects. The transport documents and literature

reviewed in previous chapters were considered. The perception of transport users previously

interviewed for stop level and route level regrading degree of accessibility of different modes

operating in Dhaka were taken into consideration. The judgement also relied on field survey of

in-practice accessibility of different modes as observed by the researcher. The results are


Table 6.16: Level of service for service coverage in Dhaka

Mode type Service coverage LOS

Bus Limited city parts excluding major arterials or narrow streets D

Human hauler Limited city parts excluding major arterials or narrow streets D

Auto rickshaw All city parts excluding narrow streets B

Taxi All city parts excluding narrow streets B

NMPT Major city parts excluding major arterials or narrow streets C

Car All city parts excluding narrow streets B

Motorcycle All city parts including narrow streets A

Bicycle All city parts including narrow streets A


The tabular analysis revealed that among public transport modes, non-fixed route services such

as auto rickshaw and taxi are most accessible to different city parts (LOS B). They are

inaccessible to very narrow streets such in Old Dhaka, due to their dimensions. NMPT has

access to major parts of the city including to narrow streets and alleys. However, due to the

restrictions imposed on the mode at all major arterials and some major streets, its spatial extent


Page 110

of coverage has become limited (LOS C). Fixed route services such as bus and human hauler

have the most limited service coverage of all (LOS D). The majority of bus routes are north-

south oriented and most of the human hauler services are east-west oriented (STP, 2005a).

They are also inaccessible to the local streets and narrow network parts. Among private vehicle

types, motorcycles and bicycles have accessibility everywhere and have best coverage of all

modes (LOS A). Cars are accessible to most city parts, but due to vehicle size are inaccessible to

very narrow streets.

Safety and security

Safety reflects personal security on-board a public transport at a stop and during the portion of

the trip. It also reflects personal irritants such as encountering unruly passengers on board on a

regular basis or having to listen to someone else’s radio. No LOS guideline is mentioned for this

service measure. So an ordinal structure of LOS measures was developed to express passenger

on-board safety and the security situation. The structure of the LOS guideline is descriptive in

nature. LOS A indicates a high degree of safety and security on-board transport and sequentially

descends to LOS F for negligible or no safety situation. Table 6.17 presents the threshold for

safety LOS.

Table 6.17: Level of service guideline for safety and security

LOS Safety and security on-board Comment

A Very high level of safety Passengers are completely unworried of any potential

crime or annoyance while travelling

B High level of safety Passengers are unworried of any potential crime or

annoyance; rare incidences possible

C Moderate level of safety Passengers have reasonable concerned on potential

crime or annoyance; incidence sometimes occur

D Low level of safety Passengers often encounter crime or irritation;

alternative choice should be considered

E Very low level of safety Crime or irritations are regular occurrence; alternative

choice recommended

F Negligible or no safety Travel condition is highly risky; alternative choice is

strongly recommended

Source: Derived by author after local experience and understanding of Dhaka’s transport system

Designation of safety and security LOS for each mode was made on the judgement of the

researcher and with reference to a number of aspects. The transport documents and literature

reviewed in previous chapters were considered. The perceptions of transport users previously

interviewed for stop level and route level information were taken into consideration. The

judgement also relied on field survey of different by the researcher to have an understanding of

different on-board safety situations. The results are presented in Table 6.18.


Page 111

Table 6.18: Level of service for safety and security in Dhaka

Mode type Safety and security LOS

Bus Very low level of safety E

Human hauler Low level of safety D

Auto rickshaw Moderate level of safety C

Taxi High level of safety B

NMPT High level of safety B

Car Very high level of safety A

Motorcycle Very high level of safety A

Bicycle Very high level of safety A


The table shows that fixed route transit services are most unsafe among all public transport

modes. NMPT and taxi are found to be safer and secured due to the infrequent occurrence of

crime when compared to other modes. The chances of irritation by other passengers are also

negligible for these modes since they are mostly used on an individual basis, unlike bus, human

hauler or sometimes auto-rickshaw. Private vehicles, due to their individualised nature, are

most highly rated for safety. Figure 6.11 provides a combined picture of the LOS status found

for different modes at system level.

Figure6.11: System based comparative level of service for NMPT and other available modes


F

E

D

C

B

A

F E D C B A

Safety and security

Se

rvic

e c

ov

era

ge

Bus Human

Hauler

Car

Motor cycle

NMPT

Taxi Auto

rickshaw

Bicycle


Page 112

Figure 6.11 reveals that on a network level, car, motorcycle and bicycle have better coverage

and service quality compared to other modes. Taxi and NMPT were found to be most accessible

and safer among the public transport modes. Among the other non-fixed route public transport

services, auto rickshaw had similar coverage to that of a taxi or car, but the former was found to

have lesser safety and security. Both bus and human hauler were found to have relatively low

overall LOS, indicating their poor safety and coverage at different journey routes. Buses had

poorer safety conditions than the human hauler. One interesting insight from system level

analyses so far is that greater variation in quality of service is observed between modes than

stop or route scale. The other aspect is that NMPT was found to be second best among public

transport services in overall LOS, while it was found to be best in another two levels. The key

reason is its limited movement in recent times, that has made the mobility and accessibility by

this mode relatively restricted when compared to other motorised modes that have no

movement restrictions.

Travel time analysis

The passenger perception on quality of service and choice of a public transport mode on a

regular basis at the system level is often influenced by two other factors in addition to those

discussed; total travel time and associated cost. Particularly, door-to-door travel time is crucial

in evaluating mode specific service quality in multimodal travel environments such as Dhaka.

TCQSM 2003 (Kittelson and Associates et al., 2003) suggested that to analyse the travel time,

quality of service for public transport modes, and for comparison with other modes, it is

important to evaluate how much longer a trip would take by public transport compared to by

automobile. The LOS measure recommended is the door- to- door difference between

automobile and public transport travel times, including walking, waiting, and transfer times (if

applicable) for comparative modes. Note that the reason for using the car as a reference

transport in this research is different from that of TCQSM 2003. The TCQSM uses auto (car) as it

the most dominant non-transit mode in North America. In Dhaka, though it is not the most

ubiquitous mode, it is most desirable with reference to other quality of service measures. It is

therefore reasonable to compare and analyse the travel time difference with auto as the

reference mode.

Based on TCQSM 2003 (Kittelson and Associates et al., 2003), for fixed route public transport

services such as bus and human hauler, the door to door travel time estimation included walk

time from one’s origin to transit stop, wait time, on-board travel time and walk time from

transit to one’s destination. For non-fixed route public transport services such as NMPT, auto


Page 113

rickshaw and taxi, the door-to-door travel time includes access time (walk and wait time) to

these modes and on-board travel time. For private vehicles, the door-to-door travel time

includes on-board travel time. Park time and walk time to destination was not considered since

parking is largely unrestricted in Dhaka and in most cases it is possible to park a vehicle in front

of a destination, on the street for the length of the day. The LOS threshold values

recommended by TCQSM 2003 for door-to-door travel time difference measures are presented

in Table 6.19.

Table 6.19: Level of service guideline for travel time difference of a mode in comparison to auto

LOS Travel time difference

(min) Comment

A <=0 Faster by a mode than by auto

B 1-15 About as fast by a mode as by auto

C 16-30 Tolerable for choice riders

D 31-45 Round-trip at least one hour longer by the comparing mode

E 46-60 Tedious for all non-auto riders

F >60 Unacceptable to most riders


In deriving values for fixed route services, walk was considered the most common auxiliary

mode used to reach bus stops as recommended by TCQSM 2003 (Kittelson and Associates et al.,

2003) and revealed from Uddin, Amin and Rahman (2003) study on the Dhaka bus service

system. The walk time is assumed to be 800m or 10 minutes walking time at a walking speed of

5km/h. This is a deviation from the manual guideline of 400m as walking distance to standard

stops, but in line with the walking distance recommended for premium stops such as an express

bus stop. Local experience of the researcher suggests that due to scarce, unplanned locations of

designated public transport stops, this can be considered the acceptable walk distance/time to

reach a bus boarding location. Study by Uddin et al. (2003) also found 10-20 minutes to be the

most common walk time range for bus users to reach a bus stop in Dhaka. Waiting times for bus

and human haulers are assumed as a minimum of 10 minutes and 11 minutes respectively,

based on Alam (2011) and a headway survey of STP (2005a).Onboard travel time is estimated

based on the average operating journey speed of these vehicles; 24 km/h, as found in STP

(2005c).For non-fixed route public transports such as NMPT, auto rickshaw and taxi, the mid

value of the access time range used for service frequency analysis was adopted. On board travel

time is estimated based on the average operating journey speed of these vehicles - 12km/h for

NMPT, 24 km/h for auto-rickshaw and taxi as found in STP (2005c).For private transport modes,

the on-board travel time was based on an average operating journey speed of these vehicles -


Page 114

24 km/h for car, 23 km/h for motorcycle (STP, 2005c) and 12 km/h for bicycle (Field survey,

2009).The trip length considered for comparison was 3 km, most common travel distance for

NMPT. The results are presented in Table 6.20.Travel time calculations are in Appendix C.7.

Table 6.20: Level of service for travel time difference between auto car and other modes in Dhaka

for a 3 km trip length

Mode type Total travel time (min) Travel time difference (min) LOS

Car 8

Bus 37.5 29.5 C

Human hauler 38.5 30.5 D

Auto rickshaw 22.5 14.5 B

Taxi 32.5 24.5 B

NMPT 22.5 14.5 B

Motorcycle 8.5 0.5 A

Bicycle 15 7 B

Source: Derived by author after analyses and Table 6.19

The tabular analysis revealed that among public transport modes, maximum door-to-door

travel time is required if bus and human hauler are used for travel. For these modes, around

one hour longer is required than for car on a round trip, while around 36 minutes more is

required than NMPT for a round trip. Auto rickshaw and NMPT require the least time among

public transports (LOS B) and are comparable to auto. Taxis are much slower than auto, NMPT

and auto rickshaw (25 min and 10 min respectively). Among private transport, motorcycles are

as fast as auto cars (LOS A).The trend of door-to door-travel time of NMPT in comparison to

other public transport modes at the mostly observed trip length spectrum of NMPT are

presented in (Figure 6.12).

Figure 6.12: Comparative total journey time by travel distance of modes

Source: Derived by author after STP (2005a; 2005b)

0

10

20

30

40

50

1 2 3 4 5

Jou

rne

y t

ime

(m

inu

tes)

Trip length (km)

Bus

Human hauler

Auto-rickshaw

Taxi

NMPT

Car

Motorcycle

Bicycle


Page 115

The figure reveals similar door-to-door journey time trends to that of Table 6.20, that is, car and

motorcycle being faster and bus and human hauler being the slowest. NMPT are the fastest of

all public transport modes for distances of up to 3 km, and beyond that distance they were

observed to be second fastest to auto-rickshaw.

.

Travel cost analysis

An associated important attribute for mode choice is out-of-pocket user cost when travel time

is comparable or marginal in variation and other service measures are similar. The relationship

of mode specific running cost to trip length is analysed to provide a deeper understanding on

this measure for different modes. The results are presented in Figure 6.13 and 6.14.

Figure 6.13: Unit travel (user) cost of different modes

Source: Derived by author after STP (2005a; 2005b) ; Note: Data not available for bicycle

Figure 6.14: Comparative user out of pocket trip cost by travel distance of different modes

Source: Derived by author after STP (2005a; 2005b); Note: Data not available for bicycle

0.00

3.00

6.00

9.00

12.00

Tra

ve

l c

ost

(T

k/k

m)

Mode

<=3km

> 3 km, <=6km

>6km

0

20

40

60

1 2 3 4 5

To

tal

tra

ve

l co

st (

Tk

)

Trip length (km)

Bus Human hauler Auto-rickshaw Taxi

NMPT Private car Motorcycle

AUD 0.0

AUD 0.06

AUD 0.12

AUD 0.18

AUD 0.24

AUD 0.0

AUD 0.41

AUD 0.82

AUD 1.24


Page 116

The figures show that among public transport modes, bus and human hauler are the cheapest

travel while taxi is most expensive. NMPT is cheaper than both auto rickshaw and taxi at the trip

lengths it usually serves. Private car is the most expensive mode. It is also revealed that for the

commonly served trip length of NMPT, 3 km, the mode is around 66 percent cheaper than taxi

and 50 percent cheaper than auto-rickshaw, while being three times the cost of using a bus or

human hauler. Another interesting finding is that at distances of over 4 km, NMPT is cheaper

than motorcycle (see Appendix C.8 for calculation details). A summary of the operating

performance of NMPT and other modes, according to the dominant trip length they serve, is


Table 6.21: Operational performance of different modes in Dhaka based on level of service

Travel

Mode

General

Trip

length*

Performance measures and status

Stop scale Route scale System scale

Frequency Passenger

loads

Schedule Reliability Service

coverag

e

Safety &

Security

Journey

time**

Private

transport

Car 8.5 A B A A B A Reference

mode

Motor

cycle 8.5 A C A A A A A

Bicycle Data not

available A C A A A A B

Public

transport

Bus 9.5 B F C F D E C

Human

hauler 9.5 B C C F D D D

Auto

rickshaw 8.5 A C C/D E B C B

Taxi 8.5 A B C/D F B B B

NMPT 3.8 A B B A C B B

Source: Developed by author based on STP (2005a) and previous analysis of this section; shading is used for

better tabular representation of the relationship of LOS categories to performance measures and mode types

*STP 2005a

Note: Based on DITS (1994a) and STP (2005b) trip lengths of up to 3km are defined as short, trip lengths

between 3 to 5 km are defined as medium and trip lengths greater than 5 km are defined as long .

** Based on time difference to make a 3km door to door trip by other modes compared to auto car


Page 117

The performance report card and other analyses show three distinct trends for NMPT

performance compared to other available modes. NMPT has a better performance level

compared to fixed route public transport services such as bus and human hauler at all levels of

measurement. NMPT is advantageous for its on-board comfort, reliability and on-board safety

and security. It also has considerable time advantage for short-to-medium trips and is suitable

to access more local and narrow streets. The frequency and hours of service for bus and human

hauler are relatively close to that for NMPT. The key advantage of fixed route transport modes

over NMPT is their affordable fare as revealed in Figure 6.14. However, because of the general

NMPT trip length of around 3km and better door-to-door travel time by NMPT at these lengths

(LOS B compared to LOS C for bus, LOS D for human hauler), NMPT is advantageous over bus or

human hauler when making short to medium length trips.

NMPT more closely matches in its service character and operating nature to taxi and auto

rickshaw, all of which are non-fixed route, demand responsive, door-to-door public transport

modes. NMPT is comparable or better in performance levels to auto rickshaw and taxi as the

report card revealed. NMPT has higher LOS than auto rickshaw and taxi for all service measures

except service coverage, which is attributable to the restriction on recent NMPT movements.

NMPT has less overall spatial extent of coverage than taxi or auto rickshaw, but it offers

accessibility to narrow streets and alleys that is not possible by taxi or auto rickshaw. NMPT is

advantageous over taxi due to its longer hours of service and greater reliability. In the case of

frequency and door-to-door journey time, taxi and NMPT both sit at LOS B. But NMPT

frequency is on the higher end of the band while that is at the lower end of the band. Regarding

journey time, NMPT is around 10 minutes faster than taxi for a 3 km trip most commonly made

by NMPT. The NMPT fare is also substantially lower than that of a taxi as revealed by analysis of

Figure 6.13 and 6.14.

NMPT is advantageous over auto rickshaw on the grounds of better service hours and reliability.

The on-board comfort and safety of auto rickshaw are lower than that of NMPT. With reference

to service frequency, NMPT and auto rickshaw sit within the same LOS class, LOS B. NMPT

however sits on the higher end of the service frequency band while that is at moderate band for

auto rickshaw. NMPT is also considerably cheaper than auto rickshaw based on analysis of

Figure 6.13 and 6.14. Another important aspect to note is that, even with proximity in service

frequency of NMPT to that of taxi or auto rickshaw, the former is advantageous for making

short-to-medium distance trips. This is because of the reluctance of taxi or auto rickshaw drivers

to serve short or medium trip lengths, as found by dominant trip length statistics in Table 6.21.


Page 118

NMPT has lower overall performance compared to private transport such as car, motorcycle

and bicycle. NMPT are similar in service measures such as frequency and better in on board

comfort and reliability to that of private modes such as motor cycle or bicycle. But NMPT are

disadvantageous in schedule, service coverage and door-to-door travel time. Note that this is

not of particular concern since NMPT by service type is a public transport mode and judgement

of its performance is rational with respect to other available public transport modes. The

comparison with private transport modes has been made to provide a complete picture of the

transport system of Dhaka.

6.7 Summary

This chapter presented detailed analysis of literature reviewed in Chapter 4, related to

mulltisectoral role attributes of NMPT. The role analysis was conducted with reference to key

issues that were previously reviewed including social, economic, employment, environmental

and transport aspects. Social analyses revealed that for major short-to-medium trip makers e.g.

females, students and elderly, NMPT trip share has increased. The analyses also revealed that

NMPT has a greater share among the low and middle income population. On a macro-economic

perspective, the gross revenue from NMPT was found to increase in last two decades. On a

micro-economic perspective, the analyses suggested higher revenue of the NMPT employees

compared to National GDP and some key formal and informal sector professions. Employment

sector analyses showed that the share of NMPT industry jobs increased significantly in the last

two decades. Environmental sector analyses revealed that motorised modes are contributing to

all transport-sourced pollution in Dhaka while catering almost equal trip share to that of NMPT.

The transport role analyses revealed that NMPT mode has an annual growth rate of 20 percent

in the last five years, highest among all available modes and currently they share around half of

all non-walk trips in Dhaka. NMPT were found to take less road space per passenger compared

to auto-rickshaw, taxi or car but more space than a bus or human hauler. NMPTs were found to

offer better accessibility and service quality compared to bus at different levels of network, stop

level, route level and system level. Similar or better service performance of NMPT was found at

all three system elements to auto-rickshaw and taxi, except for service coverage. NMPT also

showed better performance levels in quality-of-service measures to private vehicles than other

public or paratransit modes. The understanding gleaned from this chapter will provide insight

into the role contribution or otherwise of NMPT in Dhaka. The next chapter presents the

viewpoint of key NMPT stakeholders on the NMPT role and the desired future characteristics of

a future Dhaka transport system.

CCHHAAPPTTEERR 77:: AANNAALLYYSSIISS OOFF NNMMPPTT IINNTTEEGGRRAATTIIOONN AANNDD RREESSTTRRIICCTTIIOONN IINN DDHHAAKKAA

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7CHAPTER 7: ANALYSIS OF NMPT INTEGRATION AND RESTRICTION IN

DHAKA

7.1 Introduction

Chapters 3 to 5 presented a comprehensive review of literature relevant to non-motorised

public transport (NMPT) engagement, operation and management in Dhaka transport system.

Chapter 6 analysed the literature reviewed in relation to mulltisectoral role of NMPT in Dhaka.

This chapter analyses the literature reviewed regarding NMPT policy planning and integration

initiatives in Dhaka.

The discussion of this chapter is divided into two major sections. Section 7.2 analyses the NMPT

integration initiatives proposed and practised so far in Dhaka to provide better insights on this

issue. Section 7.3 analyses the restriction initiatives undertaken so far to control and manage

NMPT.

7.2 Analysing NMPT integration initiatives

The literature review in Chapter 4 suggested that few planning and integration proposals have

been made in the past to integrate NMPT within the transport system, according to individual

researchers and government. The majority of these have concentrated on developing strategic

policies and guidelines for NMPT operational improvement. Individual research studies include

Gallagher (1992), Bari and Efroymson (2005a), Wippwerman and Sowula (2007) and Shima

(2009). The collaborative initiatives include transport sector detail studies such as DITS (1994b)

and STP (2005b).

Four major studies focused on developing some operational methods for the planning of NMPT.

Among them, two are at an individual level and two are at government level. The individual

level study proposals were put forwards by Quium (1994) and Hodgkinson and Walton-Ellery

(2008). The collaborative proposal at a government level were provided by Special Committee

on Traffic Problems of Dhaka (1985) and DUTP (1996b) consultants. The proposal of the Special

Committee as well as Quium, recommended the planning approach restrict NMPT to certain


Page 120

zones and zone-wise colour codes to control their movement and number, thereby reducing

congestion. This initiative was previously attempted in Indonesia (Jakarta and Bandung), but

was unsuccessful (DITS, 1994a). Based on the knowledge of the NMPT industry of Dhaka, a

more detailed analysis of the approach found a number of concerns towards maintaining

operational balance of this mode compared to other vehicles.

• Firstly, enforcement would be extremely difficult. Although NMPT would be

painted a distinctive colour, it would be easy for outside NMPTs, from

neighbouring urban centres such as Tongi or Gazipur, to be brought into the city

and painted to adhere to the colour requirement. Hence the zoning would not

greatly affect overall NMPT fleet size.

• Secondly, wherever the zone boundaries were drawn, there would always be the

problem of cross-boundary trips being impeded. In particular, since 17 percent of

NMPT trips are medium distance (3-5 km) (DITS, 1994a) and 2 percent are long (>

5km), it would cause inconvenience and expense to NMPT passengers.

• Thirdly, general structure and organisation of NMPT in Dhaka is that the NMPTs

are garaged overnight in outlying areas where more vacant land is available (e.g.

Agargaon, Mohakhali, Jatrabari) and brought down into different parts by drivers

for service. Artificial zone boundaries would interfere with this operating pattern

and would impose extra cost on the NMPT sector (e.g. garaging, and travel to work

by the drivers).

The approach of DUTP (1996a) was design measure oriented. The suggestions were towards

suitable infrastructure design for NMPT operation and management as the literature review

found. Analysis of the document suggested that it did provide some area-specific planning

guidelines with reference to flow management of NMPT, at intersection points. The document

can be used as a good reference for infrastructure designs for the mode.

The approach of Hodgkinson and Walton-Ellery (2008) was on prioritisation on NMPT in certain

areas of the city and controlling or closing them for motorised transport (MT). This can be

considered a more flexible approach compared to the zoning control system. In depth analysis

of this approach revealed some concerns. The prioritisation of NMPTs and closing of MTs was

not made based on any common underlying principle or scientific methodology. The selection

rationale of the priority measures in the three enclaves discussed (segments in Motijheel,

Gulshan and south of Hotel Sonargaon) was based on general perception of the areas. The


Page 121

functional attributes of the road types and land use character was not analysed. The aspects of

general travel demand such as traffic flow composition was also not considered. The possibility

is that the selection of priorities so derived might be inapplicable in practice or unsuitable to

follow as guiding principles.

7.3 Analysing NMPT restriction initiatives

The literature review in Chapter 5 suggested that DCC, DMP and other relevant transport

authorities of Dhaka have previously attempted to control NMPT operation, primarily with

tools of licensing control and operational restriction. A more detailed analysis of these

measures and their implication is discussed below.

7.3.1 Analysing Licensing control initiative

It was found in Chapter 5 that the official ceiling of NMPT in Dhaka is fixed at 86,000 since 1986,

with the objective of controlling its operation. But the number of NMPT in operation has grown.

Figure 7.1 presents the comparative condition of total NMPT operating in Dhaka to that of

unlicensed NMPTs.

Figure 7.1: Comparative status of total NMPT to unlicensed NMPTs in operation

Source: Derived by author after Gallagher (1992), DITS (1994a), DUTP (1996a), STP (2005b) and Alam

(2011)

The figure suggests that the share of unlicensed NMPT operation has grown in proportion to

the rapid increase of total NMPTs. The growth shows a steep incline because the ceiling has

0

200000

400000

600000

800000

1000000

1200000

1990 1995 2000 2005 2011

NM

PT

nu

mb

er

Year

Total

Unlicensed42.67%

Unlicensed

NMPT share

65.6%

71.33%

82.8%

92.18%


Page 122

remained fixed but in the 25 years since the restriction, NMPT has kept growing. Currently 92

percent of NMPTs operating in Dhaka are unlicensed, or a total of around one million vehicles.

7.3.2 Analysing physical restriction initiative

The literature review of Chapter 5 also found that physical restriction was imposed as another

measure to control NMPT operation and its number. The principle for imposing restriction was

that it would be applied to major arterials of the city. A summary of the roads delimited to

NMPT or proposed for the same are presented in Table 7.1 to 7.4. The tables are split according

to the implementation timeline of NMPT restrictions. The summary tables include the corridor

details, associated with the status of NMPT restriction, provision for alternative arrangements

and priority measures for other available modes in those corridors.

Table 7.1: Summary of roads made NMPT free in Dhaka before 2002

Serial

no.

DUTP

Corridor

no.

Name Status of

NMPT

restriction

Alt.

route for

NMPT

Alt. NMPT

priority

measure

Current mode

priority on

NMPT free

corridors

Before 2002

1 3 Airport Road (P.G Hospital to

Cantonment 3rd

Gate)

NMPT

Free

Not

provided

Not

available

Equal priority for

all MT

2 5 Tongi Diversion Road (Mohakhali

to Moghbazar)

NMPT

Free

Not

provided

Not

available

Equal priority for

all MT

3 N/A Hare Road (Hotel Sheraton to

previously denoted Vice-

President’s House)

NMPT

Free

Not

provided

Not

available

Bus and human

hauler not

allowed

4 N/A Abdul Gani Road/Secretariat

Road (Southside of Secretariat

Building)

NMPT

Free

Not

provided

Not

available

Equal priority for

all MT

5 N/A Crescent Lake Road (North side

of Parliament Building)

NMPT

Free

Not

provided

Not

available

Equal priority for

all MT

6 N/A Bijoy Sarani NMPT

Free

Not

provided

Not

available

Equal priority for

all MT

Source: Derived by author after DITS (1994a), STP (2005a) and Khan (2011)


Page 123

Table 7.2: Summary of roads made NMPT free in Dhaka under DUTP Phase II, between 2002 and

2010

Serial

no.

DUTP

Corridor

no.

Name Status of

NMPT

restriction

Alt.

route for

NMPT

Alt. NMPT

priority

measure

Current mode

priority on

NMPT free

corridors

2002 to 2010

(DUTP Phase II directive)

7 1,2 Mirpur Road (Gabtoli to New

Market)

NMPT

Free

Provided Not

available

Equal priority for

all MT

8 1 Panthapath (Russel Square to

Sonargaon Hotel)

NMPT

Free

Not

provided

Not

available

Equal priority for

all MT

9 5 Mohakhali to Kakarial Mosque NMPT

Free

Not

provided

Not

available

Equal priority for

all MT

10 8 Shabagh to High Court crossing NMPT

Free

Not

provided

Not

available

Bus and human

hauler not

allowed

11 8 Science lab to Bata Signal NMPT

Free

Not

provided

Not

available

Equal priority for

all MT

12 5,8,10 Moghbazar to High Court

Crossing via Kakarail Mosque

crossing

NMPT

Free

Not

provided

Not

available

Equal priority for

all MT

13 10 Phoneix Road NMPT

Free

Not

provided

Not

available

Equal priority for

all MT

14 10 Ittefaq crossing to Bangabhaban NMPT

Free

Not

provided

Not

available

Equal priority for

all MT

15 10 Golapshah Mazar to High Court

via Bangabazar crossing

NMPT

Free

Not

provided

Not

available

Equal priority for

all MT

16 11 Kamal Ataturk Avenue NMPT

Free

Not

provided

Not

available

Equal priority for

all MT

17 Added

link

Manik Mia Avenue NMPT

Free

Not

provided

Not

available

Equal priority for

all MT

18 Added

link

Bailey Road to Minto Road NMPT

Free

Not

provided

Not

available

Bus and human

hauler not

allowed

19 Added

link

Sonargaon Hotel to Moghbazar

crossing

NMPT

Free

Not

provided

Not

available

Equal priority for

all MT



Page 124

Table 7.3: Summary of roads made NMPT free in Dhaka in 2011 under DUTP Phase II, and

future direction

Serial

no.

DUTP

Corridor

no.

Name Status of

NMPT

restriction

Alt.

route for

NMPT

Alt. NMPT

priority

measure

Current mode

priority on

NMPT free

corridors

In 2011

(DUTP Phase II directive)

20

4

Khamarbari Road

NMPT

Free

Not

provided

Not

available

Equal priority for

all MT

21 5,10 Rajmoni Cinema Hall to

Rajashaya Bhaban

NMPT

Free

Not

provided

Not

available

Equal priority for

all MT

22 7 Malibagh to Mouchak NMPT

Free

Not

provided

Not

available

Equal priority for

all MT

23 7 Moghbazar to Bangla Motor NMPT

Free

Not

provided

Not

available

Equal priority for

all MT

24 7 Moghbazar to Kamlapur NMPT

Free

Not

provided

Not

available

Equal priority for

all MT

25 8 Doel Chattar to High Court NMPT

Free

Not

provided

Not

available

Equal priority for

all MT

26 8 Matshya Bhaban to Shilpakala

Academy

NMPT

Free

Not

provided

Not

available

Equal priority for

all MT

27 Added

link

Nilkhet to New Market NMPT

Free

Not

provided

Not

available

Equal priority for

all MT

28 Remaining of the segments

under the 11identified corridors

to be

made

NMPT free

in future

Not

provided

Not

available

Equal priority for

all MT



Page 125

Table 7.4: Summary of roads proposed to be made NMPT free in Dhaka in future

Serial

no.

DUTP

Corridor

no.

Name Status of

NMPT

restriction

Alt.

route for

NMPT

Alt. NMPT

priority

measure

Current mode

priority on

NMPT free

corridors

DAP Proposals

29

N/A Biswa Road to Syadabad Proposed

to make

NMPT

Free

No

relevant

proposal

No

relevant

proposal

No relevant

proposal

30 N/A Kakrail to Rajarbag Police

Hospital

Proposed

to make

NMPT

Free

No

relevant

proposal

No

relevant

proposal

No relevant

proposal

31 N/A Dainik Bangla Crossing to

Syadabad

Proposed

to make

NMPT

Free

No

relevant

proposal

No

relevant

proposal

No relevant

proposal


Analysing characteristics of pre-2002 NMPT restrictions

Analysing the pre 2002 physical restriction initiative (Table 7.1), the table shows that a total of

six corridors were made NMPT free. Among them, two were collector roads, namely Hare Road

and Secretariat Road. These two roads and Crescent Lake road were restricted to NMPT

because they are considered to be roads for very important persons (V.I.P.) and labelled

accordingly as V.I.P. roads. Hare Road is adjacent to the Government’s primary guest house for

State level foreign delegates, Crescent Lake Road is adjacent to the Prime Minister’s official

residence and Secretariat Road is adjacent to the National Secretariat of Bangladesh.

The tabular analysis also revealed that no alternative route provision was planned for NMPT

when these roads were restricted to them. Any NMPT priority measures were not undertaken

elsewhere to facilitate their operation. The prescribed guideline suggests planned provision of

route alternatives for each NMPT route diversion action (DUTP, 1996a) Among the six corridors,

five have no particular priority for any MT. Hare Road is restricted to bus and human haulers.


Page 126

Analysing characteristics and implication of post-2002 NMPT restrictions

Key Characteristics

Analysing the post 2002 scenario, the Tables 7.2 and 7.3 showed that a number of corridors

among the 11 selected corridors for NMPT removal have considerable non-arterial portions. For

example, most of Corridor 8 has links that function as minor distributor and collector roads for

local access. The road sections between Science Lab and Bata Signal, between Shabagh and

High Court crossing, and between High Court crossing and Doel Chattar(Circle) are similar.

Corridor 10 has a road section between Golapshah Mazar and High Court via Bangabazar

Crossing with similar character.

Another interesting finding from the two tables is that four additional links to those indicated in

the DCC restriction plan were made NMPT free. Among them, two links were local in service

character such as Bailey Road to Minto Road and Nilkhet to New Market. As a result of NMPT

removal from minor distributors and collector roads, there has been continuation of public

protest as reported by different national and international dailies (Lawson, 2002) (Rahman,

2004) (Melden, 2005) (Islam, 2007) (Bari, 2008) (Hummel, 2009) (Khan, 2011). This has delayed

the implementation duration, initially set to be completed by 2005.

A third aspect of the NMPT restrictions approach is that except on Corridor 2, alternative route

provision has not been planned and provided for in other corridors where NMPT has been

removed. No NMPT priority measures were undertaken elsewhere on the network to facilitate

their operation. The original guideline in this regard as prescribed by DUTP (1996a) suggested

for planned provision of route alternatives for each NMPT route diversion action. The guideline

also suggests that an alternative route for NMPT needs to be provided so that they are not

more than 30 percent in distance from the original route from which they are to be diverted.

The directness of the alternative route planned for Corridor 2 by DCC was examined to compare

its condition with regard to this guideline. The detailed procedure in achieving the task is

discussed below.

Directness test for corridor 2 alternative NMPT route

Rationale for selecting analysis platform

The analysis was conducted using the graphical parameter based analytical tools available in the

transport planning software, VISUM. The directness was measured using the tool ‘shortest path’

‘Shortest path’ assessed the comparative shortest distance for a certain NMPT trip that uses

corridor 2 under the pre-NMPT ban, to that for the same trip, but with an alternative NMPT


Page 127

route provided by DCC after the restriction was imposed. The VISUM graphical parameter tool

has the capability to demonstrate the directness of a route under free-flow condition and

loaded condition (PTV Vision, 2010). This enables a choice of network environment as required

by the user. The strengths of these tools in demonstrating the desired need of the task had led

to the selection of this software platform.

Spatial extent of the test network

STP (2005c) prepared a transport network model for Dhaka. However, due to the intellectual

property (IP) being owned by the custodian of the project, the base model could not be

collected. The test network for the analysis was therefore coded at 1:1 scale. The spatial extent

of coded network includes a section of Corridor 2 that has the alternative NMPT route (Mirpur

Road between Manik Mia Avenue intersection and Azimpur Road intersection), the alternate

NMPT route (Mirpur side road assigned to NMPT between Dhanmond Road 1 and New Market

Green Market Road) and adjacent major neighbourhoods such as Dhanmond, Zigatola to the

west; Kalabagan, Hatirpool, Science Laboratory to the east; Kalabagan, Pantha Path to the

north; and New Market, Azimpur, Palashi to the south.

Traffic environment of the test network

The next task was to load the network with a trip matrix, but due to data unavailability from the

project custodians it was not possible to obtain a mode-specific trip matrix from the STP model

to load the test network. Moreover, the matrix would not have been very useful since STP has

not considered NMPT mode in any stage of its modelling process. The other possible option

would have been to develop a mode split model and generate the trip origin-destination (O-D)

matrix for different modes based on STP trip generation data. The household interview data

unavailability also hindered that attempt. The primary data collection to generate O-D trip data

would have been a highly time consuming process and was not considered, since this analysis is

a small part of the whole research outcome rather than the focus.

The author then adopted the alternative option, analysing the route directness under a free

flow network i.e. running the tests with a link speed set at 12 km/hour, the usual free flow

travel speed of NMPT. This condition was considered acceptable to satisfy examination of the

principle goal of the analysis, which was to observe the directness of NMPT with alternative

route options, whether in underloaded or unloaded traffic condition. Directness output

(primary measure-distance) also bears no relation to network loading status.


Page 128

Directness analysis

For directness comparison, the origin and destination of the trip was set as Dhanmondi Road

12/A, Dhanmondi (west of corridor 2) and BUET, Palashi (east of corridor 2) respectively. These

two points were chosen for analysis as they involve the crossing of Corridor 2; usually uses the

alternative NMPT route, the side road of Mirpur Road under current NMPT restrictions on

Mirpur main corridor and is the shortest distance path for the trip. The shortest path route

choice for the trip is shown in Figure 7.2 and 7.3 and results of the analysis are presented in

Table 7.5.

Figure 7.2:Shortest path for NMPT with no NMPT restriction on Corridor 2 (Mirpur Corridor)

Legend

O-D Point

Shortest Path

Link

Zone

Territory Boundary

Connector

Rickshaw Free Link

Node

Limited access

for Rickshaw

Dhanmondi

Road 12/A

BUET,

Palashi

Mirpur Road

(Corridor 2)

Scale- 1:1


Page 129

Figure 7.3: Shortest path for NMPT with alternative route after NMPT restriction on Corridor 2

(Mirpur Road)

Table 7.5: Comparative directness (distance) of the NMPT route

NMPT treatment

corridor Trip path Trip points

Shortest

travel

distance

Change

Corridor 2 (Mirpur

Road)

Dhanmondi Internal

Roads- Mirpur Road-

Azimpur Road –Abdul

Gani Road

Dhanmondi Road

12/A to BUET

,Palashi

5.275

Alternative NMPT route

(Mirpur side Road)

Dhanmondi Internal

Roads- Mirpur Side Road-

New Market Green

Market Road-Pilkhana

Road -Azimpur Road –

Abdul Gani Road

Dhanmondi Road

12/A to BUET

,Palashi

7.353 +39%

Source: Derived by author after shortest path analysis

Legend

O-D Point

Shortest Path

Link

Zone

Territory Boundary

Connector

Rickshaw

Free Link

Node

Limited access

for Rickshaw

Alternative

route (Mirpur side road

& New Market green

market road) planned for

NMPT to avoid Mirpur

Road (Corridor 2)

Dhanmondi

Road 12/A

BUET,

Palashi

Mirpur Road

(Corridor 2)

Scale- 1:1


Page 130

The results suggest that under the alternative route provided for Corridor 2, an additional 2.78

km of travel was required to traverse the system for the same trip end. This is an increase in

distance of 39 percent for NMPT trips compared to the original route for the trip that was made

using Corridor 2 before the NMPT restriction was imposed. This revealed what is considered to

be non-compliance with the prescribed guideline for NMPT alternative route provision. It is

worth mentioning that the free flow travel time under the alternative shortest path was found

to be around 44min, 13min more than that required by the original route.

Impact of current NMPT restriction

Based on availability of data, an in-depth analysis is made on the results achieved by the NMPT

restriction initiative. The focus of analysis is Mirpur Demonstration Corridor.

Travel time

The analysis of the travel time aspect is presented with reference to two time periods, year

2000 and year 2005. Year 2000 represents the time before the NMPT ban scenario and year

2005 represents the period after the NMPT ban scenario. The results are presented in Table 7.6

and 7.7.

Table 7.6: Comparison of travel time for motorised transport in Mirpur Corridor

Year Average Speed

(km/h)

Travel Time

(min)

Delay (s) No. of Stops Delay in Stop

(s/stop)

Gabtoli-North South Road

2005 19.9 36.1 717 20 36

2000 19.2 38.3 720 17 42

Difference +3.6% -5.7% -0.4%

Source: Derived by author after DUTP (2007)

Table 7.7: Comparison of travel time for bus in Mirpur Corridor

Bus Line Year Speed

(km/h)

Travel Time

(min)

No. of

Stops

Line 7: Gabtoli to Gulistan Via Nilkhet 2005 13.2 50.2 45.2

2000 17.0 39.8 45.2

Difference -22.4% +26.1%

Source: Derived by author after DUTP (2007)


Page 131

The analysis in Table 7.6 shows marginal improvement of speed (3.6 percent) and reduced link

travel time (5.7 percent) for the motorised mode in general. Reduction in stop delay and total

delay is also observed. Table 7.7 reveals that the average speed for buses has declined by 22.4

percent and link travel times have increased by 26.1 percent.

Road space

Comparison of traffic composition to road space occupancy was performed to understand the

road space impact of pre and post NMPT bans for the demonstration corridor. The results for

years 2000 and 2005 are presented in Table 7.8.

Table 7.8: Road space temporal occupancy impacts of DUTP on Mirpur Demonstration Road

Year Attribute Car

(percent)

Buses

(percent)

NMPT

(percent)

2000 % Space on the Main Road Link 29.9 * 5.2 43.5

2000 % Passenger on the Main Road Link 13.6 37.4 30.6

2005 % Space on the Main Road 54.2* 21.3 0.0

2005 % Passengers on the Main Road Link 12.5 79.9 0.0

Source: DUTP (2007)

* Excluding the on-street road space occupied by cars

The table shows that before NMPT restriction, NMPT were the major mode of transport and

had highest passenger as well as road share. After their restriction, major road space was

occupied by cars with a rise in their road space share by almost twice while a slight decrease in

passenger share was noted from 2000. It is also observed that bus share has considerably

improved by around four times and is carrying more than twice the previous passenger

carriage. The analyses of Bari and Efroymson (2007) suggested that, after removal of NMPT on

Corridor 2, the total traffic flow of the corridor has reduced due to a sharp rise of car

composition in the traffic that usually has lower road space occupancy per passenger than

NMPT.

Mode shift and associated aspects

The analysis of the mode shift of NMPT users after the ban on the Mirpur Demonstration

corridor, to make trips of similar need, is presented in Figure 7.4.


Page 132

Figure 7.4: Percentage shift from NMPT to different modes after NMPT restriction on Mirpur Road

Source: Derived by author after HDRC (2004)

The illustration reveals that around one-third of the passengers have stayed using their original

mode. But as reported in HDRC (2004), most of the NMPT users who have continued to use the

mode resulted in significant increase in their travel time as the journey changed via side roads

along the corridor that are more circuitous and congested. The highest share of former NMPT

users (who no longer take NMPT) shifted to auto rickshaw and taxicab (30 percent), which

charge significantly higher fares, are reluctant to take short trips, and are not readily available

thus causing higher waiting times and higher costs. Around 20 percent switched to the more

cost effective bus option. But HDRC (2004) suggested that users who shifted to buses conceded

longer waiting times compared to those who shifted to auto rickshaw or taxis. The lowest share

shifted to walking (18 percent) and had to accept an increase in travel time of around 10min/

km. HDRC (2004) suggested that this ban and shift of mode has reduced NMPT drivers’ monthly

income on relevant routes by 34 percent.

Moreover, the literature revealed that a significant portion of demand for extra buses, due to

NMPT ban, was fulfilled by minibuses. This added to gross transport emission.

7.4 Summary

This chapter presented detailed analysis of the literature reviewed in Chapters 4 and 5, related

to NMPT integration initiatives and impact of NMPT restriction initiatives undertaken by

Government. The investigation of integration initiatives analysed the reviewed issues by

classifying them into policy proposals and more operational planning proposals. Both concerns

and potential of the strategies were considered during analyses. The majority of the research

was found to concentrate on developing strategic policies and guidelines for NMPT operational

0

10

20

30

40

Walk Bus NMPT (alternate

route)

Auto rickshaw

and taxicab

Sh

are

(%

)

Shifted mode types from NMPT usage


Page 133

improvement. Some operational proposals had strong design guidelines such as DUTP 1996.

The planning proposals were found to be based on zone-centric control of NMPT. The priority

measure for NMPT operation in some selected network parts was proposed by one researcher.

The derivation of priority measures was however random in nature.

In analysing the government restrictions, they were investigated in relation to the key

restriction types that were identified and reviewed previously i.e. analysing licensing control

and physical control. The impact analysis of the former control showed a constant increase of

illegal NMPT share since its official ceiling was fixed in 1986. For the later control, the analysis

was split into two time frames- before 2002, when NMPT physical restriction was less practised

and after 2002, from when onward it was applied on a widespread scale. Pre-2002 analyses

showed mixed results with several failed attempts to restrict NMPT, but the initiatives also

managed to successfully off-limit the mode from six major roads. Post 2002 analyses showed

deviation from the prescribed guideline for NMPT restriction on some links. The analyses also

showed deviation in following the alternative NMPT route provision standards. The impact

analyses of post 2002 NMPT restriction were focused on Mirpur Demonstration Corridor due to

data constraints. The results revealed that gain was achieved in improving link speed and link

travel time of motorised modes in general. The speed and travel time by bus has however

decreased on the same corridor. The impact analyses showed that most of the road space on

the corridor was occupied by private car but bus share has also increased. Another interesting

finding of the impact analyses was that 20 percent of the former NMPT users shifted to buses,

contrary to the expectation of bulk shift to this mode which was split between NMPT, auto-

rickshaw and taxi. The understanding from this chapter would inform the suitability or

otherwise of the current practices for NMPT control. The next chapter presents the viewpoint

of key NMPT stakeholders on the NMPT role and their desired characteristics for the future

Dhaka transport system.

CCHHAAPPTTEERR 88:: SSTTAAKKEEHHOOLLDDEERR VVIIEEWWPPOOIINNTT OONN RROOLLEE OOFF NNMMPPTT AANNDD EEXXPPEECCTTEEDD QQUUAALLIITTIIEESS FFRROOMM FFUUTTUURREE

TTRRAANNSSPPOORRTT SSYYSSTTEEMM -- DDAATTAA CCOOLLLLEECCTTIIOONN && AANNAALLYYSSIISS MMEETTHHOODD

Page 134

8CHAPTER 8: STAKEHOLDER VIEWPOINT ON ROLE OF NMPT AND

EXPECTED QUALITIES FROM FUTURE TRANSPORT SYSTEM -

DATA COLLECTION & ANALYSIS METHOD

8.1 Introduction

The first major transport study on Dhaka, DITS (1994b) suggested considering the opinion and

preference of relevant stakeholders before planning and implementation of non-motorised

public transport (NMPT) restriction measures are undertaken. The underlying principle was to

ensure balance in access, mobility and choice for different transport markets. Chapters 3 to 7

reviewed and analysed the status of NMPT in Dhaka from the perspective of available literature.

This Chapter and Chapter 9 present the viewpoint of major NMPT stakeholders, on issues

relevant to the NMPT status in Dhaka and expected qualities from a future transport system of

Dhaka. The analyses are based on primary data.

This chapter describes the methodology for viewpoint analysis. The process is divided into three

major segments. Section 8.2 and 8.3 discusses the key steps followed in the selection of

participant and sampling procedure. Section 8.4 discusses the approach, design and method

used for data collection. Section 8.5 describes the data processing approach. The methodology

discussion concludes with a description of procedures and tools used for administering the

analysis of the data (Section 8.6). Planning of the whole process is so devised that the output

analysis provides better insights on the hypotheses.

8.2 Participants and sample size

A total of five participant groups were selected as target NMPT stakeholders for viewpoint

analysis. They were government and non-government organisations related to NMPT

planning/operation/development and transport sector management in Dhaka, NMPT

operators, NMPT drivers and NMPT users. Each of these participant groups were selected

because they have a significant stake in current operation and future management of the NMPT

industry in Dhaka. They also have important involvement in overall transport planning and

management of Dhaka. These conclusions were reached based on the literature review of

Chapter 3, experience of the researcher as a former transport professional in Dhaka, and as a



Page 135

former user of NMPT in Dhaka. A combination of purposeful and random sampling methods

was used for this quantitative study. Detailed description of the participant groups and their

sampling process is provided below.

8.2.1 Government and non-government organisations

Selection and sampling process

This category includes major public, private and donor agencies related to operation, planning

and capacity building of the NMPT industry and transport sector of Dhaka, each of which has a

separate role to play in the NMPT sector. The respondent groups were selected by judgement

sampling as a part of purposive sampling to ensure that best information on NMPT and

transport future of Dhaka is received from the most relevant organisations (Sekaran, 2003).The

government organisations (GO) included Dhaka City Corporation (DCC), Dhaka Transport

Coordination Board (DTCB), Bangladesh Road Transport authority (BRTA), Capital Development

Authority (RAJUK), and Dhaka Metropolitan Police (DMP). The selected non-government

organizations (NGO) included World Bank (WB), Asian Development Bank (ADB) Japan

International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and Working for Better Bangladesh Trust (WBB).

DCC is included because it is responsible for NMPT regulation, licensing, planning, and transport

infrastructure development for Dhaka. It is also the custodian for city transport infrastructure

development and planning. DTCB is the principle coordinator and active participant for

transport planning projects undertaken in joint collaboration between local government agency

and foreign donor agencies in Dhaka. BRTA controls the route planning and approval for all

motorised modes in Dhaka. RAJUK is the principal custodian for urban planning and land use

planning in Dhaka. DMP is the sole traffic management and enforcement organisation of Dhaka,

including control of NMPT in city streets. WB, ADB and JICA are included as participants based

on the degree of involvement at present and in recent past with financial and technical support

for transport planning of Dhaka such as DUTP 1996-2005, STP 2005 and DHUTS 2010. A

summary of the organisations, their role and justification for inclusion are presented in Table

8.1.



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Table 8.1: Characteristics of sample GO & NGO stakeholders

Organisations Role Justification for inclusion

Government

Dhaka City Corporation The city government Primary custodian for NMPT regulation,

licensing and planning

Responsible for transport planning and

infrastructure development

Dhaka Transport

Coordination Board The coordinating agency for

transport projects Active involvement in recent major

transport plans

Bangladesh Road

Transport Authority The vehicle route planning

and licensing agency Responsible for route planning and

licensing for all MTs

Future potential for inclusion in route

planning and licensing for NMPT

Capital Development

Authority The metropolitan planning

agency Responsible for urban and land use

planning, small scale transport planning

Dhaka Metropolitan

Police The metropolitan police Responsible for traffic rule enforcement on

city streets including NMPT restrictions

Non-government

World Bank International donor agency Active involved in providing financial and

technical support for transport planning

and NMPT planning of Dhaka

Asian Development Bank International donor agency

Japan International

Cooperation Agency International donor agency

Working for Better

Bangladesh Trust Transport and planning

research institute Active involvement in research, policy

debate and capacity building related to

transport sector and NMPT operation

Source: Field interview (2009) and assessment of the researcher

A total of 25 officials from these organisations were selected as sample respondents, 14 from

GO and 11 from NGO. Background research of these organisations and preliminary

correspondence revealed that at least two relevant personnel were available to be questioned

on the desired subject. Two respondents per organization, were selected as a minimum suitable

sample size, in order to maintain a balance of respondent numbers between different

organisations. Each of the organisations was formally approached and requested to nominate

at least two respondents, related to experience on NMPT planning and/or with overall

transport planning of Dhaka. Because of greater involvement in NMPT operation, more

respondents were chosen from DCC, DTCB and DMP amongst the government organisations.

Among NGOs, ADB and WB have a longer history of engagement with the Dhaka transport

sector and therefore it was preferred that more respondents be included from these

organisations. The objective was fulfilled with WB. However, due to unavailability of relevant

personnel, ADB sample w

respondents based on organisations at the time of information collection.

Figure 8.1

Figure 8.2: Distribution of respondents under non

8.2.2 NMPT operators, drivers and users

This category includes three separate stakeholder groups, more actively engaged with the

NMPT industry. They are the NMPT operators who own the vehicles, NMPT drivers and NMPT

users. For all these groups, target populations are large. There are at least 20,000 NMPT

operators, with an estimation of 50 NMPTs per owner as suggested by

(2007), 1.1million NMPT drivers

CCHHAAPPTTEERR 88:: SSTTAAKKEEHHOOLLDDEERR VVIIEEWWPPOOIINNTT OONN RROOLLEE OOFF NNMMPPTT AANNDD EEXX

TTRRAANNSSPPOORRTT SSYYSSTTEEMM -- DDAATTAA CC

personnel, ADB sample was limited to three. Figure 8.1 and 8.2 shows th


.1: Distribution of respondents under government organisations

Source: Field interview (2009)

Figure 8.2: Distribution of respondents under non-government organisations


NMPT operators, drivers and users


T industry. They are the NMPT operators who own the vehicles, NMPT drivers and NMPT


operators, with an estimation of 50 NMPTs per owner as suggested by Wipperman and

, 1.1million NMPT drivers (Alam, 2011) and 12 million daily users (DHUTS, 2010)

4

33

2

2

Dhaka City Corporation

Dhaka Transport Coordination Board

Dhaka Metropolitan Police

Bangladesh Road Transport Authority

Capital Development Authority

4

3

2

2

World Bank

Asian Development Bank

Japan International Cooperation Agency

Working for Better Bangladesh Trust

XXPPEECCTTEEDD QQUUAALLIITTIIEESS FFRROOMM FFUUTTUURREE

CCOOLLLLEECCTTIIOONN && AANNAALLYYSSIISS MMEETTHHOODD

Page 137

shows the distribution of


under government organisations

government organisations


T industry. They are the NMPT operators who own the vehicles, NMPT drivers and NMPT


Wipperman and Sowula

(DHUTS, 2010).



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Since the core endeavour of this study is to have an understanding of the perception of key

NMPT stakeholders on NMPT and on future Dhaka transport system, and due to the large scale

of the target population, a standard sample size was not collected. Rather, a cross section of the

respondents at one time period was selected from each stakeholder category to gain an

understanding of their views and opinions, to classify and evaluate the discrepancies and to

integrate the alternative solutions to a single representation (Leite, 1989). More samples were

taken from NMPT drivers and users compared to NMPT operators as the former two groups

represent a larger target population.

8.2.3 NMPT operators: Selection and sampling

This category includes owners of NMPT garages across the city, who act as investors, managers

and operators of the fleet. An inventory of the operators was collected from the government

database on NMPT operators and drivers (HDRC, 2004; DTCB, 2005). This inventory did not

cover all major areas where NMPT garages are located. Therefore, that knowledge gap was

supplemented by pre-survey consultation with some major NMPT garage owners from the

government inventory. A purposive sampling process was then used for strategic selection of

the suburbs, which the researcher knew from local experience would ensure representation of

most parts of the city while pre-survey consultation ensured that those suburbs covered major

NMPT garage concentrations. NMPT garages were randomly selected for each suburb to ensure

gathering of unbiased viewpoints (Kumar, 2011).

As mentioned, the samples were selected based on the criteria that they represented most

parts of the city and covered major garages. The total sample size of 25 garages is a random

derivation in consultation with the academic mentors of the researcher. The sample was

distributed across 20 suburbs that were found to be most important, with reference to garage

establishments and size across the city. Among the selected suburbs 10 were to the north-east

and south –east of the city and 11 were to the north-west and south – west. An average of one

garage per suburb was selected. Four of these suburbs were allocated with two sample garages

as these areas had multiple large garages (over 70 NMPTs). Table 8.2 shows the distribution

summary of respondents’ garages based on their location. The garage size surveyed ranged

between 20 NMPTs and 230 NMPTs.



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Table 8.2: Distribution of sample NMPT operators

Area NMPT fleet size of sample

garage Sample size

North east and South east Dhaka

Uttara 30 1

Kalachandpur 20 1

Badda 35 1

Malibagh/Moghbazar 90 1

Rampura/Kamlapur 28 1

Nilkhet-Babupura 65 1

Azimpur 170 1

Shahidbagh 230 1

Palashi-Chankhatpole 24 1

Lalbagh 120 2

70

North west and South west Dhaka

Gabtoli 70 1

Kallayanpur 90 1

Agargaon, 85 1

Adabor-Mansurabad Housing 90 2

40

Mohammandpur -Nobodoy Housing 40 2

100

Katasur, 120, 2

60

Dhanmondi 80 1

Tollabagh 75 1

Rayerbazar 60 1

Hazaribagh 50 1

Sobhanbagh 220 1


8.2.4 NMPT drivers: Selection and sampling

This category included the NMPT drivers, who are vital as the enablers of this mode on the road

system and as the largest single sector employee of this industry. Information on common areas

of NMPT operation were gathered from government database on NMPT operators and drivers

(HDRC, 2004; DTCB, 2005), supplemented by pre-survey consultation with NMPT operators and

drivers and local knowledge of the researcher as a former regular NMPT user. The purposive

sampling process was used for strategic selection of the suburbs for data collection (Given,

2008) and to ensure that most city parts were covered. The drivers were randomly selected

from streets of these areas to ensure gathering of unbiased viewpoints (Kumar, 2011).



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The samples were selected based on the criteria that they covered most parts of the city, in

order to ensure that the viewpoints recorded were distributed rather than concentrated. The

total sample size of 50 was distributed across 15 suburbs and the areas were selected based on

their historical trend of NMPT concentration. Among the selected suburbs, seven were to the

north-east and south –east of the city. The remaining eight were to the north-west and south-

west. An average of three sample respondents per suburb was selected. The exceptions were

Dhanmondi, Old Dhaka, Moghbazar/Malibagh where five samples per area were taken due to

their greater NMPT concentration, sourced from informal observation by the researcher and

suggestion of the long term NMPT users. Table 8.3 shows the distribution summary of NMPT

driver sample based on their location of data collection.

Table 8.3: Distribution of sample NMPT drivers

Area Link Sample size

North east and South east Dhaka

Uttara Jasimuddin Road 3

Banani Kamal Ataturk Avenue 3

Badda Ariful Huq Chowdhury Road 3

Mohakhali AK Khondokar Road 3

Farmgate Green Road 3

Moghbazar/Malibagh Outer Circular Road 5

Jatrabari Hatkhola Road 3

North west and South west Dhaka

Mirpur Rokeya Sarani 3

Shamoli Ring Road 3

Mohammadpur Asad Avenue Road 3

Dhanmondi/Zigatola/Hazaribagh Sat Masjid Road, Hazaribagh Road, 5

Azimpur Azimpur Road, 3

Dhaka University area Nilkhet Road, 3

Motijheel Motijheel Road 3

Old Dhaka Lalbagh Road, Nawabpur Road 5


8.2.5 NMPT users: Selection and sampling

This category included the NMPT users, understanding of whose travel needs, access

convenience and mobility are of prime significance for future management of the mode.

Moreover, they are the only source of revenue for the NMPT employees and employers. The

sample size, and distribution and location of the samples were similar to that for NMPT drivers,

because users of NMPT from the same streets were selected for the collection of information.

This is to maintain uniformity in the sampling process and to save resources (time and cost).

However, the sample NMPT users were so selected that they represent a different major



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market niche- female with and without pre-school children, elderly, student and male

population excluding the former sample groups.

8.3 Procedure and instrument for data collection

8.3.1 Data collection method

The task of selecting appropriate data collection methods is crucial to the efficiency of the

overall result. Richardson, Ampt and Meyburg (1995) stated that choice of data collection

method will usually be the result of a compromise among the quality of data, quantity of data

and the available resources. Kumar (2011) added that the choice of a data collection method

depends on the purpose of the study, the resources available, skills of the researcher and the

socioeconomic-demographic characteristics of the study population.

Primary method: Interview

Since the purpose of this data collection is to have an in-depth understanding of the viewpoint

of NMPT stakeholders, the quality of the data collected was significant. Moreover, a

considerable proportion of the sample was of a low education level (NMPT operators and

NMPT drivers) and all stakeholders were diverse in socio-economic background. From local

knowledge and experience of the researcher, the questions for data collection were required to

be explained verbally to groups such as NMPT operators and NMPT drivers to ensure best

information. Therefore, interview was chosen as the preferable data collection method as it is

useful in collecting in-depth information, questions can be explained more thoroughly and the

method has application suitability on a diverse population (Kumar, 2011). Among the major

media of interview i.e. electronic medium based interview, telephone interview and face-to-

face interview, the latter was selected. This is because nature of the respondent would not

allow the use of the former two medium for all but GO and NGO. The need for in-depth

discussion on the topics, also favours a face-to-face interview to a telephone interview (Kothari,

2008). Among key interview types, a semi-structured interview was chosen. This allowed the

researcher to have uniform information that assured comparability of the data. At the same

time, unanticipated response and descriptive information could be accommodated for later

codification and analysis (Kumar, 2011).

Supplementary method: Observation

Methodology researchers have also suggested that it is preferable to substantiate interview

data with data obtained from other methods such as observation (Sommer and Sommer, 2002;



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Yin, 2003). Kumar (2011) suggested that such observation strengthens the possibility of

receiving objective information. An informal observation process was therefore followed during

the interview process, to improve data quality.

8.3.2 Design of instrument

A questionnaire (interview schedule) was prepared as the instrument for recording responses of

the interview. The design of the interview schedule was divided into three major segments. Part

A included questions on respondent personal and professional details. Part B included questions

regarding existing approach and future preferred role of NMPT in Dhaka. Part C included

questions regarding preference criteria for the future Dhaka transport system . Part A and part

B have a combination of close-ended and open-ended questions. Part C questions are all close-

ended. Appendix D.1 explains the detailed design process of the interview schedule while

Appendix D.2 and D.3 presents sample questionnaire forms

8.3.3 Administration of data collection

Based on the designed interview schedule, a detailed face-to-face interview was conducted.

The administration process for data collection included establishing contacts with the

interviewees and collecting their response in accordance to the schedule. The GOs and NGOs

were corresponded with via e-mail beforehand. Those who could not be communicated to by e-

mail were contacted by phone. Contact with BRTA and DMP were established after arrival at

Dhaka. No prior communication was possible or required with other three respondent groups,

due to their random nature of sampling. Appendix D.4 provides detailed description of the

interview administration process.

.

8.4 Processing of data

The data collected from interviews were then edited and coded in preparation for analysis as

suggested by Richardson et al. (1995). The editing and coding for the responses was conducted

immediately after completion of the interview process. Since the data were collected by face to

face interview, the researcher was able to gather response from all 150 samples, most of the

questions being answered by the respondents. The missing data were appropriately coded to

ensure their separation from valid responses. The detailed method for coding and analysis of

the data is presented in Section 8.5 and Appendix D.5, since such methods often depend on the

data type and purpose of analysis (Kumar, 2011).



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8.5 Procedure and tools for data analysis

Depending on the structure of the interview schedule, data type collected and the need of

analysis, the procedure and tools for data analysis are primarily divided into two segments.

They are discussed below.

8.5.1 Non-parametric statistical analysis

Non-parametric statistical analysis was used as the preferred method for analysing the

information collected in Part A and Part B of the interview schedule. The tool to process the

analysis was Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS).

Rationale

The primary objective of this data analysis was to understand the pattern and relationship

between the viewpoints of the NMPT stakeholders to a set of variables that define current and

future NMPT conditions in Dhaka. The difference in viewpoint of stakeholders to the choice of

the variables also needed to be understood to analyse and to comprehend the choice variability

of the stakeholders for a particular variable. Parametric statistical analysis would have been

useful in analysing these relationships and opinion differences of the stakeholders since they

consider mean, standard deviation and normality characteristics of a sample’s population

(Seigel and Castellan, 1988). The nature of the data collected for this interview included

categorical data (nominal and ordinal level data), for which there are no measures of mean or

standard deviation. A parametric statistical analysis based on these characteristics of the sample

would therefore not be possible and non-parametric tests are suggested to be used under such

circumstances. (Scanlan, 2008). Weaver (2002) also suggested that when data is categorical in

nature, nonparametric statistical analyses are the best approach.

A combination of both descriptive and inferential statistical approach was applied to analyse

the data. The general characteristics of descriptive statistical approach are that it explains

patterns and the general trend of relationship in a dataset (Field, 2005).This corresponded to

the study need to analyse the perception and relation of different stakeholder groups toward

each variable of NMPT. The available dataset allowed conduct of univariate frequency

distribution, bar chart pattern analysis and for relationship analysis, bivariate cross-tabulation of

the data in a contingency table. Scanlan (2008) explained that cross-tabulation is a two

dimensional tabular analysis that cross classifies subjects or events on two categorical variables

and is a useful way to understand the relationship of categorical data. To analyse the difference

in viewpoint between the stakeholder group’s choices on ordinal level variables, an inferential



Page 144

statistical approach, analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used. Since the groups are independent

to each other with reference to their viewpoint to a particular variable and were more than

three in number, the Kruskal-Wallis (K-W) ANOVA approach was adopted as recommended by

Dallal (2000) and Scanlan (2008).Among different comparable statistical software available such

as SAS, STRATA, SPSS etc., SPSS was used for analysis due to its availability and suitability for

analysis requirement.

Administration procedure

The analysis procedure included coding of interview data, defining variables and then analysing

those variable using SPSS. Detailed description of the analysis process is provided in Appendix

D.5.1. The results and their discussion, from the analytical process, are presented in Chapter 9.

8.5.2 Multi-criteria analysis

Multi-criteria analysis (MCA) and its key analytical technique, Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP)

was selected as the primary method for analysing the information collected in Part C of the

interview schedule. Non-parametric ANOVA was used as a supplementary analytical technique.

The tool to process the analyses was Microsoft (MS) Excel.

Rationale

The key endeavour of Part C of the interview schedule is to make a comparative assessment of

five different and perhaps conflicting set of criteria with reference to their choice by

stakeholders; and to derive a relative weight base quantitative prioritisation to decide the most

desired qualities for the future Dhaka transport system. The MCA approach was selected for the

data analysis due to its ability as a decision tool to incorporate and assess multiple and

conflicting objectives. This approach is also useful due to its capability to assess the relative

importance of each criterion with others, using logically defined quantitative assignments in

order to reach to a reasonable decision (Mendoza, Macoun, Prabhu, Sukardi, Purnom &

Hartanto, 1999).

Among different MCA tools available for criteria assessment such as Ranking Method, Rating

Method and Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) (Mendoza et al. 1999), the latter was chosen for

analysis. The rationale was that this tool, according to Gerdsri (2004),

... is a multi-attribute decision making (MADM) technique that systematically solves

complex problems by decomposing the structure of a problem into hierarchies and

then applies the pairwise comparison on judgments to synthesise the priorities of

elements in each hierarchy



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In addition to its ability to make hierarchical structuring of a problem, the Pairwise Comparison

Method can measure both ordinal and cardinal importance of different criteria, useful to

quantify the relationship among the set criteria of this study by stakeholder groups and as a

whole. These later two attributes are also available to Rating method.

To analyse the difference in criteria preference between stakeholder groups, resulted from

AHP, and due to ordinal data nature and independent group characters, the Kruskal-Wallis

ANOVA test was conducted (Scanlan, 2008). MS Excel was used in processing both analyses. It is

understood that there were other AHP analysis tools such as Expert Choice and ANOVA tools

such as SPSS. The data structure, analysis requirement and flexibility in data management as

needed by this study segment led to the selection of MS Excel as preferred tool.

Administration procedure

Basic principles of AHP

The basic essence of the AHP approach applied in this study was construction of a matrix

expressing the relative value of the selected criteria. This involved one-on-one (pairwise)

comparisons between all possible criteria pairs. The comparative judgments on relative

importance of each criteria compared to others within the pair were assigned by the

stakeholders. Coyle (2004) suggested the criteria number be kept to a maximum of seven, to

ensure measurability based on the scale developed by Saaty in 1980, being the most commonly

used scale for assigning weights to criteria in AHP. This study therefore limited the criteria

numbers to five to meet the specifications. These selected criteria were social equity (SE), traffic

operational efficiency (TE), access and mobility (AM), environmental sustainability (ES), and

modern city image (MI). The detailed process of scaling the criteria, estimation process, and

sequence of analysis are described in Appendix D.5.2.

The summary process from selection to scoring of criteria for AHP is presented in Figure 8.3.



Page 146

Outcome Process

Analytical Hierarchy

Process

General Filtering, Classifying

and Grouping

Score of each

preference criteria

Literature Research

Focus group discussion

Preliminary

Criteria set

Assign Relative Weight

Pair wise Comparison

Restructured

Criteria

Figure 8.3: Application of MCA and AHP to the selection and scoring of criteria

Source: Developed by the author after Mendoza et al. (1999)

Estimation process for ANOVA

The priority score derived by stakeholder groups are then analysed using the ANOVA. The

output provided further insight into the state of agreement or disagreement among the groups

in preferring future transport system characters of Dhaka.

The results and their discussion, from the above process are presented in Chapter 9.

8.6 Summary

This chapter described the methodology used for NMPT stakeholders’ viewpoint analysis on the

mode and on future expectations of the Dhaka transport system. The process was based on

primary data collected from field interview. The rationale and administration process for the

sampling was first described with reference to five selected NMPT stakeholder groups i.e. GO,

NGO, NMPT operators, NMPT drivers and NMPT users. This was followed by description of

+ =



Page 147

rationale and implementation process for data collection, processing and analysis. During the

discussion on data collection process, the rationale for selection of collection method was

described, followed by instrument design process to record the desired data, and field

administration process to enable collection of the data.

Interview was found to be the most suitable data collection method supplemented by

observation. A semi-structured questionnaire schedule based on face-to-face interview was

administered to collect best quality data. To facilitate the recording of interview data and to

enable collection of appropriate data to meet analysis purpose, the schedule was divided into

three major segments. The first segment was on respondent details the second was on current

role and future preferences on NMPT and the third segment was on future preferred qualities

of the Dhaka transport system. The general approach towards processing of field-collected data

is then briefly discussed. During the discussion on data analysis process, the rationale for

selection of analytical methods and tools was described followed by a detailed administration

process for data refinement and analysis. Non-parametric statistical analysis was chosen for

analysing NMPT relevant viewpoints. SPSS was found suitable as an analysis tool. MCA based

AHP was chosen for prioritising the hierarchy of future transport qualities. MS Excel was found

suitable as an analysis tool. The next chapter presents and discusses the results of the data

analysis.


TTRRAANNSSPPOORRTT SSYYSSTTEEMM -- RREESSUULLTTSS OOFF AANNAALLYYSSIISS && DDIISSCCUUSSSSIIOONN

Page 148

9CHAPTER 9: STAKEHOLDER VIEWPOINT ON ROLE OF NMPT AND

EXPECTED QUALITIES FROM FUTURE TRANSPORT SYSTEM -

RESULTS OF ANALYSIS & DISCUSSION

9.1 Introduction

Chapter 8 described the data collection and analyses methods that were used for analysing the

viewpoint of non-motorised public transport (NMPT) stakeholders. This chapter discusses the

results of the analyses. In accordance with the structure of the interview schedule and data

analyses procedure, the chapter is divided into two major parts. Section 9.2 presents and

discusses analyses results of NMPT stakeholders’ viewpoint on current and future of the mode.

This is followed in Section 9.3, by the presentation and discussion of results on stakeholder

perception regarding future desired characteristics of the Dhaka transport system. Viewpoint

results are presented with reference to overall preference of all stakeholders and by individual

group. The results will feed into the process to decide the significance or otherwise of NMPT in

Dhaka and whether any aspect of NMPT management requires address. Chapter 10.

9.2 Present and future NMPT condition analysis

The analysis in this section is made with reference to seven variables that can provide insight on

current role and future expectation of NMPT in Dhaka by relevant stakeholder groups. The

variables include the current role of NMPT as a transport mode, current dependency level on

NMPT for daily trip making, current functionality of NMPT restriction measures, future

preferred service of NMPT, future preferred control level for NMPT movement, suggestion on

future operational and management improvement of NMPT, and suggestion on future policy

and planning improvement for NMPT. The analysis results with reference to these variables are

presented below.

9.2.1 Current role of NMPT

A broad stakeholder assessment regarding the current role of NMPT in the transport sector of

Dhaka is presented in Figure 9.1.Note that the current role is defined here with reference to the

general utility/functionality of NMPT as a transport mode in the Dhaka transport system and

respondents were requested to assess the role in this context.



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Figure 9.1: Assessment regarding current NMPT role in transport system of Dhaka

Source: Developed by author after field interview (2009)

The illustration shows that the majority of the respondents (around 72 percent) across all

groups consider NMPT as a highly functional mode. A total of 8 percent of the respondents

were of the opinion that NMPT is of low or non-functional role. Table 9.1 breaks this data down

by interviewed groups.

Table 9.1: Stakeholder category based perception on current NMPT role in Dhaka transport system

Organization or respondent category Assessment regarding current NMPT role

Non-

functional

Low-

functional

Moderately

functional

Highly

functional Total

Government 0 1 1 2

% within respondent

category

.0% 28.6% 21.4% 50.0% 100.0%

Non-government 0 1 1 1

% within respondent

category

.0% 27.3% 36.4% 36.4% 100.0%

NMPT operator 0 0 1 3

% within respondent

category

.0% .0% 25.0% 75.0% 100.0%

NMPT driver 0 0 0 3

% within respondent

category

.0% .0% 20.0% 80.0% 100.0%

NMPT user 0 0 0 3

% within respondent

category

2.0% 8.0% 12.0% 78.0% 100.0%


Legend (%) 0 0 – 20 1 20-40 2 40-60 3 60-80 4 80-100



Page 150

The table reveals that a higher proportion of respondents within each stakeholder group apart

from non-government defined current utility of NMPT as highly functional. More than 75

percent of the NMPT operators, drivers and users assessed NMPT role functionality highly while

most of the remaining respondents assessed it as moderately functional. None of the NMPT

operators or drivers considered it as low functional while less than 10 percent of NMPT users

assessed it as low functional or non-functional. Government organisations (GO) and non-

government organisations (NGO) were more widespread in their opinion. More than 70 percent

of the GO and NGO respondents assessed the mode as highly or moderately functional while

around 30 percent rated it as low or non-functional.

To test the difference in stakeholder viewpoint on current role of NMPT, the K-W H statistics

were generated based on the ranking and estimation process described in Chapter 8, Section

8.6.1. This variable specific source ranking table is presented in Appendix D.6. The H statistics

result is presented in Table 9.2.

Table 9.2: Difference in preference on current NMPT role by stakeholder group

Difference of opinion Degree of freedom Critical value at 99% confidence level

(based on Chi-Square table)

Chi-Square value

(H value)

Between groups 4 13.3 15.280

Source: Developed by author after field interview (2009) and analysis

Since 15.280 is greater than the critical value, the null hypothesis is rejected, that is,

stakeholders’ viewpoint on the current NMPT role do differ. However, this difference in opinion

is not great as observed in the viewpoint distribution results of Table 9.1.

9.2.2 Level of dependency on NMPT

A broad stakeholder assessment regarding general dependency on NMPT for daily trip making

by the transport users of Dhaka is presented in Figure 9.2.



Page 151

Figure 9.2: NMPT dependency level of Dhaka transport users for regular trips


The illustration shows that majority of the respondents (around 62 percent) considered the

transport users to be highly dependent on the mode for regular trip making in some form,

whether to make a complete trip or to be used as part of a multi-modal trip. A total of 10

percent of the respondents were of the opinion that their dependency level was not

substantial. None selected “no dependency” criteria. The perceptions are an amalgam of their

own usage of the mode and their knowledge on the travel pattern as well as trip characteristics

of city dwellers. Table 9.3 breaks this data down by interviewed groups.

Table 9.3: Stakeholder category based perception on NMPT dependency level for daily trips

Organization or respondent category

NMPT dependency level for daily trips

Low

dependency

Moderate

dependency

High

dependency Total

Government 0 0 3

% within respondent category 7.1% 14.3% 78.6% 100.0%

Non-

government

0 1 3

% within respondent category .0% 27.3% 72.7 100.0%

NMPT operator 0 1 2


NMPT driver 0 1 2


NMPT user 0 1 2



Legend (%)

0 0 – 20 1 20-40 2 40-60 3 60-80 4 80-100



Page 152

The table reveals that around two-thirds (60 percent or more) of the respondents from each

stakeholder group perceived that Dhaka travellers are highly dependent on NMPT for regular

trip purposes with the highest within-group response share from GO (around 79 percent). The

low dependency option was least preferred by all stakeholder groups with an average response

share of less than 10 percent. Interestingly, the GO and NGO were found to perceive the regular

trip dependency role of NMPT to be more substantial (response share of 79 percent and 73

percent respectively) compared to other stakeholders. They were also the lowest share in the

low dependency criteria (response rate of 7 percent and 0 percent respectively).

To test the difference in viewpoint or otherwise of the stakeholders on NMPT dependency

issues, the K-W H statistics was generated based on the relevant ranking and estimation process

described in Chapter 8, Section 8.6.1. This variable, specific source ranking table is presented in

Appendix D.7. The H statistics result is presented in Table 9.4.

Table 9.4: Difference in preference on NMPT dependency level by different stakeholders



Chi-Square value

(H value)



Since 2.847 is lower than the critical value, the null hypothesis is accepted, that is, preferences

of stakeholders on current NMPT dependency for regular trips are similar. This is consistent

with the viewpoint distribution results of Table 9.3.

9.2.3 Current restriction functionality of NMPT

The functionality of current NMPT restriction measures in place were analysed with reference

to stakeholder viewpoint assessment at broad, both in totality and by groups. The results of the

frequency analysis are presented in Figure 9.3.



Page 153

Figure 9.3: Functionality of existing restriction of NMPT in Dhaka


The figure shows that the majority of the respondents (around 86 percent) are unsatisfied with

the current restriction measures in place for NMPT management. The figure also shows that

around three percent of the respondents are satisfied with the measures. None have chosen

the highly satisfactory criteria. Table 9.5 breaks this data down by interviewed groups.

Table 9.5: Stakeholder category based perception on existing restriction functionality of NMPT in

Dhaka transport system

Organization or respondent category Existing restriction functionality of NMPT

Unsatisfactory Moderately

satisfactory Satisfactory Total

Government 2 1 1

% within respondent

category

42.9% 28.6% 28.6% 100.0%

Non-government 2 2 0

% within respondent

category

45.5% 45.5% 9.0% 100.0%

NMPT operator 4 0 0

% within respondent

category

96.0% 4.0% .0% 100.0%

NMPT driver 4 0 0

% within respondent

category

100.0% .0% .0% 100.0%

NMPT user 4 0 0

% within respondent

category

88.0% 12.0% .0% 100.0%

Source: Developed by author after stakeholder interview 2009

Legend (%) 0 0 – 20 1 20-40 2 40-60 3 60-80 4 80-100



Page 154

The table reveals that the majority of the respondents from each stakeholder group expressed

their discontent on the effectiveness of current NMPT restriction measures. The discontent is

strong among the NMPT operators, drivers and users (response share of 96 percent, 100

percent and 88 percent respectively) with none from these groups having selected,

“satisfactory” as a response. The discontent was also verbally expressed by these groups during

the interview process, particularly their concern on the time and cost impact of the restrictions.

The responses of GO and NGO, primarily involved in the planning and implementation of the

restriction measures, were more distributed. More than 50 percent from both of these groups

were to a certain extent satisfied with the effectiveness of the NMPT restrictions on traffic

improvement. NGO were more moderate in their degree of content (response share of around

45 percent) while GO responded most (share of around 27 percent) to the answer satisfactory.

To test the difference in viewpoint or otherwise of the stakeholders on NMPT restriction

functionality issue, the K-W H statistics were generated based on the ranking and estimation

process described in Chapter 8, Section 8.6.1. This variable-specific, source ranking table is

presented in Appendix D.8. The H statistics result is presented in Table 9.6.

Table 9.6: Difference in preference on existing restriction functionality of NMPT by different

stakeholders



Chi-Square value

(H value)



Since 48.399 is far greater than the critical value, the null hypothesis is rejected, that is, a

substantial difference of opinion is existent regarding the effectiveness of the NMPT restriction

measures. This is also consistent with the viewpoint distribution results of Table 9.5.

9.2.4 Future preferred service role of NMPT

A broad stakeholder assessment regarding the future preferred service role of NMPT in the

transport sector of Dhaka is presented in Figure 9.4.



Page 155

Figure 9.4: Future service role perception of NMPT in Dhaka transport system


The illustration shows that around 68 percent of stakeholders prefer NMPT as a local service

and feeder network service to public transport, while around 25 percent prefer it as a city wide

transport service provider (local ,feeder and intra-urban). Very few respondents wanted to see

NMPT as local service only (response share of around 7 percent). None have chosen the ‘no

service’ criteria. Table 9.7 breaks this data down by interviewed groups.

Table 9.7: Stakeholder category based perception on future service role perception of NMPT


Future service role perception of NMPT

Local network

service only

Local service

& feeder to

public

transport

Local,

feeder &

intra-urban

services Total

Government 1 3 0

% within respondent category 21.4% 78.6% .0% 100.0%

Non-government 0 3 0


NMPT operator 0 2 1


NMPT driver 0 3 1

% within respondent category .0% 68.0% 32.0% 100.0%

NMPT user 0 3 0



Legend (%) 0 0 – 20 1 20-40 2 40-60 3 60-80 4 80-100



Page 156

The table reveals that approximately two-thirds (around 60 percent or more) from each

stakeholder category favoured NMPT as a local and feeder service provider with GO preferring

this option most (around 79 percent). Least preference was given to its use as a local service in

general with NMPT operators, drivers and users rejecting it the most. The GO and NGO had

greater preference in this regard (around 22 percent and 18 percent respectively). GO

completely disfavoured the preference of using NMPT at all parts of the network, while

moderate support for the option was revealed by remaining groups.

To test the difference in viewpoint of the stakeholders on NMPT future service role issue, the K-

W H statistics were generated based on the ranking and estimation process described in

Chapter 8, Section 8.6.1. This variable specific source ranking table is presented in Appendix D.9.

The H statistics result is presented in Table 9.8.

Table 9.8: Difference in preference on future service role of NMPT by different stakeholders



Chi-Square value

(H value)



Since 14.109 is greater than the critical value, the null hypothesis is rejected, that is, a difference

of opinion is existent regarding the future preferred service role of NMPT. However, this

difference in opinion is not as great as observed in the viewpoint distribution results of Table

9.8.

9.2.5 Future preferred control level on NMPT

The future preferred control levels for NMPT were assessed with reference to stakeholder

viewpoint at broad, both in totality and by groups. The results of analysis for all respondents are

presented in Figure 9.5.



Page 157

Figure 9.5: Preferred control level for NMPT in future Dhaka transport system


The figure reveals partial restriction (PR) as the most suitable/preferable restriction measure to

facilitate the future service role of NMPT as per stakeholders. This received a consensus of

around 87 percent compared to the no restriction (NR) option (share of around 13 percent) and

full restriction (FR) option (share of 1 percent). The preferred PR option as stated by the

respondents was split into two categories, PR-existing (the current practice with NMPT

restricted/planned to be restricted on all major roads) and PR-proposed (characterised by

NMPT restriction on selected major roads). The PR existing option was preferred by 15 percent

of respondents and PR proposed option was preferred by 71 percent of respondents. Table 9.9

breaks this data down by interviewed groups.

Table 9.9: Stakeholder category based perception on future preferred control level of NMPT


Future preferred control level for NMPT

Full

restriction

Partial

restriction

-existing

Partial

restriction-

proposed

No

restriction Total

Government 0 3 0 0

% within respondent category 7% 71.4% 18.6% .0% 100.0%

Non-

government

0 1 3 0

% within respondent category 0% 27.3% 64.5% 9.1% 100.0%

NMPT

operator

0 0 3 0


NMPT driver 0 0 4 0


NMPT user 0 0 3 0



Legend (%) 0 0 – 20 1 20-40 2 40-60 3 60-80 4 80-100



Page 158

(The table reveals that the respondents across all groups prefer the partial restriction option

more than other alternatives. GO preferred the PR-exiting approach most (around 72 percent)

while the remaining stakeholders preferred the PR-proposed approach highest. Among them,

NMPT operators and drivers were more strongly in favour of a PR-proposed option (around 80

percent and 82 percent respectively) followed by preference for the NR option (around 16

percent). The users and NGO also substantially favoured the PR-proposed option (around 70

percent and 65 percent respectively), but they had some share in the PR-existing option and NR

option. The GO were also the only group choosing the FR option and not selecting the NR

option.

To test the difference in stakeholder viewpoint on the NMPT future preferred control level

issue, the K-W H statistics were generated based on the ranking and estimation process

described in Chapter 8, Section 8.6.1. This variable specific source ranking table is presented in

Appendix D.10. The H statistics result is presented in Table 9.10.

Table 9.10: Difference in preference on future preferred control level of NMPT by different

stakeholders



Chi-Square value

(H value)



Since 32.129 is far greater than the critical value, the null hypothesis is rejected, that is, a

substantial difference of opinion is existent regarding the choice of future preferred control

level on NMPT operation. This result is consistent with the viewpoint distribution results of

Table 9.9.

9.2.6 Suggestion on operational improvement and management

The suggestion of stakeholders on improving operation and management for NMPT in future

are presented in Table 9

Table 9.11: Stakeholder suggestions on future operation and management improvement for NMPT

Suggestions

Physical segregation of NMPT from

MT-NMPT interlink & interface at proper network location

Provision of NMPT supportive infrastructure

Practice of operational safety measures

Competitive & defined fare structure

Modern technology in vehicle design

Not known

Total

Source: Developed by author after

Figure 9.6: Suggestions of NMPT stakeholders for future management improvement of the mode


21.7%

9.4%

6.8%


TTRRAANNSSPPOORRTT SSYYSSTTEEMM -- RREESS

Suggestion on operational improvement and management


9.11 and Figure 9.6.

.11: Stakeholder suggestions on future operation and management improvement for NMPT

Multiple responses output

Number (N)

Physical segregation of NMPT from motorised transport (MT) 101

NMPT interlink & interface at proper network location 124

Provision of NMPT supportive infrastructure 92

nal safety measures 40

Competitive & defined fare structure 29

Modern technology in vehicle design 35

3

424


uggestions of NMPT stakeholders for future management improvement of the mode


23.8%

29.2%

6.8%8.3%

0.7% Physical segregation of NMPT from

MT

MT-NMPT interlink & interface at

proper network location

Provision of NMPT supportive

infrastructure

Practice of operational safety

measures

Competitive & defined fare

structure

Modern technology in vehicle

design

Not known


SSUULLTTSS OOFF AANNAALLYYSSIISS && DDIISSCCUUSSSSIIOONN

Page 159

Suggestion on operational improvement and management of NMPT


.11: Stakeholder suggestions on future operation and management improvement for NMPT

iple responses output

Percent

23.8%

29.2%

21.7%

9.4%

6.8%

8.3%

.7%

100.0%

uggestions of NMPT stakeholders for future management improvement of the mode

Physical segregation of NMPT from

NMPT interlink & interface at

proper network location

Provision of NMPT supportive

infrastructure

Practice of operational safety

Competitive & defined fare

Modern technology in vehicle



Page 160

The data reveals the three improvements, mostly suggested by all stakeholder groups. The

most common suggestion, put forward by around one-third of respondents (29 percent) was on

the need to formulate MT-NMPT interlink and interface at proper network locations. This was

followed by two closely preferred recommendations including physical segregation of NMPT

from MT (response share of around 24 percent) and supply of NMPT supportive infrastructure

(response share of around 22 percent). Fare structure suggestion was the least chosen. Table

9.12 breaks this data down by interviewed groups.

Table 9.12: Stakeholder category based suggestion on future NMPT management improvement

Organization or respondent

category

Future preferred operation and management improvement for NMPT

MT-NMPT

separation

MT-NMPT

interlink &

interface

NMPT

supportive

infrastruc.

Operating

safety

measures

Competitive

& defined

fare

structure

Vehicle

design

upgrade

Not

known Total

Government 1 1 1 0 0 0 0

% within

respondent

category

29.5% 25.0% 22.7% 11.4% 4.5% 6.8% 0.0% 100.0%

Non-

government

1 1 0 0 0 0 0

% within

respondent

category

28.1% 21.9% 18.8% 12.5% 9.4% 9.4% 0.0% 100.0%

NMPT

operator

1 1 1 0 0 0 0

% within

respondent

category

20.9% 29.9% 25.4% 6.0% 13.4% 4.5% 0.0% 100.0%

NMPT driver 1 1 1 0 0 0 0

% within

respondent

category

23.1% 33.1% 24.0% 4.1% 0.8% 12.4% 2.5% 100.0%

NMPT user 1 1 0 0 0 0 0

% within

respondent

category

23.1% 28.8% 18.8% 13.8% 8.8% 6.9% 0.0% 100.0%


Legend (%)

0 0 – 20 1 20-40 2 40-60 3 60-80 4 80-100

The tabular analysis also shows that MT-NMPT separation, MT-NMPT interlinkage and

supportive infrastructure were the three most popular suggestions put forward by each

stakeholder group for future operation and management improvement of NMPT. The share to

each of these choices per group was around 20 to 30 percent. Around 78 percent of GO

suggestions, 69 percent of NGO suggestions, 76 percent of NMPT operator suggestions, 81

percent of NMPT driver suggestion

three choice categories. Among other choices, improvement of operating safety measures

(proper vehicle fitness) was found

users (around 11 percent, 12 percent and 14 percent respectively); proper fare structure was

emphasised more by NMPT operators (13 percent) and improvement of vehicle ergonomics

was emphasised more by NMPT drivers (12 percent) comp

9.2.7 Suggestion on policy and planning framework for NMPT integration

The suggestion of stakeholders on improving policy and planning for NMPT in

presented in Table 9.13 and Figure

Table 9.13: Stakeholder suggestions on future policy and planning improvement for NMPT

Defined future NMPT role and integration within national transport policy

Dedicated NMPT regulatory framework

Capping on NMPT size based on demand analysis

Planned interconnected NMPT route plan development

Priority measures for NMPT in planning of certain network parts

Capacity building of operators & riders of NMPT

Not known

Total


Figure 9.7: Suggestions of NMPT stakeholders for future policy and planning improvement of the mode

Source: Developed by author afte

22.6%

19.1%

10.6%



percent of NMPT driver suggestions and 70 percent of NMPT user suggestion


(proper vehicle fitness) was found to be relatively more important to the GO, NGO and NMPT



was emphasised more by NMPT drivers (12 percent) compared to remaining available options.

Suggestion on policy and planning framework for NMPT integration

The suggestion of stakeholders on improving policy and planning for NMPT in

.13 and Figure 9.7.

eholder suggestions on future policy and planning improvement for NMPT

Suggestions

Number (N)

Defined future NMPT role and integration within national transport policy

Dedicated NMPT regulatory framework

Capping on NMPT size based on demand analysis

Planned interconnected NMPT route plan development

Priority measures for NMPT in planning of certain network parts

Capacity building of operators & riders of NMPT


.7: Suggestions of NMPT stakeholders for future policy and planning improvement of the mode


11.6%

25.1%

9.5%22.6%

10.6%

1.5%

Defined future NMPT role and

integration within national transport

policyDedicated NMPT regulatory

framework

Capping on NMPT size based on

demand analysis

Planned interconnected NMPT route

plan development

Mode specific road hierarchy &

priority measures in network

planningCapacity building of operators &

riders of NMPT

Not known



Page 161

and 70 percent of NMPT user suggestions belong to these


to the GO, NGO and NMPT



ared to remaining available options.

Suggestion on policy and planning framework for NMPT integration

The suggestion of stakeholders on improving policy and planning for NMPT in the future are

eholder suggestions on future policy and planning improvement for NMPT

Multiple response

output

Number (N) Percent

46 11.6%

100 25.1%

38 9.5%

90 22.6%

76 19.1%

42 10.6%

6 1.5%

398 100.0%

.7: Suggestions of NMPT stakeholders for future policy and planning improvement of the mode

Defined future NMPT role and

integration within national transport

Dedicated NMPT regulatory

Capping on NMPT size based on

demand analysis

Planned interconnected NMPT route

plan development

Mode specific road hierarchy &

priority measures in network

Capacity building of operators &



Page 162

The responses reveal that three suggestions were most commonly put forward by stakeholders.

Around one quarter of respondents suggested having a dedicated NMPT regulatory framework.

This is followed by development of planned interconnected NMPT route development

(response share of around 23 percent) and development of mode specific road hierarchy and

priority measures in network planning (response share of around 19 percent). Capping on

NMPT number received the fewest responses. Table 9.14 breaks this data down by interviewed

groups.

Table 9.14: Stakeholder category based suggestion on future NMPT management improvement

Organization or respondent

category

Future preferred policy and planning improvement for NMPT

Define

NMPT role

& integrate

in national

transport

policy

Dedicated

NMPT

regulation

NMPT

capping

based on

demand

Inter-

connected

NMPT

route plan

NMPT

priority in

some

network

segments

Capacity

building of

owners &

drivers

Not

known Total

Government 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

% within

respondent

category

17.8% 28.9% 6.7% 17.8% 22.2% 6.7% 0.05 100%

Non-

government

0 1 0 1 1 0 0

% within

respondent

category

3.4% 27.6% 17.2% 24.1% 20.7% 6.9% 0.0% 100%

NMPT

operator

0 1 0 1 0 0 0

% within

respondent

category

3.1% 24.6% 9.2% 24.6% 18.5% 20.0% 0.0% 100%

NMPT

driver

0 1 0 1 0 0 0

% within

respondent

category

11.1% 22.2% 5.1% 23.9% 16.2% 17.9% 3.4% 100%

NMPT user 0 1 0 1 1 0 0

% within

respondent

category

15.5% 26.1% 12.7% 21.8% 20.4% 2.1% 1.4% 100%


Legend (%)

0 0 – 20 1 20-40 2 40-60 3 60-80 4 80-100

The tabular analysis reveals a similar general trend of choice popularity by stakeholder groups

to that of Figure 9.7 for the top three suggestions on future NMPT policy planning

improvements. Around 69 percent of GO suggestions, 71 percent of NGO suggestions, 68

percent of NMPT operator suggestions, 71 percent of NMPT driver suggestions and 67 percent

of NMPT user suggestion

improvement, GO and NMPT users have also emphasised the n

national transport policy (around 18 percent and 16 percent respectively), NMPT operators and

drivers have emphasised the need for better capacity building that is targeted to these groups

(around 20 percent and 18 percent re

demand-based NMPT capping

9.3 Preferred characteristics for future Dhaka transport system

The analysis in this section is

here to define the future transport system of Dhaka as described in Chapter

convenience of comprehension, the criteria are defined before the results are presented and

discussed. Social equity means affordability and opportunity

desired trip. Traffic operational efficiency means acceptable network condition with reference

to congestion, timely movement, safe road

have two components.

indicates movement convenience

Environmental sustainability means e

image means modern and state

transport environment and city

9.3.1 Overall preference analysis

The overall results of the AHP analysis on preferred transport system quality (criteria) for Dhaka

are presented in Figure 9

Figure 9.8: Overall status of quality preference

Source: Developed by author after field interview (20

33%

12%



of NMPT user suggestions belong to these three choice categories. Among other choices for

improvement, GO and NMPT users have also emphasised the need for integration of NMPT in



(around 20 percent and 18 percent respectively) and NGO and NMPT users have emphasised

based NMPT capping.

Preferred characteristics for future Dhaka transport system

section is made with reference to the five key criteria that

define the future transport system of Dhaka as described in Chapter


discussed. Social equity means affordability and opportunity to use a suitable mode to make

Traffic operational efficiency means acceptable network condition with reference

to congestion, timely movement, safe roads and supporting infrastructure.

two components. Accessibility means ease of access to different city parts

movement convenience including comfort, privacy and security of travel.

Environmental sustainability means eco-friendly character of transport system.

image means modern and state-of-the-art mode use to enhance the physical appearance of

transport environment and city in general.

Overall preference analysis

of the AHP analysis on preferred transport system quality (criteria) for Dhaka

9.8.

.8: Overall status of quality preference in future transport system of Dhaka


17%

34%

12% 4%

Social equity

Traffic operational

efficiency

Access & mobility

Environmental

sustainability

Modern city Image



Page 163

to these three choice categories. Among other choices for

eed for integration of NMPT in



spectively) and NGO and NMPT users have emphasised

Preferred characteristics for future Dhaka transport system

made with reference to the five key criteria that have been chosen

define the future transport system of Dhaka as described in Chapter 8, Section 8.4.2.For


suitable mode to make a

Traffic operational efficiency means acceptable network condition with reference

and supporting infrastructure. Access and mobility

y means ease of access to different city parts while mobility

privacy and security of travel.

friendly character of transport system. Modern city

physical appearance of

of the AHP analysis on preferred transport system quality (criteria) for Dhaka

in future transport system of Dhaka

Social equity

Traffic operational

efficiency

Access & mobility

Environmental

sustainability

Modern city Image



Page 164

The analysis shows that traffic operational efficiency has been identified from the stakeholder

response as the most preferred quality for the future Dhaka transport system. Access and

mobility together are also of high priority. Modern city image was found to have the lowest

priority.

9.3.2 Preference analyses by groups

The quality preferences, with reference to the Eigen value or relative weighted value assigned

to them by the stakeholders, are presented in Table 9.15. The table also indicates the ordinal

ranking derived for different qualities within each group, based on these estimated relative

weighted values. The quality with highest received weight is assigned rank 1 and the rank

descends as the weighted value lowers. Rank 5 is assigned to the quality that is given least

weight by a group compared to other qualities.

Table 9.15: Quality preference hierarchy by stakeholder groups for future transport system of Dhaka

Preferred

quality Relative value (in weighted %) by Stakeholder category

GO Rank NGO Rank NMPT

operators Rank

NMPT

drivers Rank

NMPT

users Rank

Social

equity

17.7 3 20.5 3 10.4 4 7.2 4 28.6 2

Traffic

operational

efficiency

29.8 2 30.4 2 43.1 1 46.5 1 21.5 3

Access and

mobility

35.8’ 1 31.1 1 30.8 2 31.3 2 37.2 1

Environmental

Sustainability

9.9 4 13.1 4 12.2 3 11.9 3 9.4 4

Modern

City image 6.7 5 4.9 5 3.5 5 3.1 5 3.3 5

Source: Derived by author after field interview (2009)

Figures 9.9 present the results of relative weight values graphically.



Page 165

Figure 9.9: Comparative quality preference by stakeholder category in future transport system of Dhaka:


Analysis within groups

Analysing the quality preference within groups based on the results presented in Table 9.15 and

Figure 8.8, GO were found to assign top priority to access and mobility and traffic operational

efficiency. Social equity was assigned the third priority by this respondent group. NGO have

similar hierarchy for the three top priorities with the top two priorities being viewed as almost

equally important by this group. This group also assigned significant importance to social equity.

For NMPT operators and drivers, the top two priorities assigned were the same as those of GO

and NGO, that is, traffic operational efficiency and access and mobility. Environmental

sustainability was more preferred by these three groups than social equity. NMPT operators

preferred environmental sustainability marginally over social equity but NMPT drivers assigned

more prominent preference on environmental sustainability. NMPT users’ prioritised access

and mobility most highly followed by social equity and traffic operational efficiency.

Analysis between groups

Comparing the quality preference among groups, the general trend demonstrated that

improved traffic efficiency and better access and mobility were the top two qualities desired in

the future transport system of Dhaka by all stakeholder categories. Access and mobility was

ranked number 1 by three groups (G0, NGO and NMPT users) and ranked 2 by the remaining

two groups (NMPT operators and drivers). Traffic operational efficiency was ranked as 1 by two

groups (NMPT operators and drivers) and 2 by two groups (G0 and NGO). Lowest priority was

given to city image quality by all stakeholder groups (ranked 5). Fluctuation on viewpoint and

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

GO NGO NMPT

Operators

NMPT drivers NMPT users

Sh

are

(%

)

Stakeholder group

Social equity Traffic operational efficiency

Access & mobility Environmental sustainability

Modern city image



Page 166

prioritisation among groups was found regarding social equity and environmental sustainability

qualities (ranked 2 to 4).

A consistent high preference weight of around 30 percent or more was assigned to access and

mobility by each respondent group. NMPT users preferred it most and the others were very

similar in their priority. Improved traffic efficiency also received significant scores of around 30

percent or more among the four stakeholder groups. NMPT drivers scored this quality highest.

NMPT users preferred social equity as a higher priority over traffic operational efficiency. This is

understandable based on the discussion between the researcher and the NMPT users during

field interview. In this group’s view, it was relatively more important for them to be afforded a

decent transport option and be able to access to desired destinations over travel time savings

or better road conditions. The preference for environmental sustainability was prioritised most

highly by NGO in compared to others. NMPT operators and drivers were not far behind. These

values however reflect consistent lower priority for the criteria, in relation to preference for

other qualities.

Discussion and observation by the researcher on the stakeholders during interview showed

that, even though there was awareness of NMPT’s positive environmental effect, the necessity

of other qualities supersedes this priority. Modern city image was ranked lowest by all

stakeholders, but it was assigned a higher relative value by GO and NGO groups than the others.

Discussion with these groups during the survey revealed that they have the vision to modernise

the transport system and the general intention is to give Dhaka a look similar to that of cities of

more developed countries.

In addition to the identification of priority hierarchy for future transport quality of Dhaka, the

above discussion and ranking pattern also revealed relative consistency of the preferences. A

K-W H test was conducted to cross-examine this statement (Table 9.16). The null hypothesis is

that there is consistency in viewpoint of stakeholders regarding quality preference for future

Dhaka transport system.

Table 9.16: Difference in opinion between stakeholder groups on preferred quality for future Dhaka

transport system

Difference of

opinion

Degree of

freedom

Critical value at 95% confidence

level (based on Chi-Square table)

H value





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The result showed that H statistic is much lower than the critical value at the designated degree

of freedom. Therefore the null hypothesis is accepted, that is, there is good consistency in the

opinion of the stakeholder groups regarding their priority for qualities. This reflects the findings

of the AHP analysis. See Appendix D.11 for an inventory of respondent-wise, relative weights

assigned to all samples.

9.4 Summary

This chapter described the data analysis results of NMPT stakeholders’ viewpoint regarding the

role of the mode and the preference for future Dhaka transport. Non-parametric statistical

techniques such as frequency distribution, cross tabulation and the K-W statistical test were

applied to analyse the current role and future condition of NMPT. The findings on current issues

indicated that the major portion of five stakeholder groups considered NMPT to have a high to

moderate functional role. A moderate proportion of the GO and NGO differed from this trend

and expressed it to be of low functional role. The data analysis also showed that the major

portion of five stakeholder groups considered high to moderate dependency levels of Dhaka

transport users on the mode for regular trip purposes. Very few suggested otherwise.

Considerable variation in opinion was observed on current restriction functionality of NMPT,

with GO and NGO reflecting some degree of satisfaction. The remaining stakeholders were

mostly unsatisfied with the measures. Analysing the future situation, a substantial portion of

the stakeholders from each group were observed to favour NMPT performing local and feeder

service roles, while they differed on the other two options. GO was more inclined to see it as

local service mode; NMPT operators, drivers and users were inclined to see the mode as free-

flowing in all network parts and NGO was evenly split between these options.

Similar to respondent viewpoint on current restrictions, a spread in opinion was observed on

future preferred restriction levels of NMPT. Most preferences were split between two

alternatives of partial restriction strategy. Partial restriction-existing was highly favoured by GO

but the majority of the remaining stakeholders favoured the partial restriction-proposed

strategy. Among other control levels, some portion of the GO favoured full restriction measures

while some of the remaining respondent groups preferred the no restriction option.

Regarding the suggestions to improve future management and planning of NMPT, the

emphases on most desirable choices were quite similar between all five groups. Multi-criteria

analysis and Analytical hierarchy process based priority structure for a future transport system

of Dhaka was then determined, with reference to five predefined criteria; social equity, traffic



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operational efficiency, access and mobility, environmental sustainability and urban fabric and

city image. Traffic operational efficiency and access and mobility were found to be two most

preferred criteria by each stakeholder group. City image were the least preferred criteria. Social

equity was most preferred over environmental sustainability.

The understanding from this chapter informs the investigation of the role contribution of NMPT

and on the suitability of the current practices for NMPT control in Dhaka, from the perspective

of NMPT stakeholders. The results will also assist in providing insight on future preferences

from NMPT and in comprehending the coherence of NMPT to the desired character of a future

Dhaka transport system. The next chapter presents the understanding and inferences on the

future of NMPT in Dhaka.

CCHHAAPPTTEERR 1100:: IINNFFEERREENNCCEESS AANNDD RREECCOOMMMMEENNDDAATTIIOONNSS FFRROOMM DDHHAAKKAA CCAASSEE SSTTUUDDYY AANNAALLYYSSIISS

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10CHAPTER 10: INFERENCES AND RECOMMENDATIONS FROM DHAKA

CASE STUDY ANALYSIS

10.1 Introduction

Chapters 3 to 9 provided a comprehensive review and analyses of non-motorised public

transport (NMPT) status in Dhaka city, Bangladesh, with reference to the published literature

and a stakeholder viewpoint survey. Based on these discussions and findings, this chapter

makes inference and recommendation on the future of NMPT in Dhaka.

The discussion of this chapter is divided into two major sections. Section 10.2 presents the

inferences on NMPT role condition and policy planning with reference to review and analyses of

literature. Section 10.3 presents the inference on opinion and preference of stakeholders

regarding these issues. The endeavour is to examine the validity of the set hypothesis and reach

answers regarding relevant research questions (research questions 1 and 2). Whether there is a

need to address research question 3 will also be revealed from the inferences.

10.2 Inferences from literature review

10.2.1 Inferences from NMPT role review

The role review and analyses in Chapters 4 to 6 has demonstrated two contrasting viewpoints

on NMPT based on statistics and evidence. Table 10.1 summarises these comparative

advantages and disadvantages of NMPT.


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Table 10.1: Comparative advantages and disadvantages of NMPT as a mode in Dhaka

Advantages

1. Maintains social equity by catering for market demand of vulnerable social groups (women,

children, elderly); serves student population; reduces poverty

2. Strong influence on macro economy and micro economy of Dhaka

3. Large backward and forward linkage for employment generation (direct- driver and owner;

indirect- repairing parts outlet, garages and painting shops)

4. Zero fossil fuel consumption and no health relevant impact

5. Better accessibility and on-board travel comfort for short-to-medium distance travel compared

to other available public transport modes

6. Better hours of service and reliability for short-to-medium distance travel compared to other

available public transport modes

7. Better service coverage and safety for short-to-medium distance travel compared to other

available public transport modes

8. Better door-to-door travel time compared to other most other forms of public transport.

9. Better affordability; as operationally inexpensive, compared to paratransits and private

motorised vehicles; provides greater service to low and middle income population

10. Lower road space occupancy related to passenger carriage (second to buses)

11. Appropriate and efficient form of transport mode for short distance passenger carriage, the

major trip demand of Dhaka.

12. Suitable for freight carriage; especially when there is a need to move small parcel loads between

farms and local markets and capital resources are scarce.

13. Suitable to narrow network parts of Dhaka

14. Possible best feeder mode for motorised public transit

15. Holds highest modal share as well as passenger trip share in total traffic stream and thereby

existing as substantially dominant mode

Disadvantages

1. Slow speed and congestion stimulator

2. Space inefficient

3. Unsafe and hazardous

4. High fare

5. High physical labour & thereby inhumane

6. Old technology

7. Poor image and reflection of backwardness.

Source: Developed by author after review and analysis of Chapter 4 to 6

The tabular representation reveals that NMPT is an important mode of regular transport in

Dhaka, offering flexible, convenient door-to door public transport service in a relatively cost

efficient manner, using renewable energy with no adverse environmental effect. They also


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represent an important source of employment, income and mobility for various social groups.

An alternative view, primarily from the decision level, was that NMPT are inefficient due to slow

speed and that they create congestion, are expensive, unsafe and inhumane as a means of

transport and should be replaced by motorised vehicles such as auto-rickshaws, tempos and

buses. It is therefore necessary to examine the validity of these claimed disutilities before final

inference is made on role significance of NMPT.

Slow speed

The commonly perceived constraint of NMPT has been its inefficiency as a mode of transport;

that is, slow operating speed and poor road space utilisation of the vehicle leading to traffic

congestion. The review and analyses found that the aspects of speed and its desired output,

travel time, for a mode are relative. They need to be assessed with reference to trip character,

that is, trip length and mode usage pattern of a transport system. The previous review and

analysis has revealed that typical trip length in Dhaka is around 5.4 km, three-quarter of the

total trips are short distanced (<3 km) (STP, 2005a; Hossain &Susilo,2011) , the primary trip

length of NMPT is 3 km (DITS, 1994a; STP, 2005a; DHUTS, 2010) and a number of available

vehicles have door-to-door service characteristics. It is therefore rational to measure the impact

of speed and travel time for NMPT, in comparison to other modes in context of the

aforementioned trip character. Accordingly, the analysis of Table 6.20 and Figure 6.17 showed

that for a 3 km door-to-door trip, NMPT has similar or better travel time compared to other

public transport modes. Even at a medium length trip (up to 5 km), NMPT is quicker than all

other public transport modes besides auto-rickshaw.

In the same context, the argument put forward by Habib (2002) that NMPT elimination would

reduce vehicle hours of travel and thereby traffic congestion is also not considered valid, as the

estimation was based on link travel time only, and not other components of generalised travel

time such as wait time, walk time, transfer penalties etc. An associated but equally important

aspect was also not considered, that being whether in-vehicle times or the other parts of the

generalised times would be dominant in deriving time gain inference for a network, which

depends on general trip distances of the transport system. The higher the trip distance, the

higher the contribution from in-vehicle times. After a certain break even distance, the

contribution of in-vehicle time would be greater than that of waiting time, walking time and

transfer penalty etc. According to Bari and Efroymson (2005b), it is usually between 3-4 km.

Since, three quarter of the trips in Dhaka are short distance trips, the argument of Habib (2002)

that removal of NMPT would reduce vehicle hours of travel is also not viable. Moreover, the


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argument of travel time reduction assumes that all NMPT mode shares are replaced by bus,

auto-rickshaw or taxi. This is highly impractical as was found from the Mirpur Road

Demonstrated Corridor post NMPT mode share analysis, presented in Figure 7.3. So the

argument that NMPT are slow moving and increase travel time is contextual and may be more

valid while making longer trips. Even then, the preferable mode of travel such as bus or human

hauler requires proper integration (design and/or planning) with NMPT component to ensure

optimisation of door-to-door travel time and to minimize the conflict of mixed-traffic

movements.

Road space inefficiency

The review and analyses discards the notion of road space utilisation inefficiency of NMPT. The

findings suggest that under a mixed mode operating system such as in Dhaka, NMPT are the

second most efficient road users after public transport (bus). According to analyses in Table 6.5,

under a loaded situation, the road space requirement of NMPT per passenger is one third less

than that of auto-rickshaw, one quarter less than taxi and one sixth less than cars.

Previous description and analyses also revealed that NMPT are road efficient in terms of total

road space share to trip share, compared to cars that are under no movement restriction. The

analyses revealed that cars occupy 38 percent of total road space in Dhaka while they carry only

6 percent of non-walk trip share, while NMPT occupy 32 percent of total road space but carry

48 percent of non-walk trips. The road space efficiency of NMPT is thereby clearly evident from

these findings. The discussion also emphasises the importance of having a balance in the future

planning of different modes, so that the restrictions and operational management process are

better distributed among the modes.

Cost ineffectiveness

The argument that NMPT is expensive, needs to be compared with auto-rickshaw and taxi,

which are comparative public transport modes available in Dhaka, rather than with the

traditional transit option such as bus. This is because, NMPT provides door-to-door service as an

individualised public transport like auto-rickshaw or taxi and unlike bus. The review and

analyses in Figure 6.18 and 6.19 showed that at different trip lengths (1-10 km), NMPT requires

lower out of pocket travel cost compared to auto-rickshaw or taxi. Motorcycles are costlier than

NMPT for distances above 3 km. Cars are costlier at all trip lengths. The cost-effectiveness of the

mode, under the current situation, is therefore without question. A recent survey study by

Hossain and Susilo (2011) echoed a similar affordability aspect of NMPT. The study found that


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87 percent of respondents would not have made a similar trip with similar level of service as

provided by NMPT, because the alternatives would be unaffordable to them.

Low safety

NMPT are sometimes labelled as a hazardous vehicles and causes of accidents. But the review

and analyses found that NMPT has less than one tenth of the contribution in mode share of

accidents in Dhaka compared to buses and truck, while they carry equal or more trips in

comparison. Rather, they were found to be more vulnerable to be effected by an accident, as

90 percent of accidental deaths in Dhaka were found to be attributable to buses and trucks.

It is understood from the review that NMPT lags in operating safety, because supportive

infrastructure or priority measures are not available for their movement and a lack of driver

training on road rules. The latter aspect is also applicable for other vehicle drivers. Review of

literature also found that the vehicular safety measures of NMPT require improvement,

especially provision for regular fitness checks. This practice is currently absent, as more than 90

percent of NMPTs are illegal due to the ceiling imposed in 1986. So it is important to have a

better balanced operating environment, technical support and regulatory backup to ensure

safety of NMPTs, as well as their coexistence with other more hazardous vehicles.

Inhumane character

NMPT driving is often labelled as an inhumane or dishonourable profession at policy level and

active efforts were undertaken to remove the mode. It is understood from the previous

literature review that NMPT driving does involve strong physical demand and has a long term

health effect. But the review and analyses also demonstrated that in Dhaka more than 50

percent of the people live below poverty line and the poverty line has increased over the last

decade. The review further revealed large scale employment dependence on NMPT by the

city’s population. So this debate of inhumanity, like the issue of speed, is relative and needs to

be understood from the socio-economic context of the city. Based on the livelihood aspect of

the poor and the scale of dependence on the industry, more than half of Dhaka population, it

may be arguable that it is more humane to have a profession such as NMPT driving that

involves hard labour but offers better self-reliance to the poor, than denying them of any other

better alternatives. In this context, Gallagher (1992) stated:

“…is rickshaw pulling a dishonourable occupation? There are many other jobs in

Bangladesh which are just as arduous, if not worse: brick-breaking, carrying goods by

head and shoulder, rowing boats, pulling carts by hand, labouring in forges, foundries

and bakeries. Yet no one talks about abolishing them.”


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Bari and Efroymson (2006) suggested:

“If we were really concerned about the rickshaw-pullers, we might have a better fare

structure for them or improve the technologically obsolete rickshaw fleets…if we can

make rickshaws more humane, we don’t have to worry about whether the rickshaw-

pulling profession as a whole is inhumane or not.”

From a more scientific viewpoint, Gallagher (1992) explained:

“Engineers who have studied the Bangladesh rickshaw reckon that a power output of

about 0.12-0.13 horse power (90W to 100W) is required to pedal it fast with a normal

load i.e. 8-9 mph (13 to 15 km/h) with two passengers on level ground with zero head-

wind. A comfortable power output is usually reckoned to be around 0.10 horse power

(75W). Hence rickshaw-pulling at 0.12-0.13 hp is very close to this comfortable level.”

Thus, under normal conditions, assuming flat ground which is common topography for Dhaka,

little wind and even with up to two passengers, and a 40 percent higher load than is observed in

general with average occupancy of 1.6, NMPT driving is not as difficult as often portrayed, even

for the elderly as is observed in Dhaka. But of course, with tough operating conditions (high

wind, slight gradient, rough road, worn tyres and frequent stop and starts), the power

requirement can rise by up to 100 percent (Gallagher,1992). In such situations, there are better

adaptation alternatives available to ease the situation, the primary of which is to improve the

old vehicular design. Current NMPT in Dhaka weighs 92 kg and as suggested by engineers such

as Ian Barwell (Gallagher,1992), who previously worked in NMPT design improvement of Dhaka,

the weight can be reduced by as much as 40 percent to 56 kg. The light weight NMPT designed

by ITDP, and those popularly used in India (weighting 55 kg) demonstrate this (Gadepalli, 2006).

So the ‘inhumane’ labelling of NMPT is relative; and with proper initiatives such as better

management and technological improvements, it is possible to reduce hardship of this

profession.

Examining poor city image

Finally, NMPT are often suggested as an antiquated vehicle by the policy makers that reflect

underdevelopment and backwardness. But review and analyses of literature, particularly in a

global perspective showed that most modern, attractive, livable cities of Western Europe,

Australia and North America are promoting NMTs such as bicycles and to certain extents,

technologically advanced NMPT, to enhance the attractiveness and liveability of their cities. The

rationality to promote a ban on NMPT in Dhaka on grounds of city image is contrary to image

shift in Western cities.


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The review and analyses of the advantages and disadvantages of NMPT revealed that the

benefits distinctly outweigh the disadvantages. It is therefore reasonable to infer that NMPT has

an ongoing and future potential role contribution as a regular public transport mode in Dhaka.

The hypothesis related to research questions 1 and 2 are thereby validated. Notwithstanding,

the analysis has found that certain aspects of NMPT such as operational safety and vehicular

technology do require improvement to ensure efficiency as a mode to be used into the future.

10.2.2 Inference from review on NMPT restriction practices

The review and analyses on NMPT restriction policies as presented in Chapters 5 and 7 have

demonstrated both advantages and disadvantages of the practices. Table 10.2 summarises the

comparative situation.

Table 10.2: Comparative advantages and disadvantages of NMPT restriction in Dhaka

Advantages

1. Improvement in overall link travel speed and travel time for motorised transports as

whole (Corridor 2 derivation)

Disadvantages

1. Large scale illegal operation of NMPT

2. Non-compliance in implementation of NMPT restriction measures compared to

guidelines set before the physical restrictions were imposed

a) Non-adherence in the category of roads restricted to NMPT

b) Non-adherence in provision of alternative NMPT routes

c) Non-adherence in maintaining directness standard for the provided alternative

NMPT routes A

3. Increase in link travel speed and travel time for bus (Corridor 2 derivation).

4. Increase in overall journey time and travel cost for NMPT users (Corridor 2

derivation).

5. Increase in overall journey time and travel cost for former NMPT users that switched

to other non-private transport modes (Corridor 2 derivation).

6. Reduction in total traffic flow (Corridor 2 derivation).

7. Increase in gross emission (Corridor 2 derivation)

8. Loss of livelihood to the NMPT drivers (Corridor 2 derivation)

Source: Developed by author after review and analysis of Chapter 5 an 6

The tabular analyses revealed that a considerable number of disadvantages were found from

review and analysis, related to current NMPT restriction policies. NMPT were banned on several

major and minor roads but were not compensated for, with suitable modal alternatives or

planned route provisions. Moreover, a number of roads were restricted to NMPT that were

primarily minor distributor or collector in character, previously dominated by NMPT movement.

These have disadvantaged NMPT users, the most dominant trip market in Dhaka. Previous


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review and analysis showed that, in one of the NMPT restricted corridors, NMPT users had to

incur additional time; cost and energy to make a trip after the restriction policies were imposed.

In addition, degradation in operating performance of the priority mode at the policy level, bus,

was also observed on the corridor after the NMPT restriction. This was attributable to the fact

that most road space was filed up by taxis, cars and motorcycles leading to similar or increased

congestion compared to the pre-NMPT ban time. An increase in gross emission was also found

due to increase in motorised modes in these corridors. The review and analysis further found

that NMPT restrictions have caused significant loss of livelihood for the NMPT drivers, one of

the largest employment sectors in Dhaka.

In comparison to all these disadvantages, the only key advantage was a marginal improvement

in average in-vehicle speed and travel time of motorised modes. But even that was found to be

insignificant since there was considerable rise in waiting time for passengers due to higher

demand than supply. So it is not surprising to find from the review that continuous protest and

dissatisfaction were expressed by the NMPT users, drivers and operators in this regard, which

has significantly slowed down the progress of the restrictions. A review on possible future

impact analyses of NMPT removal showed that initiatives to remove NMPT without proper

alternatives would likely lead to increased traffic congestion and emissions. Despite the

disadvantages outweighing the benefits, NMPT restriction measures are still active.

It is understood that NMPT restriction in some parts of the network might be rational on the

grounds of mobility and efficiency, but the strategies to implement the measures demand

better balance and coordination of NMPT operation with other modes of the network. It

appears that, while generally well-intentioned, policy initiatives to restrict or ban NMPT in

Dhaka have failed because they have been biased and unplanned. Biased because the focus has

more been on expected benefits of motorised vehicle users, private motorised vehicles in

particular, rather than focusing on broader mobility needs of all road users including NMPT

users. Unplanned and ad-hoc because the decisions were not pre-assessed with reference to

need and demand of the network, and were not supported by any planning platform or tool to

facilitate proper coordination between modes.

10.2.3 Inference from review on NMPT planning and management proposals

The review and analyses on NMPT integration proposals and practice initiative undertaken so

far and as presented in Chapters 4 and 7 have demonstrated the advantages and disadvantages

listed in Table 10.3.


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Table 10.3: Advantages and disadvantages of current NMPT management proposal in Dhaka

Advantages Disadvantages

1. Broad strategic guideline for

improvement of NMPT industry e.g. Gallagher

(1992), Wipperman and Sowula (2007).

2. Some design specific detailed guidelines

for NMPT infrastructure design improvement

and flow improvement such as in DUTP

(1996a).

3. Planning measures were suggested with

focus on zone based controlling of NMPT e.g.

Quium (1994)

4. Suggestion for NMPT priority measures

for their better management, but no

methodology or tool developed to derive to

that, e.g. Hodgkinson and Elton-Wallery

(2008)

1. No comprehensive planning framework

to facilitate balanced distribution of NMPT

and motorised transport (MT)

Source: Developed by author after review and analysis of Chapter 4 and 6

Table 10.3 indicates that, although a number of proposals have been in place for NMPT

management in previous research and government study, the absence of an integrated

planning methodology for NMPT management is prevalent. The most prominent method

suggested so far, the zone-based control of NMPT by Special Committee on Traffic Problems of

Dhaka (1985) and Quium (1994) was based on the examples of Indonesia. A more detailed

analysis of the approach found a number of concerns about maintaining operational balance of

NMPT compared to other vehicles and its proven disutility as demonstrated in Jakarta. The

other less rigid option by Hodgkinson and Elton-Wallery (2008), based on prioritisation

measures preferred the concept of giving more importance to NMPT over MT operation in

certain links. The derivations to the decision were not made based on any common underlying

principle and following scientific methodology, or considering any network governing attributes.

Rather, it was a very general derivation based on perception of an area and non-coherent

expectation of the researchers from the selected locations, e.g. to increase NMPT driver income

by prioritising the vehicle in rich socio-economic areas where users have better spending

capacity, prioritising NMPT in foreign delegate concentrated areas to promote their

international image etc . Moreover, none have addressed the issue of maintaining a balance in

distribution of different modes at different network parts of the city in an integrated manner.

More precisely, no appropriate methodology or planning tools are available to guide functional

integration of NMPT i.e. in enabling the definition of best location for NMPT in a network, with

reference to motorised modes and vice versa.


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10.3 Inference from viewpoint analysis

The NMPT stakeholder viewpoint as described in Chapters 8 and 9 revealed key insights on

current role and future expectation from NMPT by these groups, plus their preferred quality in

the future Dhaka transport system.

In the present context, the role functionality of NMPT and its dependency for day to day trip

purpose was acknowledged widely. This perception was true across all five stakeholder groups

and supports the hypothesis related to research question 1. Another important insight from

these analyses is that the viewpoint of GO has shifted considerably and is much more positive

towards NMPT than they have been in the recent past. However, considerable disagreement

was revealed regarding the effectiveness of NMPT restriction functionality. More than half of

GO and NGO respondents revealed their satisfaction in this regard, however utmost

dissatisfaction was revealed by other groups. This tension aligns with the review and analyses of

NMPT restriction policy. Important insight from this analysis is that a significant proportion of

GO and NGO also recognises the ineffectiveness of the current restriction initiatives to manage

NMPT (around 43 percent and 45 percent respectively). This implies gradual acceptance of the

decision makers on failure of their current strategies and reinforces the necessity to have a

fresh and planned approach towards NMPT management.

In the future context, majority of the stakeholders across all groups have defined NMPT as most

suitable as a local network service provider and as a feeder service to motorised public

transport. Such delineation reflects their recognition of future potential of NMPT and supports

the hypothesis related to research question 2. This view also provides insight on the preferred

pattern for future NMPT planning. There were, however, disagreements regarding future

preferred levels of control for NMPT. Though most stakeholders under each group preferred

partial restriction (PR) to other alternatives, GO preferred to stay with their current restriction

policy, PR-existing. The remaining stakeholders based their discontent on existing restriction

measures, preferring a more flexible PR approach, that is, PR-proposed. The key insight that can

be derived from this analysis is that a more detailed examination would be required to decide

the most preferred network environment for future NMPT planning, whether PR-existing, PR-

proposed or any other measure. The stakeholder viewpoint analysis also revealed some

common suggestions for improving the management and policy planning of NMPT for the

future, most popular of which included the need to include NMPT within the formal transport

planning processes, modal priority measures for NMPT at different network locations etc. These


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are expected to provide useful insight on the future desired character for an NMPT planning

approach in Dhaka, together with the aforementioned future preferences.

The preferred quality analysis for the future Dhaka transport system found traffic operational

efficiency and access and mobility as the two most desired criteria, followed by social equity.

These findings provide insight on future planning needs for Dhaka, at a transport system level.

10.4 The way forward

The discussion has established significant ongoing and future potential role contribution of

NMPT as a regular public transport mode in Dhaka. The discussion also revealed lack of balance,

along with an ad-hoc planning character of current NMPT integration approaches; and

subsequent ineffectiveness in achieving desired network efficiency. It can be inferred from such

experience that decisions to allow or restrict NMPT, or for that matter other modes and their

comparative preference should be derived based on careful examination of the network and

the operating character of individual modes. This is to ensure that the proposed distribution is

balanced in meeting the need of different transport markets. To facilitate methodical derivation

to the process, appropriate planning tools need to be framed accordingly.

The previous discussion revealed that no such method is currently available. Hence, this

research shall develop an integrated multimodal planning framework (IMPF) comprising a

decision tool and associated implementation strategies. The endeavour is to improve

coexistence of NMPT with motorised vehicles in Dhaka, while addressing the revealed

deficiencies as well as fulfilling desired needs for future. The whole process of Section A, B and

their linkage to following Section (Section C) are summarised in Figure 10.1.

Research gap

Need for a planning

tool to optimise

NMPT-MT

coexistence

Research outcome

A planning framework comprising:

-a decision tool for optimising

coexistence of NMPT with MT

-broad implementation strategy- to

support decision tool

SEC A: Chapter 1

Hypothesis &

Research questions

1, 2

Examined

by

Research questions 3,4 addressed

SEC A, B:

Chapter 2 to 10

Literature review &

Stakeholder viewpoint

based NMPT

dynamic

analysis

SEC C:

Chapter 11 to 15

Research plan and method

development for an

integrated planning

framework

Hypothesis

supported

Research

question 1, 2

answered

-NMPT role

established

-Deficit in

NMPT

planning

revealed

Figure 10.1: Process towards the decision on development of an integrated planning framework


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10.5 Summary

This chapter has described the inferences and learning from Section B, NMPT status review via

the case study of Dhaka, and established the need to improve future NMPT coexistence with

MT in the Dhaka transport system. The advantages and disadvantages of the NMPT role,

current NMPT restriction practices and current NMPT planning and management proposals

were summarised in this regard. The NMPT role review found that NMPT has a significant role

in multiple sectors of Dhaka - in maintaining social equity, economic efficiency, environmental

sustainability and in catering for door-to-door short distance travel demand. It was also found

that the key deficiencies labelled on NMPT modal operations are either largely invalid or

situational, that require better NMPT management than their blanket banning. The inference

was that NMPT has a significant role contribution in the present and future transport system of

Dhaka as a regular public transport mode.

The cost - benefit analysis on current NMPT restriction initiatives showed that the

disadvantages of the approach far outweigh the benefits. It was also revealed that the reasons

behind the ineffectiveness of current approaches are their ad-hoc, unplanned nature and lack

of balanced planning approach to distribute all modes across the network in a systematic

manner. The inference was that an integrated planning framework is needed to address this

inter-modal imbalance. The cost-benefit analysis of prevailing planning and management

initiatives found that no effective and integrated planning approach or tool is available to

address these deficiencies. Based on these findings the chapter concluded that, given the

substantial role significance of NMPT in Dhaka and due to the absence of any effective tool to

manage the same, it is necessary to develop an integrated planning framework to facilitate the

balanced coexistence and integration of NMPT with other motorised modes in Dhaka. Section C

(Chapter 11-15) will describe the process of developing such a planning framework. As a start to

this process, Chapter 11 provides an overview of the proposed planning framework.

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11SECTION C: INTEGRATED PLANNING FRAMEWORK

DEVELOPMENT FOR CASE STUDY DHAKA

CHAPTER 11: OVERVIEW OF THE PLANNING

FRAMEWORK

11.1 Introduction

Section B established the significance of NMPT as a regular public transport mode in Dhaka. The

section also revealed the need for a balanced, integrated planning framework to address the

efficient coexistence of non-motorised public transport (NMPT) with motorised transport (MT).

This section (Chapters 11 to 15) provides the development process of this planning framework

tool, henceforth termed an Integrated Multimodal Planning Framework (IMPF) or framework.

The case area will be the Greater Dhaka Area for reasons as explained in Section B, Chapter 3.

The discussion begins with an overview of the IMPF (this chapter), followed by methodology

adopted for the development of the tool (Chapters 12, 13) and the detailed description of the

IMPF tool development process (Chapters 14, 15). The objective is to formulate a practice-

oriented, planning framework decision tool for facilitating balanced distribution of NMPT and

MT for Dhaka’s transport system and to be able to apply the tool with necessary modifications

for similar cities elsewhere.

The discussion of this chapter is focused on introducing the conceptual planning process that is

used as a platform for the IMPF and key constituents of the process. An overview of the key

steps followed for the development of the planning framework for Dhaka (this section) and its

link to the forthcoming Section of the thesis is presented in Figure 11.1.



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Figure 11.1: Flowchart of key steps in the IMPF development process for Dhaka

SECTION C

Integrated multimodal

planning framework

development

Hypothesis test

Does the tool

facilitate better

balance between

NMPT & MT?

Overview of the

planning framework

Development description of

the planning framework

Application of

methodology

CHAPTER 11 CHAPTER 14, 15

SECTION D

Discussion &

Conclusion

Methodology

rationale

Methodology for planning

framework development

CHAPTER 12, 13

Constituents &

functioning of the

framework

Prelude to

planning

framework

IMPF tool and

implementation strategy

Analyse reasons and

suggest for future

improvement for its

functionality

Y

Dhaka case study

investigation ends

N



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11.2 Conceptual planning process in deriving IMPF

The conceptual planning process that is used to develop the IMPF is based on the Integrated

Transport Planning Framework guideline developed for Queensland by the Queensland

Government (2003). It incorporates key components of the model integrated strategic planning

process recommended by Commonwealth Department of Transport and Regional Services

(DTRS) (Morris Consultants, Daris Olsauskas & Associates, Planning Integration consulting,

Watson Agricultre Resource & Environmental Consulting & Foulsham and Munday, 2001) and

uses the fundamental premise of an integrated planning approach guideline devised by

Austroads (Westerman, 1998). According to Westerman (1998), Queensland Government

(2003) and Button, Vega and Nijkamp (2010), an integrated transport planning framework is a

guide to good-practice transport planning. It sets out collaborative, consistent and sustainable

approach to transport planning by assessing current and future needs, in general or issue

specific. Westerman (1998) and Queensland Government (2003) framework guideline also

suggests that it is important that an integrated transport planning framework should facilitate

proper planning by setting out desired outcomes, direction and principles and planning steps

for the framework. According to Queensland Government (2003):

A framework facilitates good-practice transport planning by setting out desired

outcomes that provide a consistent framework to focus planning on achieving good

outcomes for the community and the transport system; directions and principles that

provide guidance on how to achieve the desired outcomes; planning steps that offer a

process to follow when undertaking integrated transport planning.

Based on these guidelines and from the needs as revealed in previous sections the desired

outcomes, principles and directions and planning steps for the proposed IMPF are set to enable

development of a good-practice decision tool.

11.2.1 Desired outcomes

Desired outcomes are strategic statements that reflect the needs and values expected from the

framework (Queensland Government, 2003).The analysis of Section B has revealed that the

outcome expected from the planning framework would be to deliver a decision tool that is

integrative and collaborative in nature, enabling sustainable NMPT management alongside MT.

Integrative with reference to its ability to consider different modes in balance, its ability to

complement land uses and relevant transport policies in place when distributing modes in a

network. It is collaborative in its ability to combine the expectation of the different stakeholders



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(e.g. decision makers and users) from a future transport system. It is sustainable with reference

to the capability of the tool to offer better social equity, economic improvement, access and

mobility, environmental sustainability and improved governance while management of NMPT

alongside MT.

These attributes of the tool should be present in the proposed framework in a mix that can be

reached within the available circumstances, rather than in isolation, according to the guideline

of Queensland Government (2003) and planning model of DTRS (Morris Consultants et al.,

2001).

11.2.2 Direction and associated principles

In a planning framework, direction provides guideline on achieving the desired outcomes

(Queensland Government, 2003). The direction of the proposed IMPF is to facilitate a balanced

environment in distribution and operation of NMPT with MT.

The direction is supported by a number of principles that assist in its application and which are

attempted to be adhered to while striving for the direction. The principles chosen as such

included,

1. Ensuring integration of different modes in the transport system

2. Ensuring integration of transport and land use

3. Ensuring integration of transport system operation with policy planning

4. Enabling better representation of different stakeholders in the integration and

planning process

11.2.3 Planning steps

Queensland Government (2003) suggested that using the desired outcomes, direction and

principles as a guide, the planning steps offer practical advice on how to carry out the planning

exercise. The planning exercise for this study is to develop an IMPF tool that can be utilised in

order to optimize NMPT coexistence alongside MT.

Based on the suggested framework guideline of Queensland Government (2003) and integrated

planning model process of DTRS (Morris Consultants et al. ,2001) and Westerman (1998), four

major planning steps are formulated to carry out the target planning exercise of this study. The

first step is initial problem planning - defining purpose and scope of the planning exercise. For

this study, it includes the need rationale establishment for development of an IMPF for the



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Dhaka case study which has already been derived from Section B analysis. The second step is to

determine the preferred character for the proposed IMPF. The process includes detailed

analysis of alternative MT-NMPT integration strategies, with reference to multiple criteria that

are aligned to the set direction and principles. The endeavour is to determine the best

integration strategy for the framework while taking into account current deficiencies and future

preferences. The analyses as such, together with the learning of Section B, detail the preferred

attributes for the future transport network and the IMPF.

The third step is to assess and select a technique that can best address these deficiencies and

desired needs of the network while laying out the proposed IMPF tool. In particular, minimizing

mismatch between network functional character and operating character of modes. The fourth

and final step is to develop a strategy that can best address the set desired outcomes. For this

research, the strategy is the structuring process and application method of the developed

framework tool, based on selected layout technique and integration approach, in order to

address the current NMPT-MT management imbalance in the transport system. A schematic

diagram of the whole conceptual process is presented in Figure 11.2.The detailed methodology

and development process of these planning steps are described in following chapters.

It must be noted that the steps are structured so that they can be tailored to suit different

planning situations such as regional, local and site-specific planning, as suggested by

Queensland Government (2003).



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Figure 11.2: The conceptual planning process as the platform for developing the IMPF [after Queensland Government (2003), Morris Consultant et al. (2001) and Westerman (1998)]

11.3 Summary

This chapter has provided a section overview on the proposed IMPF development process and

key activities in obtaining the same in case study Dhaka. This chapter has also outlined, in more

detail, the conceptual planning process and steps that are used as a platform in development of

the IMPF based on guidelines of Queensland Government (2003), DTRS (Morris Consultants et

al. , 2001) and Westerman (1998). The conceptual planning process discussion revealed that the

desired outcome of the framework was to achieve better sustainability, integration and

collaboration in future NMPT management decisions alongside MT. The underlying direction

was to facilitate balance between distribution and operation of NMPT with MT. Four major

planning steps were followed in achieving the desired outcomes and the set direction. They

include initial problem planning (need for IMPF tool); defining current and future state of the

problem (type and character of imbalance in current network; desired character for future);

evaluation and selection of technique that best address these deficiencies and needs; and

finally development of a delivery plan (IMPF tool structuring and application process) to

minimize current NMPT management imbalance with MT. The next chapter describes the

methodology rationale of the framework.

CCHHAAPPTTEERR 1122 :: RREESSEEAARRCCHH MMEETTHHOODDOOLLOOGGYY RRAATTIIOONNAALLEE

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12CHAPTER 12: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY RATIONALE

12.1 Introduction

“The identification and organisation of sequential steps are essential for organising

research plans and executing research projects in a successful manner. An appropriate

beginning with accurate statement of research questions, objectives and justifications

can greatly enhance the likelihood of success. The guiding principle for developing any

research methodology is that it must completely address the research questions. To

meet these objectives, a research study should have a detailed research design that can

be used as a blueprint for collecting observations and data that are connected to the

research questions.”

(Creswell, 2003)

Chapter 11 provided an overview of the conceptual planning process and major planning steps

formulated in deriving the integrated multimodal planning framework (IMPF). In order to shed

light on the methodological process relevant to these planning steps, a comprehensive research

design is required. The current chapter and its following chapter (Chapter 13) describe the

process. This chapter explains the rationale behind the methodological structure; data

collection types and methods; tools selected and analytical procedures adopted for addressing

relevant research question. Chapter 13 describes the application of the selected methodological

process on case study of Dhaka.

The methodology rationale devised for this study is structured into four key sections. Section

12.2 reviews the broad research approaches commonly used in social science studies. Section

12.3 reviews the different research methodology in practice in this field. The objectives of these

two sections are to construct ideas on the application context of the available research

techniques. Section 12.4 derives from a research framework design that is rationale in

addressing the need of the posed research question, formulated to evaluate the hypothesis.

Section 12.5 further investigates the justification of the chosen research methodology with

respect to standard theoretical inference. The endeavour is to ensure that methodological

sequence adopted and contents incorporated maximize the likelihood of achieving the research

aims and objectives. Figure 12.1 shows the conceptual undertaking behind the structure of this

chapter.


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Figure 12.1: The research framework design and link to case study application

12.2 Review of broad research approaches

Before attempting to develop a research design, it is important to review different research

approaches and their characteristics to understand the concept behind their selection. It is

observed that there are three major streams of research approaches in the social science realm,

based on purposes. These are exploratory, descriptive and explanatory (Babbie, 2007).

Exploratory research is a research type that is often used to determine the best research design

and data collection methods, when problems are in preliminary stage, (Babbie, 2007). It is

flexible and can address research questions of all types (what, why, how). However, the utility

of the research process is more effective when the topic or issue is new and data is difficult to

collect. More significantly, such research is preferable in unearthing theory from the data itself

rather than from a predisposed hypothesis. According to Shields and Tajalli (2006) exploratory

research can be best linked with the conceptual framework that leads to a working hypothesis.

Review of broad

research

approaches

Review of major

research

methodologies

Analyse

research question with

relation to posed hypothesis

Derive measurable

propositions

Data collection and analytical

procedures to enable

evaluation of posed

propositions

Construct concept

Development of suitable

research methodology

Does it

correspond to

standard norms?

CHAPTER 13

Application of the

methodology

N

Y


Page 190

This approach is non-confirmatory in character and outcomes are not usually useful for

decision-making by themselves; rather, they provide significant insight into a given situation.

Descriptive research is fundamental to the research enterprise and it has added immeasurably

to our knowledge of the shape and nature of our society (De Vaus, 2001). Unlike exploratory

research, it is more confirmatory in character, i.e. based on a predetermined hypothesis and the

research process attempts to refute or non-refute the same. This research approach is often

used to obtain information concerning the current status of a phenomenon to describe “what

exists” with respect to conditions in a situation and “how” that can be addressed (Key, 1997). To

be more generic, AECT (2001), McNabb (2002) and Miller (2006) state that, the concern of

descriptive research is to find out the “what is” situation. Descriptive research covers a wide

range of the study spectrum but is limited on the precondition that it should have practical

implications on life of the people i.e. the outcome should enable the researcher to establish a

method to address the complication. The process is useful therefore in making definitive

decisions about a problem statement and also to make validation of an assumption based on

factual, accurate, systematic data description. However it should be noted that the process fails

to satisfactorily describe the causal relationship between variables.

Explanatory research focuses on the “why” question more vigorously and therefore caters for

the need to explain the nature of relationship that exists between the dependent and

independent variables by answering what causes the effect (De Vaus, 2001). It is a style of

research in which the primary goal is to understand the nature or mechanisms of the

relationship between the independent and dependent variable. It also is a form of confirmatory

research process but the difference with descriptive research lies in the capability of this

process to better explain what caused a situation.

12.3 Review of research methodology literature

A brief comprehension of the commonly used research methodologies is also important, to

further build up the concept of an appropriate design framework to adopt for this research.

With this context, a short review of widely used, contemporary research methodology literature

is administered below to shed light on different techniques available and their rationale.

The major reviewed literature included that of Marsh (1982), De Vaus (2001), Sommer and

Sommer (2002), Hoyle, Harris and Judd (2002), Creswell (2003), Yin (2003), Leedy and Ormrod

(2005), Ziesel (2006), Neuman (2000) and Monette, Sullivan and DeJong (2011). The analysis

reveals that different clusters of researchers have classified research design process in varying


Page 191

manners, based on different themes and principles. De Vaus (2001) suggested a generalised

classification, Marsh (1982); Yin (2003) and Zeisel (2006) suggested classification by most

commonly-found character of research problems; Monette et al. (2011) suggested

categorisation by technique of measuring target variables; Sommer and Sommer (2002) &

Hoyle et al. (2002) classified research methodology by data collection methods; and Creswell

(2003), Leedy and Ormrod(2005) & Neuman (2000) classified research methods by quantitative

and qualitative nature of research.

The common design process categories found in this literature evaluation process included,

• archival analysis (Hoyle et al.,2002; Yin, 2003; Creswell, 2003; Neuman, 2000;

Monette et al., 2011)

• historical analysis (Yin, 2003; Leedy & Ormond, 2005; Neuman, 2000)

• survey (Yin, 2003; Creswell, 2003; Leedy & Ormond, 2005; Ziesel, 2006; Neuman,

2000; Monette et al., 2011)

• interview (Sommer & Sommer, 2002; Leedy & Ormond, 2005; Neuman, 2000;

Monette et al., 2011)

• observation (Sommer & Sommer, 2002; Hoyle et al., 2002; Leedy & Ormond,

2005; Monette et al., 2011)

• experiment (De Vaus, 2001; Sommer & Sommr, 2002; Hoyle, 2002; Yin, 2003;

Ziesel, 2006; Neuman, 2000) and

• case study (De Vaus, 2001; Yin, 2003; Ziesel, 2006; Leedy & Ormond, 2005).

Some researchers such as Creswell (2003), Lee and Ormond (2005) and Neuman (2000) have

attempted to associate choice of a particular design process for a particular type of data (e.g.

interview, survey or experiment with quantitative data; case study or historical analysis with

qualitative data). However the majority of the researchers have suggested that the whole

choice process of a suitable design for a research study should be related to the circumstances,

the research needs and the outcome desired from that research. According to Yin (2003):

the suitable research methods depend on the way the problem is defined, what the

investigators wants to know, the nature of the object being studied, previous

knowledge the study is based on and type of results desired.

De Vaus (2001) further argued that any data-collection method can be adopted for any design

and the selection should depend on the need of the research, not on whether it is a qualitative

research or a quantitative research. Creswell (2003) and Neuman (2000) have also accepted this

notion to be more effective in realising effective research design development, rather than


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being always attached to the concept of pre-fixed association between design and data type. It

is worth mentioning that though the meanings are alike, the terminology used to specify the

phrase research methodology was different by researcher. The most commonly used

expressions included ‘research design’ (De Vaus, 2001; Leedy & Ormond, 2005; Zeisel, 2006;

Neuman, 2000), ‘strategy’ (Marsh, 1982; Hoyle et al.,2002; Yin, 2003), ‘research technique’

(Sommer & Sommer, 2002; Monette et al., 2011) etc.

Note that the purpose of this section is not to detail each method type, their context and

application. Rather, it is to outline the commonly practiced ideology for classification and

selection of research design process. The endeavour is to provide a better understanding while

developing the research design for this study. The context, rationale and applicability of chosen

methods for the current study (Section 12.4) will be described as required with reference to

these discussed methods. The detailed review of the discussed research methodologies are

presented in Appendix E.1.

12.4 The research framework design

The whole process from framing a question to data analysis and its interpretation is very

important for answering research questions as clearly as possible (De Vaus ,2001). The research

design therefore needs to ensure that evidence is obtained and processed to enable us to

answer research questions as unambiguously as possible, in alignment to conceived

hypothetical propositions. No wonder then it is commonly believed that the most significant

start to a research methodology development process is the establishment of a comprehensive

research design process. Kerlinger and Lee (2000) said:

A research design is a plan, structure and strategy so conceived as to obtain answers to

research questions or problems. The plan is the complete scheme or program of the

research. It includes an outline of what the investigator will do from writing the

hypotheses and their operational implication to the final analysis of data.

The above definition denotes that a research design is a procedural plan that has two main

functions. Identification and development of procedures and logistical arrangements required

for a particular study, but that construct rationale on the validity of such procedures to ensure

that they can achieve the best result. This section and its following section (Section 12.5) focus

on developing such a rationale, with reference to IMPF development. In this section, the design

process starts with examination of the research question set to clarify the posed hypothesis as

related to the framework development. This is followed by formulation of operational concepts


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underlying the research question and then their break down into measurable sub-concepts, to

better reflect the hypothetical frame of reference conceived earlier. These sequences enabled

logical derivation to appropriate data collection and analytical procedure i.e. a research design

which can satisfactorily answer the research question and validate hypothesis.

12.4.1 Examining research question

The necessity to initiate the research design process with careful examination of research

questions is an agreed approach considered by almost all researchers including the literature

reviewed in Section 12.3. It is suggested that the process should start by clarifying the research

question (in accordance to preconceived hypothesis, if applicable) and the choice of a suitable

methodology is derived based on the type of questions asked (Yin, 2003). Leedy &Ormond,

(2005) added the argument that different research questions lead to the address of different

research problems, thereby requiring different research designs and methods. This in turn

results in the collection of different types of data and different interpretations of those data.

This research has posed the following hypothesis

‘There is an ongoing significant role of NMPT as a regular public transport and it can effectively

contribute towards sustainable transport with respect to social equity, economic independence,

environmental security and traffic operational efficiency, if integrated appropriately into the

transport system’

The first part of the hypothesis on role significance of NMPT has been established in Section A

and B. Research questions 1 and 2 were also answered in this process. In order to examine the

latter part of the hypothesis, which is the basis for IMPF development, the following research

questions were formulated.

How can NMPT best perform a continuing role as regular public transport in the

present and future context of a developing city such as Dhaka? And

How can NMPT contribute to sustainable transport in the present and future

context of a developing city such as Dhaka?

Based on the review presented on research approach and methodology, it is possible to deduct

some of them from the spectrum for research design. Due to the confirmatory background of

the research questions, which is subject to a preconceived hypotheses examination, they

should fall under either descriptive or explanatory research question category. Moreover, due

to the topic theme, the contemporary nature of the questions and the scope of this research,

methods such as historical research method, true experimental design method, longitudinal


Page 194

design method or obtrusive observation method can be eliminated. The rest of the broad

approaches and design methods are analysed in following segments with reference to the

posed research questions.

The posed research questions are primarily descriptive research questions due to the pattern of

their enquiry, but also possess explanatory components to rationalise the descriptive tasks. The

questions intend to understand the ‘what is’ and ‘how’ phenomena, in alignment with the

notion of descriptive research (Key, 1997; Miller, 2006). The focus in this instance is ‘what

changes in transport network management are required to sustainably link existing need to

future expectations’ regarding NMPT integration in Dhaka and ‘how that can be achieved’. Since

such a process requires answering the questions viz. ‘what changes’, ‘where applicable’, ‘why

so’ and ‘how so’, a mix of descriptive as well as explanatory paradigm is logical. Different

research methods are suggested for the defined research approach such as experiment, survey,

archival analysis, case study (Yin, 2003 & Ziesel, 2006); observation, survey, interview (McNabb,

2002; Miller, 2006). In order to facilitate the choice of a suitable method related to the need of

this research, it is better to operationalise and refine the concepts in the question such that

they can lead to more specific measurable propositions (De Vaus, 2001).

The key concepts of these questions are how can NMPT best perform its role as a regular public

transport and in achieving transport sustainability. In other words, the key concepts can be

combined and redefined as the need of a well -ntegrated planning framework for balance

distribution of NMPT with motorised transport (MT). This concept is broad and requires

translation into more measurable sub-concepts to enable suitable evaluation method selection.

The break-down process needs to be aligned with the above hypothetical frame of reference

and relevant sub-questions of this research question, constructed in Chapter 1. The measurable

sub-concepts as such, can be derived as comprehension of the desired characteristics for the

proposed framework, selection of suitable technique that can replicate those characteristics in

the proposed framework, and based on selected attributes plus technique, development of a

methodology for functionality of the proposed framework. These sub-concepts correspond

respectively to planning steps 2, 3 and 4 of the conceptual planning process for IMPF

development. Note that outcome for planning step 1 is already derived from analysis of Section

B, as explained in Chapter 11. The spatial context of the concept is fixed for case study of Dhaka.

12.4.2 Preferred data collection and analytical procedure

Examination of the research question enabled a broad understanding of the underlying

concepts and sub-concepts that need to be addressed to achieve a productive research design


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for IMPF development. This section identifies the rationale for selection of data type, collection

methods and analytical procedures that can efficiently measure the sub-concepts, thereby

facilitating response to research question as definitively as possible. The whole process is

divided into three major segments corresponding to the planning steps 2, 3 and 4.

If the proposed framework can reveal that it is able to develop a decision mechanism that can

logically distribute traffic (both NMPT and MT) across a network based on rational NMPT

restriction approach and thereby enable efficient coexistence of NMPT with MT; then it can be

inferred that the process is well achieved.

Comprehension of the desired characteristics for the proposed framework

To make sure that the proposed framework can best cater these needs, the desired

characteristics for the network were first defined. The characteristic analysis of the proposed

IMPF started with an examination of variable network environments (alternative NMPT-MT

restriction strategies) that the proposed framework could be based upon including current

strategy in practice (see Chapter 14 for description of these strategies).Such a network

environment selection would ensure that the restriction approach to select NMPT integration

into the transport system is based rather on needs than bias and will thereby assist in

addressing the first problem found in current system. To measure the degree of NMPT-MT

restriction strategy that is feasible and tenable in Dhaka, it needs to be evaluated from multi-

dimensional perspectives for robustness of derived strategic choice.

The suitability analysis as such included archival information analysis of previous relevant

strategic initiatives, observation and secondary data based land-use traffic intensity analysis and

primary data based stakeholder viewpoint analysis. To analyse the effectiveness of the current

NMPT-MT strategy that is in practice in Dhaka, in addition to the above evaluations, a more

detailed road functionality analysis of the existing transport network was made. The results of

these analyses led to the selection of the most suitable strategic approach for NMPT-MT

integration. The results also led to the delineation of desired attributes for the proposed

framework.

Rationale for archival analysis based previous strategic initiatives

The suitability discourse was initiated with analysis of previous NMPT management initiatives

undertaken in Dhaka from social, economic, environmental and transport perspectives,

interwoven with the need of selected alternative transport strategies. This was in order to

understand the prospects and constraints of those initiatives with reference to the selected set


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of alternative restriction strategies. Such analysis facilitates provision of a broad comparable

outlook of the proposed strategies and sets the scene for further analytical needs and types.

Due to the broader nature of the analysis, an archival data-based content analytical technique

was found to be the preferable option.

Rationale for land use-traffic intensity analysis

Ample evidence exists to demonstrate that land use and travel demands are strongly associated

(Kitamura, Mokhtarian and Leidet ,1997). It has also been hypothesized that, not only the

intensity, but the mixture of land uses, is associated with travel and mode specific demands

(Lenvine, 2006; Hanson & Giuliano, 2004; Geurs & Wee, 2003; Cerverho, 2000; Pushkarev &

Zupan, 1977). From such evidence of association between land use and travel, it can be inferred

that travel demand and thereby mode distribution can be affected by land use. Since

development of an IMPF requires understanding on land-type use, its relationship with road

hierarchy, effect of land-use patterns and corridor type on mode-specific traffic generation and

the surrounding environment, the land use -traffic interactivity analysis was conducted. The

fundamental aim of assessment was to enable exploration of the suitability of the alternative

strategies with reference to the prevailing road category, land use character and mode specific

traffic intensity generation. To be more precise, such analysis would enable depiction of inter

linkage among road category-land use type- mode type demand, which often varies for

different road levels. This inter-relationship was crucial in comprehending the suitability of

mode preference across land use and thereby coherence of revealed land character with

features of the strategies on offer.

For a better understanding within manageable scale and due to resource constraints in

administering overall city scale land use-traffic interactivity processes, the analysis for the study

was limited to six case corridors forming an area boundary and interconnected within them.

The corridors were so selected to represent major road classifications available for Dhaka;

namely primary, secondary, collector, local and narrow. Moreover, the corridors have mixed

and significant land use characteristics including the presence of major retail, commercial and

institutional hubs of the city. This would ensure a realistic, in-depth analysis of the land use -

traffic demand - mode suitability - activity characterisation for different network types and

provide a generic insight on the desired strategy for NMPT-MT integration pattern under such

circumstances. The presence of dynamic network characteristics such as existence of the only

physically segregated MT-NMPT link in the city on one of these case corridors further adds

value to the selection. This is because it would add another dimension in the analytical


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procedure, by demonstrating relationship and rationale of practiced mode restriction strategy

(NMPT) to available land character. Such corridor level land use –traffic interactivity analysis

approach, in the case of a large network, is also recommended by studies such as DITS (1994a),

RTA (2008) and EPA (2011). Ordinal, qualitative scaling was selected for comparative evaluation

of the land use- traffic interactivity result. See Chapter 13 for explanation on scaling aspect.

The physical feature and land use data needed for the analysis were primarily secondary

sourced, from relevant government agencies and aerial photography, in order to ensure

accuracy and viability. Primary data were only collected to match and update secondary

sources. Description of case study and data collection process are depicted in Chapter 13.

Rationale for stakeholder viewpoint based analysis

Review on previous research regarding NMPT management and formulation of transport

strategies towards their integration within transport system, as presented in Section B, has

depicted that the policy change initiatives have often been undertaken by a part of the

concerned stakeholder, the relevant government organisations. Consultation and public

participation have been neglected, in most instances with different NMPT stakeholders (users/

drivers/operators) resulting in a gap between the neesd of these groups and the decisions of

the policy makers. The resultant transport framework had therefore, often been pro-motorised

in character (see Section B for details).

In order to ensure the completeness of the evaluation process for suitable IMPF network, the

perception of NMPT stakeholders - decision makers, operators, drivers and users was

considered. A two level, quantitative interview based perception analysis was undertaken. At

mode specific level, the viewpoints on future NMPT service role and integration pattern with

MT were assessed to help feed into the decision for a suitable NMPT integration strategy. At a

more system level, their viewpoints on future preferred quality from the transport system of

Dhaka were undertaken to analyse the coherence of alternative transport strategies with

viewpoint result. The rationale for selection of relevant appropriate tools and techniques for

data collection and analysis of the stakeholder viewpoint process was described in Chapter 8.

Rationale for standard road functionality analysis

As a part of the suitable network environment analysis for proposed framework, the

effectiveness of current NMPT-MT strategy in achieving desired mode-balance at different

network levels were further investigated. The analysis purposed to examine the mode


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distribution coherence of the existing transport network of Dhaka in four categories of

standard network governing attributes- design attributes, functional attributes, frictional

attributes and impact attributes. Such an approach to network character analysis is

suggested by literature such as that from Brindle (1996), Marshall (1998; 2002; 2005), Eppell,

Bunker and McClurg (2001), Urban Services (2005) and RTS (2008).

Though a general character review of the network and the status of its impact in achieving

mode balance, with reference to alternative strategies, was made during archival analysis,

the road functional analysis was important to have a more criteria based, systematic

analysis for different levels of the network. In alignment with the study area selection

process of land-use traffic intensity analysis, the evaluation for this approach was limited at

corridor level, to five case corridors. The corridors were also kept the same in order to

maintain consistency in decision derivation on suitable integration environment.

Note that the field-observed, network condition for different sub-attributes of the four

selected attributes was primarily evaluated as qualitative entity. This is because no

quantitative thresholds are available for some of the measure of effectiveness (e.g. speed

and its function mobility, accessibility, public transport service frequency). The

heterogeneous character of traffic and scale of the relevant task also make it extremely

difficult to develop such a threshold within the scope of this research. For others, (e.g.

dominant linkage type, ease of movement), the best evaluation parameter is qualitative.

Ordinal scaling was selected for comparative evaluation of the network character.

The attributes information was sourced from a mixture of secondary and primary sources.

Secondary sources from government organisations and official documents were preferred

for ensuring data quality. Primary sources were selected when new data was required to be

collected and not available from other surveys (e.g. status of the major governing criteria).

Such multi-dimensional, evidence-based and mixed approach strategic evaluation methods for

assessing alternative restriction options ensured that the selected network environment for

IMPF is free from the ad-hoc character, mode bias and top-down deficiencies identified earlier.

The output of this analysis coupled with derivations made from Section B led to the

development of a desired and practicable set of attributes that needs to be reflected in the

proposed framework. It should be noted that strategic network modelling, a commonly used

tool for alternative transport condition evaluation, was not followed in this process. This is due

to some unavoidable and unrecoverable constraints, as described in following section.


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Why not modelling in the evaluation of alternative transport strategies?

It is understood that transport modelling is a technique for simplified representation of the real

world (Ortuzar & Williamson, 2005). It is therefore advised to analyse the impact of alternative

strategic options on transport network using such a tool. But to be assured of the quality of the

modelling procedure it needs to be rigorous and based on authentic and current data sources,

appropriate modelling environment to be able to replicate the dynamic socio-economic, land

use and traffic mix of the study area and validation of the same to establish its applicability.

With these criteria, it needs to be the focus tool of a study to allow the degree and extent of

detailing and effort to be rendered for quality outcome.

The endeavour of this research is not to forecast a planning option based on network

modelling, rather the development of an integrated planning framework. Selection of a suitable

network environment i.e. degree of NMPT-MT coexistence in that network environment is

important to develop the intended planning framework. The approach preferred to select such

a framework is multi-dimensional. This includes analysis of the suitable strategy to incorporate

NMPT and MT with reference to previous relevant strategic initiatives and lessons; analysis of

land use-traffic interactivity and what that indicates on desired demand pattern for NMPT and

MT; and analysis of the viewpoint of the stakeholders on future preferred attributes from the

Dhaka transport system and their correlation to alternative NMPT-MT integration strategy. If

attainable, the preferred approach also intends to test the alternative NMPT-MT strategic

combinations, based on network modelling, to determine impact with reference to operational

performance parameters (e.g. travel time, cost, comfort etc.).However, a number of constraints

were faced by the author while attempting to apply the modelling tool to project such

multimodal environment.

It was found from previous literature and consultation with experts in this field that four

strategic demand models have so far been developed for the Dhaka transport network. They

include, the strategic transport model developed by the Greater Dhaka Integrated Transport

Study (DITS) (1994) team, Dhaka Urban Transport Model (DUTM) developed by Habib (2002),

Urban Transport Planning Model (UTP Model) developed by the STP project team (2005), and

Dhaka Strategic Transport Model (DSTM) developed by Hasan (2007). Among these, in DITS

model, the distribution of mode and traffic assignment process including that of NMPT is not

considered as true representation of a real scenario as observed in Dhaka (Hasan, 2007).The

DUTM model is criticised heavily with reference to the validity of the model itself (with

reference to GEH statistics on the observed volume and estimated flow from the model) and its


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applicability in assessing the restriction impact (a complete ban in this case) of rickshaw on the

transport system (Bari, 2004). The UTP model was not suitable for this research since this model

only considered motorised trips in the mode choice modelling and thereby assignment process.

No walk trips and non-motorised trips were considered. Moreover, none of these three models

made any adjustment to replicate the true heterogeneous socio-economic, land use and

multimodal traffic mix needs of Dhaka when developing modelling framework (Hasan, 2007).

Regarding DSTM, availability information of the model became public in the first quarter of

2011. The key issues and constraints of the model are discussed in the following section, but the

usage possibility of this model could not be considered by the author due to time constraints

and some other data requirement constraints, as discussed in the following. The model could

be used in appropriately replicating the current MT-NMPT restriction implication on the

transport system better than the previous models, due to its rigorousness in attaining the

heterogeneity of different network characters (See Appendix E.2 for more detail features and

issues of the discussed four models). However, since the model is completely based on an STP

(2005) database as is the modal split, a comprehensive new SP survey is required with relation

to different alternative MT-NMPT transport strategies to develop a new modal split; necessary

matrix corrections are required to update the base trip tables and the model can then be

applied to compare the comparative performance impact analysis, as suggested by Bari (2004).

A considerable sample size would be required to conduct the SP survey, considering the spatial

coverage of Dhaka City and to maintain coherence with the previously undertaken survey

sample of STP (5,772 households). The selection and administration of such corrections and

survey is a highly demanding task, but would have been possible if that was the core focus of

the research. These activities are subject to reception of STP (2005) source data. The data is

available, however the author was not provided access to it on IP grounds.

Even with these data, primary and secondary, the question still arises about the application

suitability of such a unimodal model to portray a multimodal trade-off situation which includes

comparative NMPT performance analysis with other motorised modes, and which is based on a

modelling platform devised for homogeneous traffic of developed cities. In addition, the

inconsistent nature of traffic flow along a corridor due to road side interferences (e.g. illegal on-

street parking, vendor occupancy), a common phenomenon in developing cities such as Dhaka

and affecting output flow, travel times are unaccounted for in current state-of-the-art models.

It might therefore be logical to deduce that without any significant adjustment made to the

existing modelling platforms (e.g. EMME 2/3, most commonly used in developing cities and the


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base for the latter three models) or without the development of a modelling platform

completely dedicated to the needs and requirements of a developing city such as Dhaka, the

true comparative predictive analysis between MT and NMPT in such context might not be

realised to a pragmatic level. This reasoning prompted the author not to use this tool in

comparative evaluation of alternative NMPT-MT strategies and for subsequent selection of a

suitable network environment based on such analysis.

Selection of suitable technique to replicate characteristics of the proposed framework

A case for functional hierarchy in this research

In order to cater for the necessity to develop a decision tool based on the characterisation

of the needs as revealed during planning step 2, a suitable methodology is thereby

required. A technique that can facilitate logical distribution of NMPT and other modes

across the network, based on the functional need of different parts of the fixed facilities

(network links) and that of the operating flow entities (modes).This would be a method that

could minimise the conflict between these interactive elements of road function-abutting

land use-traffic type in operation while maintaining the need for access and mobility of

different transport users. A procedure that would enable the operational need for

management of the road network and their hierarchical inter-level integration to facilitate

efficient operation of the conflicting modes like MT and NMPT in achieving network

sustainability, improved amenity for the users/city inhabitants.

If we compare these needs with the conceptual framework of the functional hierarchy

concept, the key usefulness of the idea lay in its capability to classify an entity based on

functional significance and in a sequential order, enabling logical optimisation of the

operational needs from that entity. Based on these underlying principles, the application of

the said concept to the development of a revised layout for Dhaka transport network which

is a modified road functional hierarchy, was found to be quite logical. According to

Department of Transport and Main Roads (DTMR) (2031), planning and managing of mode-

road interactive deficiencies is found to be much more efficient using a road functional

hierarchy due to its strength to allocate right traffic types to the appropriate roads.

Moreover, Marshall (2004) emphasized that this method offers itself as a tool to assist in

planning the interface between land use, traffic and road systems on which the traffic

operates, and to appropriately link roadways in the road system. Eppell et al (2001) added

the potential of the process in optimising the transport network’s access, mobility, safety

and mode operational efficiency.Marshall (2004; 2005) suggested that road functional


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hierarchy as a system of integrated network planning is popularly used to avoid conflict

between the operation and management of various mode categories such as MT and non-

motorised transport (NMT). In summary, the inherent character of the road hierarchy

process to be flexible and adoptable; adjusting to changing road categories, functional

demand attribute shifts, variable traffic split and network scale, makes it most suitable for

layout of the proposed decision tool. A mode-road functional hierarchy based planning

framework tool as such would be able to utilise these aforementioned features of the

technique to appropriately allocate traffic to category of road; linking the design,

functional, frictional and impact need of the road category to the operational need of the

mode types, MT and NMT/NMPT.

Development of a methodology for functionality of the framework

A case for a partial restriction based mode-road interactive and hierarchical decision tool

The core of the IMPF was to develop a tool that can be applied to allocate suitable mode to

suitable road category, that is to develop a process to derive to decisions while setting an

appropriate road hierarchy for an area. Therefore, a mode-road interactive tool was developed.

In order to address the need of having a mixture of MT and NMPT at different levels of the

network, based on the governing attributes of different network elements as suggested in

planning step 2, and to follow an hierarchical approach in their prioritisation of distribution as

suggested in planning step 3, the method was adopted for structuring the decision tool.

A case for case study approach for analysing applicability of framework tool

In order to evaluate the applicability of the framework in deriving desired outcomes as set

in Chapter 11, a corridor level case study approach was undertaken. A similar area

boundary to that selected for land use-traffic interactivity analysis and network character

analysis was adopted to maintain homogeneity in evaluation. But ranking of links and the

corresponding modal priority assignment was conducted for all interconnected links to

impart an area level scenario of the tool. The impact of the tool in addressing needs of the

transport network or otherwise is thus assessed, in detail at the local level while informing

on broader understanding at the system level. From a transport network planning viewpoint,

Hook (2002) and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2011) suggested that this corridor or

sub-area level evaluation provides opportunities for more focused and detailed consideration of

sustainability measures and strategies. Such measures can provide a broader understanding of


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the system wide situation as well as assisting in project level decision making under time and

resource constraints.

From a more generic perspective, Merriam (1988) cited such case study analysis as a preferred

choice in examining the effectiveness of a developed tool for those researchers who are also

seeking insight, discovery and interpretation from their research outcome, in addition to

hypothesis testing only and where there is a desire for holistic description and explanation of

revealed output. Stake (1981) suggested that such an approach can derive more comprehensive

and contextual end results integrated with researchers’ own experience and understanding.

Seperich, Woolverton, Beierlein, and Hahn (1996) and Braunstein (2004) have further described

the positive effect of such a case study approach, emphasizing that it facilitates easier decision

making, improves the analytical quality of the decision, reduces the time required to make the

decisions, and increases the frequency of correct decisions.

Strategic guideline for framework implementation

Due to scope of this study, relevant implementation guidelines to facilitate the functionality

of the proposed decision tool were kept at broader level. However, to ensure succinctness,

the strategies were sub-divided by multiple sector based elements corresponding to the

tool structure, with specification of different degrees of attention for each.

The discussion on the adopted methodology to answer research question 3, thereby

facilitating development of the proposed framework, clearly revealed that there is no single

technique that was used. Rather, it was an amalgam of quantitative and qualitative

approaches as identified in methodology literature. This gives the research the character of

a mixed-method design. It is therefore necessary that the norms of this type of research

need to be closely reflected in the adopted research design. The coherence of the adopted

research design with reference to mixed-method design is discussed in next section.

12.5 Coherence of the preferred approach for research design to

standard theoretical inference

Creswell (2003) is considered a primary author in mixed-method research and has been a

strong source for reference in most of the research methodology literature discussed in Section

12.3. Creswell suggested in his research methodology some discussion about three major

research methods including quantitative method, qualitative method and mixed-method


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approaches. However, he went on to suggest that in the case of adopting any of these methods,

the chosen approach should correspond to the three framework element notions or elements

of inquiry. They are ‘knowledge claims’, general procedure of research called ‘strategy of

inquiry’ and detailed procedure of data collection, analysis and writing called ‘methods’. Each of

the said elements has different characteristics, depending upon the methodological approach

undertaken. Figure 12.2 shows the relationship among the elements of inquiry, approaches to

research and design process of research as suggested by Creswell (2003).

Figure 12.2: Inter-linkage among elements of enquiry and derivation of research approach and design

process from these elements

Source Creswell 2003

Since each research approach is expected to reflect certain characteristics of the elements of

inquiry, the following discussion aims at cross-examining the coherence of the element

characteristics expected by mixed method approach and their alignment with the developed

design for the proposed framework. Such a process would ensure the rationale of the adopted

research design, mixed method design.

12.5.1 Alternative knowledge claims

Concepts

According to Creswell (2003), knowledge claims are the paths researchers follow to learn about

their subject. There are four major notions related to knowledge of claims. They include

postpositivism, constructivism, advocacy/participatory and pragmatism. A fifth notion,

Elements of Inquiry

Alternative

Knowledge Claims

Strategies of inquiry

Methods

Conceptualised by the

researcher

Approached to Research

Quantitative

Qualitative

Mixed Methods Translated into

practice

Design Process of Research

Questions

Theoretical Lens

Data Collection

Data Analysis

Write-up


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transformative, was later added by Creswell and Plano Clark (2011). These primarily

philosophical schools of thoughts are attempted to be linked with research method paradigm

since the 1960s (Hanson, Clark, Petska, Creswell & Creswell, 2005).

Postpositive knowledge claims that findings about human actions and behaviour cannot be

ascertained with full confidence (Creswell, 2003). This notion is interested in determining cause

and effects. Pospositivists narrow down their focus to study the relationship among a few

variables. They begin with a theory and gather data to defend or disapprove it. The suitability of

this philosophical paradigm is often argued to be linked to quantitative methods only (Hanson

et al., 2005). On the contrary, constructivism does not simply rely on a few variables. Rather,

according to Creswell (2003), the constructivists attempt to gain experience from people’s

experience and make close consideration of the environment in which people live or work. This

is what leads to the development of a theory rather than a predefined one. This paradigm is

also often argued to be associated with quantitative methods (Sale and Brazil, 2004).

Compared to these two, the advocacy/participatory paradigm, also known as transformative

paradigm, prefers to advocate in favour of marginalised people. Creswell and Plano Clark (2011)

suggested that this thought focuses on inequality and injustice, which shape a power and

privilege reality. The notion is interested in analysing power and privilege determinants of

reality for communities engaged in this work. Iniquity is blended with politics and political

agenda in such a knowledge claim approach and is closely associated with qualitative methods

(Mackenzie & Knipe, 2006) though some also prefer them to be associated with mixed-method

(Mertens, 2003). Contrasting to all these thoughts, pragmatism focuses on understanding

problems and is much more flexible in terms of interwoven capability to a research design

(Creswell, 2003). The researchers following this thought have a choice to select and mix

methods for research purpose. Pragmatism is seen as the paradigm that provides the

underlying philosophical framework for mixed-methods research (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003;

Mackenzie & Knipe, 2006).This knowledge claim can answer what and how type research

questions better and considered the best foundation for mixed-method design (Hanson et al.,

2005).

Correlation of the concept to current research design

If we compare the focus area, nature of exploration process and the end target of the

aforementioned knowledge claims, it is quite clear that pragmatism best suits the character of

knowledge that this research design is aiming to achieve. This is because the proposed

framework design process is based on initial problem understanding and planning,


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development of techniques accordingly and has the flexibility to adjust the research

question/hypothesis based on process outcomes. Moreover, the topic itself is a pragmatic

theme, attempting to investigate ‘what’ enquiry and ‘how’ enquiry. The framework design

section also demonstrated the requirement of the research to apply mix-methods rather than a

single one. All these factors indicate the close proximity of the research to the pragmatism

paradigm.

12.5.2 Strategies of inquiry

Concepts

Strategies of inquiry are types of qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods designs or models

that provide specific directions for procedures in a research design (Creswell, 2009).It is the

primary investigation approach undertaken in research to realise the questions posed and

objectives set. Among these, according to Maxwell and Loomis (2003), quantitative and

qualitative approaches could differ on many facets. This could be based on the type of data

used (textual or numerical), the type of enquiry (exploratory or confirmatory), methods of

information collection (quantitative or qualitative) and type of analysis and inference (statistical

or qualitative). Creswell suggested that the common strategies of inquiry involved in

quantitative approach include experimental, quasi-experimental, correlation and survey.

Qualitative approach includes grounded theory, ethnography, narrative research (archival and

content analysis), biography, phenomenology and case study. The literature review of

methodologies as presented in Section 12.3 also reflects similar typologies, indicating the long

lasting practice of these by researchers.

A mixed method approach on the other hand is a relatively recent approach. Campbell and Fisk

were the first to initiate the approach in 1959 to study the validity of psychological traits

(Creswell, 2009). According to Campbell and Fisk as cited in Creswell (2009),

Recognizing that all methods have limitations, researchers felt that biases inherent in

any single method could neutralize or cancel the biases of other methods. Triangulating

data sources—a means for seeking convergence across qualitative and quantitative

methods—was born. By the early 1990s, the idea of mixing moved from seeking

convergence to actually integrating or connecting the quantitative and qualitative data.

Creswell and Plano Clark (2011) further suggested that under the mixed method approach,

quantitative and qualitative data can be merged into one large database or the results used

side-by-side to reinforce each other. The essence in all these arguments is the fact that the

mixed-method approach plays a part by mitigating the biases, balancing the weakness of one


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approach with the strength of another. For instance, if the purpose of research is to generate

new ideas and test them, neither qualitative nor quantitative approaches alone would be

sufficient; rather, both have to be applied to realise optimum results. Morse (2003) argued that

the use of quantitative and qualitative methods together aids in gaining complete picture of a

phenomenon in these circumstances.

The strategies of inquiry for a mixed-method approach can be classified into three broad

categories by the order and process of using the quantitative and qualitative approaches

Creswell (2003; 2009).They are sequential, concurrent and transformative. Sequential method

involves elaboration on or expanding on the findings of one method with another method. For

example, the study matter starts with a quantitative method in which a theory or concept is

tested, followed by a qualitative method for detailed exploration with a few cases or individuals.

By comparison, with concurrent mixed method, the researcher converges or merges

quantitative and qualitative data in parallel order to provide a comprehensive analysis of the

research problem. In this process, both quantitative and qualitative data are collected at the

same time and then integrated into the interpretation of the overall results. Another key

character in this strategy is that the researcher may embed one smaller form of data within

another larger data collection in order to analyse different question types. Transformative

mixed method uses both quantitative and qualitative approaches and the sequence can be

either sequential or concurrent. But the researcher uses a theoretical lens as a perspective

within research design. In all of these strategies, the research design can have equal proportion

or more of one of the two basic techniques - quantitative and qualitative.


It is evident from the above discourse that a mixed method research design, with a combination

of quantitative and qualitative inquiry approaches, may complement and supplement each

other, allowing strengthening the set propositions through triangulation. Creswell (2003; 2009)

emphasized that it is now well established that the use of mixed methods makes a study more

robust. If we focus to the purpose of this research design, the necessity of both the techniques

were found important as discoursed in research framework design section(Section 12.4).

Qualitative methods such as archival analysis, land use-traffic interactivity analysis and road

functionality based network character analysis was important in developing a suitable network

environment. The stakeholder viewpoint-based quantitative analysis was important to

supplement the suitability analysis process. The qualitative functional hierarchy process for


Page 208

layout of the framework tool and case study application process to test its validity was also

deemed necessary. Such a triangulated approach enabled the development and validation of

the proposed framework.

Using only qualitative or quantitative methods alone would not have been able to conclude to

the desired end and with sufficient evidence for the framework development-related research

question. The use of integration and a triangulation based, mixed method approach in this

research, is therefore believed to have aided in comprehensively addressing the research

purpose and needs. Moreover, due to the simultaneous order and requirement of using the

quantitative and qualitative approaches, the concurrent mixed method was found to be the

most suitable strategy.

12.5.3 Methods

Concepts

The third major part in the elements of inquiry is research methods that involve data collection,

analysis and interpretation that the researcher proposes for the research. The choice of method

depends on whether the intent is to specify the information type to be collected or allow it to

emerge from project participants (Creswell, 2003).Creswell (2009) added that, depending on

the degree of predetermined nature of the methods, their use of close-ended versus open-

ended questioning, forms of data drawing, and their focus on numeric versus nonnumeric data

analysis, the suitable methods should be selected. With this context, a quantitative method

should be suitable if the data methods are predetermined, the major instrument is questions,

data forms are performance data/attitude data/observation data/census data, and the

analytical and interpretation process is statistical. On the contrary, if the research character

needs an emerging method, open-ended question, interview data/observation data/document

data/audio-visual data forms, text/image based analysis, and thematic/pattern interpretation,

qualitative method are suitable. Anything that demands a combination of both these methods

needs a mixed method of data collection and analysis elements. It is suggested in most of the

methodology literature such as De Vaus (2001), Sommer and Sommer (2002), Creswell (2003),

Yin (2003, Zeisel (2006), Neuman (2000), Creswell (2009) and Monette et al (2011) that

commonly used mixed method data collection involves census and other secondary data

sources, instruments such as questionnaire and checklists and through field-based observation

and interview.


Page 209


The character of the current research design demonstrated that the data collection to be a mix

of predetermined and emerging methods. Predetermined because it includes quantitative,

structured questionnaire with closed ended question only (e.g. land use survey, stakeholder

viewpoint survey on current and future role of NMPT and on preferred transport attributes for

the future Dhaka). Emerging because it includes qualitative, open ended questions (e.g.

stakeholder viewpoint survey on suggestions regarding future improvement of NMPT). The data

drawing forms were multiple including census data, document data, transport database of the

government, digital and hard copy maps, interview data, unobtrusive observation data. The

intention was to have a combination of information, partially specified (e.g. close ended

interview and unobtrusive field observation) and partially to be emerged from participants (e.g.

the open ended interview). The analytical procedure as described in the research design section

indicated the need to use a combination of text analysis, image analysis and statistical analysis.

Finally, the interpretation was a combination of thematic analysis (e.g. functional hierarchy

analysis), statistical/quantitative interpretation (e.g. stakeholder viewpoint analysis) and pattern

interpretation (e.g. preferred attribute selection for the proposed framework). If we compare

these characters with the method selection criteria of Creswell as aforementioned, it

demonstrates the closest proximity to the suitable features of mixed methods.

12.5.4 Derivation to the best approach

Based on the character analysis of the research design with reference to the key elements of

inquiry and problem, it can be derived that the best approach for framework design of this

research is the mixed-method approach as already chosen in Section 12.4. See Figure 12.3 for

the derived linkage between these elements and the chosen research approach.


Page 210

Figure 12.3: Inter-linkage among elements of inquiry, derived research approach and design process

Source Developed by author based on Creswell (2003) and derived research framework

Apart from the elements of inquiry and research problem type, personal experience and

audience could also play a role in selection of an approach (Creswell, 2003; 2009). Investigators

with skill in scientific writing, unobtrusive observation techniques, structured interview and

numerical analysis would have a bias towards quantitative research design. Conversely, those

with expertise in descriptive writing, literature-based text analysis and unstructured interview

would prefer qualitative design. Researchers with both forms of skills should adopt the mixed

method. For the latter, the researcher received training and expert guidance to gain

competence in administering the chosen mixed method approach, through university-run

training and workshops. The audience aspect was however not considered in such method

selection process.

12.6 Summary

This chapter presented the rationale behind the methodology adopted for IMPF development.

The rationale description started with examination of research question to construct the

concept, generate of measurable sub-concepts and justify the data collection and analysis

procedure adopted in evaluating those sub-concepts. A review of broad research approaches

enabled deduction of the most suitable analysis approaches for the posed research question.

Elements of Inquiry & results

for this research

Approach to this Research

Quantitative

Qualitative

MIXED METHOD (Combination of

quantitative &

qualitative approach)

Translated into

practice by the

researcher

Conceptualised by

the researcher based

on standard practices

& research needs

Alternative

Knowledge Claims

Strategies of Inquiry

Data collection &

Analysis Method

PRAGMATIC

PARADIGM

CONCURRENT

MIXED METHOD

MIXED METHOD

Design Process of

Research

Questions

Theoretical Lens

Data Collection

Data Analysis

Write-up

Validation


Page 211

The descriptive approach, supplemented by explanatory approach, was thus found to be best

suited to answer the research question.

Examination of the concept and three sub-concepts derived from the research question,

together with the comprehension of different available research methods and their context,

enabled development of suitable analytical methods for evaluation of those sub-concepts. Since

the sub-concepts correspond to the planning steps set in Chapter 11 for IMPF development,

such a process also allowed the selection of methods to measure of these key planning steps.

For evaluation of planning step 1, the necessary measures were readily available from an

analysis of Section B. For planning step 2, which was to set up the suitable network

environment and preferred character for the proposed framework, the suitable methodologies

were found to be archival analysis, land use-traffic interactivity analysis, stakeholder viewpoint

analysis and standard road functionality analysis.

For planning step 3, the aim of which was to determine a technique that can best replicate the

need and characteristics of the proposed framework, the functional hierarchy method was

proving to be most effective. For planning step 4, the aim of which was to structure and

functionalise a tool that can allow balanced distribution of mode across a network, a mode-road

interactive method based decision tool was devised. This was found most suitable since it

allowed development of a particular blend of NMPT-MT modal priority corresponding to the

need of different network levels, while considering the operating character of the modes. In

order to demonstrate the validity of the proposed tool in achieving the set desired outcomes, a

case study application process was also administered.

The review and analysis of research framework design found mixed method to the best method

for achieving the answers of research questions 3, 4 and to validate the hypothesis. The

resultant method was further cross-examined with standard theoretical inferences to evaluate

their validation with reference to key elements of inquiry. This process confirmed the

appropriateness of the concurrent mixed method as the best methodology to follow for the

development of the IMPF. The next chapter describes the application of the research

methodology.

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13CHAPTER 13: APPLICATION OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

13.1 Introduction

Chapter 12 described the rationale of mixed methods adopted to address the research question

related to planning framework development. The chapter also established the rationale of the

selected methods with reference to standard theoretical inferences. This chapter describes the

sequential methodological steps that are followed to accomplish the framework development

and operation process for Dhaka.

The chapter content is divided into four major sections, corresponding to the planning steps

devised in Chapter 11. Section 13.2 describes initial planning process (purpose, scope and

rationale) for the framework development. Section 13.3 describes the development process of

background network environment and the layout tool for the framework. Section 13.4

describes the development structure and functionality process of the framework. The

instruments and procedures used at different stages are also described during the process. The

endeavour is to ensure that the methodological sequence adopted enable address of the

objectives, required to be accomplished in order to develop the framework.

The key stages of the methodological process, adopted in framework development are shown

in Figure 13.1.


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Figure 13.1: Key methodological stages in framework development process

Structure & functionality of the

framework

Status analysis of NMPT: Dhaka

condition review & learning

Status analysis of NMPT: Global

condition review & learning

Need for a planning framework in order

to facilitate balanced integration of

NMPT with MT

Building scene for integrated

planning framework

Dhaka Case study rationale & selection

Decision support system developed for

optimising NMPT operation in mixed traffic

Planning step 4

Planning step 1

RQ 3, 4

Objective 5

Background

investigation on

NMPT status

Deficiencies identified in management and

co-existence of NMPT with other modes

Research

Void

Initial Planning: Purpose, scope &

rationale for framework established

Y

Hypothesis test:

Is NMPT significant

as a regular public

transport mode?

Analyse reasons &

suggest alternative provision

N

Y

N Analyse reasons &

suggest alternative provision

Y

N

Hypothesis test:

Does the tool facilitate

better balance

between NMPT & MT?

Analyse reasons &

refine strategies for

layout of framework

Best restriction strategy & layout method

determined for NMPT integration

Planning step 2, 3

RQ 3, 4

Objective 3,4

Hypothesis test:

Is NMPT significant

as a regular public

transport mode?

Current role established & future need

determined for NMPT in Dhaka transport system RQ1, 2

Objective 2

Current role established & future need

determined for NMPT in developing city

transport system

RQ1, 2

Objective 1


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13.2 Initial planning process for framework development

The first stage of the planning framework development process was to define the purpose,

scope, and rationale for the same. Background investigation in Section A and B has established

the magnitude of problem, which is a lack of balance in incorporating non-motorised public

transport (NMPT) with motorised transport (MT) in the current Dhaka transport system. The

investigation also found that since NMPT has a substantial role in catering travel demand in

Dhaka, there is a clear need for developing a framework or tool that can facilitate in enabling

balanced coexistence. The purpose and rationale of the framework was thus established. The

scope of the framework was limited to the Dhaka case study, consistent with the coverage of

background investigation and due to reasons explained in Chapter 3.

13.3 Building scene for planning framework

This stage of the methodology is divided into two major sub-stages. First sub-stage involves

comprehension of the desired characteristics of the proposed framework, corresponding to

planning step 2. This is followed by a selection of suitable tools that can replicate the need of

the proposed framework, corresponding to planning step 3. The aims from these two stages are

to prepare the platform for layout and operationalization of the framework.

13.3.1 Comprehension of the desired characteristics for the proposed

framework

Character analysis of alternative transport strategies

This process commenced with analysing suitable network environment or restriction strategy

for the proposed framework. A combination of four alternative strategies, depending on degree

of NMPT restriction with MT was devised. The selection was made on the basis of government

policy initiatives undertaken for NMPT integration at different periods, review of Dhaka

transport plans, stakeholder viewpoint analysis and consultation with academic mentors. Three

methods were used to administer the suitability analysis of alternative strategies.

Archival analysis

This method went through secondary data sources and transport plan-based review and

analysis of the compatibility and suitability of the alternative transport strategies. The analysis

was performed especially with reference to current implications or possible future implication

of the alternative strategies on the transport system, compatibility with dominant network


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characters and coherence to future transport plans of Dhaka. The comparative advantages

(benefit) and disadvantage (cost) of each alternative strategy was thus evaluated.

Land use-traffic interactivity analysis

This method assessed particular land uses in attracting traffic and their distribution pattern,

along a corridor and with reference to a land use block at both directions of the corridor. For

uniformity and convenience of analysis across different corridors, a land use block on a corridor

is defined as the area bounded by that corridor in front, two consecutive side roads on either

side, constituting one or multiple plots at one plot depth from the corridor boundary and

forming a segment within the corridor. The gross traffic attraction capability of a land use block

or a segment by mode type was measured to understand the traffic intensity of that block-.

existing trend / future potential of the given land use block or segment section in generating/

attracting a vehicle type. See Figure 13.2 for sample land use blocks.

Land use - traffic interactivity analysis was administered with respect to five major network

levels, incorporating six corridors and forming an area boundary. They included Mirpur Road

(Dhanmondi Road 27 intersection northbound and Pilkhana Road intersection southbound)

(Primary Road) (Corridor 1); Satmasjid Road (Dhanmondi Road 16 northbound and Dhanmondi

Road 2 southbound) (Secondary Road) (Corridor 2); Dhanmondi Road 27 (Mirpur Road

northbound and Satmasjid Road southbound) (Collector Road) (Corridor 3A); Pilkhana Road

(Mirpur Road northbound and New Market Vegetable Market Road southbound) (Collector

Road) (Corridor 3B); Dhanmondi Road 12A (Dhanmondi Road 11 northbound and Dhanmondi

Road 8A southbound) (Access Road) (Corridor 4); and the road opposite of Dhanmoni 12A

(Narrow Road) (Corridor 5) (See Figure 13.2 for case corridors) . For each corridor type, applied

major land use categories were as prescribed in DCC (2003). They are residential, commercial

(retail, office), industrial, institutional (educational and training facility), mixed, administrative,

recreational/open space, restricted and special.


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lLegend

Start and end for Corridor 1 Start and end for Corridor 4

Start and end for Corridor 2 Start and end for Corridor 5

Start and end for Corridor 3A,3B

Example of land use blocks at 1 plot depth

Figure 13.2: The study area with selected corridors for land use-traffic interactivity analysis


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During the field data collection in late 2009 the DAP (2008) land use map, which is the most

updated official map of the area, was used as a base map. The necessary updates with

reference to land usage and building height for each block, in both directions, were made from

field observation. In order to derive major land use type for a block incorporating both

directions, they were recorded by their usage majority within the block. The similar process was

followed to update and record information on major building heights within each block.

Traffic intensity by land use blocks were divided into qualitative scales, since it was not possible

to gather and assess the data on a quantitative spectrum (see Appendix F1 for detailed

explanation on difficulties that led to non-opting of quantitative data based evaluation

approach). The primarily qualitative scales adopted for intensity evaluation were - very high,

high, moderate, low and very low. - each level representing a degree of traffic intensity in

descending order of volume based on vehicular generation /attraction observed by land use

block from field, over time and by road categories. Such scale structure and evaluation

approach was devised following the concept of fuzzy-set theory and based on the need for this

very analysis. Application of the theory in social science suggests that, for complex construction

of categories of measurement and where measurement is based on qualitative evidence, it is

often useful to develop a scale where relevant objects can have varying degree of membership

in the set with reference to which the measurement is constructed and under diverse domain,

for better inter-comparison (Ragin, 2000). Fuzzy-sets and their scoring, as Ragin (2000) added,

can also be carefully tailored in social science to fit the theoretical concepts, through infusion of

substantive knowledge and solid grasp of theoretical relevance.

The objective of this analysis required an approach that enables qualitative evidence

(observation and classification of mode specific traffic generation by judgement) and

substantive knowledge-based evaluation of traffic intensity by mode (objects), with relation to

land use types (their membership in reference set) at different road levels (heterogeneous

domains). Fuzzy set and its application guideline as suggested by Ragin (2000) was found a

rationale match in enabling such relative inter-comparison of objects by sets and domains. In

addition, the approach allows assignment of scores to object and by sets to have an easier

comprehension of the relative status. Based on these contexts, the aforementioned scale

division was assigned for evaluation of the mode specific traffic intensity, with reference to their

set membership criteria, by land use type. For scoring the membership, seven-value fuzzy set

was used with a ratio scale of equal interval. The relationship between verbal expression and

the corresponding score is laid out as follows (Table. 13.1).


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Table 13.1: Continuous Fuzzy Set with scale divisions and corresponding scores

Expression of membership (traffic intensity by mode

with relation to land use)

Score

Absolute intensity (Full membership) 1

Very high intensity 0.83

High intensity 0.67

Moderate intensity (Cross over point) 0.5

Low intensity 0.34

Very low intensity 0.17

No Intensity (Full non-membership) 0

Source: Derived by the author based on Ragin (2000) and scope of this analysis

The field observation in this regard was made for one working day, between 7 am to 9pm which

incorporated business hours for major land uses and types along these corridors. The

observation started with corridor 1 at Mirpur Road-Pilkhana Road intersection and finished with

corridor 5 at Dhanmondi Road No. 12/A-Sher-E-Bangla Road intersection. Multiple and

continuous observations of each corridor were made by the author, in a continuous loop

pattern, to ensure relative homogeneity of observed output. Observation and scaling by

multiple surveyors would have greater chance of resulting in different results of intensity, as the

judgement level of each person differs to others. The scaled observation as such for each block

or segment of a corridor provided a corridor level comprehension of traffic intensity by land

use. The results were then compared to the characteristics of alternative transport strategies to

understand the coherence and comparative suitability of each to the outcome.

The key tool for data collection was a land use-traffic interactivity field survey sheet, one for

each corridor (see Appendix F2 for sample survey sheet). MS Excel, DAP base map and Google

map were used for analytical process.

Stakeholder viewpoint analysis

This method went through interview-based quantitative analysis of stakeholders related to

NMPT industry on the future preferred integration level between NMPT and MT and on their

future preferred quality in Dhaka’s transport system. Outputs from these data were then

synthesized with the characteristics of alternative transport strategies to determine the

coherence of the strategies to desired demands of stakeholders. The key data collection

instrument was interview schedule while SPSS and MS Excel tools were used for data analysis.

The detailed methodology for data collection and procedure of analysis in this context were

described in Chapter 8.The results of these analyses put forward the preliminary preferred

strategy for the proposed framework.


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Character analysis of current restriction strategy

Standard road functionality analysis of current transport network

This method analysed the current network character with reference to the key criteria that

govern the functionality of different modes at a given network level. The analysis was made for

a number of sub-criteria under the four governing criteria-design, functional, frictional and

impact. The expected and observed operating status of different modes, primarily divided into

NMPT and MT, were assessed against these governing criteria.

Regarding the analysis process, a primarily qualitative framework of the expected state of

governing attributes for different road types was first established. Previous transport plans,

government documents and practising transport professionals in Dhaka were consulted in this

process. In cases where no information on standard condition was available in local documents,

international standards were used with modifications, based on local experience and in

consultation with academic mentors, to suit to local conditions. This provided a reference base

for the comparison of the governing criteria observed on site to that expected for different road

types in Dhaka. Detail definitions of these criteria are presented in Appendix G2 and the

description of scaling system to evaluate the criteria are explained in Table 14.3.

For comparison of field operating status of MT and NMPT to criteria of reference framework,

field observation was made for one working day in late 2009, between 7 am to 9pm and for the

same corridors to that of land use survey, in order to maintain coherence in observation

duration and pattern of observed traffic between these surveys. The observation started with

corridor 1 at Mirpur Road-Pilkhana Road intersection and finished with corridor 5 at Dhanmondi

Road No. 12/A-Sher-E-Bangla Road intersection. Multiple and continuous observations of each

corridor were made by the author, under a continuous loop pattern, in order to ensure relative

homogeneity of observed output.

The design features (geometry and road type) of the corridors were cross-examined and new

information was added, as required by using Google Earth image as the base map. The

frictional, impact and functional features were observed on field and recorded by the author in

coherence with the developed qualitative framework scale. For journey speed (defined as

running speed plus delay) of MT and NMT, they were collected at peak periods at each of these

corridors. In order to record speed of MT traffic and NMT traffic concurrently in a stream, which

varies due to their distinct operating speed, two additional surveyors were included. The author

recorded the journey speed with NMPT as survey vehicle to determine the stream speed for


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NMT. Between the two additional surveyors, one recorded the journey speed with car as the

survey vehicle and the other with bus as survey vehicle to have a better understanding of

stream speed for MT. The peak periods for each corridor were determined by consultation with

DCC, local practising transport officials and local inhabitants along these corridors.

The commonly defined peak periods for all six corridors were - 7am to 9am and 4pm to 7pm.An

additional interim peak between morning and evening, 12pm to 2pm, was assigned for Mirpur

Road, Sat Masjid Road and Dhanmondi Road No. 27 due to concentration of schools at these

corridors. Extended after hours peak periods were required to be surveyed, due to

concentration of retail outlets on Mirpur Road, Sat Masjid Road, Dhanmondi Road No. 27 and

Pilkhana Road, which usually remain open until 10 pm. The long opening hours and presence of

significant quantity of private universities on the former two corridors was also key attractor for

late traffic. In accordance to these characteristic, Mirpur Road and Sat Masjid Road were

assigned with additional peak of 7pm to 9pm while Dhanmondi Road No. 27 and Pilkhana Road

with additional peak of 7pm to 8pm.

As aforementioned, the surveyed outputs were then compared with the general expected

standard for these attributes, as sourced from the qualitative reference framework. Such

analysis provided a corridor level comprehension of operational coherence of the modal

composition for different network levels as enabled by current NMPT-MT integration strategy,

in comparison to the desired performance for those levels.

The key tool for data collection was the road functionality attribute field survey sheet, one for

each corridor (see Appendix G1 for sample survey sheet). MS Excel, DCC road database, DITS

(1994b), DUTP (1996b), STP (2005c) and Google map were used for analytical process.

Archival analysis of other characteristics feature

The coherence or otherwise of the current NMPT-MT integration strategy was further

compared with government guidelines, in particular future transport plans and their needs, in

order to understand the compliance of the strategy to these requirements. The preferred

NMPT-MT integration strategy was also selected during the process described in this section.

Derivation of preferred attribute for the framework

Based on characteristics analysis of alternative transport strategies and in-depth analysis of the

current network character, the deficiencies and requirements for the future transport system of

Dhaka were derived. This together with the review and analysis of Section B enabled the key


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preferred attributes desired from the proposed framework to enhance quality of NMPT

coexistence with MT to be identified.

13.3.2 Selection of suitable technique to replicate characteristics of the

proposed framework

The desired characteristics analysis of the proposed framework indicated the need for a tool

that can address the current mismatch between distribution and prioritisation of modes, to suit

the characteristics of different network levels. Functional hierarchy was found to be the most

suitable tool in minimising this imbalance and is used as the method of structuring the

framework tool.

In order to establish the suitability of the functional hierarchy tool in devising a modified road

hierarchy for Dhaka, the conceptual framework and common application areas of the tool were

first reviewed. In particular, the relevance and utility of the tool in network planning, and in the

pattern of deficiency as posed in the character analysis section of Dhaka, were considered. The

validity of the tool for the cause was thus established. In order to restrengthen the utility claim

of the tool, the applicability results of the functional hierarchy technique in addressing similar

multimodal integration initiatives were also analysed. Based on these, this technique was

selected to be most suitable to layout the proposed framework.

13.4 Structure and functioning of the framework

Based on the restriction pattern selected and layout technique suggested, the final stage of the

methodology describes the process to structure and operationalise the framework,

corresponding to planning step 4. The process is divided into three major, interlinked sub-

stages. The endeavour from this stage was to have a decision tool that may be applied at

various network areas of Dhaka, in order to logically and sustainably rank the road categories

and prioritise modal distribution under these categories to optimise the operational

performance of the transport system.

13.4.1 Development of mode-road functional hierarchy tool

The framework tool, as explained in Chapter 12, was structured based on a network

environment that is characterised by partial restriction of NMPT with MT and applying the

concept of functional hierarchy. The modal priority composition, as such, was divided into three

broad categories with MT preference at one end of network priority spectrum, NMPT at the

other end and a mixed priority in between these two levels. This suited to the functional need

of the network and the operating character of the available modes.


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This preliminary set of network modal priorities was then analysed and expanded by comparing

it to the standard governing the attributes desired at different network levels, as found during

road functionality analysis. A corridor is allocated a particular position within a road hierarchy

and with a certain priority combination of modal composition, if the functional need of that

road category corresponds to a set status of network governing attributes previously derived;

and complements operating characteristics of modes assigned. A total of six road levels with

one combination of governing attributes and modal priorities for each, distributed in

descending hierarchical structure of MT to NMPT and corresponding to the changing

hierarchical functional network needs, were thus derived.

13.4.2 Case study application of the tool

The decision tool developed was applied to a case study, part of Dhanmondi and its

surroundings, in order to examine the functionality of the tool under real conditions. The

chosen network was a tailored, smaller segment of the original network adopted for land use-

traffic interactivity analysis and road functionality analysis. The northern boundary of the area

was kept similar to the original network, with a small extension to include one of the proposed

BRT lines of STP (2005b). The southern boundary was reduced to Dhanmondi Road No. 7/A (Sat

Masjid Road end) and Dhanmondi Road No. 10 (Mirpur Road end), deemed sufficient for the

objective of the test and to keep the analysis to manageable scale.

The area was selected for multiple reasons. Firstly, previous analyses ensured a better

understanding of network character on the area; and availability of land use, traffic and other

characteristics data on the network, that would assist in a more robust testing process.

Moreover, since the previously chosen network incorporates major road types, land character

and other dynamic characters as explained in Section 13.3.1, it would ensure a better

demonstration of the capability of the tool. In addition, the original network had proximity to a

proposed BRT corridor, that added value for the purpose of the tool evaluation.

Each link was assigned a particular hierarchy with particular modal priority distribution, if

functional need of the link corresponded to such allocation. A unique colour code was applied

to represent each road category. The coding and analysis was based on available data and local

experience of the researcher in the area. The framework based network was then compared

with the base network, to yield a qualitative understanding of the changes between the base

and modified network; and the impact of the tool in achieving desired outcomes of balance and

integration between NMPT and MT. The final part of the hypothesis was thus evaluated.


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13.4.3 Strategic guideline from framework implementation

A number of supportive measures were recommended to facilitate and improve better

realisation of the tool. The recommended implementation strategy was divided into multiple

thematic elements of concern or target components. Broader recommendations were provided

for multiple sub-components under each component. These strategic recommendations were

structured to correspond to the proposed road hierarchical structure of the framework tool to

enable their better comprehension and relation.

13.5 Summary

The chapter has described research methodology for developing the framework tool, including

method description for four interconnected planning stages, required to structure the tool.

At planning step 1, initial planning including purpose, scope and rationale for the framework

tool was defined. Review and analysis of Section B was adopted as input in deriving the

conclusion of this step. At planning step 2, the desired characteristics of the proposed

framework were derived. This process involved suitability analysis of alternative NMPT-MT

integration strategies with relation to the current needs and future demands of Dhaka, followed

by examination of the current network character as a part of assessing the effectiveness of

existing restriction strategy. Archival analysis, land use-traffic interactivity analysis, stakeholder

viewpoint analysis and standard road functionality analysis were applied during the evaluation

process. At planning step 3, functional hierarchy was selected as suitable technique for the

layout of the framework. This selection involved review of functional hierarchy as a concept in

network planning, application suitability of the technique to the needs of the current Dhaka

network and case study evaluation of the method in addressing similar situations elsewhere.

At planning step 4, the framework tool was structured based on partial integration between

NMPT-MT and with the use of functional hierarchy technique. The combination of governing

attributes and modal priority that optimises functional need and performance of network levels

that constitutes road hierarchy of a transport system was thus devised. A case study application

of the framework was then administered to examine the capability of the tool in achieving

operational balance and modal coordination between different network levels. A broad,

descriptive implementation strategy was proposed to facilitate the future functionality of the

tool. The next chapter describes comprehension of the desired characteristics of the proposed

framework and the selection process of suitable techniques for layout of the framework.

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14CHAPTER 14: BUILDING SCENE FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE

INTEGRATED PLANNING FRAMEWORK

14.1 Introduction

“….. NMTs will continue to exist because they cater to a particular type of travel need

that faster modes (public or private) cannot effectively serve. Further to this, their

existence is desirable as they are truly sustainable. However, their present existence

alone cannot make a transport system sustainable. To make the system sustainable,

NMTs must be integrated with other modes so that they can play their due functional

role. An efficient transit system integrated with complementary systems of NMTs and

other motorised paratransit modes can be envisaged as a sustainable transport system

for future Dhaka. Planning, designing and implementation of such a transport system

remains a challenge to the urban transport planners of the country.”

(Quium, 1994)

Chapters 11 to 13 introduced a four step planning process and methodology that has been

developed for the framework. These chapters also discussed the procedure and description for

completion of planning step 1, initial planning for the framework. This Chapter focuses on the

detailed description for completion of planning steps 2 and 3. The following chapter does so for

planning step 4. .

The content of this chapter is divided into two major sections. Section 14.2 corresponds to

planning step 2 and the following section corresponds to planning step 3. Section 14.2 analyses

desired characteristics for the proposed framework based on multi-dimensional evaluation of

alternative non-motorised public transport (NMPT) - motorised transport (MT) integration

scenarios. The suitable integration approach for the framework and key deficits of the current

network are determined. Section 14.3 describes the process to selection of suitable method

that can address current deficiencies in the transport network and can be adopted for layout of

the framework. The process of this chapter is expected to produce a balanced platform for

structuring and application of a framework to enable efficient coexistence of NMPT with MT.


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14.2 Comprehension of desired characteristics for the proposed

framework

14.2.1 Character analysis of alternative transport strategies

Building alternative transport strategies

The characteristics analysis for the proposed framework started with network environment

suitability analysis, i.e. the best non-motorised transport (NMT)-MT integration approach

permissible for the framework. Note that NMT in these strategic options and relevant

discussions onwards stands for both NMT bicycle and NMPT, unless otherwise stated. The

analysis commenced with formulation of alternative transport strategies. A total of three

strategies were selected based on NMPT restriction intensity, covering the possible temporal

dimensions -past, present and and possible future scenario in the transport system of Dhaka.

These alternative transport strategies included

A. Full restriction of NMPT: The NMPT movement was assumed to be fully restricted.

MT movement was considered to be unrestricted. This assumption was based on

the notion of some of the previous transport documents and practice of city

authorities on complete future eviction of NMPT from the transport system. This

represents one extreme end of the strategic spectrum.

B. No restriction of NMPT: The NMPT was assumed to be unrestricted throughout

the network. This assumption corresponds to the mode’s plying condition before

2002, when NMPT movement restriction commenced. MT movement was

considered to be completely restricted in this condition, excluding emergency

vehicles such as ambulance, fire brigade etc. This represents the other extreme

end of the strategic spectrum.

C. Partial restriction of NMPT-existing: The NMPT was assumed to be restricted on all

major roads, including restriction currently in effect or in plan for future

implementation. NMPT are allowed on minor roads (secondary, tertiary, collector

and narrow). MT movement is unrestricted. This scenario reflects present

coexistence between NMT and MT in Dhaka. This also represents a middle sphere

within the strategic spectrum, compared to A and B, as explained above.

The following section evaluates these strategies to assess their suitability with reference to

three thematic aspects. The process is described below.


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Suitability analysis of the alternative transport strategies

The analytical approach for alternative option assessment included macro-level needs as well as

micro-level demands. The three dimensions of evaluation selected for the purpose are now

discussed.

Evaluation I: Impact analysis of alternative strategies based on mulltisectoral attributes

and network character

The previous initiatives to control of NMPT and concurrent MT coexistence in Dhaka transport

were discussed in Section B. The results of these policy initiatives were also discussed. This

evaluation discusses the key implications or possible implications of these initiatives, with

reference to the alternative strategies.

Considering the full restriction (FR) scenario, a multitude of implications were revealed. These

implications were assumed based on the review made on current NMPT restriction initiatives in

Section B. The possible implication of a full degree of NMPT restriction strategy and concurrent

unrestricted MT movement, if imposed, were found to be,

• large scale socio-economic impact due to employment loss of around 2.31 million,

unlikely to be replaced in medium-to-long term by any other sector or sectors in

combination in future; and loss of livelihood of the dependent population on this

industry (derived from Chapter 6);

• increase of environmental pollution in the long term (derived based on Hoque et

al., 2005; Nasir, 2005; DUTP, 2007 & Chapter 6).

• increased inefficiency in road space utilization, given road usage is primarily

replaced by private car, taxi and other low occupancy motorised transport

following current trend (derived based on HDRC, 2004; Hoque et al., 2006 and

Chapter 6);

• increase in total journey time ( walk time and wait time to access poorly located

bus stops) for former NMPT users, mostly non-owners of private transport and

those who cannot afford paratransit (derived based on Bari & Efroymson, 2007;

DUTP, 2007 and Chapter 6);

• restrictive movement for vulnerable social groups, students and middle income

population, due to lack of a suitable alternative MPT mode to NMPT with

comparable quality and availability, distorting social equity (derived based on STP,

2005c and Chapter 6);


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• void of any comparable MPT mode for short distance passenger and freight trip

making (2-5 km), that comprises 70 percent of all trips in Dhaka (derived based on

STP 2005c and Chapter 6);

• non-suitability of any MPT modes in replacing NMPT, to serve narrow network

parts of Dhaka (eg. Old Dhaka) for freight and passenger transport (derived based

on STP 2005c; Rahman, D’Este & Bunker, 2009b , Rahman, D’Este & Bunker, 2011

and Chapter 6) ;

• non-compatibility with the future plan to introduce a rapid transit system and the

recommended role of NMPT as feeder modes, in filling the door-to-door

connectivity gap (derived based on STP 2005c; Bari and Efroymson, 2007 and

Chapter 7).

The likely benefits for the strategy include increased corridor productivity and improved

reliability (travel time) for private automobile users (derived based on Habib, 2002; Habib &

Alam, 2003a; DUTP, 2007). Such gains would however, depend on the effectiveness of allowing

high capacity public transport and better traffic management such as on-street parking control

etc. Otherwise these benefits are likely to become marginal as was demonstrated from the

network performance study on MT only Mirpur Corridor (see Chapter 7 for detailed analysis).

The review shows that the costs of the strategy seemed to distinctly outweigh the benefits. In

addition, such a strategy would imply clear bias towards MT modes, ignoring the existence of

the largest operating fleet share NMPT, contrary to achieving a balanced transport system.

Considering the inverse condition, that is, no restriction (NR) scenario, a number of benefits and

cost of the approach were revealed. These derivations were based on the observations made of

the pre-2002 condition by previous literature and on the assumption of full restriction of MT.

The key problem of such an approach could be,

• loss of mobility or increase in travel cost for the low income population, who were

primarily dependent on MPT bus for their daily work and other trips (derived

based on STP 2005c);

• loss of employment- groups related to operation and management of MPT, groups

engaged as paid chauffeurs and groups related to trading of motorised transport

modes (importers, retailers and repairers);

• reduction in overall traffic operational efficiency (decreased average speed,

increased travel time and delay) of major roads primarily designed to serve better


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mobility and provide long distance city wide coverage(derived based on Habib &

Alam 2003b; DCC,2002 ) ;

• reduction in overall passenger carrying capacity of the network corridor (derived

based on Bari & Efroymson, 2007);

• increase in travel demand and thus vehicle-km of travel, creating congestion and

poor level of service (derived based on Habib & Alam, 2003b);

• non-suitability in carrying large scale, bulk freight carriage and carriage of freights

at longer distances (derived based on Chapter 6); and

• non-compatibility with the future plan to introduce a mass transit system, that

includes rail transit and bus rapid transit. Both of these options would require

complementary MPTs such as buses to support and extend their coverage

(derived based on DHUTS, 2010).

This option would allow unrestricted NMPT flow throughout the network, would increase

accessibility and connectivity provision as well as improve affordability to concerned users, and

reduce environmental impact. But a considerable number of critical service dimensions would

be unattainable. The review shows that the costs of the strategy outweigh the benefits. In

addition, such a strategy would imply bias towards NMPT modes, completely ignoring the

existence of a large operating fleet share such as MT, contrary to achieving a balanced transport

system.

The comparative condition between FR and NR scenarios clearly revealed that a better balance

is desirable between the modes, a strategy that encourages both MT and NMPT in their

respective roles. This strategy requires more impartial perspective towards both NMT and MT

and requires corresponding with the general network and the associated character need of

Dhaka transport system, as revealed through Chapters 6, 7 and the above review. A well

planned, partial restriction (PR) strategy, combining both NMPT and MT can therefore be seen

as the preferable option in attaining such a balanced network environment. The key benefits of

such an approach would be,

• enabling better accessibility to different modes by different travel markets,

thereby improving affordability and minimizing loss of mobility;

• enabling better catering to diverse travel markets and trip characteristics,

passenger and freight ;

• offering improved connectivity and accessibility among different parts of the

transport network, buy allowing diverse mode options;


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• better maintenance of employment and economic self-reliance, by allowing

trading of both industries; and

• enabling better compliance with the future transport plan to incorporate mass

transits (rail/bus) by offering both NMPT and MT mode provisions, to complement

the rapid transit services ;

The possible disadvantages of the approach could be speed compromise in corridors with

mixed modes (derived based on Habib &Alam, 2003b) and the possibility of greater conflict

between NMPT and MT compared to previous options. But these limitations are distinctly

outweighed by the perceived benefits of the approach. In particular, the likely strength of the

strategy in incorporating both NMPT and MT into the transport system demonstrates its

relatively impartial character as a strategy. Moreover, with appropriate planning, it is possible to

minimize the identified disadvantages substantially.

Evaluation II: Land use-traffic interactivity analysis

The fundamental concept of this assessment was to explore the suitability of the alternative

strategies with reference to the prevailing land use character of major road categories, and in

relation to the mode-specific traffic demand at those land uses. Both current conditions and

expected future demand of these land uses to attract traffic were analysed. A sub-network of

six major case corridors forming an interconnected area polygon was chosen for analysis. The

land use was classified into nine major categories. The modes were split into two major groups,

MT and NMT. But land use-traffic interactivity varies for different vehicle categories and it was

important to have a deeper understanding of such a relationship to better comprehend the

need or otherwise of different mode types with respect to land uses. The primary mode split

was therefore further sub-categorised, six under the MT category and two under the NMT

category corresponding to the current major mode split of Dhaka. A corridor-wise summary of

the analysis output is presented in Table 14.1. Appendix F3 to F8 provides segment-wise results

of the analysis.


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Table 14.1: Land use- traffic interactivity for different road categories

Existing road type Adjacent major land use Traffic intensity by mode type

(existing trend/future potential of the given land uses in generating/attracting the vehicle type)

MT NMT

Car Motor

Cycle Bus Human hauler Auto rickshaw Taxi Bicycle NMPT

Primary

(Mirpur) (Corridor 1)

Commercial Retail

Mixed commercial

Institutional

High High Very high High High Moderate Low Very high

Membership score (M) 0.67 0.67 0.83 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.83

Secondary

(Satmasjid)

(Corridor 2)

Commercial Retail

Mixed commercial

Institutional

High High High High Moderate Low Very Low Very high


Collector

(Dhanmondi road no.27)

(Corridor 3A)

Mixed-commercial High Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Low Very Low High


Collector

(Pilkhana Road)

(Corridor 3B)

Mixed-commercial High Moderate High High Moderate Low Very Low Very high


Access

(Dhanmondi road 12/A)

(Corridor 4)

Residential

Mixed- residential High Moderate Low Low Moderate Low Very low Very high


Narrow

(opposite of Dhanmondi road 12/A)

(Corridor 5)

Residential

Mixed-residential Moderate Moderate Low Low Moderate Very low Very low Very high


Source: Derived based on field survey (2009) and Ragin (2000)

Note: Shading is used for better tabular representation of the categorical expression of membership (traffic intensity by mode with relation to land use)


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Land use pattern overview

Overview of the analysis result in Table 14.1 indicates the dominant presence of exclusive

commercial retail use and primary commercial usage-based mixed use development at primary

road, Mirpur Road and secondary road, Sat Masjid Road. At Mirpur Road, examples of such

commercial retail usage include regional level centres such as New Market shopping complex ,

Elephant Road retail centre, Hawkers Market, Gausia Market and Chandni Chawk; examples of

commercial office and heath care usage include Globe Centre, BCSIR, Standard Chartered Bank,

Flora limited, Gonoshastho Complex and Harun Eye Foundation; examples of major institutional

usage include Dhaka College, Imperial College, Teacher’s Training College and Govt. Laboratory

High School. At Sat Masjid Road, the major commercial retail usage includes Anam Rangs Plaza,

Shankar Plaza and Keari Plaza; major commercial office and heath care usage include Save the

Children, ACME building, Priyanka Community Centre, Sunrise Coaching Centre, Chayanot, IBN

Sina Diagnostic Centre and Medinova Medical Centre; major institutional usage includes

Victoria University, University of Asia Pacific, University of Liberal Arts, United University and

Stamford University. Note that the southern segment of Sat Masjid Road connects to Pilkhana

road through a restricted area, Bangladesh Rifles Headquarter. This compound comprises

offices, retail shops, community hall, educational institute and residence as major usage.

The pattern changes to more mixed commercial usage at collector road levels that primarily

include each land use block with retail centres, offices and institutions together. Major mixed-

commercial usage in Pilkhana Road includes New Market, Post Office, book stores and cloth

markets. This corridor also has the ladies’ residential hall of Dhaka University. In Dhanmondi

Road No. 27, major mixed-commercial usage includes Meena Bazar Complex, Concord Centre,

Genetic Plaza and Rapa Plaza. This corridor also has institutional usage such as Asian University.

The land usage pattern shifts to residential and residential base, mixed use developments at

local level roads. At local road, Dhanmondi Road No. 12/A, the major residential usage includes

multi-storied apartment units; major mixed residential developments include residence with

institutional usage such as St. Judes School, commercial usage such as Western Grill. This

corridor also has a city level recreation use, Abahani Field and a special use, Taqwa Mosque. At

the narrow road, opposite to Dhanmondi Road No. 12/A, the major residential usage includes

one or two storey houses; major mixed-residential usage is all mixed-residential such as

residences with shops or training facilities such as the British Council on the ground floor. See

Appendix F.3 to F.8 for detailed description of land uses by segments of each corridor.


Page 232

Analysing mode specific intensity of traffic generation by Land use

At an individual traffic level, the current demand and future potential demand for both MT and

NMT traffic at all road categories and for different land uses were found to be a common

phenomenon. This traffic intensity was observed to have a multitude of patterns, with relation

to the shift in land use. NMPT and MT, such as car and motorcycle were observed to be the

three major modes respectively, across all land use types and at all network levels. NMPT has a

membership score of 0.67<M<0.83 while car and motorcycle has score of 0.5<M<0.67. Taxi and

bicycle were observed to be the least demanding vehicles respectively by any land use type.

Taxi has a membership score of 0.5<M<0.17 and bicycle has score of 0.17<M<0.33. Buses and

human haulers were found to attract more demand from commercial and commercially-based

land usage. In these categories, bus has a higher membership score of 0.5<M<0.83 and human

hauler has a score of 0.33<M<0.67.

For Corridor 1, Mirpur Road between Dhanmondi Road No. 1 and Dhanmondi Road No. 27,

NMPT movement has been restricted since 2002 (Khan, 2011). In order to analyse the NMPT

traffic attraction pattern at land uses of these corridor section, analysis was based on the

observation of NMPT at side roads. It was assumed that NMPT terminated passenger trips near

the approach to Mirpur Road and passengers destining to a land use on Mirpur Road were

potential NMPT demands for those land uses. Note that for this section, each land use block on

either side of the road was assessed following the approach as specified above.

In order to analyse the current demand and future potential attraction of bus and human

haulers for residential and mixed residential developments, which were primarily concentrated

on Corridors 4 and 5, the evaluation needed to be based on assumptions. This was rational

since buses and human haulers were not allowed on these corridors. Therefore assessments of

the attraction of land uses on these corridors were not possible from direct observation. The

assumptions were sourced from the local experience of the researcher as a resident of

Dhanmondi area, being a regular user of different public transport modes to make trip from and

to this area and the LOS analysis of bus, human hauler in Chapter 6.

As a resident and a former regular user of bus and human hauler, the researcher was aware

that quality of service (accessibility and service quality) of the currently available bus or human

hauler service in Dhaka is not satisfactory. The LOS analysis of Chapter 6 corresponds to this

notion; in particular the interview of residents conducted during that analysis included

inhabitants of Corridor 4 as well. It is rational to deduce from such a response base that, due to

poor quality of service (in-vehicle comfort, reliability, security and safety) and not so accessible


Page 233

location/service coverage offered by these services, the trip attraction of local residences was

not particularly induced by bus or human hauler. Rather, more preference was demonstrated

for public transport modes such as NMPT or auto rickshaw, and where possible, private vehicles

such as car or motorcycle. This pattern is not likely to be altered in the near future, unless

substantial improvements take place in the motorised public transport sector. Moreover, the

socio-economic condition of the locals, a middle to middle-high income group, who can afford

NMPT or auto rickshaw as a regular form of transport mode, reinforces the validity of the

claimed traffic intensity pattern for NMPT.

Note that the traffic intensity findings for residential and mixed-residential land uses might vary

between bus, human hauler and NMPT to some extent, with variability of location and

particularly socio-economic class of the residents. The general mode trend is, however,

expected to remain similar. That is, the need of both MT and NMT for different land uses across

different network levels and with NMPT, MPT bus, human hauler and MT car as major modes.

These also complement the overall mode share distribution found from the analysis of Chapters

4 and 6.

From the key derivatives of this analysis when compared with the alternative NMPT-MT

integration options, the following were established,

• The FR strategy or the NR strategy was considered to be impractical considering

the current / potential future demand of different categories of two major mode

classes, NMT and MT, across land use category and road classifications. The focus

of developing a balanced network environment also contradicts the fundamental

constituents of this option.

• The best strategy was therefore found to be PR. This option, based on the

aforementioned analysis can offer a mixed mode traffic composition, which is an

environment desired and corresponded to by the current and future pattern of

land use-traffic interactivity of Dhaka.

Evaluation III: Stakeholder needs and future demand analysis

This analytical approach was undertaken with the objective to comprehend the viewpoint of

stakeholders regarding alternative strategic preference for NMPT-MT integration. The analysis

was done at two levels, mode specific level and system level. Note that detailed methodology

and description of impartial stakeholder selection and relevant analysis procedure were

presented in Chapters 7 and 8.


Page 234

At mode specific level, the viewpoint of stakeholders were recorded and analysed with

reference to the preferred control level for NMPT with MT in the future Dhaka transport

system. The overall viewpoint result revealed that,

• 87 percent of the total respondents favoured the PR condition, where NMPT and

MT would coexist. Only 14 percent of the viewpoints were in favour of either NR

strategy or FR strategy. The share was 13 percent for the former while 1 percent

for the latter.

The stakeholder group-based viewpoint result revealed that,

• The PR approach was preferred by more than 85 percent of the respondents

within each group. Government organisations, constituting major agencies related

to transport operation and management of Dhaka, were highly in favour of the PR

approach (around 90 percent), together with non-government organisations

funding the developments (around 92 percent).

• NR approach was chosen by less than 15 percent by each group with government

organisation completely opposing the approach.

• Government organisations were also the only group to support the FR option.

• The review of the viewpoints suggested that PR approach was prioritised distinctly

compared to the other two approaches.

At the system level, the viewpoint was recorded and analysed with reference to the attribute

preferred by the stakeholders, from the future Dhaka transport system. Five attributes were

analysed, including social equity, traffic operational efficiency, access and mobility,

environmental sustainability and modern city image. The overall preference analysis showed

that most of the responses were in favour having a transport system that enables good traffic

efficiency (34 percent), access and mobility (33 percent) followed by social equity (17 percent)

and environmental sustainability (11 percent). A similar order of preference was also revealed

from individual group analysis. If we compare these preferences with the character of the

alternative strategies in discussion,

• FR strategy and/or NR strategy were found to be unsuitable. This is because both

of these strategies are characterised by absolute preference of a particular mode

type - MT for the former strategy while NMT for the latter. As a result, the

opportunity of modal and spatial accessibility, personal mobility and traffic

operational efficiency are considerably hindered as revealed from the analysis of

Chapters 6, 7 and the learning of Evaluation I.


Page 235

• PR approach, that enables incorporation of both MR and NMT, offers a better

chance of balance in catering the need of different travel markets and trip

characters, offering better equity in mode choice and in mobility of movement

under the current transport scenario of Dhaka.

The detailed methodology and description of relevant analysis procedure were made in

Chapters 7 and 8.

Derivation from the above analysis depicts the suitability of PR as a preferable integration

approach for co-existence of NMT with MT, under the current transport system and conditions

of Dhaka.

Preliminary selection of preferred strategy

The qualitative and quantitative evaluations conducted above provided a preliminary

understanding on preferred NMPT-MT integration scenario. The evaluation also assisted in

derivation of a transport strategy that can address balanced NMPT-MT coexistence for future

Dhaka, as well as desired outcomes for the proposed framework .The evaluation results are

summarised in Table 14.2.

Table 14.2: The alternative transport strategies with NMPT restrictions and suitability result

Scenario

Code

Scenario

Name Description Evaluation I Evaluation II Evaluation III Result

A FR of

NMPT

NMT restriction on

the entire network,

MT movement

unrestricted

Not

desirable

Not

desirable

Not

desirable

Rejected

B NR of

NMPT

NMT movement

unrestricted, MT

movement

restricted on entire

network

Not

desirable

Not

desirable

Not

desirable

Rejected

C PR

(existing)

(E) of

NMPT

NMT movement

restricted on major

roads, MT

movement

unrestricted

Desirable for

mixed traffic

condition

Desirable

for mixed

traffic

condition

Desirable for

mixed traffic

condition

Preliminarily

accepted

Source: Developed by author based on alternative transport strategy evaluation

Table 14.2 indicates that both FR and NR strategies are unlikely based on their present and

possible future impact analysis on multisectoral attributes of city system and network; need and

pattern of current and possible future interactive relationship expected between land use and

traffic at different network levels; and current and future expectation of stakeholders from the

Dhaka transport system. The evaluation results from the table also found PR (E) strategy to be a


Page 236

more balanced, preferable option in addressing these directions and needs of the Dhaka

transport system.

A review of Section B and introduction to alternative strategies at the beginning of this section

has indicated PR (E) to be an already practised strategy for NMPT-MT integration for Dhaka. The

discussions in Chapter 7 and Chapter 10 of the section has further introduced the issue of

ineffectiveness of the current NMPT restriction strategy in achieving a balance between

operation and performance optimisation of NMPT and to an extent, that of MT. It is therefore

necessary to analyse and investigate in detail, the discrepancies or otherwise of the current PR

strategy. The results of the analysis would provide insights on the need or otherwise of a new

PR approach; and in addition, if applicable, would inform on the pattern of needs and deficits of

the current approach that needs to be addressed.

14.2.2 Characterisation of existing partial restriction strategy

The examination of current PR strategy is divided into two major segments. The effectiveness of

the strategy was first investigated with reference to its capability in optimising and balancing

the key requirements for different network levels. This was followed by the coherence analysis

of the current strategy with relation to desired objectives of major transport plans for Dhaka

and other associated prescribed guidelines.

Analysis with reference to current transport network performance

Standard road functionality analysis, at the corridor level, was the approach chosen to analyse

the effectiveness of PR (E) in meeting the desired network performance and balance at different

network levels. A total of six major corridors, similar to that of land use- traffic interactivity

evaluation were analysed in this regard. The mode split, for analysis purposes, was divided into

MT and NMPT. The analysis was conducted with reference to four major governing criteria and

relevant sub-criteria for network performance assessment. Detailed definition of each criterion

is provided in Appendix G2. Table 14.3 presents the standard governing attributes and desired

status for different major road categories. The output of the comparative analysis between

standard road functionality expected from each network level and that observed for the

analysis modes are then discussed, in the following table (Table 14.3).

For convenience of comparison, the discussions are made with reference to the study area map

(Figure 14.1), as and where deemed necessary. The map is presented at the beginning of this

comparative discussion, and in the following table (Table 14.3).


Page 237

Table 14.3: Desired performance level of major governing attributes across road network levels

^This is a guideline only. More detailed investigation is required to develop a comprehensive speed limit guideline based on road type, built up condition and traffic mix.

*measured with reference to surrounding land use & noise generation

Source: Derived by author from the sources specified in consultation with academic mentors and practicing professionals

Note: Prescribed guideline based standard derivation for each attribute was supplemented by consultation with

Academic mentors and practicing professionals in Dhaka to optimise judgement balance.

DESIGN FEATURE FUNCTIONAL FEATURE FRICTIONAL

FEATURE IMPACT FEATURE

Road

category Type Right of Way Road type Dominant linkage Connectivity Mobility function

Maximum speed

limit^ ( built up

areas)

Public transport (PT)

service (availability and

cost)

Access function Preferred abutting

land use Traffic sensitivity*

1 Primary road 4 2 M 3 3 3 3 1 9 0 2

2 Secondary road 3 2 2 9 2 2 2 3 1 � 0 2

3 Collector road 2 2 � 2 2 1 1 3 1 2 � 0 2

4 Local road 1 0 8 1 1 1 1 3 8 0 1

5 Narrow road 0 0 8 1 1 0 1 3 8 1

Reference

for review

DITS (1994a),DMDP

(1995), DCC (2002),

STP (2005b), DAP

(2008)

DCC (2002), STP

(2005b), DAP (2008),

DITS (1994a), DCC (2002),

DAP (2008)

DITS (1994a), STP (2005b),

DAP (2008), Kadiyali (2007),

Eppell et al (2001)

DITS (1994a), DCC

(2002), Eppell et al

(2001), HCM (2010)

DCC (2002), STP

(2005b), Kadiyali

(2007), HCM (2010)

DCC (2002), Kadiyali

(2007), STP (2005b)

DCC (2002), STP (2005),

Kadiyali (2007)

DMDP (1995), DAP

(2008), Kadiyali (2007)

Ministry of

Environment (2005)

legend Description legend Description legend Description legend Description legend Description legend Description Legend Description legend Description legend Description legend Description

0 4m-7m 0 Undivided (1way/ 2

way) 0 <10 0 Silence zone

(40dB-50dB

1 7m-12m 8

Sites (aggregated

lots served by a local

street)

1

Collectors to

residential

streets

1 Frequent or

constant

friction in

movement

1 <20 1

High frequency,

low capacity,

affordable service

at lower order,

local level roads;

1 Infrequent

access point 8

Primarily

residential 1

Residential

(45dB-55dB

2 12m-18m 2 Divided ( 2 way) �

Environment Cell

(contains local

streets and is an

area block of a

suburb)

2 Major arterials

to collectors 2

Neither

infrequent nor

constant

friction

2 20-40 2

Neither

infrequent nor

constant access

point

� Mixed 2 Commercial

(55dB-65dB

3 18m-25m 9 Specific area 3

Major arterials

to major

arterials

3

No or

infrequent

friction in

movement

3 40-60 3

High frequency,

high capacity,

affordable service

at higher order

distributor roads

3 Frequent access

point 9

Primarily

commercial 3

Industrial

(70dB-75dB)

4 25m-30m M Metropolitan


Page 238

lLegend

High volume NMT traffic pushed back to local roads

Trip point at south Trip point at west

Common NMT route, south to west

Of Dhaka before current strategy

Principal NMT route, connecting south to west

of Dhaka, with current strategy

Suburb or area location Frequent points of friction at Mirpur Road

Figure 14.1: Study area network with different attributes

MOHAMMADPUR

DHAKA SOUTH

Example of frequent

access interval on

Mirpur Road

(<=200m) ;

uncontrolled

MIRPUR ROAD

SAT MASJID

ROAD

DHANMONDI

ROAD 27

ROAD NO. 2

PILKHANA ROAD


Page 239

Analysing design criteria

The comparative analysis of observed traffic performance to that of the standard governing

attributes in Table 14.3 revealed that the design criteria of the corridors are coherent to

standard road geometry expected. The observed right of way for all the analysis corridors were

found to be in proximity (Mirpur Road- 30m, Sat Masjid Road-21m, Dhanmondi Road No. 27-

12m, Pilkhana Road- 15m, Dhanmondi Road No. 12/A-7m, road opposite to Dhanmondi Road

No. 12/A – 4m) to the prescribed standard in the above table. The road type attribute is also

observed to be similar to the prescribed standard of Table 14.3. Mirpur Road, Sat Masjid Road

and the collector roads (Dhanmondi Road No 27 and Pilkaha Road) were observed to be

divided. The access and narrow roads, Dhanmondi Road No. 12/A and the road opposite of

Dhanmondi Road No. 12/A were observed to be undivided.

Analysing functional criteria

From the functional perspective, the catered areas by the analysis corridors were found to be

much more scattered and overlapping across different road categories than desired as per the

key purpose of each road category. For example, under PR(E) strategy, since the NMT were

pushed back from primary to local roads and without any planned route alternatives, many of

the NMT users are forced to use these roads (Sat Masjid Road, Dhanmondi Road No. 2 or

Dhanmondi Road No. 12/A) as diversions to reach the desired destination (Figure 14.1). As a

result, some of these roads (Pilkhana Road and Dhanmondi Road No 12/A) are now observed to

be used for through traffic to connect specific areas, such as for journeys from the southern

suburbs to the western suburbs of Dhaka. This is in addition to its expected function as a local

traffic carrier to connect different small sites or environment cells (neighbourhoods). Such

behaviour contradicts the standard guideline prescribed in Table 14.3 and compromises the

hierarchy of road usage, and therefore the quality of service in these roads.

In terms of network connectivity, proximity of the standard road type to road type connectivity

was observed in the field (Figure 14.1). However, a greater degree of accessibility due to

unrestricted movement incentives under current strategy was observed for MT, compared to

NMT at all road levels. This contradicts the findings of previous generic network analysis and

land use traffic intensity analysis that demonstrated high demand of NMPT for almost all land

use types, particularly for short local (site specific) and intra-neighbourhood trips. This also

contradicts the standard requirement for good inter-road interconnectivity for all major mode

types in a transport system, MT and NMT in this instance.


Page 240

Mobility and travel speed were found to be poor and disruptive for both MT and NMT, at most

road levels, in contradiction to the prescribed guidelines of Table 14.3. For Mirpur Road

(Corridor 1), the recorded speed for MT stream was 35km/h. This low speed range was due to

an increased use of space inefficient vehicular usage at post NMPT restriction periods and lack

of management in controlling roadside activities (e.g. on-street parking, vending), that reduces

effective road width and transport productivity. For other roads (Corridor 2 to 5) the recorded

speed were - Sat Masjid Road (MT: 15-20km/h, NMT:6-8km/h); Dhanmondi Road No. 27 (MT:

12-15km/h, NMT: 8km/h); Pilkhana Road (MT:10-15km/h, NMT: 6-8km/h); Dhanmondi Road

No. 12/A (MT:10km/h, NMT: 6-8km/h); opposite of Dhanmondi Road No. 12/A (MT: 5km/h,

NMT: 5km/h). These low speed values and consequent poor mobility, particularly in higher

order roads were due to an unplanned mixture of slow and fast moving vehicles, a movement

allowance without suitable traffic management measures such as vehicle based priority rules,

that could minimise conflicts. Particularly, excess flows of NMPT at local roads due to restriction

and unrestricted movement allowance for MT at all network levels are escalating such mobility

and speed problems.

Analysis of network performance from the public transport viewpoint (service frequency, stop

provision and user cost) also demonstrated lack of coherence among the need of the individual

corridor types as prescribed in Table 14.3 and that of the assigned mode. For example, MPT

(bus and human hauler) service frequency was found to be low in secondary roads (Sat Masjid

Road) and very low in collector roads (Dhanmondi Road No. 27 and Pilkhana Road) even though

the standard recommends higher frequency. The same is applicable to MPT stop provisions.

NMPTs, on the contrary, were found to be oversupplied in these parts while they were

relegated from major roads. To a certain extent, the availability of NMPT in lower roads is

preferable according to Table 14.3, yet no priority provision to facilitate operation or

management for NMPT was found in any of these roads. Concurrently, excess availability of

NMPT in secondary roads (Sat Masjid Road) was also observed, due to a lack of planned

management or operational hierarchy. These conditions of oversupply or undersupply are

contrary to the requirement of reasonable PT service provision on all network parts.

Analysing the PT user cost attribute, it was found that due to NMPT operational restriction, the

users of this mode were forced to spend extra on fares for longer detours compared to pre-

restriction travel routes (Figure 14.1). But no operational priority and/or infrastructure support

was attempted in the PR (E) strategy to facilitate NMPT movement over MT, or to minimise its


Page 241

trip lengths. In comparison, for MPT users or for private automobile users, they were not

required to encounter such disincentives.

Analysing frictional criteria

From a frictional dimension, the current strategy restricted NMT from major roads (e.g. Mirpur

Road) in order to improve speed and productivity of these road categories. But the post NMPT

restriction demonstration study (DUTP, 2007) and observation suggested that, since no

effective design or management measures were undertaken to control the frequent access

nature from and to this road, the friction between through traffic and access traffic did not

improve much. Mobility also did not improve by much. This was evidenced by the marginal shift

in total journey speed on these roads at pre and post NMPT restriction period (See Chapter 7

for detailed result of relevant analysis). Figure 14.1 shows the frequent access nature of Mirpur

Road. Concurrent to this, since more traffic (NMT) was forced to roads such as Sat Masjid Road,

which was supposed to be acting as a high mobility low access road, they became highly

frictional. This was because most NMT vehicles, travelling from south to west of Dhaka, that

were not allowed to use Mirpur Road, started traversing Sat Masjid Road to access to different

specific areas and sites such as Lalmatia suburb, Mohammadpur suburb etc., obstructing

expected traffic flow of this corridor. See Figure 14.1 for this shift of NMT routes and use of Sat

Masjid Road as a principal through route, adding significantly to the frictional attributes of the

corridor.

Analysing impact criteria

Analysis of traffic sensitivity conditions along the case corridors revealed the status as

contradictory in all corridors in comparison to the set standard for these corridors as prescribed

in Table 14.3. The noise levels at commercial corridors (e.g. Mirpur Road/Sat Masjid Road) were

found to be around 105dB, in mixed corridors (e.g. Dhanmondi Road No. 27) to be around 101

dB and in residential corridors (e.g. Dhanmondi Road No. 12A) to be around 103 dB. These are

similar to those found in a recent survey by WBB Trust (Jakir, 2011). These higher-than-

preferred values are despite the relative similar land uses across the evaluation corridors. The

key reasons for such discrepancy, primarily for residential areas and collector/local roads such

as Dhanmondi Road No. 27, Dhamondi Road No. 12A and the opposite road of Dhamondi Road

No. 12A, are due to the unrestricted use of these local roads by high noise generating MT, as a

through traffic corridor and due to the overuse of these corridors by NMPT.


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Analysis with reference to other aspects

The PR (E) strategy was also found to contradict the preferred future transport guideline and

the need of stakeholders from the future Dhaka transport system. Analysing the primary

transport plans for Dhaka, STP (2005b), it was found that the plan suggests a rapid transit

option in improving future public transport conditions of Dhaka and advises for NMPT to serve

as a feeder to those proposed services. The constituent of PR (E) strategy does not offer a

network hierarchy that can facilitate this procedure, for example, provisions to ensure that

rapid transit at arterials or NMPT at local network can perform optimally by movement priority

and improved network management provisions.

Analysing the stakeholder viewpoint as described in Chapter 9 and Section 14.2.1 of this

Chapter, it was found that the desired demand was to have a transport system that ensures

good traffic operational efficiency and equity in access for daily trips. However, standard road

functionality analysis and review of Chapter 7 revealed the current transport system to have

features such as overemphasis on facilitating operation of MT users, creating disruption in

movement for NMPT users and mismanagement in operating environment. It can therefore be

concluded that PR (E) strategy is incapable in properly addressing stakeholder needs.

Final selection of preferred strategy

The results from the analysis above indicate a lack of balance and suitability of the implemented

planning strategy in facilitating coherence between the functional need of different road types

and the prioritisation of the operating modes. The analysis also revealed incompatibility of the

current approach with reference to some of the desired future transport strategy and

stakeholder needs. These considerations therefore infer the ineffectiveness of the PR (E) in

attaining optimality between coexistence of NMPT and MT. This demonstrates a need for a

modified PR strategy as a platform for the proposed framework. This modified PR strategy,

henceforth termed as PR-proposed is defined as follows:

MT and NMPT would coexist in different network parts, similar to the PR (E) strategy.

But unlike PR (E) strategy, the decision and degree of restriction for NMPT and MT,

particularly at different road categories, would be derived based on the functional need

of those categories and the compatibility of operating characteristics of modes. Such a

strategy would offer an improved planning process, compared to PR(E), for operational

coexistence of MT with NMPT through i) enabling better balance in distribution of

these modes across network; and through ii) incorporating the multi-objective needs of

the current network.


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14.2.3 Derivation of preferred attribute for the framework

The discussion in Sections 14.2.1 and 14.2.2 has revealed the deficits of current network and

the needs to be addressed by the proposed strategy. These needs in turn can be termed as

preferred attributes of the proposed framework. These attributes can be grouped into a

multitude of broad quality categories and are summarised below.-

i) Balanced operational integration between MT and NMPT with coherence to

network functional needs and land use character at different levels of the road

network;

ii) Adherence to future transport policy and plans of Dhaka

iii) Incorporation of stakeholder needs and demands from the future Dhaka transport

system.

iv) Ease of application of the developed tool in assessing and deciding the suitability

of a road category for the preference of a given mode;

v) Offer adoptability and flexibility in use of the framework under different traffic

distribution and network configurations.

Review of the proposed strategic structure and preferred attributes implied the need for a

suitable technique that can accommodate these deficiencies and needs into the proposed

framework; in an efficient manner. Once such a technique is developed, the next stage is to

apply the technique in structuring of the framework. The former statement is addressed in

following section. Chapter 15 describes the process and outcome of the latter statement.

14.3 Selection of suitable technique to replicate desired features of

the framework

14.3.1 Functional hierarchy concept and suitability to address system

deficiency of Dhaka

The character of deficiencies posed above indicated the need for a process that can minimise

the conflict between interactive elements of road function-abutting land use - traffic type in

operation while maintaining the requirements for access and mobility of different transport

users. The character analysis also indicated an operational need for management of the road

network and its hierarchical inter-level integration to facilitate efficient movement of the

conflicting modes in achieving network sustainability, better safety and improved amenities for

the users/city inhabitants.. The analysis further established the need for planning and

management of the network to ensure traffic volumes are carried out appropriate to the road’s


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functional and management attributes. In brief, all these call for a system that can serve

variable type and degree of functional needs of fixed facilities, flow entities and encourage

traffic distribution in accordance

Comparing these needs with the conceptual framework of a functional hierarchy concept it was

found that the key usefulness of the idea lay in its capability to classify an entity based on

functional significance and in a sequential order; enabling logical optimisation of the operational

needs from that entity. DTMR (2010) added that the application of this concept in layout of

fixed facilities is useful due to its strength in allocating appropriate traffic types to the

appropriate roads. Based on these underlying principles and observed mode distribution

imbalance, the application of the said concept to the development of a revised layout for Dhaka

transport network, that is a modified road functional hierarchy, was found to be quite logical.

Emphasising the operational utility of functional hierarchy as a concept in road network

planning and adjustments, the Toowoomba Regional Council (2010) document suggested that,

The usefulness of the functional hierarchy based classification system is that

operational needs relating to such matters as access management, intersection form

and spacing, management of turning traffic, the treatment of public transport and

pedestrians and cyclists signing strategies can all be attached to the various elements of

the functional hierarchy to ensure that compatible treatments and functions coexist.

The Toowoomba Regional Council (2010) document elsewhere argued that the elegance of a

functional hierarchy approach in developing a road network reclassification lies in the fact that

their functional characteristics relate directly to defining their operational specifications. These

notions were found to be quite similar to the desired output achievement process of the

framework, which is aimed at addressing the mismatch between functional character of

different traffic types and their correlation with the operational specification of road types.

Moreover, the method offers itself as a tool to assist in planning the interface between land

use, traffic and road system on which the traffic operates, and to appropriately link roadways in

the road system (Marshall, 2004).

According to RTA (2008), road network hierarchy is a system of sequential and inter-related

classification of roads and distribution of traffic therein to sustainably cater for the need of the

different road users, transport and non-transport functions of roads. Such a technique also

recognised the wide range and balance need between mobility and access on the network,

crucial to addressing the same for both MT and NMPT users of Dhaka. Emphasising the

contribution of functional hierarchy as a process in classifying and integrating compatible


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roadway functions to the operational need of the flow entities , Eppell et al. (2001) stated that a

functional hierarchy process enable,

...each roadway in terms of its function such that appropriate objectives for that

roadway can be set and appropriate design criteria can be implemented. These

objectives and design criteria are aimed at achieving an efficient road system whereby

conflicts between the roadway, traffic and the adjacent land use are minimised..... The

road hierarchy can then form the basis of ongoing planning and system management

aimed at reducing the mixing of incompatible functions.

Marshall (2004) suggested that road functional hierarchy as a system of integrated network

planning is popularly used to set up to avoid conflict between the operation and management

of various mode categories such as MT and NMT. According to Marshall (2003), the process also

assists in defining and redesigning the different types of roads according to their multitude of

functional attribute requirements. These aforementioned qualities of the method also

corresponds quite closely to the network deficiencies of Dhaka where often the conflict in

operation between slow and fast moving vehicles (NMPT and MT) led to operational

inefficiency in their coexistence and management chaos. Hook (2005) echoed that settling the

conflicting design needs of safety and convenience for NMT and the safety and convenience of

MT can be best be settled through a careful definition of a functional road hierarchy. Otherwise,

simply designing all roads for high speed motor vehicle use will destroy the commercial,

recreational and residential character of entire sections of the city. Urban Services (2005) and

Australian Transport Council (2006) highlighted the utility of the functional hierarchy process in

incorporating and maximising the need for operational safety, amenity and eligibility of

different modes across variable road categories. Eppell et al. (2001) and Austroads (2006)

further added to the potential of the process in optimising the transport network’s access,

mobility, safety and mode operational efficiency.

The conceptual framework and application areas of the functional hierarchy system in

addressing road network layout, as a process for incorporating the needs and deficiencies of the

analysed Dhaka network, set it as a suitable method; a method for the layout of the proposed

framework, enabling distribution of most appropriate mode to their best road categories while

accommodating the road functional characteristics, multidimensional user and land use

demand attributes. The capability of the process in ensuring safety, optimising accessibility,

mobility, facilitating greater connectivity through operational efficiency and above all the

management of balance for MT and NMT reinforced the selection appropriateness of the

process for the framework. The inherent character of the process also enabled it to be flexible


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and adoptable, adjusting to changing road categories, functional demand attribute shifts,

variable traffic split and network scale.

14.3.2 Multimodal Integration initiatives with functional hierarchy approach

and learning

Previous discussion established suitability of functional hierarchy for layout of the framework,

but it was worth exploring the fundamental integration methods applied in similar multimodal

environments in other countries to further ascertain the coherence of the process. Chapter B’s

discussion revealed that physical planning and network level planned integration were absent

for NMPT alone. However, the example of cases where such initiatives were undertaken for

integrating NMT, NMPT and NMT only, was thought to be worth discussing to explore their

fundamental principle of planning. Two case cities were respectively chosen in this regard,

Bogota, Columbia and Portland, USA.

The City of Bogota, Columbia was chosen primarily due to its acceptance as the best NMT

integration initiative within the developing cities as well as its scope coverage for both NMT and

NMPT, NMT as primer. Underlining the prospects of NMT use, a 350 km of protected bikeway

system was designed as a complementary part of the BRT system, TransMilenio (Hidalgo, 2002;

Penalosa, 2005; Ho, 2007). According to Hook (2003), the process was a combination of

opportunistic planning and rational planning As a part of the rational planning approach, the

bikeways were developed based on survey and analysis on corridors corresponding to the

demand for NMT and NMPT; and also reflecting the need and operating suitability of these links

to the functional character of the modes, which can be defined as a form of functional

hierarchical process. As a part of the notion, parking provisions for NMTs were also allocated

near transit location along the bikeways. The net benefit and success of the process was

demonstrated by the rise in daily ridership of NMT from 1 percent to 4 percent (Cervero, 2003).

The City of Portland, Oregon, USA was selected as a NMT bicycle integration initiative, which

was considered to be world class and one of the best in USA (Rollins, 2008). The city at present

has a bikeway network of 300 miles (480 km). According to the origin plan known as Portland’s

Bicycle Master Plan 1996, the bikeways were classified by their origin-destination points as City

Bikeways, Off-street Paths and Local Service Bikeways. However, this classification created a

binary system for on-street bikeways and also did not distinguish how different streets classified

under City Bikeways are expected to function within a network.


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Such deficiencies and the need to allocate as well as prioritize right vehicle corresponding to the

operational specification of the street type, the Portland Bicycle Plan for 2030 recommended

modifying bikeway classifications in the Transport System Plan to introduce a functional

hierarchy of bikeway routes (City of Portland Bureau of Transportation, 2011). Such a method

would enable the bikeways to be prioritized and optimized based on their mode specific needs,

and accommodating functional suitability of the street on which to manage the prioritization.

For example, following the functional hierarchy process, some of the City Bikeways which were

expected to have very high demand were recommended to have in-roadway bikeways with

greater width and this was suggested to be traded-off with removal of motorised travel lanes or

parking bays. Such functional mode distribution to network needs are expected to improve bike

ridership to accommodate the ‘interested but concerned cluster (>50 percent Portlanders)’

(City of Portland Bureau of Transportation, 2011).

The proven success (Bogota) and preference for the betterment of a successful situation

(Portland) of the hierarchy based planning principle in NMT integration within city transport

system were thereby quite evident.

The analysis so far established the potential of the functional hierarchy method in distribution

as well as prioritization of right traffic to right network locations. Strength of the method in

facilitating an orderly interfacing at inter-modal and inter-level road network coordination also

proved the utility of the method for the desired endeavour.

14.4 Summary

This chapter has described background structure, character and setting for the development of

the framework. The desired characteristics for the proposed framework were first determined

(planning step 2). This was followed by selection of suitable technique that can replicate these

needs of the proposed while laying out the framework, as a part of planning step 3.

Analysis of a suitable network environment started with formulation of three alternative

integration strategies, constituted with various combinations of MT and NMT modes under

each strategy. The formulated strategies were FR of NMPT with MT movement unrestricted, FR

of MT with NMT movement unrestricted and PR of both MT and NMT. The coherence of the

formulated strategies were then evaluated with reference to the macro –network and micro-

network levels. At the macro level, their impacts were assessed on different sector of transport

system including socio-economic, environment and travel, and with reference to future

stakeholder demand from transport system. At a corridor level, the strategies were assessed


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with reference to land use-traffic interactivity pattern of the corridors and with reference to

standard road functionality expected from different network levels.

Evaluation at the first level depicted the need for both MT and NMT as significant transport

modes in the network environment of Dhaka and subsequent rejection of two extreme

strategies, FR of NMPT and FR of MT. PR was found to be a more balanced approach in

integrating the two mode splits. At the second level, the appropriateness of PR-E was evaluated

with reference to its ability to optimise the coexistence of MT and NMT in the network. The

results indicated lack of balance of current strategy in defining role and place of MT and NMT at

different levels of the network and with reference to the functional needs of the network. The

lack of coherence of the existing strategy in meeting future stakeholder demands and future

prescribed guidelines of transport plans was also revealed. The need for a modified PR strategy,

PR-proposed and development of a decision tool with the need to address these deficits was

also thus established. These identified deficiencies and needs of the network formed the basis

for preferred attributes of the proposed framework tool. Planning step 2 was thus

accomplished.

At planning step 3, a suitable tool was derived that can be used to replicate these needs of the

network, while laying out the decision tool. The functional hierarchy approach was found to be

the best solution in this regard to optimally readjust the operational pattern and traffic

distribution priority of the network categories. The application suitability of functional hierarchy

from theoretical concept and in practice success from case studies reinforced the compatibility

of the method. The application process of the chosen technique and with the PR-proposed

strategy as an integration platform, in layout of the decision tool is elaborated in following

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15CHAPTER 15: INTEGRATED MULTI-MODAL PLANNING FRAMEWORK-

CONSTITUTES AND FUNCTION

15.1 Introduction

Chapter 14 identified planned partial restriction of non-motorised public transport (NMPT) and

motorised transport (MT) as the desired approach and network environment for modal

integration in the proposed planning framework, in response to the desired demand of the

Dhaka transport system. The absence of systematic priority and balance in distribution of NMPT

and MT, corresponding to functional demand across different network levels was also revealed.

Based on these analyses, the chapter establishes a functional hierarchy as a rational technique

to accommodate these demands and as a tool for layout of the framework.

This Chapter describes the process for structuring the framework and its operational measures

for application. Section 15.2 describes the structure of the framework and the process in its

derivation. Section 15.3 describes the functionality of the framework by examining its

application on a small network of Dhaka. Section 15.4 provides implementation strategies to

facilitate operationalization of the framework. The tool developed is expected to assist in

deciding the preferable modal priority on a corridor basis, based on the prevailing network

governing attributes; and thereby assigning that corridor a particular hierarchy label. The tool

may also examine the compatibility of current modal composition to road character for a

particular corridor. These processes in turn may optimise coexistence of often conflicting

modes, such as NMPT and MT, and enhance broader network performance.

15.2 Structure and constituence of the framework

15.2.1 Overview of the framework

The fundamental assumptions behind the structuring of the framework are derived from the

analysis and results of planning steps 2 and 3, described in Chapter 14. They are,

i) that there should be a combination of MT and non-motorised transport (NMT)

across the network;

ii) that the distribution of these modal variations should be based on a set of

desirable performance criteria of roadway elements for each classification level,

including design characteristics, functional characteristics, frictional characteristics

and impact characteristics;


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iii) that the coherence of the performance features to the suitable mode type and

road category should be decided based on the functional hierarchical needs i.e.

depending on the degree of preference at each classification level.

The general structure of the proposed integration framework is that it recommends

classification of the transport network of Dhaka into six levels, based on the functional hierarchy

process. As part of the process, MT and NMT are dynamically distributed across the network

based on the functional need of roadway element, its surrounding land use and other

associated needs that correspond to the given operational character of a mode category. The

process leads to the selection of a functional, needs-based hierarchical network layout (Figure

15.1 and 15.2).

The proposed mode-road hierarchical level/integration layers and their relationship to existing

network layout of Dhaka are depicted in Figure 15.2 and Table 15.1. Note that the proposed

hierarchy codes used in Figure 15.2 and Table 15.1 for framework are such structured that they

represent the multimodal priority principle of the proposed framework, in contrast to the

current hierarchy code which represents MT priority.


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Figurer15.1: Broader arrangement for mode-road functional hierarchy framework


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Figurer15.2: Breakdown of broader arrangement of mode-road functional hierarchy framework


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Table 15.1: Proposed framework road hierarchy/integration layer with degree of modal distribution and its comparison to the existing scheme

Road type Existing road hierarchy code Existing mode

composition* Proposed hierarchy code Proposed mode composition**

MT NMT MT NMT

Primary type I not applicable not applicable not applicable 3B 4 X

Primary type II 1 4 0 3A 4 X

Secondary 2 2 2 2C 3 1

Collector 3 2 2 2B 2 2

Access 4 2 2 2A 1 3

Narrow 5 2 2 1 X^ 4

*Source: STP (2005b) and Field Survey 2009; ** Source: Derived based on the review and analysis of Chapter 4 to 14 and Figure 15; ^Emergency service vehicles and local resident vehicles allowed

Non

existent

Very low Low Moderate High Mode

exclusive

x 0 1 2 3 4


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The figures and table reveal a need for significant restructuring of the current hierarchy, more

specifically at the mode composition that define those hierarchies in order to address the issue

of imbalance in modal distribution, which is in prevalence at the Dhaka transport network. Such

modifications also address the existing mismatch between MT and NMT/NMPT in operation,

co-existence and policy planning. The underlying process to derive the proposed layout for the

framework and the capability of the framework in addressing the current network problems are

elaborated in the following sections.

15.2.2 Approach towards derivation of the framework structure

The fundamental endeavour behind the development of the framework is not to propose

another road hierarchy layout, rather, to derive a planning instrument that can be used to

assign a road hierarchy in order to allocate appropriate traffic to the appropriate network type,

particularly to facilitate operational balance between MT and NMT. The process therefore

focuses on logically integrating the MT and NMT to an appropriate element of the network such

that the desirable functional needs for a road type and mode category may be achieved, rather

than the present non-compatible road classification system. With this underlying context, a

three stage process is adopted towards the conception, development and construction of the

proposed framework, corresponding to the framework assumptions briefed in Section 15.2.1.

Stage 1 determines the mode distribution that is desirable from the network as a whole and the

possible combination or integration approach suitable in this regards. Partial restriction (PR)-

proposed was found to be the best approach (Chapter 14) and subsequently MT, NMT based

mixed traffic distribution was adopted for the framework development. This phase

conceptualised the most desirable background network environment for the framework.

Stage 2 selects and establishes standard governing attributes that are desirable from a roadway

category or network level (Chapter 14). One new attribute set is included, in addition to those

discussed and standardised. This is public transport stopping provision under frictional criteria.

The objective is to improve robustness of the framework tool. This phase developed the

influencing factors that worked as a basis for correlating the functional need of the roadway

element to that of the mode category.

Stage 3 correlates the functional needs of the road elements with operating utility of traffic

composition based on the selected governing attributes. The functional hierarchy process was

found to be the best technique in this regard to facilitate priority-based layout for the mode-

road interactivity condition as explained in Chapter 14. Subsequent administration of the above


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correlation process is conducted in this Chapter based on the selected network environment in

order to derive to the desired integration layout. This is the key focus of elaboration in following

discussion and is presented with reference to the proposed road hierarchical sequence


Road hierarchy: level 3

This classification level is found to be most appropriate to the MT excusive mode distribution

and is assigned to arterial or primary road category.

The previous network character analysis of arterial roads and its correlation with the derived

governing attributes indicated that such network links should,

• be characterised by high right-of-way (ROW) and designed as dual carriageway;

• be expected to possess metropolitan level coverage capability due to the spread of

the network;

• be able to act as a connection of major arterials;

• facilitate service with predominantly longer trip lengths;

• encourage high travel speed , greater mobility and negligible accessibility function

due to the nature of the trips being served;

• accommodate public transport (PT) that are fast, high capacity, high frequency but

with lower stop intervals to ensure smooth traffic flow;

• be allowed or expected to allow greatest provision for indented PT stopping bays

where appropriate; and

• be allowed exclusive traversing through predominantly commercial or

administrative corridors, having low traffic sensitivity (greater noise allowance)

with reference to surrounding land use.

If a particular corridor is found to possess these characteristic features, it would be deemed

suitable to be labelled with arterial or primary road class.

The functional needs of this road category when compared with mode character analysis for

MT and NMT as made in Chapters 4 to 7 and Chapter 9, indicate that these directly correspond

to the operating suitability of MT only mode type to cater for such degree of requirements. This

is because MTs meet the high speed, high mobility, longer trip making requirements of such

level; are capable of making inter-zonal connections productively and reliably. They fit the

public transport characteristics desired for the level, and do not contradict land use/traffic

sensitivity demand.


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The presence of NMT traffic can lead to a multitude of constraints in such an operating

environment. In particular, reduction of traffic flow efficiency and speed; greater possibility of

contradiction between MT and NMT and subsequent safety hazard to NMT due to the high

speed nature of the links. A complete restriction of NMT therefore is desirable under these

circumstances. Moreover, considering the current directives of DCC (2002) for desired road

classification character of Dhaka, the arterial/primary roads are suggested to be fully prohibited

for NMT. This corresponds to the proposal made for level 3, compared to the situation in

practice at a comparative current network level 1 (e.g. Mirpur Road).

It is noted that, due to the proposed inclusion of the rapid transit system (BRT) in the future

Dhaka transport system as demonstrated in STP (2005b), DAP (2008) and DHUTS (2010), the

level 3 network is proposed to be subdivided as 3A and 3B. Though the key governing attributes

and their degree of preference would be similar at both levels, 3B would act as the top level tier

compared to 3A. 3B will be allocated to only those corridors that will be assigned with graded

BRT lines in future. These links will be equipped with both MT traffic as well as BRT traffic, but

with greater priority (infrastructure and traffic management) for the latter to facilitate better

mobility and operational performance of this mode. Such a split treatment of arterials will also

address deficiency in the current road system as prescribed in DCC (2002), which does not

provide or propose any additional separate operating provision/ level at the road hierarchy for

the proposed BRT system.

Road hierarchy: level 2C

This classification level is found to be most appropriate to the MT dominated mode distribution

and is assigned to sub-arterial or secondary road category.

Comparing Dhaka network character analysis with the standard governing attributes as derived

for secondary roads it is found to,

• be preferable to have some parts of the network links with high-moderate ROW

and designed as dual carriageway;

• be expected to possess specific area/intra-zonal coverage capability due to the

spread of the network;

• be able to act as a connection of major arterials to collectors;

• facilitate service with long-moderate trip lengths;

• encourage moderate travel speed , moderate mobility and low accessibility

function due to the nature of the trips being served;


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• prefer such PT that are fast, moderate capacity , moderate-high frequency but

with relatively more frequent stop intervals compared to arterials;

• allow or expected to allow greater provision for indented PT stopping bays where

appropriate/possible; and

• be suitable to be traversing through predominantly commercial corridors with

growing other mixed usage, having low traffic sensitivity (greater noise allowance)



suitable to be labelled with secondary road class.

The functional needs of this road category when compared with the operating character for MT

and NMT as described in Chapters 4 to 7 and Chapter 9 it is observed that, MT should be the

more preferable mode type to cater for such degree of functional needs than that by NMT. This

is because it meets the need for better speed and mobility than accessibility, caters better for

moderate trip making requirements; fits more with the public transport characteristics desired

for the level and does not contradict with land use/traffic sensitivity demands.

However it is recommended that the presence of NMT should also be prevalent at this network

level to a certain extent. This is primarily attributable to the low level but yet attainable need for

intra-zonal shorter trips, low capacity public transport trips particularly by the vulnerable social

groups generated due to the presence of mixed land uses, as found from an analysis of Chapter

4 to 7 and Chapter 9, field observation and local experience of the researcher. However their

over presence at the present time would lead to a multitude of constraints such as reduction of

traffic flow efficiency and speed; greater possibility of contradiction between MT, NMT and

subsequent safety hazard to NMT due to reasonable speed nature of the links (e.g. Sat Masjid

Road). A greater control of NMT compared to MT is therefore desirable under these

circumstances. Moreover, considering the current directives of DCC (2002) desired road

classification character of Dhaka, it might be preferable to completely segregate NMT from MT

at this network level.

Road hierarchy: level 2B

This classification level is most appropriate for a relatively close distribution of MT, NMT and is

assigned to collector road category.

Correlation of collector network character and derived hierarchy governing factors indicate the

need for such network links in Dhaka to,


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• be of moderate ROW and designed as dual carriageway;

• be suitable to serve environmental cells due to the spread pattern of the network;

• enable connection of traffic carrying roads/collectors with residential streets;

• facilitate service with predominantly moderate to short trip lengths;

• encourage moderate to low travel speed , yield relative equity in mobility and

accessibility function due to the nature of the trips being served;

• have such public transport that are moderate-to-low capacity , high frequency

with higher stop intervals to ensure access but with reasonable operating speed to

facilitate traffic flow ;

• allow or expected to allow provision for indented PT stopping bays where

appropriate ; and

• be suitable to traverse through predominantly mixed use corridors having

moderate traffic sensitivity (reduced noise allowance than previous road levels)



suitable to be labelled as collector road class.


MT and NMT, as described in Chapters 4 to 7 and Chapter 9, shows that both MT and NMT

should be preferred to cater for such degree of functional needs. This is because MTs could

cater for moderate length intra-zonal trip demands, including that for public transport while

maintaining reasonable frequency and speed as desired partially from the network.

NMT are equally suitable for this road level. This is because the mode matches the shorter

length, low capacity, more frequent trip demands as usually generated in such localised traffic

environment and found from their character analysis in Chapters 4 to 7 and Chapter 9. The

moderate roadway capacity of the links in this road level, more sensitive nature of the

surrounding land uses to the noise/air pollution generated by MTs than the preceding

categories and need for links to maintain a reasonable speed environment, yield a balance in

MT and NMT for the proposed road category. Complete dominance or lack of operational

planning of either could jeopardise the degree to which the desirable performance attributes

for the road category could be realised or the general traffic operational efficiency with similar

road types in Dhaka (e.g. Dhanmondi Road No. 2). A partial segregation of MT from NMT would

be preferable at such levels of mixed traffic operation, also suggested by directives of DCC

(2002).


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Road hierarchy: level 2A

This classification level is most appropriate for NMT-dominated mode distribution and is

assigned to the local/access road category.

Correlation of network character and derived hierarchy governing factors for local roads

indicates preference for such network links in Dhaka to,

• be characterised by low ROW and acceptable as single carriageway;

• be expected to serve local sites/properties directly due to the spread pattern of

the network; enable connection to local areas from properties;

• facilitate service with predominantly short trip lengths;

• encourage low travel speed , lower mobility and greater accessibility function due

to the nature of the trips being served;

• have such PT that are in general low capacity and least implicating on surrounding

residences , but easily available and affordable to ensure access equity; and

• be suitable to traverse through predominantly residential use corridors having

high traffic sensitivity (low noise allowance) with reference to surrounding land

use.

If a particular corridor is found to possess these characteristic features, it is suitable to be

labelled as access road class.


MT and NMT/NMPT as discussed in Chapters 4 to 7 and Chapter 9 indicate that NMT should be

the prioritised mode to cater for such a degree of functional needs. This is because NMTs cater

best for short length intra-zonal trip demands while maintaining high demand frequency for

public transport at such local environment; cater for accessibility need of a substantial market

niche especially of the vulnerable (women, children, elderly), students and middle income non-

car owners. They ensure a speed environment that is found desirable and safer due to

surrounding residence-based activity patterns. They are also better capable to fill the gap

between journeys from home to nearest public transport hub or vice versa compared to other

comparative modes of transport.

MT is the least acceptable mode at this level due to a multitude of constraints. These include

safety implication due to speed, high sensitive negative impact on surrounding land uses and

non-compatibility with the calm neighbourhood environment compared to NMT (STP, 2005c;

analysis of Chapter 4 to 7). They would be allowed only in the case of being owned by residents


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of the locality or for emergency vehicles (e.g. ambulance, fire brigade etc.). They would be

conditionally allowed if the purpose of travel is work relevant to the locality or for local visits.

No through access of MT would be allowed within such network parts, except in emergency

situations. Otherwise their over presence would undermine the desire to attain discussed

attributes and degrade the overall living environment of the neighbourhoods as was found in

Dhanmondi, Dhaka (e.g. Dhanmondi Road No. 12/A). No segregation of MT from NMT is

recommended at such level of mixed traffic operation in line with similar suggestions put

forward by the current directives of DCC (2002).

Road hierarchy: level 1

This classification level is most appropriate to an NMT exclusive mode distribution and is

assigned to narrow road category. This is a special road category that corresponds to the very

narrow streetscapes (e.g. Modhubazar Road, Razarbazar Road) or to whole locality with similar

network structure (e.g. Old Dhaka) typical of Dhaka. These network elements demand special

treatment at the hierarchical configuration and are also in accord with the recommendations of

the DCC (2002) road referencing database. This database defined narrow roads as short

segments providing access to small areas. However, in this discussion the road category

primarily represents all network links that are constricted in design width and primarily served

local circulation including property access.

Correlation of network character including reasoning as aforementioned and derived hierarchy

governing factors for narrow roads indicates that such corridors feature,

• very low ROW and are acceptable as 1/2 lane single carriageway;

• expected to serve local sites/properties directly due to the spread pattern of the

network;

• enable connection to local areas from properties or vice versa that require to

traverse constricted links or represented the general physical network character of

a whole area(s);

• facilitate service with predominantly short trip lengths;

• encourages low travel speed , did not demand mobility but very high accessibility

function due to the nature of the trips being served;

• prefers to have PT that are in general low capacity and have least implication on

surrounding residences , but are easily available and affordable to ensure PT

access equity; and


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• are suitable to traverse through predominantly residential/residence dominated

mixed use corridors having high traffic sensitivity (low noise allowance) with

reference to surrounding land use.


suitable to be labelled as narrow road class.

When the functional needs of this road category are compared with mode character analysis for

MT and NMT, it is found that NMT should be the only mode to cater for such a degree of

functional needs. This is because, according to character analysis on NMT in Chapters 4 and 6, it

can cater best for short length intra-zonal trip demands while maintaining high demand

frequency for public transport in such local environments. They are better capable to cater for

accessibility needs of a substantial market niche especially the vulnerable (women, children,

elderly), students and middle income non-car owners. This also ensures a speed environment,

desirable and safer due to surrounding residence-based activity patterns. NMT has the

capability to fill the gap between journeys from home to the nearest public transport hub or

vice versa, which is of particular significance under existing poor location of bus stops as

revealed in Chapter 6. The sheer ROW of such links, <=4m is also suitable only for space efficient

vehicles such as NMT to allow some sort of operational efficiency and order in movement at

this road level.

MT is not acceptable at this level, primarily due to its physical configuration. Other constraints

include its safety implication due to speed, and high negative sensitivity impact on surrounding

land uses and non-compatibility with the calm neighbourhood environment (STP, 2005c &

Section B analysis). They would only be allowed in case of the vehicle owner being a resident of

the locality and for emergency vehicles services (e.g. ambulance, fire brigade etc.). Otherwise

their over presence would undermine the need to attain desirable attributes and degrade the

overall living environment of the neighbourhoods, as was found for instance in narrow roads

opposite Dhanmondi Road No. 12/A, and for districts as Old Dhaka.

This process to derivation of suitable road category with suitable modal composition,

corresponding to the functional need of a corridor and thus facilitate network performance

optimisation is illustrated in Figure 15.3 to Figure 15.9.An easy-to-use template of the same for

field application is presented in Figure 15.10 and Figure 15.11.


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Figurer15.3: Conceptual approach toward deriving the suitable mode – road interactivity decision forindividual corridors in Dhaka transport system


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Figurer15.4: Approach toward deriving the suitable mode – road interactivity decision for Primary Road type I


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Figurer15.5: Approach toward deriving the suitable mode – road interactivity decision for Primary Road type II


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Figurer15.6: Approach toward deriving the suitable mode – road interactivity decision for Secondary Road


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Figurer15.7: Approach toward deriving the suitable mode – road interactivity decision for Collector Road


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Figurer15.8: Approach toward deriving the suitable mode – road interactivity decision for Local Road


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Figurer15.9: Approach toward deriving the suitable mode – road interactivity decision for Narrow Road


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Figure15.10: An easy to use diagram for determining desired network governing characteristics and their

intensity for the proposed road hierarchy in accordance to the planning framework

Figure15.11: An easy to use diagram for determining desired

for the proposed road hierarchy in accordance to the planning framework

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: An easy to use diagram for determining desired mode distribution and their intensity

for the proposed road hierarchy in accordance to the planning framework

AALL PPLLAANNNNIINNGG FFRRAAMMEEWWOORRKK-- CCOONNSSTTIITTUUTTEESS AANNDD FFUUNNCCTTIIOONN


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Note that all criteria are not necessarily required to be fulfilled to allocate a corridor to a

particular road hierarchy and mode composition. The allocation would depend, in addition to

the framework guideline, on the understanding of the decision maker on the local traffic and

land use conditions; plus on the expected need from the new development work or

redevelopment intended for the area. The adjustment or modification of criteria intensity might

also be deemed necessary, by locality and city type.

15.2.3 Coherence of framework to desired outcomes

Validation of the framework is necessary, with reference to preferred qualities set for the

framework, in response to existing network deficiencies and future needs.

Ensuring balance in operation of modes

Instead of classifying the road network based on the traditional approach used previously,

which focuses on desired operational needs of the motorised modes only, the framework-

developed approach concentrates on mixed mode preference. This includes assessing different

network conditions with reference to their expected performance attributes, and correlating

this with desired operating characteristics of MT and NMT, thereby defining and allocating

modes to their suitable network level. The priority and non-priority of modes to a particular

corridor type is also similarly derived. This arrangement enables improved efficiency in

operation of both NMT and MT, since the best performance of the mode can be attained in

such a relevant, coherent network environment. This also ensures that the distribution of NMT

and/or MT are not biased, but systematically derived.

As a result, the current problem of imbalance between the MT and NMT operational

environments (coverage, connectivity, accessibility, mobility, and demand catering of different

market niche) is expected to be minimised. For example, the prioritisation of NMT at a lower

order road would enable better connectivity and mobility for social groups such as students,

working females and middle class elderly population, many of whom prefer short trip lengths,

cannot afford private transport or paratransits and feel it inappropriate to ride on an MPT. On

the contrary, MT prioritisation on higher order roads would enable their better performance,

which was previously compromised due to mixed, unplanned operation of all mode type at

these road types.

Adherence to future transport policy

The framework better complies with government strategy, which is to efficiently address future

Dhaka transport problems. Firstly, the framework offers provision of a dedicated network level


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for rapid transit operations. Such transit provisions were part of government’s future proposed

strategy (STP, 2005c; DHUTS, 2010) to meet the growing travel needs of Dhaka, though

accommodation of rapid transit is missing in the current road hierarchy. Secondly, the proposed

framework encourages greater priority of NMT in lower order roads and the opposite at higher

order roads, to facilitate the desired direction of Dhaka transport plans to adopt NMT as a

principal feeder service to long haul motorised public transport, to minimize emission and

improve overall environment.

Incorporation of stakeholder demand

The framework reflects the needs of stakeholders of the future Dhaka transport system. In

particular, the road hierarchy and mode composition better satisfy the need of stakeholders

(both policy makers and users) to have a more dominant local and feeder service role of NMPT,

and that of having greater service role of MT at inter-zonal, or city level.

The framework also enables better equity and affordability in access to modes, particularly for

the NMT users by facilitating their movement at local neighbourhood level. The framework

enables better sustenance for NMPT and thereby secures economic independence of the large

stakeholder group such as NMPT operators and drivers. The planned allocation of modes to

different road hierarchies would also help to derive improved traffic efficiency and faster

accessibility to various city parts, when well supported with network planning.

Ease of applicability of the framework tool

The framework decision process is based on a set of network governing attributes and mode

operational characteristics for a transport network. Based on the information on the expected

standard for multi-dimensional network attributes as presented in this framework, and

knowledge on mode operating character, the tool can be easily applied to examine mode

distribution status of an existing corridor in Dhaka or elsewhere in the country. Desirable

hierarchy of a future corridor and its modal priority can also be decided by applying the tool.

Adoptability and flexibility

It is understood that, due to the qualitative definition for most of the governing attributes, it

might be difficult to compare comparative governing standards if a new quantitative standard is

developed for any particular urban area of Bangladesh. However, the layout patterns of the

framework allow easy replacement of current standards with updated ones; and follow the

recommended functional hierarchical sequence in deriving respective corridor status.


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The review and analysis reveals that the proposed framework to a greater extent validates its

capability to accommodate the problems that are prevailed in the current transport network

and can attain the desired outcome set from the framework. The framework in the process also

indicates its potential as a tool to better address the quadruple bottom line sustainability of

better traffic operational efficiency, socio-economic equity, environmental security and

governance support, as defined in Chapter 2, Section 2.2.

However, to strengthen the validation of the framework, a small network-based application of

the tool is now presented. This demonstrates the capability of the tool in examining and

logically labelling a real network in accordance to its functional needs; and thereby facilitates

better inter-modal integration.

15.3 Application of the framework

The case network for this evaluation was introduced in Chapter 13. Based on the principles and

criteria set in the decision tool, the test network is assessed and ranked by colour with

reference to their place in the road hierarchy. The condition of road hierarchy and modal

distribution without the tool, which reflects existing condition is also colour coded for

comparison.

Among the corridors assessed within the test network, one representation from each category

is described to understand the road hierarchy and mode distribution derivation process. They

include Lake Road, Mirpur Road, Sat Masjid Road, Dhanmondi Road No. 27, Dhanmondi Road

No. 12/A and the road opposite of Dhanmondi Road 12/A. A few corridors outside the test

network are also assessed in parts, due to close connectivity with the test network, including

Manik Mia Avenue, Pantha Path and Asad Avenue.

The corridor locations and output of the analysis is presented in Figure 15. 12 and Figure 15.13.


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Layer 5 (Narrow Road, no priority between

MT and NMT) Layer 2 (Secondary Road, no priority between

MT and NMT)

Layer 4 (Access Road, no priority between MT

and NMT) Layer 1 (Primary Road, MT Only)

Layer 3 (Collector Road, no priority between

MT and NMT)

Figure15.12: Test network with current road hierarchy and traffic composition

Base map source: Google Map (2011)

All these roads fall

under either existing

layer 2 or 1

All these roads fall under

either existing layer 2 or

1


under either

existing layer 2 or

1

Special area

(National Parliament

Zone)


either existing layer 2 or

1

Test network area:

Major sections with

current network and

traffic condition

Test

network

area: STP

proposed

BRT line

MIRPUR ROD

SAT MASJID

ROAD

DHANMONDI

ROAD 27

DHANMONDI

ROAD 12/A

MANIK MIA AVENUE

ROAD OPPOSITE

OF DHANMONDI

12/A

LAKE ROD

ASAD AVENUE

PANTHA PATH

DHANMONDI

7/A

DHANMONDI


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Base map source: Google Map 2011

Figure15.13: Test network with proposed road hierarchy and traffic composition in accordance with

framework tool

Base map source: Google Map (2011)

Layer 1 (Narrow Road, NMT Only) Layer 2C (Secondary Road, MT>NMT)

Layer 2A (Access Road, MT<NMT) Layer 3A (Primary Road II, MT Only)

Layer 2B (Collector Road, similar priority

between MT and NMT) Layer 3B (Primary Road I, MT & MRT)


under either proposed

layer 2A or 1


either proposed layer 2A

or 1


under either

proposed layer 2A

or 1

Special area

(National Parliament

Zone)


either proposed layer 2A

or 1

Test network area:

Major sections,

Layer 3A to 1

Test network

area: with

layer 3B (STP

proposed

BRT) line

section

MIRPUR ROD

SAT MASJID

ROAD

DHANMONDI

ROAD 27

DHANMONDI

ROAD 12/A

ROAD OPPOSITE

OF DHANMONDI

12/A

MANIK MIA AVENUE

LAKE ROD

ASAD AVENUE

PANTHA PATH

DHANMONDI

7/A

DHANMONDI


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The comparative overview of the corridors without and with the tool represents two distinct

features. Firstly, road hierarchy levels are similar for both scenarios, except shift of rank for Lake

Road to a new category (Primary I from Primary). Secondly, distinct rearrangement in the mode

distribution pattern of all the remaining corridors except collector roads.

15.3.1 Derivation of layer 3B Road (MRT prioritised over MT)

Among the observed shifts, Lake Road is found to be suitable as a proposed layer 3B (a new

road level proposed specifically for rapid transit) instead of existing layer 5 (MT only category).

This is deemed logical since it is a part of one of the proposed BRT lines (BRT line C) of STP

(2005b). In addition the road has wider carriageway, serves as a metropolitan level linkage

connecting east and west Dhaka, demands high mobility and speed; has dominant MPT routes;

and is surrounded by administrative and public recreation spaces. These aspects qualify the

corridor, based on the framework to be a layer 3 road, recommended to be dedicated to MT

traffic and with priority for rapid transits.

Layer 3 roads with planned BRT line development, in order to facilitate dedicated route and

supporting infrastructure as suggested by STP, need to be treated as a separate road type from

traditional MT only roads and managed accordingly. The presence of other motorised transport

such as private vehicles are expected to be lower priorities on these road categories, through

regulatory measures for operational and management convenience.

15.3.2 Derivation of layer 3A Road (MT only road)

The mode distribution pattern, for the other road categories, is also found to be more rational

in accordance with the proposed condition than with the prevailing arrangements, except for

Mirpur Road. For its segment within the test network, the current arrangement of the MT only

condition is found to be rational. The functional condition of the road as revealed in the Chapter

14 analysis demands high mobility, and speed ;requires functioning as an inter-zonal linkage

connecting Dhaka from north to south, acts as a significant MPT route and has dominant

surrounding commercial usage.

All these qualify the corridor, based on the framework, to be a layer 3A road (corresponding to

previous road level 1) and accordingly suitable to be catered by MT only traffic. However, it

should be noted that for Mirpur Road, the current access interval of 200m-250m is found to be

too frequent to enable smooth traffic flow compared to standard recommendations of around

500m (DITS, 1994a; Eppell et al., 2001). This aspect needs to be addressed with proper traffic

management measures to ensure efficient functioning of this corridor.


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15.3.3 Derivation of layer 2C Road (MT prioritised over NMT)

In case of Sat Masjid Road, the functional condition of the road as revealed from Chapter 6 and

14 analysis indicates desired attributes such as relatively high mobility, operating speed and

trend to cater predominantly longer trips; to distribute traffic to areas north and west of the

city; connecting arterial roads (e.g. Mirpur) to collectors (e.g. Asad Avenue); serving as a key bus

route and thereby demonstrating demand for high capacity PT and being governed by

predominantly commercial and relevant usage. These qualify the corridor, based on the

framework, to be a layer 2C road (corresponding to previous road level 2).

Accordingly the corridor is recommended to be more suitable to be catered by MT as priority

traffic for its strong operating coherence to the desired network attributes. However, due to the

characteristics of land use in this corridor as explained in Chapter 14, demand also exists for

short-to-medium length trips, particularly by user groups such as students and older population

etc. who are attracted to the educational institutions and health care facilities on the corridor.

Therefore, the provision of NMT traffic is also allocated to cater for such demands. The mode is

recommended only at a low priority level through management and route planning measures

to maintain the primary need of this corridor- mobility and productivity. Such distribution and

prioritisation would also enable minimisation of the deficits and operating imbalance of the

corridor, observed under current conditions (Chapter 14).

15.3.4 Derivation of layer 2B Road (MT and NMT equally prioritised)

Dhanmondi Road No. 27 has similar functional conditions to that of Sat Masjid Road, based on

Chapter 14 analysis. However, its primary connectivity function is to collect traffic from primary

(Mirpur) and secondary (Sat Masjid) roads and connect to residential streets (e.g. Lalmatia) and

the trips as a result are more medium-to-short in character. The traffic carrying function is

therefore lower in most instances than that of Sat Masjid Road. Land use of this corridor is also

found to be more mixed primarily with commercial usage, but there are residential apartment

units and houses as well. The mobility and access requirements as a result demand to be of a

similar pattern. In addition, the ROW of the road is considerably low (10 m-12m) to Sat Masjid

Road (23-25m). On these grounds, it is rational to allocate this corridor according to framework

criteria as a layer 2B road (corresponding to previous road level 3).

The mode distribution due to such land character, traffic connectivity and other functionality is

recommended with close balance of MT and NMT, to cater needs for both long and short trips,

and low and high capacity PT requirements. Note that, features of layer 2B and 2C roads can

overlap due to their close functional nature. Judgement of suitable road hierarchy and mode


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distribution recommendation under such circumstances relies on experience and

understanding of the analyst on the land use- traffic condition of the local network; and on the

desired aim of future development of the area.

15.3.5 Derivation of layer 2A Road (NMT prioritised over MT)

In the case of Dhanmondi Road No. 12/A, the functional condition of the road as revealed from

Chapter 14 analysis indicates desired attributes such as relatively high access requirements and

subsequent low mobility needs, due to the predominant residential land use character served

by the corridor . The corridor is observed to be mostly generating short-to-medium local trips to

reach nearby activity centres and also for reaching MPT stops or paratransit stands (e.g. Taxi).

The ROW of the corridor is also at the lower end of the road geometry, being around 7m to

10m. As a result, it is desirable to have lower traffic carriage than the aforementioned roads

such as layer 2B. All these qualify the corridor, based on the framework, to be a layer 2A road

(corresponding to previous road level 4).

Accordingly the corridor is recommended as more suitable to be prioritised by NMT traffic for

its strong operating coherence to the desired network attributes. MT traffic would be desirable

for only those local functions or land uses that generate such traffic (e.g. visitors, local resident

vehicles, emergency use vehicles etc). However, such generation, especially visitor traffic would

be controlled or restricted through land use management, time restricted movement and area

pricing measures. This is also important to maintain the high traffic sensitivity desired from such

corridors. Through traffic, both NMT and MT should be discouraged in order to optimise the

functionality of this category of corridor. Such distribution and prioritisation minimises the

deficits and operating imbalance of the corridor, which have been observed under current

condition (Chapter 14).

15.3.6 Derivation of layer 1 Road (NMT only)

Functional characteristics of the road opposite to Dhanmondi Road No. 12/A as revealed in

Chapter 14, or for that matter, any similar road in the vicinity (West Dhanmondi and Shankar)

demonstrate some key characteristics. These include very limited ROW, <=4m, undivided 2 lane

carriage, primary connectivity as an access road to residential properties, acceptability for low

speed, primary mostly function as local corridors with short trips, desirability to have low

capacity space efficient PT to adjust to the network character of the area, and desirability to

have relatively calm traffic environment due to land use nature, predominantly residential. All


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these qualify the corridor, based on the framework, to be a layer 1 road (corresponding to

previous road level 5).

Accordingly the corridor is recommended to be more suitable to be prioritised by NMT traffic

for its strong operating and physical coherence to the desired network attributes. MT traffic

allowance would be strictly prohibited, primarily due to such network geometry. Exceptions

would be the vehicles of local residents and emergency use vehicles. Through traffic, both NMT

and MT, should be discouraged, to optimise the functionality of this category of corridor. Such

distribution and prioritisation would also enable minimisation of the deficits and operating

imbalance of the corridor, which have been observed under current conditions (Chapter 14).

The discussion reveals the capability of the tool, as a broad guideline, to address the

multidimensional governing needs of a network and enable systematic assignment of road level

and relatively balanced mode distribution (NMPT alongside MT) to complement these needs.

These derivations, together with the findings of Section 15.2, indicate validation of hypothesis

relevant to planning step 4.

Note that due to the scope of this study and resource constraints, the application examples

were demonstrated on two broad categories of traffic, MT and NMT. But the same framework

is capable of more detailed, individual mode specific analysis with respect to its structure.

15.4 Implementation strategy to suppport the framework

In order to facilitate better applicability of the proposed framework and to maximize its utility, a

set of broad, supportive implementation strategies is recommended. This strategic guideline is

divided into six broad themes or elements of concern, namely physical measures, regulatory

measures, network planning measures, traffic management measures, demand management

measures and financial measures. For better comprehension, each element of concern is

broken down into multiple sub-elements and a brief guideline is provided for each, by the six

proposed road hierarchy levels of the framework. It is important to note that the effectiveness

of the framework in achieving desired network performance depends significantly on the

successful implementation of these supporting measures. Table 15.2 presents this self-

explanatory strategic guideline.


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Table 15.2: Implementation strategy to support the planning framework for Dhaka

Element of

concernSub-elements

Cat 3B Cat 3A. Cat 2C Cat 2B Cat 2A Cat 1

Physical

measures

on-road infrastructure

development for modal

segregation (hard/soft)

Requirement Yes No Yes No No No

Type barrier seg no seg barrier seg lane/No seg No seg No seg

Details

Dedicated

lane/track for MRT;

Bus lane for others

Bus lane low height l inked

bollardsn/a* n/a n/a

Pricing High Very low low n/a n/a n/a

On-road PT transfer facility

developmentRequirement Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Varibale

TypeMRT station;

MPT stopsMPT stops

MPT stops; NMPT

stands

MPT stops; NMPT

stands

NMPT stands (if space

permits)

NMPT stands (if

space permits)

Pricing High; moderate moderate moderate; low low low low

Priority signaling & signage

systemRequirement Yes for MRT; Yes for MPT Yes for MT not required Yes for NMT Yes for NMT

TypeAutomated traffic

l ights; Sign posts

Automated traffic l ights;

Sign posts

Automated traffic

l ights; Sign postsn/a Sign posts Sign posts

Pricing moderate moderate moderate n/a low low

Levy stations for area pricing Requirement Yes Yes Yes No Yes No

Type Automated Automated Automated/manual n/a Automated/manual n/a


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Element of

concernSub-elements


Regulatory

measure

Land use control to conform

with set hierarchy

Empahsize

commercial use

Empahsize commercial

use

Empahsize

commercial use

More non-

commercial use

Empahsize residential

use; other uses to

support residence

Empahsize

residentialuse; other

uses to support

residence

Route design and control Yes for MRT & MPT Yes for MPT Yes for MPT Yes MPT and NMPT Yes for NMPT Yes for NMPT

Licensing control Yes for all modes Yes for all modes Yes for all modes Yes for all modes Yes for all modes Yes for all modes

Fare strcturing Yes for MRT & MPT Yes for MPTYes for MPT &

paratransits; Yes for paratransits; Yes for paratransits;

guide for NMPT guide for NMPT guide for NMPT guide for NMPT

Institutional strengthening

Traffic

management

Enforcement financial;

operational financial; operational

financial;

operational

financial;

operational financial; operational

financial;

operational

Traffic operations Precedence mobility Precedence mobilityMore mobility;

Less accessibil ity

Balance mobility &

access function

Less mobility;

Precence accessibil ity

Less mobility;

Precence

accessibil ity

Driver training on road rulesEmphasis on MT

driversEmphasis on MT drivers

Emphasis on MT &

NMT drivers

Emphasis on MT &

NMT drivers

Emphasis on MT & NMT

drivers

Emphasis on NMT

drivers

Roadside interference( illegal

access & parking)

Ensure maximum

controlEnsure maximum control

Ensure maximum

control

Ensure maximum

controlEnsure maximum control

Ensure maximum

control

Central coordination of regulation to operation (follow STP 2005 & DHUTS 2010)


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Element of

concernSub-elements


Demand

management Area Pricing (financial sticks) Requirement Yes Yes Yes No Yes No

TypeControl private

vehicles, e.g.car

Control private vehicles,

e.g.car in inner city

access points

Control movement of

NMTs n/a Control movement of MT

Control movement of

MT

Control movement for

through traffic

Control movement for

through traffic

Details on pricing

High entry & waiting

levy for using these

routes during any

time

High entry &waiting levy

for using these predefined

accesses by LVs during

any time

High entry & watitng

levy on weekdays

working hours

n/a

Very High entry & watitng

levy on weekdays

working hours

Controll entry of MT

at predefined access

points

Extremely l imited

waiting/parking

points for NMT

Extremely l imited

waiting/parking points

for MT

Allow only those MT

bearing residence tag

Staggered working hours

Financial need Overall infrastructure cost High- Very high High- Moderate High- Moderate Moderate -Low Low Moderate -Low

Overall management cost High Moderate Moderate Low Moderate-High Moderate-High

to facil itate distribution of demand across time-segments

*n/a: Not applicable

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15.5 Summary

This chapter has described the structure and functioning of the planning framework as a part of

planning step 4. The discussion started with depiction of the framework tool, including

description of its component parts - the layers and traffic compositions and derivation process

of these components. The coherence of the derived tool to the desired outcome set at Chapter

11 was also assessed. This was followed by a case study-based application demonstration of the

tool. The discussion concluded with broad implementation strategies to support the

functionality of the tool.

The framework tool, based on the functional need of the current transport network and

operational characteristics of MT and NMT, was divided into six hierarchical levels. The

functional needs were assessed with reference to four major network criteria – design,

functional, frictional and impact, derived in Chapter 14. Among the road levels, five were similar

in network governing attributes, as recommended for Dhaka but distinctly different in the

modal distribution pattern. These five road levels were primary road, secondary road, collector

road, access road and narrow road. In addition, a new road level with new traffic composition

was proposed in the framework. For this purpose, the primary road type was split into two

classes - Primary road type I and Primary road type II. The former corresponded to the current

primary road. The latter was proposed to have a priority-based management to facilitate future

rapid transits such as BRT and reduced right-of-way for private vehicles. The new layer identifier

for the road category according to framework is 3B.

Among the other levels, primary road type I was found to be most suitable to be kept at its

current condition, that is as an MT only road level, given that particular corridor corresponds to

the set attributes of the framework. The new layer name for the road category according to

framework, is 3A. Secondary, collector and access road levels were proposed in the framework,

to be suitable as mixed-mode corridors, with MT and NMT as existing. But the current ‘no

prioritisation’ approach of the modes was found to be incompatible to fulfil desired corridor

performance. Analysis of the functional need of the corridors suggested secondary roads to be

best suited to MT priority, collector roads to be best suited to similar priority for MT and NMT

and access roads to be best suitable with NMT priority. Narrow roads, in the same vein, were

found to be best suited to NMT-only roads than the current no priority situation.

This process to derive to road hierarchy and mode distribution for a corridor was found to

ensure better balance, between MT and NMT, at different network levels. The need of better

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system level traffic efficiency, better accessibility at different network parts and enhancement

in personal mobility were also found to be more achievable under such an arrangement.

Application example of the tool on a small case network of Dhanmondi also revealed the ability

of the tool in better addressing the need of the test network corridors, enabling logical

distribution of modes and demonstrating easy use and flexibility of the framework as decision

tool.

These findings reinforced the derivations made above on the rationality of the tool in achieving

desired outcome set in Chapter 11, which is enabling a collaborative and balanced decision

process to facilitate NMT coexistence with MT. Collaborative, with reference to the

characteristics of the tool to represent the viewpoint of different stakeholder groups;

incorporating the aspects of land use, network character and future needs of transport plans.

Balanced, with reference to characteristics of the tool to prioritise and logically distribute modes

(MT and NMT) by the functional need of the network, ensuring right modes are allowed in right

locations, in right preference, thereby facilitating the key attributes towards transport

sustainability. The findings as such also validated the hypothesis coupled with planning step 4.

A broad implementation strategy, by proposed road level and with reference to five key

elements; physical measures, regulatory measures, demand management measures, traffic

management measures and financial needs, was outlined to supplement the application of the

tool. The next Chapter presents the conclusion from the study and outlines future research

opportunities.

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16 SECTION D: CONCLUSION

CHAPTER 16: DISCUSSION AND

CONCLUSION

16.1 Introduction

Chapter 15 described the structure and functioning of the planning tool. This chapter also

evaluated the coherence of the tool in addressing desired outcomes. Completion of the four

level planning processes and validation of hypothesis related to research question 3 were thus

achieved. In this process, this research has fulfilled its aim of developing a decision tool to derive

to appropriate road hierarchy for a mixed-mode transport network.

This Section and Chapter outlines a summary of the complete study and the way forward. The

discussion of this chapter is divided into three major sections. Section 16.2 presents a brief

summary based discussion of the study. The original contribution from this study is identified in

Section 16.3. Section 16.4 indicates the opportunities for future research that stem from this

study. Finally, the closure to this thesis is presented.

16.2 Research summary and conclusions

Based on the research conducted to address the research questions and to achieve the

objectives, this thesis maintains that non-motorised public transport (NMPT) is a unique form of

public transport and its requirement or otherwise should be carefully evaluated before

undertaking any decision to restrict them from a transport network. This need for careful and

planned assessment is more significant for developing cities since the history and scale of

existence of the mode is much greater than is the case of developed country cities. Addressing

the operation and management of NMPT in a non-coherent manner, without being considered

as a part of formal transport system might result in an imbalance of user demand to supply.

To illustrate the above mentioned aspects and demonstrate that research questions set out in

Chapter 1 to address these, have been answered, the key conclusions from this research are

summarised below, by linking them to the research questions and relevant objectives of this

study. This is explained with the work reported in respective chapters to address these



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questions and to achieve the objectives. The work reported in some chapters helped to achieve

multiple objectives. These chapters may appear more than once in following discussion.

16.2.1 Define current role and future suitability of NMPT, primarily of

developing cities and to a lesser extent for developed cities

An extensive literature review and analysis was conducted in a global context, to determine the

status of NMPT as a regular public transport mode. The review incorporated major cities of

developed and developing countries, with NMPT in operation.

Chapter 2: During the status review of developed cities, it was found that NMPT has a long, but

discontinuous history of existence with most popularity gained after its re-emergence in the

1990s. The review indicated that NMPT primarily functions as a tourist transport mode in these

parts of the world and does not yet have significant contribution as a daily travel mode yet. But

the review also revealed challenges in blending the mode within highly motorised traffic

environment of these cities and the need of a well-planned framework to ensure its sustainable

coexistence with motorised transport in future.

Status review of developing cities found a long continuous history of NMPT, negligible validity of

the reasoning against disutility of the mode and significant multisectoral role contribution of the

mode as a regular public transport mode under adverse policy environment, in many major

cities, particularly in Asia. The role review also found the strong possible role and share of the

mode in these cities in the near future. The review revealed the immediate need for an

integrated planning framework to better manage this mode, to improve its operational

efficiency and to minimise its conflicts with other available motorised modes.

It was highlighted from the discussion that, to realise the endeavour to formulate a detailed

planning framework, a case study approach would be preferable given time and resource

limitations. Dhaka, the capital city of Bangladesh, was chosen in this regard, due to the

magnitude and scale of operation of this industry.

16.2.2 Define current role and future suitability of NMPT, in case study Dhaka

The NMPT status review and analysis for the Dhaka case study was divided into four major

dimensions. They were - extensive literature review on condition of the mode (Chapters 3 to 5),

in-depth analysis of the reviewed literature (Chapters 6, 7), viewpoint analysis of all relevant

stakeholders on the condition of the mode (Chapters 8, 9); and inferences on the current and

future role of the mode (Chapter 10), based on the output of review and analysis.



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Chapter 3: An overview of Dhaka NMPT industry was made in this introductory case study

chapter. The review revealed eight decades of NMPT presence as a regular public transport

mode. The development trend of NMPT indicated a two-phase growth situation, including a

gradual increase in the first four decades since its evolution in Dhaka in 1938 and a steep rise

over the last four decades. The review also presented other key aspects of NMPT industry, such

as the regulation in effect for operational control of the mode, usual trip length and daily

productivity of NMPT, fare structure, ownership and rental practices in place, operating hours

and typical revenue from the mode. The discourse set the scene for in-depth review and

analysis of the industry and to assess NMPT status from a multidimensional perspective.

Chapters 4 and 5: These chapters reported the viewpoint of previous literature – individual

research efforts and previous transport sector plans, on the NMPT industry of Dhaka. Chapter 4

revealed the arguments in favour of NMPT while Chapter 5 delineated the arguments rejecting

the mode in order to develop an impartial understanding on its condition.

In Chapter 4, the role of the mode was primarily reviewed with reference to social, economic,

employment, environmental, transport and safety viewpoints. The research highlighted the

large scale influence NMPT has in supporting the livelihood of the poor, and in their economic

self-reliance, in sustaining the environment, in balancing the travel demand and travel quality

needs of the lower and middle income population, and in catering for commonplace small

freight movement requirements. The literature also highlighted road space utility of NMPT in

relation to other comparable modes such as auto-rickshaw or taxi, suitability to narrow network

structures of the city, its potential as a feeder to public transport services, and its better safety

record to other major transport modes. The chapter also reported, with respect to reviewed

literature, the regulatory, traffic management and vehicular design related policy and planning

proposals put forward for integration of NMPT with motorised transport (MT).

A review of literature in Chapter 5 found some key underlying reasoning behind rejecting of the

mode and the need for its restriction. They include slow speed, low capacity and road space

inefficiency of the mode, subsequent contribution to traffic congestion, health impact and

inhumane nature of the profession, and its representation of a poor, underdeveloped city

image to the outside world. A number of government policy recommendations to control NMPT

derived from such perspectives on the mode were then reviewed. Second Five Year Plan (1980-

1985) and Third Five Year Plan (1985-1990) of Bangladesh Planning Commission suggested

complete removal of NMPT. Special Committee Report 1986 and Fourth Five Year Plan (1990-

1995) suggested their removal from major roads and restriction to some specific zones. DUTP



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Phase II (1996-2005) suggested removal of NMPT from 11 major arterials of the city

encompassing 120 km of roadway. NLTP (2004) encouraged nationwide reduction of NMPT

trips by half within 2014, based on which implementation actions for NMPT control are in effect

onwards. The review reported the implementation strategies in place for management of

NMPT. Licensing control was found as the first approach applied to curb NMPTs and has been in

effect since the 1950s. Rise of import duties on spare parts of bicycle and NMPT was applied in

early 1980s and is continuing. Physical restriction in NMPT operation was introduced in 1980s

and has been more rigorously enforced since 2002. The literature review also found physical

restriction as the primary restriction strategy in effect for controlling Dhaka NMPT movement.

Chapters 6 and 7: These chapters presented detailed analysis of the literature reviewed to

derive new information and findings on the NMPT industry. The NMPT role analysis was made

in Chapter 6. Chapter 7 made pattern analysis of NMPT integration initiatives and impact

analysis of the undertaken NMPT restriction initiatives by government.

In Chapter 6, the role analysis was conducted with reference to key issues that were previously

reviewed in the literature, including social, economic, employment, environmental and

transport aspects. Social analyses revealed that for major short-to-medium trip makers e.g.

females, students and elderly, NMPT trip shares have increased. The analyses also revealed that

NMPT has a greater share among low and middle income populations. On a macro-economic

perspective, the gross revenue from NMPT was found to increase over the last two decades. On

a micro-economic perspective, the analyses suggested higher revenue of the NMPT employees

compared to National GDP and some key formal and informal sector professions. Employment

sector analyses showed that the share of NMPT industry jobs increased significantly in the last

two decades. Environmental sector analyses revealed that motorised modes are contributing to

all of transport-sourced pollution in Dhaka, while catering almost an equal trip share to that of

NMPT.

The transport role analyses revealed that NMPT mode has had an annual growth rate of 20

percent in the last five years, which is highest among all available modes. Currently NMPT

shares around half of the non-walk trips in Dhaka. NMPT was found to take less road space per

passenger compared to auto-rickshaw, taxi or car, but more space than a bus or human hauler.

NMPTs were found to offer better accessibility and service quality compared to bus on different

elements of the of network - at stop level, route level and system level. Similar or better service

performance of NMPT was found at all three system elements to auto-rickshaw and taxi, except

for service coverage. NMPT also showed better performance level in quality of service measures



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to private vehicles than other public or paratransit modes. The understanding from this Chapter

is expected to inform inferences about the role contribution or otherwise of NMPT in Dhaka.

In Chapter 7, the investigation of integration initiatives examined issues by classifying them into

policy proposals and more operational planning proposals. Both concerns and potential of the

strategies were considered during analyses. The majority of the research was found to

concentrate on developing strategic policies and guidelines for NMPT operational

improvement. Some operational proposals had strong design guidelines such as DUTP 1996.The

planning proposals were found to be based on zone centric control of NMPT. The priority

measure for NMPT operation in some selected network parts was proposed by one researcher.

The derivation of priority measures was, however, random in nature.

Government restrictions were investigated in relation to the key restriction types that were

identified and reviewed previously, viz. analysing licensing control and physical control. The

impact analysis of the former control showed a constant increase in illegal NMPT share since its

official ceiling was fixed in 1986. For the latter control, the analysis was split into two time

frames; before 2002, when NMPT physical restriction was less practiced, and after 2002, from

when it was applied at a widespread scale. Pre-2002 analyses showed mixed results with

several failed attempts to restrict NMPT, but the initiatives also managed to successfully off-

restrict the mode from six major roads.

Post 2002 analyses showed deviation from the prescribed guidelines for NMPT restriction on

some links. The analyses also showed deviation following the alternative NMPT route provision

standards. The impact analyses of post 2002 NMPT restriction were focused on the Mirpur

Demonstration Corridor due to data constraints. The results revealed improvement in link

speed and link travel time of motorised modes in general. The speed and travel time by bus has,

however, decreased on the same corridor. The impact analyses showed that most of the road

space on the corridor was occupied by private car; however bus share has also reasonably

increased. Another interesting finding of the impact analyses was that 20 percent of the former

NMPT users shifted to buses, contrary to the expectation of bulk shift to this mode which was

split between NMPT, auto-rickshaw and taxi. The understanding from this Chapter is expected

to inform inferences on the suitability or otherwise of the current practices for NMPT control.

Chapters 8 and 9: Stakeholder viewpoints on the condition of the mode and on the future

desired attributes form the transport system of Dhaka were presented in these Chapters.

Chapter 8 described the methodology used for stakeholder viewpoint analysis while the result

of the analysis was reported in Chapter 9.



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The methodology description of Chapter 8 was divided into sequential, interlinked stages. The

sampling was made with reference to five selected NMPT stakeholder groups i.e. GO, NGO,

NMPT operators, NMPT drivers and NMPT users; and a total of 150 samples were taken for

analysis. Interview was chosen as most suitable data collection method supplemented by

observation. A semi-structured questionnaire schedule based on face-to-face interview was

administered to collect best quality data. To facilitate the recording of interview data and to

enable collection of appropriate data to meet analysis purpose, the schedule was divided into

three major segments. First segment was on respondent details, the second was on current role

and future preference on NMPT; third segment was on future preferred qualities of Dhaka’s

transport system. Non-parametric statistical analysis was chosen for analysing NMPT relevant

viewpoints. SPSS was found suitable as analysis tool. MCA based AHP was chosen for prioritising

the hierarchy of future transport qualities. MS Excel was found suitable as an analysis tool.

In Chapter 9, the data analysis on stakeholder viewpoint was divided into two major streams.

The first stream reported findings on the current role and future condition of NMPT. The

findings on current issues indicated that the major portion of five stakeholder groups

considered NMPT to have a high-to-moderate functional role. A moderate proportion of the GO

and NGO differed from this trend and expressed it to be of low functional role. The data analysis

also showed that the major portion of five stakeholder groups considered high-to--moderate

dependency level of Dhaka transport users on the mode for regular trip purposes. Very few

suggested otherwise. Considerable variation in opinion was observed on current restriction

functionality of NMPT, with GO and NGO reflecting some degree of satisfaction. The remaining

stakeholders were mostly dissatisfied with the measures.

Analysing the future situation, a substantial portion of the stakeholders from each group were

observed to favour NMPT performing local and feeder service roles, while they differed on the

other two options. GO was more inclined to see it as local service mode; NMPT operators,

drivers and users were inclined to see the mode as free flowing in all network parts and NGO

was evenly split between these options. Similar to respondent viewpoint on current restriction,

spread in opinion was observed on future preferred restriction levels of NMPT, with MT. Most

preferences were split between two alternatives of partial restriction strategy. Partial

restriction-existing (defined as current NMPT-MT coexistence pattern) was highly favoured by

GO but the majority of the remaining stakeholders favoured the partial restriction-proposed

strategy (defined as changed, more planned NMPT-MT coexistence pattern). Among other

control levels, some portion of the GO favoured full restriction measures while some of the

remaining respondent groups preferred the no restriction option. Regarding the suggestions to



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improve future management and planning of NMPT, the emphasis of most desirable choices

were quite similar between all five groups, led by a need for proper interlink between MT and

NMPT and a need for comprehensive regulatory frameworks.

In the second stream of analysis, multi-criteria analysis and analytical hierarchy process based

priority structure for the future transport system of Dhaka was developed, with reference to

five predefined criteria; social equity, traffic operational efficiency, access and mobility,

environmental sustainability and urban fabric and city image. Traffic operational efficiency and

access and mobility were found to be the two most preferred criteria by each stakeholder

group. City image was the least preferred criteria. Social equity was more preferred over

environmental sustainability.

The understanding from this chapter feeds into the investigation of the role contribution of

NMPT and on the suitability of the current practices for NMPT control in Dhaka, from the

perspective of NMPT stakeholders. The results will also assist in providing insight on future

preferences from NMPT and on comprehending the coherence or otherwise of NMPT to the

desired character for future Dhaka transport system.

Chapter 10: Inferences and learning on current status and future role of NMPT was found to be

crucial, based on the discussion and findings of Chapters 3 to 9. The NMPT role review found

that NMPT has a significant role in multiple sectors of Dhaka - in maintaining social equity,

economic efficiency, environmental sustainability and in catering for door-to-door short

distance travel demand. It was also found that the key deficiencies labelled on NMPT modal

operations, are either largely invalid or situational and require better NMPT management than

their blanket banning. The inference was that NMPT has a significant role contribution in

present and future transport systems of Dhaka as a regular public transport mode.

The cost-benefit analysis on current NMPT restriction initiatives showed that disadvantages of

the approach far outweigh benefits. It was also revealed that the reasons behind the

ineffectiveness of current approaches are their ad-hoc, unplanned nature and lack of balanced

planning approach to distribute all modes across the network in a systematic manner. The

inference was that an integrated planning framework is needed to address this inter-modal

imbalance.

The cost-benefit analysis of prevailing planning and management initiatives found that no

effective and integrated planning approach or tool is available to address these deficiencies.

Based on these findings the chapter concluded that, given the substantial role significance of



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NMPT in Dhaka and due to absence of any effective tool to manage the same, it is necessary to

develop an integrated planning framework to facilitate the balanced coexistence and

integration of NMPT with other motorised modes in Dhaka.

16.2.3 Evaluate and determine suitable network environment for integration

of NMPT with MT using Dhaka as a case study

Chapter 11: The planning framework development process for Dhaka was divided into four

planning steps as discussed in Chapter 11. They include initial problem planning (establishing

need for IMPF tool) (planning step 1);defining current and future state of the problem (type and

character of imbalance in current network; desired character for future) (planning step

2);evaluation and selection of technique that best address these deficiencies and needs

(planning step3);& finally, development of a delivery plan (IMPF tool structuring and application

process) to minimize current NMPT management imbalance with MT(planning step 4).

Chapters 12, 13 and 14: As planning step 1 was accomplished during the review and analysis of

Section B, Chapter 14 focused on the next stage in the framework development process, which

was to evaluate the suitable network environment for integration of NMPT with MT (planning

step 2).The methodology rationale and application process in this connection were described in

Chapter 12 and 13 respectively.

Chapters 12 and 13: Based on examination of the relevant research question (research question

3), Chapter 12 found that for planning step 2, which was to set up the suitable network

environment and preferred character for the proposed framework, the appropriate

methodologies were a combination of quantitative and qualitative techniques. They included

archival analysis, land use-traffic interactivity analysis, stakeholder viewpoint analysis and

standard road functionality analysis. Chapter 13 described the field application process of these

methods to achieve the desired evaluation

Chapter 14: Analysis of suitable network environment started with formulation of three

alternative integration strategies, constituted with various combinations of MT and non-

motorised transport (NMT) modes under each strategy. The formulated strategies were full

restriction (FR) of NMPT with MT movement unrestricted, FR of MT with NMT movement

unrestricted and partial restriction (PR) of both MT and NMT. The coherence of the formulated

strategies were then evaluated with reference to macro –network and micro-network level. At

macro level, their impacts were assessed on different sector of transport system including

socio-economic, environment and travel, and with reference to future stakeholder demand



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from transport system. At a corridor level, the strategies were assessed with reference to land

use-traffic interactivity pattern of the corridors and with reference to standard road

functionality expected from different network levels.

The evaluation first depicted the need for both MT and NMT as significant transport modes in

the network environment of Dhaka and subsequent rejection of two extreme strategies, FR of

NMPT and FR of MT. PR was found to be more balance approach in integrating the two mode

splits. Second, the appropriateness of PR-existing (PR-E) was evaluated with reference to its

ability to optimise the coexistence of MT and NMT in the network. The results indicated a lack

of balance of the current strategy in defining the role and place of MT and NMT at different

levels of the network and with reference to the functional needs of the network. The lack of

coherence of the current strategy in meeting future stakeholder demands and future

prescribed guidelines of transport plans was also revealed. The need for a modified PR strategy,

PR-proposed and development of a decision tool with the need to address these deficits was

also established. These identified deficiencies and needs of the network formed the basis for

preferred attributes of the proposed framework tool. Planning step 2 was thus accomplished.

Chapters 4 to 7: These Chapters informed the macro-level evaluation of alternative transport

strategies, starting with strategic evaluation related to archival analysis presented in Chapter 14.

Chapters 8 and 9: These Chapters informed the macro-level evaluation of alternative transport

strategies, at first level of strategic evaluation related to stakeholder viewpoint analysis

presented in Chapter 14.

16.2.4 Examine and select appropriate technique for layout of an integrated

multimodal decision tool using Dhaka as a case study

Chapter 11: Similar to planning step 2, the overview of planning step 3 and its relation to the

conceptual planning process, direction and desired outcome of the framework was defined.

Chapters 12 and 13: Based on examination of research question 3, Chapter 12 found that for

planning step 3, the endeavour of which was to determine a technique that can best replicate

the need and characteristics of proposed framework, functional hierarchy method proved to be

most effective. Chapter 13 described the field application process of the method.

Chapter 14: The selection process to derive the tool involved a review of functional hierarchy as

a concept in network planning, application suitability of the technique to the needs of the

current Dhaka network and case study-based utility analysis of the method in addressing similar

situations elsewhere. Two separate multimodal case locations with differing condition - Bogota,



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Colombia (MT-NMT integration achieved with NMT primary focus on bicycle) and Portland,

Oregon, USA (MT-NMT integration proposed with bicycle as NMT) were examined. The success

of the former and the identification of certain network deficiencies of the latter also indicated

the utility of the approach in addressing NMT-MT conflicting scenarios. Planning step 3 was

accomplished in the process.

16.2.5 Develop a functional framework for the proposed decision tool to

facilitate sustainable NMPT coexistence with MT, using Dhaka as a case study

Chapter 11: The overview of planning step 4 and its relation to the conceptual planning process,

direction and desired outcome of the proposed framework was defined.

Chapters 12 and 13: Based on examination of the relevant research question (research question

3) it was found that for planning step 4, the endeavour to structure and functionalise a tool that

can allow balanced distribution of mode across the network, a mode-road interactive method-

based decision tool, is most appropriate. The application of the developed tool was

demonstrated using a small test network within Dhaka to show the real world validity of the

proposed tool in achieving the set desired outcomes.

Chapter 15: The framework tool, based on the functional need of current transport network

and operational characteristics of MT and NMT, was divided into six hierarchical levels. The

functional needs were assessed with reference to four major network criteria – design,

functional, frictional and impact, derived in Chapter 14. Among the road levels, five were similar

in network governing attributes, as recommended for Dhaka but distinctly different in the

modal distribution pattern. These five road levels were primary road, secondary road, collector

road, access road and narrow road. In addition a new road level with new traffic composition

was proposed in the framework. For this purpose, the primary road type was split into two

classes - Primary road type I and Primary road type II. The former corresponded to the current

primary road. The latter was proposed to have a priority-based management to facilitate future

rapid transit such as BRT and reduced right-of-way for private vehicles. The new layer name for

the road category according to framework is 3B.

It was found most appropriate to keep primary road type I as an MT only road level, given that

particular corridor corresponded to the set attributes of the framework. The new layer name

for the road category according to framework is 3A. Secondary, collector and access road levels

were proposed in the framework, to be suitable as mixed mode corridors; that is, with MT and

NMT as existing. But the current ‘no prioritisation’ approach of the modes was found to be

incompatible to fulfil the desired corridor performance. Analysis of the functional need of the



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corridors suggested secondary roads as most suitable with MT priority, collector roads most

suitable with similar priority for MT and NMT, and access roads best suitable with NMT priority.

Narrow roads, were found best suitable with NMT only roads than current no priority situation.

This process to derive to road hierarchy and mode distribution for a corridor was found to

ensure better balance between MT and NMT at all network levels. The need of better system

level traffic efficiency, better accessibility within different network parts, and enhancement in

personal mobility were also found to be more achievable under such arrangements. The

example application of the tool on a small case network of Dhanmondi also revealed its ability

to better address the need of the test network corridors, enabling logical distribution of modes

and demonstrating easy use and flexibility of the framework as a decision tool. An important

learning revealed from these discussions was that not all criteria need to be fulfilled to allocate

a corridor with a particular road hierarchy and mode composition. The allocation would

depend, in addition to the framework guideline, on the understanding of the decision maker on

the local traffic, land use condition and topography; plus the expected need from the new

development work or redevelopment intended for the area. The adjustment or modification of

criteria definition might also be deemed necessary, by locality and city type. For instance, there

might be the need to consider the topography issue seriously for an undulated city (Darjeeling,

India) compared to that for Dhaka which has flat terrain.

The theoretical explanation and application made above demonstrates the tool’s success in

achieving desired outcome set in Chapter 11, which is to enable a collaborative and balanced

decision process to facilitate NMT coexistence with MT. Collaborative, with reference to the

characteristics of the tool to represent the viewpoints of different stakeholder groups;

incorporating the aspects of land use, network character and future needs of transport plans.

Balanced, with reference to characteristics of the tool to prioritise and logically distribute modes

(MT and NMT) by the functional need of network, ensuring right modes are allowed in right

location, in right preference and thereby facilitating the key attributes towards transport

sustainability. The findings as such also validated the hypothesis coupled with planning step 4

and addressed research questions 3 and 4. A broad implementation strategy, by proposed road

level and with reference to five key elements; physical measure, regulatory measure, demand

management measure, traffic management measure and financial needs, were outlined in the

end to supplement the application of the tool. It is important to note that the effectiveness of

the framework in achieving desired network performance depends significantly on the

successful implementation of these supporting measures.



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16.3 Contribution to knowledge

16.3.1 Contribution to theory

Contribution at global scale

Very little literature has concentrated on the issues relevant to NMPT. Most literature is in

context of developing cities in countries such as India, Indonesia and Bangladesh. Research such

as that of Replogle (1991b), Guitink (1996) , Hook and Replogle (1996), Hook (2005) etc.

concentrated on review and reporting of NMPT role status of developing cities. Warren (1986),

Parikesit (1999), Tiwari (2002), Whitelegg and Williams (2005), Fung (2005), Joewono and

Kubota (2005) concentrated on specific case studies such as Singapore, Indonesia, India, Hong

Kong etc., mostly focusing on historical aspects of the mode. Gallagher (1992) provided some

integrated reviews of NMPT scenario in a global level. None of these studies had, at a global

level and in a comparative integrated manner, determined the current role condition and future

potential of the mode as a regular public transport mode.

This research has attempted to address this gap by undertaking a detailed literature review and

analysis of NMPT with reference to developing and developed cities, and in an aggregated

comparative manner. Such review and analysis provided significant new insights on the status

and role of the mode at a global scale - its evolution, current growth, usage and future market

demand, impact on transport system of different major cities and potential as a future regular

public transport option. The review of the regulatory and management measures also provided

new insights on the policy planning dimension of the mode - past, present and future. Such an

aggregated global NMPT status review was not available beforehand and can be considered as

a significant platform and contributory document for future detailed analysis at this scale.

Contribution at local scale

The literature review on the case study of Dhaka revealed that previous research on NMPT has

concentrated on the issues relevant to their role in the overall transport spectrum of the

country or Dhaka (e.g. Rashid, 1986; Gallagher, 1992); problems relevant to NMPT as a mode of

transport (e.g. Habib, 2002; Begum & Sen, 2004); potential of NMPT as a mode (e.g. Gallagher,

1992; Wipperman & Sowula, 2007; Hossain & Susilo, 2010) and the argument of essential or

detrimental policy aspect of NMPT on the transport system (e.g. Quium, 1994;Bari, 2004).

However, none of these works have clearly highlighted the future place of NMPT in the mixed

traffic environment of Dhaka, especially not as analysed output of aggregated review and

subsequent, in-depth multidimensional analysis. In particular, absent were analyses



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encompassing the aspects of role contribution from the mode, the policy planning aspect of the

mode and their detailed impact with reference to previous transport plan, and the NMPT

stakeholder perspective on the topic. This study has integrated all these dimensions into a

sequential process in order to reach a decision on the current and future place of NMPT in the

Dhaka transport system, which is more balanced, impartial and robust. Such aggregated

detailed status review and in-depth analysis on NMPT can be considered as a significant

platform and contributory document for future relevant studies on Dhaka.

16.3.2 Contribution to practice

LOS template for mode operational performance measure

This study in the process of NMPT role definition has developed, based on available data and

within the scopes of this study, a LOS template for comparative operational performance

measure of NMPT and other available modes in Dhaka. The structure of the LOS has followed

the most widely -accepted reference for service quality measurement of public transport and

comparative service modes, TCQSM 2003 (Kittelson and Associates et al., 2003). This LOS

template can be adopted as a reference guideline for future service quality comparison

purposes between NMPT and other modes, in the local context of Dhaka.

Localized reference template for desired characteristics of road

This study has developed, based on available data and within the scopes of this study, a broad

localized template for defining desired performance level of major governing attributes across

different road levels, during the process to build a planning framework for integration of NMPT

with MT. This can be used as one of the reference guidelines for design and building of future

road networks in urban Dhaka.

Planning framework development for MT-NMT integration

The study has formulated an effective mechanism for collaborative, sustainable operational

integration of NMT (NMPT in particular) with MT in the mixed traffic environment of Dhaka.

The framework tool or decision tool is suitable from which to derive to suitable mode

composition and road hierarchy level for corridors within a transport network, characterised by

priority for both MT and NMPT traffic. Unlike existing practices, this tool addresses the

functional needs of each corridor (governing attributes) and corresponding composition of MT

and NMPT (mode attributes). The tool structure also better reflects the stakeholder needs from

future Dhaka transport system and to the rapid transit development needs of future Dhaka

transport plans.



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Such a tool is expected to be the first of its kind that can be used in situ, to determine the best

distribution of NMPT, alongside MT across design, functional, frictional and impact criteria. The

tool would also allow network performance enhancement at a strategic level and minimise the

prevailing conflicts between MT and NMT traffic. A case study-based application and validation

of the tool on a real network strengthens its claim of functionality, adoptability and flexibility.

The tool will be able to be applied to both existing facilities as well as being used for assessing

the suitability of road layout and mode distribution when undergoing network planning for

potential future developments. Due to flexibility of the tool structure, with necessary

adjustment to the attribute levels and combination, the framework may be applied to other

developing cities with similar MT-NMPT traffic environment.

16.4 Future research

During the course of this study for NMPT status review and operational optimisation, a number

of research issues emerged. These were beyond the scope of this research, but demanded

detailed investigation. They are listed below, as potential future research areas. Items 1 to 7

relate more to the global scale, while items 8 to 10 relate to the Dhaka case study only.

1. This research does not include detailed case study-oriented condition analysis of

NMPT in developed country cities. Such investigation is worth pursuing to deepen

understanding on future coexistence and functionality improvement of the same.

2. This research has developed a multimodal planning framework tool and validated

its application on a real case network. But the tool should be refined by applying it

to various network locations, by more detailed modal breakdown, at different

cities and using longitudinal studies to reach to more generalised conclusions.

3. Due to the scope of this research, safety characteristics of each mode within the

framework were not examined in detail, which is worth exploring in future.

4. Due to the scope, this research has focused on planning oriented solutions to

optimise coexistence of NMT with MT. Detailed investigation is required to

develop design guidelines for the purpose, in order to better complement the

planning framework at the operation level.

5. This research does not investigate integrated route network development process

for NMPT or NMT (bicycle). Detailed studies are required to develop adaptable,

flexible methodology for route network planning for NMPT and NMT operation.

6. To ensure efficient operation and coverage of MPT traffic, detailed study to refine

the current MPT route operations to better facilitate their service in MT prioritised



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corridors and in other MPT allowed corridors according to framework tool should

be undertaken. To ensure balance and coherence in network planning, the

application of these route plans (NMPT, NMT and MPT) for a case study need to

be undertaken in coordination and not separately.

7. The review of available literature and previous models has depicted the need of a

localised strategic demand model for Dhaka and cities with similar traffic

characteristics. This study recommends development of a strategic demand model

that best addresses the multi-modal trade-off character of cities such as Dhaka to

suit, within permissible range, the derived results to observed conditions.

8. Depending on the availability of a suitable strategic demand model, it is

recommended that the impact of alternative transport strategies for integration of

MT and NMT be analysed. This would enable effective and long term prediction

for multimodal transport system planning in these cities.

9. This research has developed a comparative LOS template for available modes in

Dhaka. This requires refinement and adjustment, as required, based on wide-scale

field data collection for future calibration.

10. This research has developed a primarily qualitative framework for standard road

functionality analysis due to the scope and availability of resources. To ensure

more measurable outcomes, detailed study (one study or a combination of

subsequent, inter-related studies) to standardise a quantitative guideline for the

permissible attributes (speed limit, traffic carriage, PT service quality parameters)

that govern network performance, needs to be administered.

11. This research has administered a land use – traffic interactivity analysis based on

qualitative evaluation, due to absence of a secondary survey database and

resource constraints. It is recommended to have corridor-by-corridor land use

intensity and traffic intensity database development study, initiating with major

corridors; and a progressive update at regular intervals. This is to facilitate more

quantitative evaluation and projection in future.

16.5 Research Close

This chapter has documented the summary and main conclusions from this research study. This

chapter has also portrayed the contribution of this research to the field of knowledge and

suggested future areas for investigation. Documentation of all aspects of this research is now

completed.

RREEFFEERREENNCCEESS

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APPENDICES

Appendix A: Concept of sustainable development and sustainable transport

Sustainable development: Concept and models

Though the term ‘sustainable development’ has been used since the early 1970s, it has only

been generally accepted over the past three decades following the Brundtland Report of World

Commission on Environment and Development (WCED). The WCED has defined sustainable

development as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the

ability of future generations to meet their own needs (Bruntland, 1987). This iconic definition

has, however, been criticised due to the difficulty to define and determine the concept of the

‘needs’ (Choguill, 1996; Wheeler & Beatley, 2004) and has lead to the development of two

notions, Triple Bottom Line (TBL) and Quadruple Bottom Line (QBL) providing more detailed

explanation of the concept of sustainability.

• The TBL concept of sustainable development depends on social, economic and

environmental improvement at the same time rather than at the expense of each

other (Cobb, Halstead & Rowe, 1995; The Scottish Government Publication, 2006)

or otherwise as a compromise among these interconnecting elements (Bond,

Motimer & Cherry, 1998; Pike, Pose & Tomaney, 2006).

• The notion of QBL sustainability is relatively new and is still being explored by

researchers. The essence of this concept is derived based on TBL ideology, adding

the dimension of governance with the existing three dimensions of sustainability

(Teriman, Yagitcanlar & Mayere, 2009). Emphasizing the significance of

governance in achieving sustainability, Porter & Craig (2004), Evans, Joas,

Sundback & Theobald (2006) and Nolmark (2007) highlighted that the functioning

of governance including institutional capacity of organisations and instruments

such as law, regulations and planning systems are central in the process towards

achieving urban sustainability.

These TBL and QBL ideas of sustainability and basic human needs are crucial in transportation

development, planning, and policy making in any country.


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Sustainable transport system

The concept of ‘sustainable transportation’ calls for a more holistic approach to transportation

policy and investment planning, with an emphasis on achieving a diverse and balanced mix of

transport modes and a sensible arrangement of land use that enables conservative use of

energy and capital to fulfil mobility needs (Replogle, 1991c). The system has emerged as

mechanism that provides physical, economic and social equity in every aspect of life.

A sustainable transport system therefore encompasses comprehensive integration of policy,

system development and management to achieve diverse and balanced mix of transport modes

(sophisticated motorised and traditional fuel free non-motorised types) while enabling social

equity, cost effectiveness, energy conservation and mobility. Research in the last few years has

revealed from literature of Replogle (1991a; 1991b, 1991c), Quium (1994), Basler and AG

(1998), Gudmundsson (1999), World Bank (2002), Evans (2006), Nolmark (2007), Jonsson (2008)

and Teriman et al. (2009) four potential factors: economic, environmental, social and

governance/political as indicators for transport sector sustainability stemming from the original

notion of sustainable development. Efroymson and Rahman (2005) added that the mobility

solutions in developing cities should target issues regarding minimum energy consumption,

safety and poverty reduction. These notions are also reinforced by Kalthier’s (2002) transport

policy spectrum for sustainability for developing cities.


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Appendix B: Wheel Tax Draft Bye-Laws, Sections 118 and 119


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Appendix C: Calculations

C.1: NMPT revenue estimation by shifts (based on driver engagement pattern)

According to STP (2005b, 2005c) monthly income of a NMPT driver is derived as Bangladesh

Taka (Tk) 4300 [Australian Dollar (AUD) 88.75]. Based on this, the daily gross revenue ( excluding

rent cost) of a NMPT driver is Tk143.33 (AUD 2.95) over a period of 8 hours and Tk287 (AUD

5.92) over a period of 16 hours.

C.2: Daily gross revenue estimation for NMPT industry (based on NMPT operation)

Gross revenue estimation

The per day gross revenue of NMPT industry in Dhaka for 1994 was available from DITS (1994a).

The value was Tk30 million (AUD 1 million). The estimation was based on the earning of one

NMPT driver per NMPT vehicle. But, researches such as Gallagher (1992) has argued that the

revenue estimation from NMPT industry should be based on the revenue of 1.83 drivers per

NMPT vehicle and post DITS transport studies such as DUTP (1996) followed similar process.

Based on these, the 1994 gross revenue used in this study is, Tk30 million * 1.83 = Tk54.9

million (AUD 1.83 million).

For 2005, the gross revenue per day from NMPT industry is estimated as Tk.1198 million (AUD

24.73 million). This is derived based on a daily revenue of Tk342.33 (AUD 7.06) per NMPT

[Rental revenue from one NMPT= Tk.80 (AUD 1.65) (STP, 2005c); Operational revenue of one

NMPT, based on a driver’s earning- Tk143.33 (AUD 2.95) (derived from STP, 2005c); 1.83 drivers

per NMPT]; for a fleet size of 500,000 with a utility rate of 70 percent as suggested for revenue

calculation of NMPT industry in DITS (1994a).

For 2011, the gross revenue per day from NMPT industry is estimated as Tk.3720 million (AUD

45.93 million). This is derived based on a daily revenue of Tk484.3 (AUD 5.98) per NMPT [Rental

revenue from one NMPT= Tk.100 (AUD 1.28) (DHUTS, 2010); Operational revenue of one

NMPT, based on a driver’s earning- Tk210 (AUD 2.59) (derived from Sultana, 2011); 1.83 drivers

per NMPT]; for a fleet size of 1,100,000 with a utility rate of 70 percent as suggested for

revenue calculation of NMPT industry in DITS (1994a).


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Conversion of revenue values to monetary equivalent if year 2011

For comparison of revenue shifts among analysis years, the 1994 and 2005 revenue values are

converted to present values of 2011 using the formula,

Future value= Present value (1+rate of inflation)^duration,

where

future value = the monetary equivalent in 2011

present value = the base year value (1994 & 2005)

average inflation rate-= 6.31 percent (during 1995 to 2011), 8.08 percent (during 2006 to 2011 )

The monetary equivalent of 1994 in 2011 for NMPT gross revenues is found to be Tk155 million

(AUD 5.17 million) and that of 2005 is found to be Tk1910 million (AUD 39.42 million).


Page 336

C.3: Employment share by NMPT sector and direct dependent population on NMPT sector

a b c D e f g h i j k l m

Year NMPT

number

NMPT

driver

Ancillary

employment (most

conservative

assumption)*

Total direct

employment

Average

household

size

Working

members

Dependent

members

Total

dependence

(non-work

members)

Total

population

of Dhaka

Total active

population

% share of

active

population

in NMPT

industry

% share of

non work

members

(dependent

population)

1994- DITS

2005- STP

2011- DMP

c=b*1.83,

where 1.83 is

driver no.

per NMPT

No statistics are

available; value

derived based on

consultation with

transport officials and

operators of NMPT

industry in Dhaka

e=c+d 1994-HIES* 1991-92;

2005- HIES 2005;

2011- DHUTS (2010)

h=f-g i=e*h 1994-HIES*

1991-92;

2005-

Estimated

based on STP

(2005c) &

2011-

Estimated

based on

DHUTS (2010)

& CIA (2011)

k (1994)=j

*0.35 (0.35

derived from

HIES 1992-92) ;

k (2005 &

2011)=j*0.32

(0.32 is derived

from HIES 2005)

l=e/k m=i/j

1994 150,000 274,500 100,000 374,500 5.34 1.5 3.84 1,438,080 6,000,000 2,100,000 18 24

2005 500,000 915,000 200,000 1,115,000 4.72 1.5 3.22 3,590,300 11,470,000, 3,670,400 30 31

2011 1,100,000 2,013,000 300,000 2,313,000 4.72 1.5 3.22 7,447,860 13,752,185, 4,560,000 50 52

*HIES- Household income expenditure survey


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C.4: Daily Work output by NMPT and other modes

a b c d e f g h i J

Mode type Trip number Average trip

length (km)

Vehicle-km Share (%) Average

occupancy

(number of

person)

Passenger-km Share (%) Person-trips Share (%)

DHUTS (2010) STP (2005c) d=b*c e=d (for a

mode/d (total)

STP (2005a) g=b*c*f g=f (for a

mode/f (total)

i=b*f j=i (for a mode/i

(total)

Bus 6,195,576 9.5 58,857,972 54 45 2,648,608,740 96.55 278,800,920 93.89

Auto rickshaw 1,359,770 8.5 11,558,045 11 2.3 26583503 0.97 3,127,471 1.05

NMPT 7,920,273 3.8 30,097,037 27 1.6* 48,155,260 1.76 12,672,437 4.27

Car, other four

wheelers and

taxi**

1,065,836 8.5 9,059,606 8 2.2 19,931,133 0.73 2,344,839 0.79

Total 16,541,455 109,572,660 2,743,278,637 296,945,667

*Including empty NMPT; ** though taxi occupancy from field survey was found to be 3, since there is no published information on the same and the trip number of DHUTS (2010)

provides a combination of car, other private vehicles and taxi, the PCE of car is used which is the most dominant of these vehicles


Page 338

C.5: Comparative road space share between NMPT and other vehicles

a b c d e

Mode type Vehicular share on

road (%)

PCE value

(Average road

space per vehicle)

Space occupancy by

vehicle on road, at a

given time

Share (%)

Derived from the

vehicular statistics

and distribution of

BRTA (2011)

Ali (2006) d=b*c e=d (for a mode)/d

(total)

Bus 1 1.8 1.8 0.05

Auto rickshaw 1 0.8 0.8 0.02

Taxi 1 1 1 0.03

NMPT 65 0.18 11.7 0.32

Car and other 4

wheelers

14 1 14 0.38

Motorbike 15 0.5 7.5 0.20

C.6: Average seat capacity and occupancy of vehicles

Mode type Seat capacity Average occupancy

Bus 23-28 (STP 2005c) 45 (STP 2005a)

Human hauler

8 (Field observation) 8.0

Auto rickshaw

3 (Field observation) 2.3 (STP 2005a)

Taxi

4 (STP 2005c & field observation) 3 (Field observation)

NMPT


Car


Motorcycle


Bicycle

1 (Field observation) 1 (STP 2005a)


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C.7: Travel time calculations for different modes in Dhaka

Mode type Trip length

(km)

Operating speed

(kph)

[STP (2005a,

2005b 2005c)]

Walk time for transit (origin)

(minutes)*;

Walk + wait time for paratransit

(origin) (minutes)**

Wait time (minutes)^ Travel time/km

(minutes)

Walk time for transit (destination)

(minutes)*;

Park + walk time for private vehicles

(destination ) (minutes)

Total (door

to door)

travel time

(minutes)

a b c d e f= c/60 minutes g h=d+e+g

Bus 3 24 10 (Kittelson and Associates et al.,

2003, Uddin et al ,2003)

10 (Alam, 2011; STP,

2005a)

2.5 10 37.5

Human hauler 3 24 10 Uddin et al (2003) 11 ((Alam, 2011; STP,

2005a)

2.5 10 38.5

Auto rickshaw 3 24 15 0 2.5 0 22.5

Taxi 3 24 25 0 2.5 0 32.5

NMPT 3 12 7.5 0 5 0 22.5

Car 3 24 0 0 2.5 0 8

Motorcycle 3 23 0 0 2.6 0 8.5

Bicycle 3 12 0 0 5 0 15

Walk 5 12

Assumption:

*Walk distance for public transport: 10 minutes= 800m @ 5kph; Walk time for human hauler is assumed to be equal to that for bus for estimation above

^Lowest wait time is adopted for public transport from the range 10-20 minutes as suggested by Alam (2011) and headway survey of STP (2005a)

**Walk time plus wait time for paratransits are combined as no distance can be assumed or relevant data are available; derived from field survey


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C.8: Travel cost (user out of pocket travel cost) calculation for different modes in Dhaka

Mode type Fare/km for public transport*;

Cost/km for private transport

**

Trip length

1 2 3 4 5

Taka AUD Taka AUD Taka AUD Taka AUD Taka AUD Taka AUD

Bus^ 1 0.02 1 0.02 2 0.04 3 0.06 4 0.08 5 0.10

Human hauler^ 1 0.02 1 0.02 2 0.04 3 0.06 4 0.08 5 0.10

Auto rickshaw^^ 12 0.25 12 0.25 12 0.25 17 0.35 22 0.45 27 0.56

Taxi^* 20 0.41 20 0.41 20 0.41 28 0.58 36 0.74 44 0.91

NMPT~ 5 0.10 5 0.10 8 0.17 10 0.21 12 0.25 14 0.29

Car~~ 10 0.21 10 0.21 20 0.42 30 0.63 40 0.84 50 1.05

Motorcycle~~ 3 0.06 3 0.06 6 0.12 9 0.18 12 0.24 15 0.30

*Derived based on STP (2005a) for all modes except car & motorcycle. **For cars, the per km user cost is calculated from per litre fuel cost of Tk55 (AUD 1.14), (information received by consultation with

Ministry of Petroleum and Mineral Resource, Government of Bangladesh personnel in Dhaka ) and average mileage of 6km per litre, a conservative value based on consultation with automobile industry

personnel in Dhaka. The fuel cost for motorcycle was assumed as same to that for car and the mileage is estimated as 25 km per litre (conservative value) from same consultation source.

^For bus & human hauler, total fare =trip length * fare/km, as suggested in STP (2005c);

^^For auto rickshaw, total fare (for first 2km) = trip length * fare/km, fare for each subsequent km is Tk5 (AUD 0.1); as suggested in STP (2005c)

^*For taxi, total fare (for first 2km) = trip length * fare/km, fare for each subsequent km is Tk8 (AUD 0.17); as suggested in STP (2005c)

~For NMPT, total fare for first km is Tk5 (AUD 0.1) and changes for each subsequent km; as suggested in STP (2005c)

~~For car & motorcycle, the cost is estimated as total cost= trip length * unit cots/km, since no guideline is prescribed & according to consultation with relevant industry professionals.


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Appendix D: Stakeholder viewpoint analysis

D.1 Interview schedule design process

The detailed design process followed for development of each part of the three part interview

schedule, for stakeholder viewpoint recording is described below.

Part A: Respondent details

Kumar (2011) stated that decision of using an open ended or close ended question depends on

the available information for structuring the question and the way the information gathered

would be used for analysis Part A questions were primarily close ended as the objective of the

information was to build a general profile on the respondents, with some detail knowledge

gathering on the GO and NGO respondents related to direct engagement in NMPT

management. The reason is to use it later, if required for analysing the relationship between

this variable to their perception on current and future role of NMPT in Part B.

Part B: Respondent viewpoint on existing approach and future plan towards NMPT in Dhaka

Part B has five close ended questions of ordinal category, to assess the view of the respondents

on the current condition and future role preference type of NMPT. These questions were

structured as close ended. This is because the response options were hierarchical and

anticipatory, derived based on previous literature review and pre-survey consultation by

researcher with academic mentors to suit information needs for study. The objective was to use

the information to analyse the degree of preference for each variable type by different

stakeholder groups, and to analyse the relationship of this preference between groups.

However, to ensure that more alternative options can be included during the interview, an

answer option ‘Others’ was included (Kothari, 2008) for each of these five questions. The last

two questions were open ended and nominal in nature, to assess the preferred management

and policy planning alternatives for future control of NMPT. Due to unanticipated nature of the

responses, these questions were kept open ended to ensure that most preferences could be

recorded.

Part C: Criteria based preference for future transport system development for Dhaka

Part C questions were all close ended. The objective was to record, analyse and develop a

quantitative hierarchical ranking of stakeholder viewpoints, by groups and in total, on the

desired future transport scenario for Dhaka. The reference of assessment was a set of

predefined criteria. The preferred criteria selection process was rigorous. A preliminary set of

criteria was developed by Focus Group Discussion (FCD) and review of previous relevant


Page 342

literature. The FCD process involved a group of 20 people from different socio-economic and

transport usage backgrounds, including working population from private and public sector, non-

working population, senior citizens, students, and homemakers. Based on discussion, a list of

criteria was developed that represents their preference of criteria for future Dhaka transport

system. They were then matched with the preference of criteria as set in literature such as in

Replogle (1991a), Gallagher (1992), Quium (1994), World Bank (2002), STP (2005b) and DHUTS

(2010). The preliminary lists of criteria were thus derived. For convenience of analysis, the

criteria were reclassified and grouped into five major categories. Appendix D.1.1 presents the

preliminary and grouped criteria.

D.1.1: Preferred criteria for future Dhaka transport system and their categorisation

Preliminary criteria Grouped criteria

Access to desired modes Social Equity

Affordability of travel

Low traffic congestion

Traffic operational efficiency

Fast and timely movement

Safe road environment

Supportive infrastructure

Easy access to different city part

Access and mobility

Convenience and comfort of travel

Privacy and security of travel

Low emission

Environmental sustainability

Low noise pollution

Smart look to the vehicles in operation

Modern city image

Transport options reflects modernisation

Source: Derived by author after Focus Group Discussion and literature review


Page 343

D.2: Sample questionnaire form for government and non-government organisations

A. Respondent Details

Declaratory Note: All comments and responses will be treated confidentially. The specific details of individual

persons and their positions will not be identifiable in the interview transcripts to be attached with the thesis or

anywhere within the main text of final published thesis.

The participant responses will be re-identifiable only by the research team.

1. Category of your organization

Government

Non-Government (Local)

Non-Government (International)

Others (please specify)

2. Your experience in the transport sector of Dhaka (in years)

<5

5-10

11-15

16-20

>20

3. Please specify your role in the transport sector of Dhaka? (Multiple responses accepted)

Policy planning & development

Policy implementation

Expert professional/ Consultant (please specify type)

Fund provider


4. Do you have any specific experience to deal with the operation & management of non-

motorized transport (NMT) sector of Dhaka?

Yes

No (Go to question )

5. What type of non-motorized transport?

Private (walk & Bi-cycle)

Public (rickshaw & rickshaw van)

Both

6. Please share your concerned experience.


Page 344

B. Respondent Viewpoint on Existing Approach & Future Plan Towards

Non-Motorized Public Transport in Dhaka

1. Do you think that the transport system of Dhaka is leading to a right direction?

(Please categorize response & record discussion)

Yes

No

2. What is your assessment regarding current role of NMPT rickshaw in Dhaka

transportation system? (Please categorize response & record discussion)

Non- functional

Low functional

Moderately functional

Highly functional


3. What, according to you is the general level of dependency of the transport users on

rickshaw as a day-to-day trip mode in Dhaka?


No dependency

Low dependency

Moderate dependency

High dependency



Page 345

4. Your comments on the existing restriction functionality of rickshaw in Dhaka.


Unsatisfactory

Moderately satisfactory

Satisfactory

Highly satisfactory


5. How do you perceive future service role of rickshaw in the transportation system of

Dhaka? (Please categorize response & record discussion)

No service

Local network services only ( Intra- neighbourhood & Inter- neighbourhood ) (please also

respond to Q.6)

Local network service & feeder service to public transport (present & future) (please also

respond to Q.6)

Local, feeder & intra-urban services (please also respond to Q.6)

Others (please specify) (also respond to Q.6)

6. What level of control you prefer for rickshaw as a mode in future transportation system

of Dhaka? (Please categorize response on prioritize preference & record discussion)

(Multiple responses accepted)

Full restriction

Partial restriction type A ( existing trend i.e. all major roads )

Partial restriction type B (selected major roads only)

No restriction



Page 346

7. Do you have any specific suggestions regarding ‘operational improvement & management’ for

integration of rickshaw into the overall transportation system of Dhaka? (Please categorize

response & record discussion)

8. Do you have any specific suggestions regarding ‘policy & planning framework’ for integration of

rickshaw into the overall transportation system of Dhaka? (Please categorize response & record

discussion)


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6. What attributes in your opinion are preferable & crucial to be considered in developing future

transport system of Dhaka? Please answer through relative significance comparison for each

combination of indicators.

Note: Please consider future upgraded condition of each indicator during indicator evaluation

i. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?

Somewhat more important

Social Equity Much more important

Traffic Operational Efficiency Very much more important

Equally Important Absolutely more important

ii. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?


Traffic Operational Efficiency Much more important

Access & Mobility Very much more important


iii. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?


Access & Mobility Much more important

Environmental Sustainability Very much more important


C. Indicator Based Preference for Future Transport System Development

for Dhaka


Page 348

iv. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?


Environmental Sustainability Much more important

Urban Fabric & City Image Very much more important


v. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?


Urban Fabric & City Image Much more important

Social Equity Very much more important


vi. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?





vii. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?






Page 349

viii. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?





ix. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?





x. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?





THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION & TIME


Page 350

D.3: Sample questionnaire form for non-motorised public transport operators, drivers and

users

A. Respondent Details

Declaratory Note: All comments and responses will be treated confidentially. The specific details of individual

persons and their positions will not be identifiable in the interview transcripts to be attached with the thesis or

anywhere within the main text of final published thesis.

The participant responses will be re-identifiable only by the research team.

1. Category of the Respondent

Rickshaw Owner

Rickshaw Driver

Rickshaw User

2. Your engagement as workers in the rickshaw industry (applicable to owners and drivers

only) (please specify the exact or near exact duration in years where possible)

<5

5-10

11-15

16-20

>20

3. Your duration as a regular rickshaw passenger (applicable to users only) (please specify

the exact or near exact duration in years where possible)

<5

5-10

11-15

16-20

>20


Page 351

B. Respondent Viewpoint on Existing Approach & Future Plan Towards

Non-Motorized Public Transport in Dhaka

1. Do you think that the transport system of Dhaka is leading to a right direction?


Yes

No

2. What is your assessment regarding current role of NMPT rickshaw in Dhaka

transportation system? (Please categorize response & record discussion)

Non- functional

Low functional

Moderately functional

Highly functional


3. What, according to you is the general level of dependency of the transport users on

rickshaw as a day-to-day trip mode in Dhaka?


No dependency

Low dependency

Moderate dependency

High dependency



Page 352

4. Your comments on the existing restriction functionality of rickshaw in Dhaka.


Unsatisfactory

Moderately satisfactory

Satisfactory

Highly satisfactory


5. How do you perceive future service role of rickshaw in the transportation system of

Dhaka? (Please categorize response & record discussion)

No service

Local network services only ( Intra- neighbourhood & Inter- neighbourhood ) (please also

respond to Q.6)

Local network service & feeder service to public transport (present & future) (please also

respond to Q.6)

Local, feeder & intra-urban services (please also respond to Q.6)

Others (please specify) (also respond to Q.6)

6. What level of control you prefer for rickshaw as a mode in future transportation system

of Dhaka? (Please categorize response on prioritize preference & record discussion)

(Multiple responses accepted)

Full restriction

Partial restriction type A ( existing trend i.e. all major roads )

Partial restriction type B (selected major roads only)

No restriction



Page 353

7. Do you have any specific suggestions regarding ‘operational improvement & management’ for

integration of rickshaw into the overall transportation system of Dhaka? (Please categorize

response & record discussion)

8. Do you have any specific suggestions regarding ‘policy & planning framework’ for integration of

rickshaw into the overall transportation system of Dhaka? (Please categorize response & record

discussion)


Page 354

6. What attributes in your opinion are preferable & crucial to be considered in developing future

transport system of Dhaka? Please answer through relative significance comparison for each

combination of indicators.

Note: Please consider future upgraded condition of each indicator during indicator evaluation

i. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?





ii. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?





iii. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?





C. Indicator Based Preference for Future Transport System Development

for Dhaka


Page 355

iv. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?





v. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?





vi. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?





vii. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?






Page 356

viii. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?





ix. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?





x. Which indicator is more important & to what intensity?





THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION & TIME


Page 357

D.4 Interview administration process

The detailed process followed for administration of the interview, for stakeholder viewpoint

recording is described below.

Administering interview

Government and non-government organisations

The GOs and NGOs were interviewed throughout the month of December 2009, depending on

the appointments available with each respondent. Most of the participants were willing to

spend a reasonable time, between 15 minutes to one hour, to discuss their viewpoint on NMPT

and the transport future of Dhaka. Most of the respondents preferred the researcher to

complete the questions for them, but reviewed them later to ensure that their responses were

correctly recorded. The open ended questions were self-written by four respondents while for

others, their viewpoints were summarised in writing by the researcher. Among close ended

questions, for those in Part C, a rating scale chart was supplied by the researcher for

convenience of the respondents while assigning relative weight to the criteria set in these

questions (see Appendix D.5.2.1 for detail on the rating scales). All but two respondents could

be interviewed during the first appointment. These respondents, one from DTCB and the other

from JICA required to be re-visited as they had to prematurely terminate the on-going interview

with the researcher due to urgent official work. Additional insights from the discussion and

opinions by respondents were recorded in from of written summary. All interviews were

conducted by the researcher, supplemented by observation to maintain homogeneity of data

recording and quality.

NMPT drivers

NMPT drivers and users were interviewed throughout the month of December 2009, excluding

the days on which an interview schedule was set with GOs and NGOs. Locations to the north

east and south east of Dhaka were first covered, followed by the locations to the north west

and south west. The NMPT drivers were interviewed first Most of the respondents were willing

to spend between 15 minutes to one hour for expressing their viewpoints. They were

compensated for the interview time to ensure their full commitment into the process.

Subjected to difficulty in understanding the questions in their original form and language which

is English, the questions were explained (and translated from English to native language of

Bangla) in a simple way to them by the researcher in order to gain best information. The

responses for the open ended questions in Part B were recorded based on their understanding

and then later re-arranged to match the theme of the variables. For Part C close ended


Page 358

questions, the rating scale process was explained by the researcher for convenience of the

respondents while deciding suitable relative weight to the criteria set in these questions. Few

additional insights and comments were received from this respondent group. All interviews

were conducted by the researcher, supplemented by observation to maintain homogeneity of

data recording and quality.

NMPT users

For a particular location as predefined, NMPT users were interviewed on the same day, after

completion of interview with the NMPT driver. It was most difficult to convince the respondents

of this group, who were making a particular journey to give a break and allocate time for the

interview purpose. On average, two users in every 10 users who were requested agreed to be

interviewed. Most of the participants were willing to spend between 15 and 30 minutes for

expressing their viewpoints. Some of the respondents were very helpful and were happy to fill

in the close ended questions by themselves, while the open ended ones were filled in by the

researcher according to their responses. Subjected to difficulty in understanding the questions

in their original form and language which is English, the questions were explained (and where

required translated from English to native language of Bangla) in a simple way in order to gain

best information. For Part C close ended questions, the rating scale chart was explained by the

researcher for convenience of the respondents while deciding suitable relative weight to the

criteria set in these questions. Little additional insight and comment was received from this

respondent group due to time constraints. All interviews were conducted by the researcher,

and supplemented by observation to maintain homogeneity of data recording and quality.

NMPT operators

The NMPT operators were interviewed during the first week of January 2010. Locations to the

north east and south east of Dhaka were first covered, followed by the locations to the north

west and south west. Most of the participants were willing to spend a reasonable time,

between 15 minutes to one hour to express their viewpoints. 18 out of 25 NMPT operators

were available at the time of their first visit to their garages, as the nature of their profession

compels them to be physically available throughout the day at the garage to facilitate their fleet

supervision and management. These characteristics of the NMPT operators were revealed

during the interview with the NMPT drivers. The other seven operators were randomly selected

from remaining garages of their respective locality. The questions were explained (and where

required translated from English to native language of Bangla) in a simple way to them by the

researcher in order to gain best information. For some respondents, the responses for the open


Page 359

ended questions in Part B were recorded based on their understanding and then later re-

arranged to match the theme of the variables. For Part C close ended questions, the rating scale

process was explained by the researcher for convenience of the respondents while deciding

suitable relative weight to the criteria set in these questions. Little additional insight and

comment was received from this respondent group. All interviews were conducted by the

researcher, supplemented by observation to maintain homogeneity of data recording and

quality


Page 360

D.5 Analysis of data

D.5.1 Analysis process for non-parametric statistical analysis

Coding interview data

The data collected from interview were textual responses. For purpose of analysis, the

responses were divided into four groups as per stakeholder categorization and processed

through steps. Stage one involved preparing the data for analysis in SPSS. This is followed by

input of the data into SPSS and analysing the data. During stage one, responses for both close

ended and open ended questions for each respondent were coded. In the case of close ended

questions which were ordinal in character (Part B, Questions 2 to 6), the coding process

involved assigning numerical values to each variable (answer option of a question) ranging from

1 to 5, where 1 indicated lowest order option and 5 indicated highest order option. For open

ended multiple response questions which are nominal in character (Part B, Questions 7 and 8),

the descriptive answers were categorised into classified options and then numerically coded,

ranging from 1 to 10 for the purpose of defining and analysing the variables; and where the

code numbers do not represent any particular weight or value of the option. The same principle

of coding is followed for close ended questions related to respondent profile that were nominal

(Part A, Questions 1, 3 to 5) and numerical (Question 2) in character. A fixed set of numerical

codes were assigned to the options not known (11), no response (12), not applicable (13) and

not chosen (14) across all questions to avoid confusion in relevant data entry process and to

maintain uniformity in result output. Appendix D.5.1.1 shows coding inventory for open ended

questions.

D.5.1.1: Coding protocol for open ended questions of the questionnaire


Page 361

Defining variables

Once data were tailored as specified, stage two was administered. The first task in this stage

was defining variables under ‘variable view’ window. This involved naming, type identification,

labelling, value coding, missing value ranging and measure determination for each variable.

Each respondent under one stakeholder category was input as record and all the answers

corresponding to that record were defined as variables. The value coding was completed using

the process mentioned previously. Once declaration completed, the data were displayed under

‘data view’ window and ready for analysis. Appendix D.5.1.2 and D.5.1.3 shows examples for

both views for a respondent under government organization category.


Page 362

D.5.1.2: Variable View window in SPSS 17.0


Page 363

D.5.1.3: Data View window in SPSS 17.0


Page 364

Analysing variables

The variables were analysed using three primary techniques- frequencies and cross-tabs for all

categorical data, single response and multiple response while K-W ANOVA for ordinal data only.

For K-W statistics, H, it was automatically computed in SPSS by generating a group wise ranking

table for each variable, based on coded input data and the output statistics was compared to a

critical value in the Chi-Square distribution table to interpret the results. The general principle

followed behind the estimation process is that observations from all groups for a specific

variable are jointly sorted and ranked from lowest to highest, the average rank being assigned

in the case of ties, and finally the sum of ranks derived for each group. The analysis results of

the K-W ANOVA are presented in Chapter 9. Appendix D.5.1.4, D.5.1.5 and D.5.1.6 shows the

example of input dialog box for these three analysis process, for different variable analysis.

Appendix D.5.1.4: Example of data input for frequency analysis for a variable

Appendix D.5.1.5: Example of data input for crosstab analysis for a variable


Page 365

Appendix D.5.1.6: Example of data input for Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA for a variable

In case of the open ended questions, they all had more than one response. SPSS has a feature

called Multiple Response Variables that allows analysing questions with more than one

response. In such cases, the response variables were needed to be defined as a set for analysis

(SPSS 2007). The multiple responses were therefore defined to sets and analysed accordingly.

Appendix D.5.1.7, D.5.1.8 and D.5.1.9 shows examples of multiple response analysis made for

two variables, NMPT operation and management proposals for future and NMPT policy and

planning proposals for future.

Appendix D.5.1.7: Example of data input for defining multiple response data set for one variables


Page 366

Appendix D.5.1.8: Example of data input for defining multiple response data set for two variables

Appendix D.5.1.9: Example of data input for frequency analysis for multiple response variable set


Page 367

D.5.2 Multi-criteria analysis process

Scaling technique in AHP

As explained in Section 8.5.2, the relative weights assigned to the criteria were based on nine

point scale originally developed by Saaty (1980) and most commonly used for AHP comparison

purposes. The scale has intensity of importance values (1-9), each value describing an

importance level ranging from equal importance (1) to absolute more importance (9). See Coyle

(2004) for details. In this study, the criteria as per Saaty’s rating scale were divided into five

definitions and weights as depicted in Appendix D.5.2.1.

Appendix D.5.2.1: The rating scale used for priority estimation

Intensity of

importance

Definition Explanation

1 Equal importance Two factors contribute equally to the objective

3 Somewhat more

important

Experience and judgment slightly favour one over the other

5 Much more

important

Experience and judgment strongly favour one over the other

7 Very much more

important

Experience and judgment very strongly favour one over the

other. Its importance is demonstrated in practice

9 Absolutely more

important

The evidence favouring one over the other is of the highest

possible validity

Source: Saaty and Vergus (2006)

Estimation process and sequence for AHP

The next step was to calculate relative weights or importance of the criteria based on the values

assigned by the respondents. This was undertaken using the AHP eigenvector technique as

suggested by Saaty and Vergus (2006).There are several methods for estimating the eigenvector

for a criterion. The technique adopted in this estimation included multiplying together the

entries in each row of the matrix and then taking the nth root of that product (where n is the

number of comparing elements), as it gave a very good approximation of correct answer. The

nth roots were then summed and that sum was used to normalise the eigenvector elements to

add to 1.00. Appendix D.5.2.2 provides an example of a criteria preference matrix based on the

scaling of indicators for a government agency respondent.


Page 368

Appendix D.5.2.2: The preference matrix with weighted value assigned by a respondent

Preference

matrix

Criteria and ratings

SE TE AM ES MI

SE 1 1/9 1/5 1/5 3

TE 9 1 1/3 9 5

AM 5 3 1 1 9

ES 5 1/9 1 1 5

MI 1/3 1/5 1/9 1/5 1

Source: Derived by researcher after Table 8.5 and response of the interviewee

The subsequent relative value estimation for the criteria for above respondent is demonstrated

in Appendix D.5.2.3.

Appendix D.5.2.3: The eigenvector estimation for a respondent

Eigen value

calculation

Product

nth root of

product of

values

Eigen

Vector,

ω

SE TE AM ES MI

SE 1.000 0.111 0.200 0.200 3.000 0.013 0.422 0.058

TE 9.000 1.000 0.333 9.000 5.000 135.000 2.667 0.368

AM 5.000 3.000 1.000 1.000 9.000 135.000 2.667 0.368

ES 5.000 0.111 1.000 1.000 5.000 2.778 1.227 0.169

MI 0.333 0.200 0.111 0.200 1.000 0.001 0.272 0.037

7.255 1.000

Source: Derived by researcher after Appendix D.5.2.2 and Coyle (2004)

The whole process of matrix estimation, eigenvector calculation and choice hierarchy was done

for each respondent. The eigenvector average for each criterion from one stakeholder group

indicated the group priority for that criterion compared to other alternatives. The eigenvector

average for each criterion across all stakeholder groups indicated overall priority for that

criterion compared to alternatives.


Page 369

D.6: Source ranking table and detailed statistical output for K-W H statistics analysis on

current NMPT role

Ranks

Organization or

respondent category N Mean Rank

Assessment regarding current NMPT

role in transport system of Dhaka

Government 14 55.54

Non-government 11 46.45

NMPT operatror 25 78.38

NMPT driver 50 81.80

NMPT user 50 78.31

Total 150

Note: In above table, the higher mean rank value of a respondent category indicates acknowledgement on greater

functionality of NMPT’s current role in Dhaka transport.

Test Statisticsa,b

Assessment regarding

current NMPT role in

transport system of

Dhaka

Chi-Square 15.280

df 4

Asymp. Sig. .004

a. Kruskal Wallis Test

b. Grouping Variable: Organization or

respondent category


Page 370

D.7: Source ranking table and detailed statistical output for K-W H statistics analysis on NMPT

dependency level

Ranks

Organization or


NMPT dependency level of Dhaka

transport users for daily trips

Government 14 87.39



NMPT rider 50 74.52

NMPT user 50 71.45

Total 150

Note: In above table, the higher mean rank value of a respondent category indicates acknowledgement on higher

NMPT dependency level of users in Dhaka transport.

Test Statisticsa,b

Rickshaw dependency

level of Dhaka

transport users for

daily trips

Chi-Square 2.847

df 4

Asymp. Sig. .584



respondent category


Page 371


restriction functionality

Ranks

Organization or


Existing restriction functionality of

rickshaw in Dhaka

Government 14 109.43



NMPT rider 50 65.00

NMPT user 50 73.70

Total 150

Note: In above table, the higher mean rank value of a respondent category indicates its greater satisfaction on NMPT

restriction functionality in Dhaka transport.

Test Statisticsa,b

Existing restriction

functionality of

rickshaw in Dhaka

Chi-Square 48.399

df 4

Asymp. Sig. .000



respondent category


Page 372


future role perception

Ranks

Organization or


Future service role perception of

NMPT in Dhaka transport system

Government 14 50.39



NMPT rider 50 84.74

NMPT user 50 70.75

Total 150

Note: In above table, the higher mean rank value of a respondent category indicates its greater support on wider

spatial operation for NMPT in future.

Test Statisticsa,b

Future service role

perception of

rickshaw in Dhaka

transport system

Chi-Square 14.109

df 4

Asymp. Sig. .007



respondent category


Page 373

D.10: Source ranking table and detailed statistical output for K-W H statistics analysis on

NMPT dependency level

Ranks

Organization or


Preferred control level for NMPT as

mode in future Dhaka tarnsport

system

Government 14 32.07



NMPT rider 50 87.20

NMPT user 50 74.30

Total 150

Note: In above table, the higher mean rank value of a respondent category indicates its greater support on lower

physical restriction for NMPT operation in future.

Test Statisticsa,b

Preferred control level

for rickshaw as mode

in future Dhaka

tarnsport system

Chi-Square 32.129

df 4

Asymp. Sig. .000



respondent category


Page 374

D.11: Inventory of respondent wise relative weight assigned to all samples for eigenvector based AHP analysis

Preference Indicator _ Eigen Values_Estimated

Q No.Cum

Q No.Respondent category Sub-category Location Respondent

Cumulative

respondentsSocial equity

Traffic

operational

effciency

Access &

mobility

Environmental

sustainabil ity

Modern city

image

SE TE AM ES MI Total

1 1 Government GO_Rajuk R1 R1 0.058 0.368 0.368 0.169 0.037 1.000

2 2 officials GO_Rajuk R2 R2 0.333 0.092 0.241 0.092 0.241 1.000

3 3 GO_DCC R3 R3 0.043 0.328 0.191 0.131 0.307 1.000

4 4 GO_DCC R4 R4 0.557 0.126 0.239 0.054 0.025 1.000

5 5 GO_DCC R5 R5 0.093 0.248 0.597 0.043 0.020 1.000

6 6 GO_DCC R6 R6 0.070 0.386 0.412 0.110 0.022 1.000

7 7 GO_DTCB R7 R7 0.290 0.080 0.401 0.197 0.032 1.000

8 8 GO_DTCB R8 R8 0.291 0.153 0.429 0.104 0.023 1.000

9 9 GO_BRTA/DTCB R9 R9 0.133 0.398 0.372 0.065 0.032 1.000

10 10 GO_BRTA R10 R10 0.127 0.382 0.409 0.059 0.022 1.000

11 11 GO_BRTA R11 R11 0.148 0.381 0.381 0.063 0.026 1.000

12 12 GO_DMP R12 R12 0.050 0.533 0.280 0.105 0.032 1.000

13 13 GO_DMP R13 R13 0.119 0.396 0.396 0.063 0.026 1.000

14 14 GO_DMP R14 R14 0.062 0.332 0.174 0.174 0.257 1.000

15 15 Non-government NGO_ADB R15 R15 0.143 0.517 0.197 0.103 0.039 1.000

16 16 officials NGO_ADB R16 R16 0.078 0.391 0.284 0.206 0.041 1.000

17 17 NGO_ADB R17 R17 0.112 0.314 0.314 0.227 0.033 1.000

18 18 NGO_JICA R18 R18 0.040 0.534 0.281 0.105 0.040 1.000

19 19 NGO_JICA R19 R19 0.130 0.365 0.418 0.065 0.022 1.000

20 20 NGO_WB R20 R20 0.309 0.289 0.289 0.058 0.054 1.000

21 21 NGO_WB R21 R21 0.272 0.272 0.272 0.113 0.073 1.000

22 22 NGO_WB R22 R22 0.477 0.134 0.141 0.219 0.028 1.000

23 23 NGO_WBB R23 R23 0.237 0.026 0.135 0.542 0.060 1.000

24 24 NGO_WBB R24 R24 0.132 0.313 0.297 0.227 0.031 1.000

25 25 NGO_WB R25 R25 0.278 0.104 0.308 0.278 0.032 1.000

1 26 NMPT NURU MIA GARAGE_30 VEHICLES UTTARA R1 R26 0.064 0.322 0.429 0.150 0.034 1.000

2 27 operators NURU MIA GARAGE_20 VEHICLES BARIDHARA/KALACHANDPUR R2 R27 0.071 0.497 0.221 0.180 0.032 1.000

3 28 BABUL GARAGE_35 VEHICLES GULSHAN/BADDA R3 R28 0.090 0.394 0.380 0.107 0.029 1.000

4 29 RASHID GARAGE_28 VEHICLES RAMPURA/KAMLAPUR R4 R29 0.057 0.538 0.191 0.179 0.035 1.000

5 30 SADEQUE'S GARAGE_90 VEHICLES MALIBAGH/MOGHBAZAR R5 R30 0.130 0.424 0.307 0.104 0.035 1.000

6 31 KHIJIR'S GARAGE_75 VEHICLES GABTOLI & SURROUNDINGS R6 R31 0.079 0.437 0.363 0.088 0.033 1.000

7 32 HARUN GARAGE_70 VEHICLES GABTOLI & SURROUNDINGS R7 R32 0.096 0.538 0.251 0.090 0.025 1.000

8 33 SATTAR GARAGE_90 VEHICLES KALLAYANPUR R8 R33 0.173 0.352 0.346 0.091 0.038 1.000

9 34 SHIRAJ AKANDA GARAGE_85 VEHICLES WEST AGARGAON R9 R34 0.113 0.511 0.288 0.064 0.025 1.000

10 35 JULMOT ALI GARAGE_45 VEHICLES MIRPUR R10 R35 0.105 0.490 0.316 0.055 0.033 1.000

11 36 AJGAR GARAGE_70 VEHICLES NOBODOY R11 R36 0.109 0.407 0.381 0.075 0.028 1.000

12 37 MOIN GARAGE_80 VEHICLES DHANMONDI R12 R37 0.068 0.490 0.321 0.089 0.032 1.000

13 38 HAKIM GARAGE_35 VEHICLES KATASUR R13 R38 0.247 0.205 0.446 0.068 0.033 1.000

14 39 SAFI GARAGE_ 60 VEHICLES RAYERBAZAR R14 R39 0.059 0.387 0.322 0.190 0.042 1.000

15 40 BIPLOB'S GARAGE_50 VEHICLES HAZARIBAGH R15 R40 0.062 0.388 0.208 0.312 0.030 1.000


Page 375


Q No.Cum


Cumulative


Traffic

operational

effciency

Access &

mobility

Environmental

sustainability

Modern city

image


16 41 TAJU GARAGE_220 VEHICLES SOBHANBAGH R16 R41 0.076 0.369 0.223 0.297 0.035 1.000

17 42 BILLAL GARAGE_20 VEHICLES KALABAGAN/SUKRABAD R17 R42 0.101 0.449 0.355 0.062 0.032 1.000

18 43 AKBAR GARAGE_65 VEHICLES NILKHET/BABUPURA R18 R43 0.154 0.397 0.335 0.084 0.030 1.000

19 44 KHALIL GARAGE_30 VEHICLES KANTABAN R19 R44 0.137 0.432 0.313 0.088 0.029 1.000

20 45 JALIL/RASHID/KASHEM GARAGE_170 VEHICLES AZIMPUR R20 R45 0.075 0.460 0.230 0.204 0.031 1.000

21 46 JHELPHAR GARAGE_230 VEHICLES SHAHIDBAGH R21 R46 0.090 0.577 0.213 0.093 0.028 1.000

22 47 LOKMAN GARAGE_24 VEHICLES PALASHI/BAKSHIBAZAR/C.POLE R22 R47 0.148 0.254 0.484 0.079 0.035 1.000

23 48 MONTO GARAGE_120 VEHICLES LALBAGH R23 R48 0.077 0.418 0.371 0.101 0.034 1.000

24 49 ALI HOSSAIN GARAGE_35 VEHICLES LALBAGH R24 R49 0.092 0.566 0.247 0.062 0.033 1.000

25 50 IQBAL MIAH GARAGE_87 VEHICLES LALBAGH R25 R50 0.128 0.470 0.167 0.144 0.091 1.000

1 51 NMPT GABTALI/PALLABI/MIRPUR R1 R51 0.055 0.504 0.309 0.105 0.027 1.000

2 52 drivers R2 R52 0.062 0.528 0.265 0.113 0.032 1.000

3 53 R3 R53 0.068 0.506 0.275 0.120 0.031 1.000

4 54 SHAMOLI/AGARGAON R4 R54 0.088 0.512 0.288 0.088 0.023 1.000

5 55 R5 R55 0.069 0.511 0.308 0.082 0.029 1.000

6 56 R6 R56 0.095 0.388 0.394 0.095 0.028 1.000

7 57 MDPUR/BERIBADH/BOSILLA R7 R57 0.119 0.544 0.226 0.076 0.035 1.000

8 58 R8 R58 0.057 0.405 0.385 0.120 0.033 1.000

9 59 R9 R59 0.049 0.238 0.573 0.109 0.030 1.000

1060

DHANMONDI/ZIGATOLA/PANTHAPATH/

RAJARBAZAR/HATIRPOOLR10

R60 0.054 0.388 0.388 0.138 0.0321.000

11 61 R11 R61 0.055 0.523 0.300 0.093 0.029 1.000

12 62 R12 R62 0.123 0.509 0.204 0.134 0.030 1.000

13 63 R13 R63 0.069 0.386 0.306 0.200 0.039 1.000

14 64 R14 R64 0.062 0.419 0.379 0.112 0.029 1.000

1565

SC. LAB./GREEN RD/AZIMPUR/ELEPH. RD/UNIV.

AREAR15

R65 0.050 0.505 0.304 0.112 0.0291.000

16 66 R16 R66 0.073 0.487 0.323 0.085 0.032 1.000

17 67 R17 R67 0.063 0.358 0.431 0.119 0.029 1.000

18 68 MOTIJHEEL/GULISTAN/PALTAN R18 R68 0.077 0.567 0.104 0.224 0.028 1.000

19 69 R19 R69 0.091 0.513 0.228 0.130 0.038 1.000

20 70 R20 R70 0.077 0.479 0.224 0.189 0.031 1.000

21 71 OLD DHAKA R21 R71 0.065 0.470 0.359 0.077 0.029 1.000

22 72 R22 R72 0.053 0.403 0.384 0.128 0.032 1.000

23 73 R23 R73 0.089 0.428 0.355 0.092 0.037 1.000

24 74 R24 R74 0.071 0.440 0.331 0.130 0.028 1.000

25 75 R25 R75 0.076 0.615 0.182 0.102 0.026 1.000

26 76 UTTARA/AIRPORT/KHILKHET R26 R76 0.118 0.581 0.133 0.133 0.034 1.000

27 77 R27 R77 0.112 0.413 0.306 0.135 0.033 1.000

28 78 R28 R78 0.054 0.531 0.284 0.096 0.034 1.000

29 79 BANANI/GULSHAN R29 R79 0.064 0.506 0.295 0.109 0.026 1.000

30 80 R30 R80 0.082 0.592 0.187 0.115 0.025 1.000

31 81 R31 R81 0.132 0.398 0.293 0.147 0.030 1.000


Page 376


Q No.Cum


Cumulative


Traffic

operational

effciency

Access &

mobility

Environmental

sustainabil ity

Modern city

image


32 82

BARIDHARA/BASUNDHARA/

PROGOTI SARANI

R32 R82 0.081 0.476 0.292 0.125 0.026 1.000

33 83 R33 R83 0.065 0.275 0.533 0.101 0.026 1.000

34 84 R34 R84 0.067 0.499 0.286 0.119 0.029 1.000

35 85 MOHAKHALI/TEJGAON R35 R85 0.058 0.530 0.265 0.120 0.027 1.000

36 86 R36 R86 0.056 0.493 0.302 0.117 0.032 1.000

37 87 R37 R87 0.062 0.497 0.157 0.257 0.026 1.000

38 88 RAMPURA/KAMLAPUR/KHILGAON R38 R88 0.076 0.481 0.295 0.118 0.030 1.000

39 89 R39 R89 0.085 0.397 0.397 0.096 0.024 1.000

40 90 R40 R90 0.051 0.502 0.302 0.119 0.026 1.000

41 91 OLD AIRPORT/FARMGATE/ B. MOTOR R41 R91 0.106 0.446 0.318 0.106 0.026 1.001

42 92 R42 R92 0.050 0.599 0.203 0.122 0.026 1.000

43 93 R43 R93 0.087 0.560 0.203 0.120 0.029 1.000

44 94

MALIBAGH/MOUCHAK/

MOGHBAZAR/KAKRAIL

R44R94

0.122 0.412 0.385 0.056 0.025 1.000

45 95 R45 R95 0.096 0.551 0.147 0.175 0.031 1.000

46 96 R46 R96 0.080 0.520 0.265 0.112 0.024 1.000

47 97 R47 R97 0.084 0.539 0.252 0.101 0.025 1.000

48 98 SAIDABAD/JATRABARI R48 R98 0.083 0.427 0.355 0.098 0.037 1.000

49 99 R49 R99 0.095 0.408 0.145 0.316 0.036 1.000

50 100 R50 R100 0.061 0.505 0.289 0.108 0.036 1.000

1 101 NMPT GABTALI/PALLABI/MIRPUR R1 R101 0.262 0.126 0.524 0.066 0.022 1.000

2 102 users R2 R102 0.214 0.225 0.427 0.105 0.030 1.000

3 103 R3 R103 0.390 0.139 0.390 0.057 0.024 1.000

4 104 SHAMOLI/AGARGAON R4 R104 0.319 0.141 0.298 0.209 0.034 1.000

5 105 R5 R105 0.426 0.128 0.325 0.081 0.040 1.000

6 106 R6 R106 0.507 0.245 0.166 0.057 0.025 1.000

7 107 MDPUR/BERIBADH/BOSILLA R7 R107 0.332 0.229 0.316 0.059 0.063 1.000

8 108 R8 R108 0.224 0.330 0.298 0.094 0.054 1.000

9 109 R9 R109 0.345 0.226 0.312 0.085 0.032 1.000

10110

DHANMONDI/ZIGATOLA/PANTHAPATH/

RAJARBAZAR/HATIRPOOLR10

R110 0.141 0.486 0.287 0.059 0.0271.000

11 111 R11 R111 0.371 0.151 0.396 0.058 0.024 1.000

12 112 R12 R112 0.537 0.191 0.191 0.055 0.026 1.000

13 113 R13 R113 0.274 0.128 0.521 0.051 0.026 1.000

14 114 R14 R114 0.365 0.235 0.293 0.075 0.032 1.000

15115

SC. LAB./GREEN RD/AZIMPUR/ELEPH. RD/UNIV.

AREAR15

R115 0.293 0.314 0.293 0.076 0.0241.000

16 116 R16 R116 0.067 0.258 0.526 0.119 0.031 1.000

17 117 R17 R117 0.342 0.165 0.411 0.051 0.031 1.000

18 118 MOTIJHEEL/GULISTAN/PALTAN R18 R118 0.292 0.129 0.484 0.064 0.031 1.000

19 119 R19 R119 0.251 0.212 0.432 0.079 0.026 1.000

20 120 R20 R120 0.250 0.215 0.429 0.055 0.051 1.000


Page 377


Q No.Cum


Cumulative


Traffic

operational

effciency

Access &

mobility

Environmental

sustainability

Modern city

image

SE TE AM ES MI

21 121 OLD DHAKA R21 R121 0.068 0.226 0.282 0.395 0.030

22 122 R22 R122 0.226 0.278 0.383 0.077 0.036

23 123 R23 R123 0.262 0.253 0.392 0.063 0.030

24 124 R24 R124 0.208 0.223 0.424 0.109 0.036

25 125 R25 R125 0.192 0.113 0.511 0.154 0.030

26 126 UTTARA/AIRPORT/KHILKHET R26 R126 0.144 0.514 0.261 0.056 0.025

27 127 R27 R127 0.310 0.233 0.361 0.071 0.025

28 128 R28 R128 0.575 0.130 0.191 0.079 0.025

29 129 BANANI/GULSHAN R29 R129 0.194 0.302 0.416 0.061 0.027

30 130 R30 R130 0.280 0.315 0.315 0.063 0.028

31 131 R31 R131 0.498 0.213 0.199 0.063 0.026

32132

BARIDHARA/BASUNDHARA/

PROGOTI SARANI

R32R132 0.222 0.197 0.400 0.152 0.029

33 133 R33 R133 0.285 0.373 0.240 0.073 0.029

34 134 R34 R134 0.288 0.303 0.308 0.070 0.030

35 135 MOHAKHALI/TEJGAON R35 R135 0.201 0.409 0.291 0.071 0.027

36 136 R36 R136 0.469 0.115 0.323 0.063 0.031

37 137 R37 R137 0.289 0.209 0.399 0.080 0.023

38 138 RAMPURA/KAMLAPUR/KHILGAON R38 R138 0.201 0.214 0.459 0.089 0.037

39 139 R39 R139 0.072 0.205 0.595 0.101 0.027

40 140 R40 R140 0.207 0.249 0.451 0.060 0.033

41 141 OLD AIRPORT/FARMGATE/ B. MOTOR R41 R141 0.112 0.275 0.524 0.063 0.025

42 142 R42 R142 0.237 0.349 0.315 0.072 0.026

43 143 R43 R143 0.200 0.177 0.541 0.057 0.025

44 144

MALIBAGH/MOUCHAK/

MOGHBAZAR/KAKRAIL

R44R144 0.192 0.390 0.318 0.068 0.032

45 145 R45 R145 0.142 0.354 0.378 0.073 0.053

46 146 R46 R146 0.274 0.209 0.425 0.066 0.027

47 147 R47 R147 0.306 0.194 0.395 0.074 0.032

48 148 SAIDABAD/JATRABARI R48 R148 0.206 0.440 0.227 0.101 0.025

49 149 R49 R149 0.197 0.291 0.422 0.061 0.029

50 150 R50 R150 0.169 0.436 0.295 0.069 0.031

Code Rank

1

2

3

4

5


Page 378

Appendix E: Research methodology rationale –selected issue specific detail

discussion

E.1. Review of research methodology literature

De Vaus (2001) provided a generalised classification of research methodology and termed it as

research design. In fact he argued that research design is different from the method by which

data are collected. He also argued that any data-collection method can be adopted for any

design and the selection should depend on the need of the research, not on whether it is a

qualitative research or a quantitative research. His suggested research design methods include

• Experimental design

• Longitudinal design

• Cross –sectional design

• Case study design

Following similar ideology, Marsh (1982), Yin (2003) and Zeisel (2006) stated that selection of

research design is unrelated to whether one wants to collect quantitative or qualitative data.

Marsh (1982) argued in context of the applicability of survey methods in both qualitative and

quantitative research design stating that quantitative surveys can provide information and

explanations that are `adequate at the level of meaning', based on their structure and content.

Yin (2003) who termed research method as strategy argued that the decision about a suitable

strategy will depend on the character of the research question, investigator’s control over

events and the temporal dimension of the phenomenon. Based on these needs, he classified

research strategies into five types as follows,

• Experiment

• Survey

• History

• Archival analysis

• Case study .

He also suggested that each of these strategies can be used for any of the broad research

approaches such as exploratory, descriptive or explanatory and for both quantitative and

qualitative data. Zeisel (2006) also supports the arguments posed by Yin (2003) and further adds

that the suitable research design (as he termed research methods) depends on the way the

problem is defined, what the investigators wants to know, the nature of the object being

studied, previous knowledge the study is based on and type of results desired. His suggested

research designs include,


Page 379

• Case study

• Survey

• Experiments

On a different note to above perspectives, Monette, Sullivan, and. DeJong (2010) classified

research methodology into three broad categories based on the techniques of measuring the

target variables. They are thereby termed as research techniques and include,

• Verbal reports technique

• Observation technique

• Archival records technique

Verbal report technique was further subdivided into survey research, in-depth interview and

focus group discussion techniques. Observation technique on the other hand was classified into

participant based observation technique (qualitative) and non-obtrusive technique including

field surveys of objects (quantitative/qualitative). They also suggested some other qualitative

techniques in their discussion including cases studies, life-histories and narratives.

Contrary to De Vaus (2001), Yin (2003) and Zeisel (2006), Sommer and Sommer (2002) and

Hoyle (2002) classified research methodology based on the data collection methods to a greater

extent. Sommer and Sommer (2002) termed the proposed methods as techniques alike

Monette et al. and they include,

• Observation

• Experiment

• Questionnaire

• Interview

Hoyle et al. (2002) followed similar concept but different terminology (strategies) and

classification type for their preferred research strategies and they include,

• Randomised experiments

• The laboratory setting

• Nonrandomised design

• Applied research

• Observation and archival research

• Qualitative research (narrative analysis, focus group, oral history and participant

observation)


Page 380

In different viewpoint to above discussion, Leedy and Ormrod(2005) and Neuman (2009)

classified research methodology into two broad hierarchical categories, quantitative research

and qualitative research. According to them, quantitative research is a more precise way of

describing objective reality through investigating, explaining and predicting the relationship

among target variables. On contrary, qualitative research deals with multifaceted characteristics

of a phenomenon with the aim of interpreting the human perspective and subjective insights.

Leedy and Ormond classified both quantitative and qualitative categories into two sub

categories each and termed as designs. Quantitative category included,

• Descriptive design method

• Experimental and ex-post-facto design method

Descriptive category was split into observation studies, correlation research, development

designs and survey research

Experimental and ex-post-facto design had five sub-categories as pre-experimental design, true-

experimental design, quasi-experimental design, ex-post-facto design and factorial design.

Qualitative category included

• Qualitative research and

• Historic research

Among them, qualitative method was further classified into case study, ethnographies,

phenomenological study, grounded theory study and content analysis.

Neuman (2009) in comparison portrayed the categorization in a slightly different manner. He

had three sub-categories for quantitative class while two for qualitative class. The quantitative

category included

• Experimental design

• Survey research

• Non-reactive and Secondary research

Qualitative category incorporated

• Field research

• Historic-comparative research


Page 381

The discourse reveals the fact that different cluster of researchers have classified research

design process in different manner, based on different theme and principles. The terminologies

used to define them are also variable. But what is common is the underlying fact that the whole

choice process should be related to the circumstances, the research needs and the outcome

desired.


Page 382

E.2.Strategic demand models for Dhaka and non-compatibility issues to this study

The objective to use modelling in this research is to evaluate alternative transport strategies

with regard to different degrees of NMPT restrictions in combination with MT. A modelling

platform is as such required that can best replicate the true heterogenic traffic scenario and also

predict multimodal trade-off situation of NMPT correctly.

DITS model

DITS (1994b) developed a conventional four step process based strategic transport model for

forecasting travel demand within Greater Dhaka. This was to test various alternative transport

policies and strategies for future of the city. The model took account of the non-motorised

vehicle mix within Dhaka and followed a four-step modelling process in this regard. The model

considered the mixed traffic character by including walk, rickshaw, public transport (bus or

tempo) and private motorised transport in a modal split model. But it used a series of binary

choice logit models for distribution the O-D pairs into these four modes, i.e. simplifying the

multimodal choice of binary from which is choice between two modes at a given time. But such

choice model is appropriate where equally competing choices are available. Modes are not

equally competing in Dhaka, for instance walk is used for different distances of trips based on

the availability and affordability of the user, while. NMPT is used for short distance trips of 2-3

km and preferred by certain social groups such as women, children, elderly who cannot afford

car or do not prefer the public transport environment. So the distribution of mode and traffic

assignment in this manner including that of NMPT cannot be considered as true representation

of a real scenario. Moreover, the data was outdated and even if we neglect this, due to the

Intellectual Property (IP) rights issue of the concerned institution, Government of Bangladesh

Planning Commission, the base model or trip matrices were not accessible.

DUTM model

The transport planning model developed by Habib (2002), DUTM had the endeavour to analyse

the present and future traffic congestion and resulting air pollution in Dhaka city, using the four

step process. The research evaluated alternative planning options such as elimination of

rickshaw and auto-rickshaw, improvement of road network, improvement of bus transit and

introduction of a rail transit system in Dhaka. The model had a multinomial logit model based

mode choice based traffic distribution for O-D pairs. The mode specific utilities were chosen to

be time, cost and comfort. However, the model was substantially criticised by Bari (2004). This

was with reference to the validity of the model itself (with reference to GEH statistics on the


Page 383

observed volume and estimated flow from model) and it applicability in assessing the restriction

impact (complete ban in this case) of rickshaw on transport system. According to Bari,

Banning NMT is a multimodal issue and a model that deals with only vehicular

movements within road links completely ignoring walking and waiting times of journeys

should not be used to assess such impacts. Inappropriate use of unimodal model

(model that deals with in-vehicle times only) to predict multimodal trade off situations

could lead to misleading conclusions.

Moreover, the model did not make any adjustment to match to the heterogeneous socio-

economic, land use and traffic mix needs of Dhaka when developing the modelling framework

(Hasan, 2007). The data set of the model was also outdated, sourced from DITS (1994a) survey.

The model therefore seemed not sufficiently compatible in its original state to be used as a base

model for this research, whose requirement is to provide true comparative impact

demonstration of the NMPT in existence with other modes.

STP model

STP project team developed UTP Model was based on four step modelling process as well. The

model was developed and used to forecast future travel demand resulting from different land

use scenarios and transport strategies. The endeavour was to predict the performance of

existing, committed and alternative development strategies for Dhaka’s urban transport

network infrastructure, services and policies (STP, 2005c). The key constraint with the mode

with relation to this research need was that this model only considered motorised trips in the

mode choice modelling and thereby assignment process. No walk trips and non-motorised trips

were considered, whereas the same project survey revealed 37 percent of total trip share being

catered by NMPT. So this model was also deemed inappropriate to serve as a base model for

the research. Moreover, the data possible to access from STP (provided by Dhaka City

Corporation and Dhaka Transport Coordination Board) were also limited to the traffic counts

and occupancy survey of few selected links only. The mode specific trip distribution table for the

zones or any relevant matrix were not accessible from the executing agency and custodian of

the project, Bangladesh Planning Commission due to the similar ground as revealed for DITS.

DSTM model

By comparison, the DSTM developed by Hasan (2007) and based on STP (2005) data has a

better modelling framework to replicate the heterogeneous socio-economic, land use and

traffic mix needs of Dhaka. The model followed the four step process alike the previous models


Page 384

and made modification at different stages to match the local context of Dhaka. The

heterogeneity in socio-economic structure was addressed by separating the households into

different income groups and analysing their demand separately. Trip attraction survey based

trip rates has been developed for different land uses. The mode split is divided into pre-

distribution and post-distribution stage. In pre-distribution, zonal trips were separated into walk

and intra-zonal trips and inter zonal trips. And the latter category was subdivided into personal

trips and trips using NMPT/auto-rickshaw/bus. The post-distribution model developed

multinomial logit model based modal split with three alternative modes, NMPT, auto-rickshaw,

bus (Hasan & Hoque, 2010). The model could be used in appropriately replicating the current

MT-NMPT restriction implication on transport system better than the previous models, due to

its rigorousness in attaining the heterogeneity of different network character.

However, since the model is completely based on STP (2005) database as is the modal split, a

comprehensive new SP survey is required with relation to different alternative MT-NMPT

transport strategies to develop a new modal split; necessary matrix corrections are required to

update the base trip tables and the model can then be applied to compare the comparative

performance impact analysis, as suggested by Bari (2004). A considerable sample size would be

required to conduct the SP survey, considering the spatial coverage of Dhaka City and to

maintain coherence with previously undertaken survey sample of STP (5,772 households). The

selection and administration of such corrections and survey is a highly demanding task, but

would be possible if that were the core focus of the research. These activities are subject to

reception of STP (2005) source data. The data is available, however the author was not provided

access to it on IP grounds.


Page 385

Appendix F: Land use- traffic interactivity analysis

F.1: Why not quantitative traffic counts survey for land use -traffic interactivity analysis?

The quantitative data collection based evaluation approach could not be adopted for this

analysis, attributable to a number of reasons. The first reason was the temporal length of the

survey, spanning 14 hours at a stretch. Such time length was essential for the chosen corridors

because variable peak hour of land uses were observed in these study corridors. For example,

educational institutions had been observed with peak periods between 7 am to 10 am (schools

and universities), 12 pm to 3 pm (schools); 5 pm to 8 pm (universities); commercial office usage

had been observed with peak periods between 8am to 10 am; 4 pm to 7 pm; commercial retail

usage with peak periods between 3 pm to 9 pm; and health facilities with variable peak periods

throughout the day. Most of the three major categories of study corridors (Mirpur Road, Sat

Masjid Road, Dhanmondi Road No. 27 and Pilkhana Road) have significant presence of these

usages in different combinations; and thereby required survey period of 7 am to 9 pm to ensure

reasonable representation of traffic pattern. However, it was highly resource intensive to have

carried out such large scale, simultaneous land use specific traffic count survey across all the

corridors.

Moreover, due to a large number of land use block, at both direction of each corridor, that

required being surveyed for traffic generation/ attraction counts (more than 120 block points),

it was also highly resource intensive.

Furthermore, due to the non-door to door service nature of a number of the observed modes

(bus, human hauler & in case of Mirpur Road, rickshaw), the lack of fixed locations for boarding

and alighting of public transports, it was extremely difficult to have counts of their

generation/attraction by land use block and to ensure consistency over time in this regard. It

was found more rational to express the traffic intensity by approximation and using qualitative

ordinal scaling, based on observed condition and previous substantive knowledge of the author

on traffic movement pattern in Dhaka.

In addition, even if it is assumed that such constraints are possible to overcome, the problem of

quantitative prediction of the traffic intensity pattern for future would still required to be

estimated based on assumption. This is since no such land use specific traffic attraction data

were available for the case corridor at the time of field data collection and therefore, it was not

possible to establish any relationship of shift in mode attraction along these corridor over

period (past and present). Consequently, it is not possible to make any quantitative prediction,

based on existing survey count, on the future trend of the traffic in these study corridors.


Page 386

These limitations led the researcher to adopt a qualitative approach in evaluation of the land

use - traffic interactivity analyses. Moreover, in such cases, the researcher would have the

liberty to follow a loop observation of the study corridors, since count over time aspect in

parallel and at all locations do not have to be strictly adhered to maintain assessment

conformity of comparative corridors. Rather, a general observational derivation, at close time

interval between corridors would be reasonable in determining level of the traffic intensities for

the land use blocks.


Page 387

F.2: Sample survey sheet for data collection for land use and traffic interactivity analysis

Corridor Name Corridor category Survey date Survey time Name of Surveyor

Segment

no.

Segment

name

Access

interval

(meter)

Adjacent

major

land use *

Average buliding

height (in story)

1= East side of corridor

when moving northbound

2= West side of corridor

when moving northbound

Car Motor cycle BusHuman

hauler

Auto

rickshawTaxi Bicycle NMPT

LEGEND :

Land use category

Residential

Commercial (retai l,

office)

Industrial

Institutional (school,

college, uni, training

center)

Mixed

Administartive

Recreational/ Open

sapce

Restricted

Special

*Land use in order of

their majority in the

block

**the existing trend/

future potential of the

given land use in

generating/ attarcting the

vehicle type

Traffic intensity**

Non-motorised

transportMotorised transport


Page 388

F.3: Segment wise result of land use-traffic interactivity analysis for Mirpur Road

Corridor Name: Mirpur Road Corridor category: Primary road Survey date: December 10 2009 Survey time: 7 am to 9pm

Segment no. Segment name

Access

interval

(meter)

Adjacent major

land use *

Average buliding

height (in story)

1= East side of corridor when moving northbound

2= West side of corridor when moving northbound


hauler

Auto


1

Pilkhana rd- New Market

Vegetable Market/J Imam

Rd

210 Commercial

1. Nilkhet book market

2. New market 2-6 story High High Very high Very high High Moderate low Very high***

0.67 0.67 0.83 0.83 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.83

2

New Market Vegetable

Market/ J Imam rd-

Naeem Rd

180Commercial,

Institutional

1. Chandni chalk market, Gausia market,

2. Dhaka College & Chandrima market, 6 story Very high High Very high High High Moderate low Very high***

0.83 0.67 0.83 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.83

3Naeem Rd- Dhanmondi

Rd1/ New Elephant Rd310

Commercial,

Institutional

1. Bodruddoza market, Petrol pump, Globe shopping

ctr,Golden gate shopping ctr, Priyangon shopping

center

2. Govt Laboratory High School, Teachers Training

College

3-10 story High Moderate Very high High High Moderate low Very high***

0.67 0.5 0.83 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.83

4

Dhanmondi Rd1/ New

Elephant Rd- Dhanmondi

Rd2

70 Commercial

1. BCSIR research institute; and school

2.Some 3 story markets, police farry 2 story Low Moderate Moderate Low Low Very low Low High

0.33 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.17 0.33 0.67 LEGEND :

5

Dhanmondi Rd2-

Dhanmondi Rd3 /Green

Rd

120 Institutional1. BCSIR research institute; and school

2.Dhaka City College, Sonali Bank, Happy Arcade

shopping centre

6 story High Moderate High Low Moderate Very low Low Very highLand use

categoryIntensity

0.67 0.5 0.67 0.33 0.5 0.17 0.33 0.83 Res idential No

6Dhanmondi Rd3/ Green

Rd- Dhanmondi Rd 4110

Commercial

Institutional

1. Lab Aid Cardiac Hospital, Flora l imited, Green Rd

Petrol pump,,Western gril l complex

2. Alliance Fracaise, DHL, Multistoried commercial

complex

3-6 story Very high High High Moderate High High Very low Very high Commercial

(reta i l , office)Very low

0.83 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.67 0.67 0.17 0.83 Induis tria l Low

7Dhanmondi Rd4-

Dhanmondi Rd 5110

Commercial

Institutional

1.Standard Chartered Bank, other commercial centers,

World University of Bangladesh

2. Yousuf confectionary, Gyankosh book & stationary

shop , Eastern University, multistoried commercial

complex

4-6 story High High High Moderate Moderate Low Low Very high

Ins ti tutiona l

(school ,

col lege, uni ,

training center)

Modera te

0.67 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.83 Mixed High

8Dhanmondi Rd5-

Dhanmondi Rd6110 Commercial

1. Haruns eye clinic, Gonoshastho hospital, Mother &

child care hospital

2. Dhanmondi police station, Jamuna Bank, 6 story Moderate High Moderate Moderate High Moderate Low high Adminis ta rtive Very high

0.5 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.67Recreational/

Open sapceAbsolute

9Dhanmondi Rd6-


1. Orchard Point shopping centre

2.Kings bakery, Almas superstore, Apartment complex,

Beximco pharmaceutical office6 story High Moderate High Moderate Moderate Moderate Low Very high Restricted

0.67 0.5 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.83 Specia l

***No ricksha w on main corrridor, but plying on the segrega ted channel on main roa d

Mode specific traffic intensity with memebership type and score**

Motorised transport Non-motorised transport

*La nd use in order of the i r ma jority in the block

**the exis ting trend/ future potentia l of the given land

use in genera ting/ a tta rcting the vehicle type


Page 389


Access

interval

(meter)

Adjacent major

land use *

Average buliding

height (in story)




hauler

Auto


10Dhanmondi Rd7-


1.Garden city market, Chinese restaurant

2.ARA Centre, restaurant, multistoried office bui lding

(including One Bank)6 story High High High Moderate High Low Very low High

0.67 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.67 0.33 0.17 0.67

11Dhanmondi Rd8-

Dhanmondi Rd9120

Commercial,

Recreational/

Open sapce.

1. Multistoried commercial complex (computer sales

and repair centres, electronics & refrigerator sales,

service centres etc.) , Capital market

2.Dhanmondi club & cricket ground

6 story Moderate High High Moderate High Low Low Very high

0.5 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.67 0.33 0.33 0.83

12Dhanmondi Rd9-

Kalabagan 1st lane60

Commercial,

Recreational/

Open sapce.

1.Coopers, book shops with offices upstairs

2.Dhanmondi field, Dhanmondi recreation club,

Multistoried Market4-6 story Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Low High

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.67 LEGEND :

13

Kalabagan 1st lane-

Dhanmondi Rd10

(7)/Kalabagan 2nd lane

60 Commercial

1. Market, car showroom

2. Multistoried market 4-6 story Low Moderate High Moderate Low Very low Low High Land use category Intensity

0.5 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.33 0.67 Resi dentia l No

14

Dhanmondi Rd 10 (7)/

Kalabagan 2nd lane-

Kalabagan 3rd lane

80

Commercial,

Institutional

Recreational/

Open sapce.

1.Multistoried markets, Bai tul Salah Mosque

2.Dhanmondi lake 4-6 story Moderate High Very high High High Moderate Low Very highCommercia l

(reta i l , office)Very low

0.5 0.67 0.83 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.83 Induis tria l Low

15Kalabagan 3rd lane-

Panthapath370

Commercial

Recreational/o

pen space

1.Multistoried markets & office complex, lazz pharma

& other pharmas, Dutch Bangla Bank, Dolphin bus

ticket sales centre

2..Horticulture & open field, Kalabagan Cricket ground

1-6 story Very high High Very high High High Low Low Very high

Ins ti tutiona l

(s chool ,

col lege, uni ,

trai ning center)

Moderate

0.83 0.67 0.83 0.67 0.67 0.33 0.33 0.83 Mixed High

16Panthapath- Dhanmondi

Rd1270

Recreation,

Institutional

1.New model degree college

2. Dhanmondi Lake 4 story High Moderate Very high High Moderate Very low Moderate Very high Administartive Very high

0.67 0.5 0.83 0.67 0.5 0.17 0.5 0.83Recreationa l/

Open sapceAbsolute

17 Dhanmondi Rd 12-

Sukrabad Rd80 Commercial

1. New model degree col lege

2. Santoor restaurant, chill ies restaurant, Cherokee

hair saloon, bank3-4 story High Low High Moderate High Moderate Very low Very high Restricted

0.67 0.33 0.67 0.5 0.67 0.5 0.17 0.83 Specia l

***No rickshaw on main corrridor, but pl ying on the segregated channel on main road



*Land us e in order of their majority in the block

**the exis ting trend/ future potenti al of the given land

use in generating/ attarcting the vehi cle type


Page 390


Access

interval

(meter)

Adjacent major

land use *

Average buliding

height (in story)




hauler

Auto


18Sukrabad Rd -

Dhanmondi Rd1350

Commercial

Institutional

1. Confectionaries, Office buildings, Daffodi l

International University

2. Market complex & office bui ldings4-6 story High High High Moderate Moderate Low Low Very High

0.67 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.83 LEGEND :

19Dhanmondi Rd 13-


1.Multristoried Market & offices

2. Residential bui ldings and retail outlets 6 story Moderate High High Moderate Moderate Low Low High Land use category Intensity

0.5 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.67 Res i dentia l No

20Dhanmondi Rd 14-

Unnamed Rd 140

Commercial ,

Residential

1. Residential blocks

2.Sobhanbagh mosque market, mosque, book shops,

fast food shops 3 -4 story High Moderate High Moderate Moderate Low Low High

Commercia l

(retai l , office)Very l ow

0.67 0.5 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.67 Indui s tria l Low

21Unnamed Rd 1-

Dhanmondi Rd 280

Commercial ,

Residential

1. Residential blocks

2.Sobhanbagh mosque market, mosque, book shops,

fast food shops 3-4 story High Moderate High Moderate Moderate Low Low High

Instituti ona l

(s chool ,

col lege, uni,

trai ni ng center)

Moderate

0.67 0.5 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.67 Mixed Hi gh

22Unnamed Rd 2 -

Dhanmondi Rd 15100

Commercial

Institutional

1. Daffodi l International University, Prince Plaza

2.Multistoied market, Dhnamondi Orchid Plaza 6 story High Moderate Very high High High Moderate Low Very high Adminis tarti ve Very hi gh

0.67 0.5 0.83 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.83Recreationa l/

Open s apceAbs ol ute

23Dhanmondi Rd15-

Dhanmondi Rd16120

Commercial

Institutional

1.BIAM complex

2.Rapa Plaza & other markets 6 story Very high High Very high High Very high High Moderate Very high Res tri cted

0.83 0.67 0.83 0.67 0.83 0.67 0.5 0.83 Speci al

*** No NMPT on major ca rria geway of the corrri dor, pl yi ng on the s egregated cha nnel pa ra l l e to ma in carri agewa y

*Land us e in order of thei r majori ty i n the bl ock

**the exi s ti ng trend/ future potenti al of the gi ven la nd

us e i n generati ng/ attarcti ng the vehi cl e type




Page 391

F.4: Segment wise result of land use-traffic interactivity analysis for Sat Masjid Road

Corridor Name: Sat Masjid Road Corridor category: Secondary road Survey date: December 10 2009 Survey time: 7 am to 9pm


Access

interval

(meter)

Adjacent major

land use *

Average buliding

height (in story)



Car Motor cycle Bus Human hauler Auto rickshaw Taxi Bicycle NMPT

1

Pilkhana Rd

intersection- BDR

internal road

intersection

900

Commercial,

Residential,

Institutional

1. BDR auditorium, BDR club, Grocery stores,

residential units, agroculture fields, gardens; 2.

BDR School & College, Darbar Hall (community centre),

Rifles bhaban, residential units, water bodies,

playfields

4 to 6 story; major 6

storyHigh Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Low Very high

0.67 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.83

2

Dhanmondi Rd 2

intersection -

Dhanmondi 2A

intersection

60

Commercial,

Recreational

(lake)

1.Dhanmondi lake,

2.Commercial complex (rosh, mutual trust bank,Rex,

other clothing stores)

2-3 story Moderate Moderate High High Moderate Low Very low High

0.5 0.5 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.67

3Dhanmondi Rd 2A-

Hazaribagh Rd40 Commercial

1.Newspaper outlet, car showroom, IBN Sina

diagonostic centre;

2.Commercial complex under construction

4-6 story High High High High Low Very low Very low High

0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.33 0.17 0.17 0.67

4Hazaribag Rd-

Dhanmondi Rd 3A70

Institutional,

Commercial

1. University of Asia Pacific, Fujicolor photo studio,

Sunrise coaching centre,Eastern university,;

2. Office buildings

2-4 story High High High High Moderate Low Very low Very high

0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.83 LEGEND :

5Dhanmondi Rd 3A-

Dhanmondi Rd 4A120

Institutional,

Commercial

1. Kakoli school

2.Victoria university, retai l shops, photo studio ,

chinese restaurant

3-6 story Moderate Moderate High High Moderate Low Very low Very high Land use category Intensity

0.5 0.5 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.83 Res identia l No

6Dhanmondi Rd 4A-

Dhanmondi Rd 5A80

Commercial,

Institutional

1.Medinova diagonostic centre , New castle university,

other diagonostic centers,;

2.Office cum market complex

6 story High Very high Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Very low highComme rcia l (re ta il ,

offi ce )Very low

0.67 0.83 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.17 0.67 Induistria l Low

7Dhanmondi Rd 5A-

Dhanmondi Rd 6A120

Commercial,

Recreational

(lake)

1.Anam rangs plaza, Dhanmondi lake;

2. Apartment buildings & houses6 story High High Moderate Moderate Moderate Low Low Very high

Insti tutional (s chool ,

col lege , uni, tra ining

center)

Moderate

0.67 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.83 Mixed High

8Dhanmondi Rd 6A-

Dhanmondi Rd 7A90

Special,

Commercial

1.Eidgah field, Priyanka community centre;

2.Keari plaza, other retail shops, groceries, office

buildings

4-6 story Moderate Moderate High Moderate High Moderate Low high Adminis tartive Very high

0.5 0.5 0.67 0.5 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.67Recreational/ Open

sapceAbs olute

9Dhanmondi Rd 7A-

Dhanmondi Rd 8A130

Institutional,

Commercial

1., Sagar community centre, diagonostic centre, St

judes school, superstores (e.g. Almas), apartment

buidlings and other residential units;

2.Cambridge intl school, office building, Mercantile

bank

4-6 story Very High High High High Moderate Low Low Very high Res tri cted

0.83 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.83 Spe cia l

Traffic intensity**


*Land us e in order of thei r ma jori ty in the block

**the exi sting trend/ future potentia l of the given

land us e in ge nerating/ attarcting the vehicle type


Page 392


Access

interval

(meter)

Adjacent major

land use *

Average buliding

height (in story)




10Dhanmondi Rd 8A-

Dhanmondi Rd 9A110

Mixed,

Institutional

1. United university, shops

2. Shops in ground floor, offices l ike Save the chi ldren

& residence upsatirs

6 story Moderate Moderate High Moderate Moderate Low Very low Very high

0.5 0.5 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.83

11Dhanmondi Rd 9A-

Dhanmondi Rd 10A110

Commercial,

Institutional,

Mixed

1. IBN sina hospital, Sayeedena community centre.,

IUBAT, Stamford university;

2 . Shops, offices, restaurants

6 story High High High High High High Very low very high

0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.17 0.83

12Dhanmondi Rd 10A-

Dhanmondi Rd 11A120

Commercial,

Mixed

1. Shops in ground floor, office & residence upsatirs;

2. Restaurants such as Brocolly , Olympia etc. 2-6 story High Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Very low Very low High

0.67 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.17 0.17 0.67 LEGEND :

13Dhanmondi Rd 11A-

Dhanmondi Rd 12A110

Institutional,

Commercial

1. Darul Ihsan University, Star complex

2.Star, Pizza hut, Satmford & World University3- 6 story, major 6

storyHigh High High High High Moderate Very low Very high Land use category Intensity

0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.17 0.83 Residential No

14Dhanmondi Rd 12A-

Dhanmondi Rd 13A210

Recreational/

Open sapce,

Mixed

1.Abahani field, Janata bank, gym

2.ACME office & mixed use buildings

2-6 story; major 6

storyModerate High Moderate Moderate Moderate Low Very low High

Commercial (retai l ,

offi ce )Very low

0.5 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.67 Induis tria l Low

15Dhanmondi Rd 13A-

Dhanmondi Rd 14A90

Institutional,

Commercial

1.Maple leaf school, Dhk Intl. school, ,Bangladesh

medical college hospital;

2. Office cum residence, shops

2- 6 story High High High High High Moderate Very low High

Ins ti tutiona l (s chool ,

col lege, uni , training

center)

Moderate

0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.17 0.67 Mixed High

16Dhanmondi Rd 14A-

Dhanmondi Rd 15A120 Commercial

1.Chayanot music lerning institute, retail outlets

2. Market complex (Shankar plaza) 6 story Moderate Moderate Moderate Low Moderate Low Low Very high Adminis tartive Very high

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.83Recreational/ Open

s apceAbsolute

17

Dhanmondi Rd 15A-

Dhanmondi Rd 16 or

27

120Commercial,

Institutional

1.Chinese restaurant, Centre for Urban Studies,

apartment buildings and houses, shops 2.

Market, IBAIS University etc.

2- 6 story Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Low Very low Very high Restricted

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.83 Special


*Land us e in order of the i r majori ty in the block

**the exis ting trend/ future potentia l of the given

la nd us e in generating/ attarcting the vehicle type



Page 393

F.5: Segment wise result of land use-traffic interactivity analysis for Dhanmondi Road No 27

Corridor Name: Dhanmondi Road 27 Corridor category: Collector Road Survey date: December 10 2009 Survey time: 7 am to 9pm


Access

interval

(meter)

Adjacent major land use

*

Average buliding

height (in story)

1= East side of corridor when moving

northbound 2=

West side of corridor when moving northbound


1

Satmasjid Rd

intersection - Dhanmondi

Rd 8A intersection

240Commercial, Residential ,

Institutional

1.City Bank, AB Bank, Community centre,

Residential unit; 2.Kebab

Shop, Chi inese restaurant, UODA

6 story High Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Low Very low High

0.67 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.67

2

Dhanmondi Rd 8A

intersection- unnamed rd

1

193Commercial, Residential ,

Institutional

1.BDCOM ltd office, Dekko Group office,

Apartment building

2.Bengal Gallery, Meena Bazar, Etc superstore,

Oxford School, Apartment buildings

6 story High Low Moderate Moderate High Moderate Very low Very high

0.67 0.33 0.5 0.5 0.67 0.5 0.17 0.83

3Unnamed rd 1- unnamed

rd270

Commercial, Residential ,

Institutional

1. Shampan restaurant, Apartment bui lding

2. Boi Bichitra book shop, Chinese restaurant,

Apartment building

6 story High Low Moderate Moderate Moderate Low Very low High

0.67 0.33 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.67

4Unnamed rd 2-

Dhanmondi Rd 11135

Commercial, Residential ,

Institutional

1. Offices, Residential units, computer training

centre, retai l outlets 2. IFIC

bank, Asians University, Residential units,

offices

6 story High Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Low Very low Very high

0.67 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.83

5Dhanmondi Rd 11 -

Mirpur Rd286 Commercial

1.HSBC bank, Joypur Sweet shop,Rapa Plaza,

ADB publishng ofice

2. Farzana Shakil beauty saloon, Xenial Chinese

Restaurant, Genetic Plaza, Shwarma food shop,

Photo studio, Car showroom, WVA office,

Cal i fornia Pastry shop

4 to 6 story Very high High High Moderate High Moderate Low Very high

0.83 0.67 0.67 0.5 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.83

*La nd use in

order of their

ma jori ty in the

bl ock

**the exis ting trend/ future

potentia l of the gi ven l and

use i n generating/ a tta rcti ng

the vehi cl e type

LEGEND :

Land use category

Res i denti alCommerci al (reta i l ,

office)Indui s tri al

Ins ti tutiona l (school , col l ege,

uni vers ity, tra ini ng center)Mi xed Admini sta rti ve

Recrea tiona l / Open

sapceRestricted Specia l

Intensity

No Very l ow Low Moderate Hi gh Very hi gh Absol ute




Page 394

F.6: Segment wise result of land use-traffic interactivity analysis for Pilkhana Road

Corridor Name: Pilkhana Road Corridor category: Collector Road Survey date: December 10 2009 Survey time: 7 am to 9pm


Access

interval

(meter)

Adjacent major

land use *

Average buliding

height (in story)

1= East side of corridor when

moving northbound

2= West side of corridor when

moving northbound


1

Maj. Ge. Shakil Rd

intersection- Begum

Fazi latunnesa Mujib Hall

Rd intersection

100Residential ,

Special

1. Azimpur Graveyard;

2. BDR compund4-6 story High Moderate High Moderate Moderate Low Low High

0.67 0.5 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.67

2

Begum Fazilatunnesa

Mujib Hall Rd

intersection-New Market

Vegetable Market Rd

intersection

185Commercial,

Special

1.Azimpur Graveyard;

2.Begum Fazi latunnesa Mujib

Hall

4 story Moderate Low Low Moderate Moderate Low Very low Very high

0.5 0.33 0.33 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.83 0.83

3

New Market Vegetable

Market Rd intersection-

Mirpur Rd intersection

230 Commercial

1. Bangladesh postal

telegrapg & post service; 2.

New Market Shopping presinct

2- 4 story Very high High Very high Very high High Moderate Low Very high

0.83 0.67 0.83 0.83 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.83

*Land use in

order of thei r

majority in the

block

**the exi s ting

trend/ future

potentia l of the

given la nd use in

generating/

attarcting the

vehicle type

LEGEND :

Land use category

Res identia lCommercia l (reta i l ,

office)Induis tria l

Institutional

(school, col lege,

univers i ty, tra ining

center)

Mixed Admini s tartiveRecreational / Open

sapceRestri cted Specia l

Intensity

No Very low Low Modera te High Very high Absolute




Page 395

F.7: Segment wise result of land use-traffic interactivity analysis for Dhanmondi Road No. 12A

Corridor Name: Dhanmondi Road 12A Corridor category: Access Road Survey date: December 10 2009 Survey time: 7 am to 9pm

Segment

no.Segment name

Access

interval

(meter)

Adjacent major

land use *

Average buliding

height (in story)


moving northbound


moving northbound


LEGEND :

1

Satmasjid rd intersection-

Dhanmondi Rd 8A

intersection

240

Recreational/Open

space, Mixed

residential

1. Abahani field

2. Apartment complex, Maple

Leaf School, residence cum

food shop

4 to 6 story High High Moderate Moderate High Moderate Very low Very high Land use category Intensity

0.67 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.67 0.5 0.17 0.83 Resi dentia l No

2

Dhanmondi Rd 8A

intersection-Dhanmondi

Rd 13A intersection

260Residential , Mixed

residential

1. Apartment bui ldings;

2. Apartment bui ldings, WIF

office with residence

6 story High Moderate Low Low High Moderate Very low Very highCommercia l (retai l ,

office)Very l ow

0.67 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.67 0.5 0.17 0.83 Indui stria l Low

3

Dhanmondi Rd 13A

intersection- first

intersection of

connecting road to

Dahnmondi Rd 11A

210 Residential , open fiels

1.Backside of Dhanmondi Lake

2. Apartment bui ldings,

backside open field of

Dhanmondi Girls School

6 story Moderate Moderate Low Low Moderate Low Very low Very high

Institutional (school,

col l ege, uni, tra i ning

center)

Moderate

0.5 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.83 Mi xed Hi gh

4

First intersection of

connecting road to

Dahnmondi Rd 11A-

second intersection of

connecting road to

Dahnmondi Rd 11A

240 Residential1.Backside of Dhanmondi Lake

2. Apartment bui ldings6 story High Moderate Low Low Moderate Low Very low Very high Admini starti ve Very high

0.2 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.83Recreational / Open

s apceAbsol ute

5

Second intersection

of connecting road to

Dahnmondi Rd 11A-

Dhanmondi Rd 13A

intersection

230 Residential1.Backside of Dhanmondi Lake

2. Apartment bui ldings6 story High Moderate Low Low Moderate Low Very low Very high Restri cted

0.67 0.67 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.83 Speci a l



*Land us e in order of thei r majority in the bl ock

**the exis ti ng trend/ future potenti a l of the given

la nd use i n genera ti ng/ attarcting the vehi cl e type


Page 396

F.8: Segment wise result of land use-traffic interactivity analysis for the road opposite of Dhanmondi Road 12A

Corridor Name: Opposite of Dhanmondi Road 12A Corridor category: Narrow Road Survey date: December 10 2009 Survey time: 7 am to 9pm

Segment

no.Segment name

Access

interval

(meter)

Adjacent major

land use *

Average buliding

height (in story)


moving northbound


moving northbound


1

Dhanmondi 12A

intersection-

Dhanmondi Road 9A

intersection

70 Mixed-residential

1. Residential uni its

2. British Council, Residential

units with shops in some

building at the ground floor

4 to 6 story Moderate High Moderate Moderate Moderate Low Very low Very high

0.5 0.67 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.33 0.17 0.83

2

Dhanmondi Road 9A

intersection -

unnamed road

intersection towards

Sher-E- Bangla Road

20Residential Mixed-

residential

1&2. Primari ly resedence

units wth shops in some

ground floor

4 to 6 story Low Moderate Low Low Moderate Very low Very low Very high

0.33 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.5 0.17 0.17 0.52

3

Unnamed road

intersection- Sher-E-

Bangla Road

intersection

500^Residential Mixed-

residential

1 & 2. Primari ly resedential

units wth shops at ground

floor of some buildings

4 to 6 story Low Moderate Low Low Moderate Very low Very low Very high

0.33 0.5 0.33 0.33 0.5 0.17 0.17 0.83

^ Major access i nterval ; has several very narrow roads i n between this two intersecti on with uniform l and use type and traffic pattern

LEGEND :

Land use category

Res i dentia lCommercia l (reta i l ,

office)Indui s tria l

Ins ti tutiona l (school ,

col lege, uni vers ity,

tra ini ng center)

Mixed Adminis tarti veRecreational/ Open

sapceRestricted Specia l

Intensity

No Very l ow Low Moderate Hi gh Very hi gh Absolute


Motorised transportNon-motorised

transport

*Land use in order of their ma jority i n the block

** traffic i ntens ity is with reference to the exis ti ng

trend/ future potentia l of the given l and use in

genera ting/ attarcting the vehicle type


Page 397

Appendix G: Road functionality analysis

G.1: Sample survey sheet for road functional attribute data collection

Survey date Survey time Name of Surveyor

DESIGN FEATUREFRICTIONAL

FEATUREIMPACT FEATURE

Road

category Type

Right of Way

(ROW)Road type Dominant linkage Connectivity Mobility function Operating speed

Traffic carrying

function

PT service

(availability and

cost)

Access functionPreferred abutting

landuse Traffic sensitivity*

1 Mi rpur road

2 Sat Mas jid road

3Dhanmondi road no.

27

Pi l khana road

4Dhanmondi road no

12/A

5

Road oppos ite of

Dhanmondi road no.

12/A

* measured with reference to surrounding land use

& in terms of expected tolerance of these land use to noise and air pollution

Note: The output of the table is derived based on field survey and precribed qualitative guideline in table 14.3

FUNCTIONAL FEATURE


Page 398

G.2: Definition for each criterion of the governing attributes of road

Three broad groups of criteria are usually considered and evaluated for road management and

desirable performance evaluation under hierarchy. They are functional characteristics, frictional

characteristics and impact characteristics (Eppel et al., 2001). A fourth group named design

characteristics is introduced for the comprehensiveness of performance evaluation in this

research, which is derived from the road characteristics analysis literature such as DITS (1994a),

DCC (2002) and Kadiyali (2007).

i) Design criteria: These are the geometric characteristics required by a road element to enable

sufficient traffic carrying space and safe operation for the road type. The sub-criteria under this

broad criterion include,

• right of way- the total width of the roadway including carriageway, median, kerb

and footpath;

• road type – the pattern of physical division, carriageway type and lane

configuration for a corridor.

ii) Functional criteria: These are the characteristics required of a roadway element to achieve its

operational objectives and thereby optimising the traversed mode functionality.

• dominant linkage- the major service area of a corridor;

• connectivity- the major corridor type(s) linked by corridor;

• mobility function-the ease and uninterrupted pattern of movement in a corridor, a

directly proportional attribute of speed;

• operating speed-the typical speed environment of a corridor;

• traffic carrying function- whist volume are not intended to define the category into

which the roadway falls, this criterion may provide some guidance as to the

maximum hourly traffic volume range anticipated;

• public transport service quality- the availability and cost of public transport offered

in a corridor-

iii) Frictional criteria: These are the characteristics that relate to the way the roadside activity

effects traffic use and traffic type.

• access function –frequency of access condition to and from the corridor


Page 399

iv) Impact criteria: These are the characteristics to define the relationship between a roadway

element and amenity to adjacent land use, crucial in subsequent choice making for modal

priority at that roadway element level. The sub-criteria under this broad criterion include,

• abutting land use – the type of land use and its relationship to operating traffic

character of a corridor;

• traffic sensitivity (with reference to land use)- Type and degree of tolerance

compatibility of a land use to the operating condition of the adjacent corridor,

with reference to air pollution and noise pollution.

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