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Title:Anarchy

Author:ErricoMalatesta

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Language:English

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ANARCHYBY

ErricoMalatesta

PublishedbytheFreeSocietyLibraryin1900

ANARCHY.

ANARCHY is a word which comes from the Greek, and signifies, strictly speaking,without government: the state of a people without any constituted authority, that is,withoutgovernment.

Beforesuchanorganizationhadbeguntobeconsideredpossibleanddesirablebyawholeclassofthinkers,soastobetakenastheaimofaparty(whichpartyhasnowbecomeoneof the most important factors in modern social warfare), the word Anarchy was takenuniversallyinthesenseofdisorderandconfusion;anditisstilladoptedinthatsensebytheignorantandbyadversariesinterestedindistortingthetruth.

We shall not enter into philological discussions; for the question is not philological buthistorical.Thecommonmeaningoftheworddoesnotmisconceiveitstrueetymologicalsignification, but is derived from thismeaning, owing to the prejudice that governmentmust be a necessity of the organization of social life; and that consequently a societywithout governmentmust be given up to disorder, and oscillate between the unbridleddominionofsomeandtheblindvengeanceofothers.

The existence of this prejudice, and its influence on themeaningwhich the public hasgiventheword,iseasilyexplained.

Man, like all livingbeings, adapts andhabituateshimself to the conditions inwhichhelives,andtransmitsbyinheritancehisacquiredhabits.Thusbeingbornandhavinglivedinbondage,beingthedescendantofalonglineofslaves,man,whenhebegantothink,believed that slavery was an essential condition of life; and liberty seemed to him animpossiblething.Inlikemanner,theworkman,forcedforcenturies,andthushabituated,todependuponthegoodwillofhisemployerforwork,thatis,forbread,andaccustomedtoseehisownlifeatthedisposalofthosewhopossessthelandandthecapital,hasendedinbelieving that it ishismasterwhogiveshimtoeat,anddemands ingenuouslyhowitwouldbepossibletolive,iftherewerenomasteroverhim?

Inthesameway,amanwhohadhadhislimbsboundfromhisbirth,buthadneverthelessfoundouthowtohobbleabout,mightattributetotheveryhandsthatboundhimhisabilitytomove,while,onthecontrary, theywouldbediminishingandparalyzingthemuscularenergyofhislimbs.

If,then,weaddtothenaturaleffectofhabittheeducationgivenhimbyhismasters,theparson, teacher, etc., who are all interested in teaching that the employer and thegovernmentarenecessary;ifalsoweaddthejudgeandthebailifftoforcethosewhothinkdifferently—and might try to propagate their opinions —to keep silence, we shallunderstandhowtheprejudiceas to theutilityandnecessityofmastersandgovernmentshas become established. Suppose a doctor brings forward a complete theory, with athousandablyinventedillustrations,topersuadethatmanwiththeboundlimbwhomweweredescribing,that,ifhislimbwerefreed,hecouldnotwalk,couldnotevenlive.Themanwoulddefendhisbandsfuriously,andconsideranyonehisenemywhotriedtotearthemoff.

Thus,sinceitisbelievedthatgovernmentisnecessary,andthatwithoutgovernmenttheremustbedisorderandconfusion, it isnaturalandlogical tosupposethatAnarchy,whichsignifieswithoutgovernment,mustalsomeanabsenceoforder.

Nor is this factwithout parallel in the history ofwords. In those epochs and countrieswherepeoplehaveconsideredgovernmentbyoneman (monarchy)necessary, thewordrepublic(thatis,thegovernmentofmany)hasbeenusedpreciselylikeAnarchy,toimplydisorderandconfusion.Tracesofthissignificationofthewordarestilltobefoundinthepopularlanguageofalmostallcountries.

Whenthisopinionischanged,andthepublicconvincedthatgovernmentisnotnecessary,but extremely harmful, the word Anarchy, precisely because it signifies withoutgovernment,willbecomeequaltosayingnaturalorder,harmonyoftheneedsandinterestsofall,completelibertywithcompletesolidarity.

Therefore, those are wrong who say that Anarchists have chosen their name badly,becauseitiserroneouslyunderstoodbythemassesandleadstoafalseinterpretation.Theerrordoesnotcomefromtheword,but fromthe thing.ThedifficultywhichAnarchistsmeet with in spreading their views does not depend upon the name they have giventhemselves,butuponthefactthattheirconceptionsstrikeatalltheinveterateprejudicesthatpeoplehaveaboutthefunctionofgovernment,ortheState,asitiscalled.

Beforeproceedingfurther,itwillbewelltoexplainthislastword(theState)which,inouropinion,istherealcauseofmuchmisunderstanding.

Anarchists,andweamongthem,havemadeuse,andstillgenerallymakeuseofthewordState, meaning thereby that collection of institutions, political, legislative, judicial,military, financial, etc., by means of which the management of their own affairs, theguidance of their personal conduct and the care of ensuring their own safety are takenfromthepeopleandconfidedtocertainindividuals.Andthese,whetherbyusurpationordelegation,areinvestedwiththerighttomakelawsoverandforall,andtoconstrainthepublictorespectthem,makinguseofthecollectiveforceofthecommunitytothisend.

In this case the word State means government, or, if you like, it is the impersonalexpression, abstracted from the state of things, of which the government is thepersonification. Then such expressions as abolition of the State, or society without theState, agree perfectly with the conception which Anarchists wish to express of thedestruction of every political institution based on authority, and of the constitution of afreeandequalsociety,baseduponharmonyofinterests,andthevoluntarycontributionofalltothesatisfactionofsocialneeds.

However,thewordStatehasmanyothersignifications,andamongthesesomewhichlendthemselves to misconstruction, particularly when used among men whose sad socialpositionhasnotaffordedthemleisuretobecomeaccustomedtothedelicatedistinctionsofscientific language, or, stillworse,when adopted treacherously by adversaries,who areinterestedinconfoundingthesense,ordonotwishtocomprehend.ThusthewordStateisoftenusedtoindicateanygivensociety,orcollectionofhumanbeings,unitedonagiventerritoryandconstitutingwhatiscalledasocialunit, independentlyofthewayinwhichthemembersofthesaidbodyaregrouped,oroftherelationsexistingbetweenthem.Stateisusedalsosimplyasasynonymforsociety.Owingtothesesignificationsoftheword,

ouradversariesbelieve,orratherprofesstobelieve,thatAnarchistswishtoabolisheverysocialrelationandallcollectivework,andtoreducemantoaconditionofisolation,thatis,toastateworsethansavagery.

ByStateagainismeantonlythesupremeadministrationofacountry,thecentralpower,distinct fromprovincial or communal power; and therefore others think thatAnarchistswishmerelyfora territorialdecentralization, leaving theprincipleofgovernment intact,andthusconfoundingAnarchywithcantonalorcommunalgovernment.

Finally,statesignifiescondition,modeofliving,theorderofsociallife,etc.,andthereforewe say, for example, that it is necessary to change the economic state of the workingclasses,orthattheAnarchicalstateistheonlystatefoundedontheprinciplesofsolidarity,andothersimilarphrases.SothatifwesayalsoinanothersensethatwewishtoabolishtheState,wemayatonceappearabsurdorcontradictory.

Forthesereasons,webelieveitwouldbebettertousetheexpressionabolitionoftheStateaslittleaspossible,andtosubstituteforitanotherclearerandmoreconcrete—abolitionofgovernment.

Inanycase,thelatterwillbetheexpressionusedinthecourseofthislittlework.

We have said that Anarchy is society without government. But is the suppression ofgovernmentpossible,desirable,orwise?Letussee.

What is thegovernment?There isadiseaseof thehumanmindcalled themetaphysicaltendency, causingman, after he has by a logical process abstracted the quality fromanobject, tobesubjecttoakindofhallucinationwhichmakeshimtaketheabstractionforthereal thing.Thismetaphysical tendency, inspiteof theblowsofpositivescience,hasstillstrongrootinthemindsofthemajorityofourcontemporaryfellowmen.Ithassuchaninfluencethatmanyconsidergovernmentanactualentity,withcertaingivenattributesofreason,justice,equity,independentlyofthepeoplewhocomposethegovernment.

Forthosewhothinkinthisway,government,ortheState,istheabstractsocialpower,anditrepresents,alwaysintheabstract,thegeneralinterest.Itistheexpressionoftherightofall,andconsideredaslimitedbytherightsofeach.Thiswayofunderstandinggovernmentis supported by those interested, towhom it is an urgent necessity that the principle ofauthority should bemaintained, and should always survive the faults and errors of thepersonswhosucceedtotheexerciseofpower.

For us, the government is the aggregate of the governors; and the governors—kings,presidents, ministers, members of parliament, and what not—are those who have thepower tomake laws, to regulate the relations betweenmen, and to force obedience totheselaws.Theyarethosewhodecideuponandclaimthetaxes,enforcemilitaryservice,judge and punish transgressions of the laws. They subject men to regulations, andsuperviseandsanctionprivatecontracts.Theymonopolizecertainbranchesofproductionandpublicservices,or, if theywish,allproductionandpublicservice.Theypromoteorhinder the exchange of goods. Theymakewar or peacewith the governments of othercountries. They concede or withhold free trade and many things else. In short, thegovernorsare thosewhohave thepower, inagreateror lessdegree, tomakeuseof thecollectiveforceofsociety,thatis,ofthephysical,intellectual,andeconomicforceofall,

toobligeeachtodothesaidgovernor’swish.Andthispowerconstitutes,inouropinion,theveryprincipleofgovernment,theprincipleofauthority.

Butwhatreasonistherefortheexistenceofgovernment?

Whyabdicateone’sownliberty,one’sowninitiative infavorofother individuals?Whygivethemthepowertobethemasters,withorcontrarytothewishofeach,todisposeoftheforcesofallintheirownway?Arethegovernorssuchveryexceptionallygiftedmenas to enable them, with some show of reason, to represent the masses, and act in theinterestofallmenbetter thanallmenwouldbeable todo for themselves?Are theysoinfallibleandincorruptiblethatonecanconfidetothem,withanysemblanceofprudence,thefateofeachandall,trustingtotheirknowledgeandtheirgoodness?

And even if there existedmen of infinite goodness and knowledge, even ifwe assumewhathasneverbeenverified inhistory, andwhatwebelieve itwouldbe impossible toverify, namely, that the governmentmight devolve upon the ablest and best,would thepossessionof governmental power add anything to their beneficent influence?Would itnot rather paralyze or destroy it? For those who govern find it necessary to occupythemselveswiththingswhichtheydonotunderstand,and,aboveall,towastethegreaterpart of their energy in keeping themselves in power, striving to satisfy their friends,holdingthediscontentedincheck,andmasteringtherebellious.

Again,bethegovernorsgoodorbad,wiseorignorant,whoisitthatappointsthemtotheiroffice?Dotheyimposethemselvesbyrightofwar,conquest,orrevolution?Then,whatguaranteeshavethepublicthattheirrulershavethegeneralgoodatheart?Inthiscaseitissimply a question of usurpation; and if the subjects are discontented, nothing is left tothembut to throwoff theyoke,byanappeal toarms.Are thegovernorschosenfromacertain class or party? Then certainly the ideas and interests of that class or partywilltriumph,andthewishesandinterestsoftheotherswillbesacrificed.Aretheyelectedbyuniversal suffrage? Now numbers are the sole criterion; and numbers are certainly noproofof reason, justiceor capacity.Underuniversal suffrage, theelectedare thosewhoknowbesthowtotakeinthemasses.Theminority,whichmayhappentobehalfminusone, is sacrificed. And that without considering that there is another thing to take intoaccount.

Experiencehasshownitisimpossibletohituponanelectoralsystemwhichreallyensureselectionbytheactualmajority.

Manyandvariousare the theoriesbywhichmenhavesought to justify theexistenceofgovernment.All, however, are founded, confessedly or not, on the assumption that theindividuals of a society have contrary interests, and that an external superior power isnecessarytoobligesometorespecttheinterestsofothers,byprescribingandimposingaruleofconduct,accordingtowhichtheinterestsatstrifemaybeharmonizedasmuchaspossible, and according to which each obtains the maximum of satisfaction with theminimum of sacrifice. If, say the theorists of the authoritarian school, the interests,tendencies,anddesiresofanindividualareinoppositiontothoseofanotherindividual,ormayhapallsociety,whowillhavetherightandthepowertoobligetheonetorespecttheinterestsoftheothers?Whowillbeabletopreventtheindividualcitizenfromoffendingthegeneralwill?Thelibertyofeach,saythey,hasfor its limit the libertyofothers;but

whowill establish those limits, andwhowill cause them to be respected? The naturalantagonismof interests and passions creates the necessity for government, and justifiesauthority.Authorityintervenesasmoderatorofthesocialstrife,anddefinesthelimitsoftherightsanddutiesofeach.

Thisisthetheory;butthetheory,tobesound,oughttobebaseduponfacts,andtoexplainthem.We knowwell how in social economy theories are too often invented to justifyfacts,thatis,todefendprivilegeandcauseittobeacceptedtranquillybythosewhoareitsvictims.Letusherelookatthefactsthemselves.

Inallthecourseofhistory,asatthepresentepoch,governmentiseitherthebrutal,violent,arbitrarydominationof thefewover themany,or it isan instrumentordained tosecuredominationandprivilegetothosewho,byforce,orcunning,orinheritance,havetakentothemselves all themeansof life, and first and foremost the soil,whereby theyhold thepeopleinservitude,makingthemworkfortheiradvantage.

Governmentsoppressmankindintwoways,eitherdirectly,bybruteforce,thatisphysicalviolence,or indirectly,bydeprivingthemofthemeansofsubsistenceandthusreducingthemtohelplessnessatdiscretion.Politicalpoweroriginatedinthefirstmethod;economicprivilege arose from the second. Governments can also oppress man by acting on hisemotionalnature,andinthiswayconstitutereligiousauthority.Butthereisnoreasonforthepropagationofreligioussuperstitionsexceptthattheydefendandconsolidatepoliticalandeconomicprivileges.

In primitive society, when the world was not so densely populated as now, and socialrelationswerelesscomplicated,whenanycircumstancepreventedtheformationofhabitsandcustomsof solidarity,ordestroyed thosewhichalreadyexisted, andestablished thedomination of man over man, the two powers, the political and the economical, wereunited in thesamehands—andoftenalso in thoseofonesingle individual.Thosewhohadby force conquered and impoverished the others, constrained them to become theirservants,andperformall thingsfor themaccording to theircaprice.Thevictorswereatonceproprietors,legislators,kings,judges,andexecutioners.

Butwith the increaseofpopulation,with thegrowthofneeds,with thecomplicationofsocialrelationships,theprolongedcontinuanceofsuchdespotismbecameimpossible.Fortheirownsecurity,therulers,oftenmuchagainsttheirwill,wereobligedtodependuponaprivileged class, that is, a certain number of co-interested individuals, and were alsoobligedtoleteachoftheseindividualsprovideforhisownsustenance.Neverthelesstheyreservedtothemselvesthesupremeorultimatecontrol.Inotherwords,therulersreservedto themselves the right to exploit all at their own convenience, and so to satisfy theirkinglyvanity.Thusprivatewealthwasdevelopedundertheshadowoftherulingpower,for its protection and—often unconsciously—as its accomplice. Thus the class ofproprietorsrose.Andthey,concentratinglittlebylittlethemeansofwealthintheirownhands,all themeansofproduction, theveryfountainsof life—agriculture, industry,andexchange—endedbybecomingapowerinthemselves.Thispower,bythesuperiorityofitsmeansofaction,andthegreatmassofinterestsitembraces,alwaysendsbymoreorless openly subjugating the political power, that is, the government,which itmakes itspoliceman.

Thisphenomenonhasbeen reproducedoften inhistory.Every time that,by invasionoranymilitaryenterprisewhatever,physicalbruteforcehastakentheupperhandinsociety,theconquerorshaveshownthetendencytoconcentrategovernmentandpropertyintheirownhands.Ineverycase,however,asthegovernmentcannotattendtotheproductionofwealth, and overlook and direct everything, it finds it needful to conciliate a powerfulclass,andprivatepropertyisagainestablished.Withitcomesthedivisionofthetwosortsofpower, thatof thepersonswhocontrol thecollectiveforceofsociety,and thatof theproprietors, upon whom these governors become essentially independent, because theproprietorscommandthesourcesofthesaidcollectiveforce.

But never has this state of things been so accentuated as in modern times. Thedevelopmentofproduction,theimmenseextensionofcommerce,theextensivepowerthatmoneyhasacquired,andalltheeconomicresultsflowingfromthediscoveryofAmerica,theinventionofmachinery,etc.,havesecuredsuchsupremacytothecapitalistclassthatitisnolongercontenttotrusttothesupportofthegovernment,andhascometowishthatthegovernmentshallemanatefromitself;agovernmentcomposedofmembersofitsownclass,continuallyunderitscontrolandespeciallyorganizedtodefenditsclassagainstthepossiblerevengeofthedisinherited.Hencetheoriginofthemodernparliamentarysystem.

Today the government is composed of proprietors, or people of their class so entirelyundertheirinfluencethattherichestofthemdonotfinditnecessarytotakeanactivepartinitthemselves.Rothschild,forinstance,doesnotneedtobeeitherM.P.orminister,itisenoughforhimtokeepM.P.‘sandministersdependentuponhimself.

Inmanycountries, theproletariatparticipatesnominally,moreor less, in theelectionofthegovernment.This is aconcessionwhich thebourgeois (i.e., proprietory) classhavemade, either to avail themselves of popular support in the strife against royal oraristocraticpower,ortodiverttheattentionofthepeoplefromtheirownemancipationbygiving them an apparent share in political power. However, whether the bourgeoisieforesawitornot,whenfirsttheyconcededtothepeopletherighttovote,thefactisthatthe right has proved in reality amockery, serving only to consolidate the power of thebourgeois,whilegivingtothemostenergeticonlyof theproletariat theillusoryhopeofarrivingatpower.

So alsowith universal suffrage—wemight say, especiallywith universal suffrage—thegovernmenthasremainedtheservantandpoliceofthebourgeoisclass.Howcoulditbeotherwise? If thegovernmentshould reach thepointofbecominghostile, if thehopeofdemocracy should ever be more than a delusion deceiving the people, the proprietoryclass, menaced in its interests, would at once rebel, and would use all the force andinfluence which come from the possession of wealth, to reduce the government to thesimplefunctionofactingaspoliceman.

In all times and in all places, whatever may be the name that the government takes,whatever has been its origin, or its organization, its essential function is always that ofoppressingandexploitingthemasses,andofdefendingtheoppressorsandexploiters.Itsprincipalcharacteristicandindispensableinstrumentsarethebailiffandthetaxcollector,the soldierand theprison.And to thesearenecessarilyadded the time-servingpriestorteacher, as the casemay be, supported and protected by the government, to render thespiritofthepeopleservileandmakethemdocileundertheyoke.

Certainly, in addition to this primary business, to this essential department ofgovernmentalactionotherdepartmentshavebeenadded in thecourseof time.Weevenadmitthatnever,orhardlyever,hasagovernmentbeenabletoexistinacountrythatwasatallcivilizedwithoutaddingtoitsoppressingandexploitingfunctionsothersusefulandindispensabletosociallife.Butthisfactmakesitnonethelesstruethatgovernmentisinitsnatureoppressiveandameansofexploitation,andthatitsoriginandpositiondoomittobethedefenceandhot-bedofadominantclass,thusconfirmingandincreasingtheevilsofdomination.

The government assumes the business of protecting,more or less vigilantly, the life ofcitizensagainstdirectandbrutalattacks;acknowledgesandlegalizesacertainnumberofrightsandprimitiveusagesandcustoms,withoutwhichitisimpossibletoliveinsociety.Itorganizesanddirectscertainpublicservices,asthepost,preservationandconstructionofroads,careofthepublichealth,benevolentinstitutions,workhousesandsuchlike;andit pleases it to pose as the protector and benefactor of the poor and weak. But it issufficienttonoticehowandwhyitfulfilsthesefunctionstoproveourpoint.Thefactisthat everything the government undertakes it is always inspired with the spirit ofdomination,andordainedtodefend,enlarge,andperpetuatetheprivilegesofproperty,andthoseclassesofwhichgovernmentistherepresentativeanddefender.

Agovernmentcannotruleforanylengthoftimewithouthidingitstruenaturebehindthepretenceofgeneralutility.Itcannotrespect the livesof theprivilegedwithoutassumingtheairofwishingtorespectthelivesofall.Itcannotcausetheprivilegesofsometobetoleratedwithoutappearingasthecustodianoftherightsofeverybody.“Thelaw”(and,ofcourse, those that have made the law, that is, the government) “has utilized,” saysKropotkin,“thesocialsentimentsofman,working into themthosepreceptsofmorality,which man has accepted, together with arrangements useful to the minority—theexploiters—andopposedtotheinterestsofthosewhomighthaverebelled,haditnotbeenforthisshowofamoralground.”

Agovernmentcannotwishthedestructionofthecommunity,forthenitandthedominantclasscouldnotclaimtheirexploitation-gainedwealth;norcouldthegovernmentleavethecommunitytomanageitsownaffairs;forthenthepeoplewouldsoondiscoverthatit(thegovernment) was necessary for no other end than to defend the proprietory class whoimpoverishthem,andwouldhastentoridthemselvesofbothgovernmentandproprietoryclass.

Todayinthefaceofthepersistentandmenacingdemandsoftheproletariat,governmentsshowa tendency to interfere in the relationsbetweenemployersandworkpeople.Thustheytrytoarrestthelabormovement,andtoimpedewithdelusivereformstheattemptsofthepoor to take to themselves thatwhich is due to them,namely an equal shareof thegoodthingsoflifewhichothersenjoy.

Wemustalsorememberthatontheonehandthebourgeois,thatis,theproprietoryclass,makewaramongthemselves,anddestroyoneanothercontinually,andontheotherhandthatthegovernment,althoughcomposedofthebourgeoisand,actingastheirservantandprotector,isstill,likeeveryotherservantorprotector,continuallystrivingtoemancipateitself and to domineer over its charge. Thus this see-saw game, this swaying betweenconcedingandwithdrawing,thisseekingalliesamongthepeopleagainsttheclasses,and

amongtheclassesagainstthemasses,formsthescienceofthegovernors,andblindstheingenuous and phlegmatic, who are always expecting that salvation is coming to themfromonhigh.

Withallthis,thegovernmentdoesnotchangeitsnature.Ifitactsasregulatororguarantoroftherightsanddutiesofeach,itpervertsthesentimentofjustice.Itjustifieswrongandpunishes every act which offends or menaces the privileges of the governors andproprietors.Itdeclaresjust,legal,themostatrociousexploitationofthemiserable,whichmeansaslowandcontinuousmaterialandmoralmurder,perpetratedbythosewhohaveonthosewhohavenot.Again,ifitadministratespublicservices,italwaysconsiderstheinterests of the governors and proprietors, not occupying itselfwith the interests of theworkingmasses,exceptinsofarasisnecessarytomakethemasseswillingtoenduretheirshareof taxation. If it instructs, it fettersandcurtails the truth,and tends toprepare themind and heart of the young to become either implacable tyrants or docile slaves,according to theclass towhich theybelong. In thehandsof thegovernmenteverythingbecomesameansofexploitation,everythingservesasapolicemeasure,usefultoholdthepeopleincheck.Anditmustbethus.Ifthelifeofmankindconsistsinstrifebetweenmanandman,naturallytheremustbeconquerorsandconquered;andthegovernment,whichistheprizeofthestrife,orisameansofsecuringtothevictorstheresultsoftheirvictory,andperpetuatingthoseresults,willcertainlyneverfalltothosewhohavelost,whetherthebattlebeonthegroundsofphysicalorintellectualstrength,orinthefieldofeconomics.Andthosewhohavefoughttoconquer,thatis,tosecuretothemselvesbetterconditionsthanotherscanhave,toconquerprivilegeandadddominiontopower,andhaveattainedthevictory,willcertainlynotuse it todefend the rightsof thevanquished,and toplacelimitstotheirownpowerandtothatoftheirfriendsandpartizans.

Thegovernment—ortheState,ifyouwill—asjudge,moderatorofsocialstrife,impartialadministratorofthepublicinterests,isalie.Itisanillusion,aUtopia,neverrealizedandneverrealizable.Ifintruth,theinterestsofmenmustalwaysbecontrarytooneanother;ifindeed, the strife betweenmankindhasmade lawsnecessary to human society, and thelibertyoftheindividualmustbelimitedbythelibertyofotherindividuals;theneachonewouldalwaysseektomakehisintereststriumphoverthoseofothers.Eachwouldstrivetoenlargehisownlibertyatthecostofthelibertyofothers,andtherewouldbegovernment.Notsimplybecauseitwasmoreorlessusefultothetotalityofthemembersofsocietytohaveagovernment,butbecause theconquerorswouldwish to secure to themselves thefruits of victory. They would wish effectually to subject the vanquished, and relievethemselvesofthetroubleofbeingalwaysonthedefensive,andtheywouldappointmen,speciallyadaptedtothebusiness,toactaspolice.Werethisindeedactuallythecase,thenhumanitywouldbedestined toperishamidstperiodicalcontestsbetween the tyrannyofthedominatorsandtherebellionoftheconquered.

Butfortunatelythefutureofhumanityisahappierone,becausethelawwhichgovernsitismilder.

Thislawisthelawofsolidarity.

I.

Manhastwonecessaryfundamentalcharacteristics, theinstinctofhisownpreservation,withoutwhich no being could exist, and the instinct of the preservation of his species,without which no species could have been formed or have continued to exist. He isnaturally driven to defend his own existence and well-being and that of his offspringagainsteverydanger.

In nature, living beings find two ways of securing their existence, and rendering itpleasanter.Theoneisinindividualstrifewiththeelements,andwithotherindividualsofthesameordifferentspecies; theother ismutualsupport,orco-operation,whichmightalso be described as association for strife against all natural factors, destructive toexistence,ortothedevelopmentandwell-beingoftheassociated.

We do not need to investigate in these pages—andwe cannot for lack of space—whatrespectiveproportionsintheevolutionoftheorganicworldthesetwoprinciplesofstrifeandco-operationtake.

It will suffice to note how co-operation amongmen (whether forced or voluntary) hasbecomethesolemeansofprogress,ofimprovementorofsecuringsafety;andhowstrife—relicofanearlierstageofexistence—hasbecomethoroughlyunsuitableasameansofsecuring the well-being of individuals, and produces instead injury to all, both theconquerorsandtheconquered.

Theaccumulatedandtransmittedexperienceofsuccessivegenerationshastaughtmanthatbyunitingwithothermenhispreservationisbettersecuredandhiswell-beingincreased.Thus out of this same strife for existence, carried on against surrounding nature, andagainst individuals of their own species, the social instinct has been developed amongmen, and has completely transformed the conditions of their life.Through co-operationmanhasbeenenabledtoevolveoutofanimalism,hasrisentogreatpower,andelevatedhimself to such a degree above the other animals, thatmetaphysical philosophers havebelieveditnecessarytoinventforhimanimmaterialandimmortalsoul.

Many concurrent causes have contributed to the formation of this social instinct, thatstartingfromtheanimalbasisoftheinstinctforthepreservationofthespecies,hasnowbecomesoextendedandsointensethatitconstitutestheessentialelementofman’smoralnature.

Man, however he evolved from inferior animal types, was a physically weak being,unarmedforthefightagainstcarnivorousbeasts.Buthewaspossessedofabraincapableofgreatdevelopment,andavocalorgan,able toexpress thevariouscerebralvibrations,bymeans of diverse sounds, and hands adapted to give the desired form tomatter.Hemusthaveverysoonfelttheneedandadvantagesofassociationwithhisfellows.Indeeditmayevenbesaidthathecouldonlyriseoutofanimalismwhenhebecamesocial,andhadacquiredtheuseoflanguage,whichisatthesametimeaconsequenceandapotentfactorofsociability.

The relatively scanty number of the human species rendered the strife for existencebetweenmanandman,evenbeyondthelimitsofassociation,lesssharp,lesscontinuous,and less necessary.At the same time, itmust have greatly favored the development ofsympatheticsentiments,andhavelefttimeforthediscoveryandappreciationoftheutilityofmutualsupport.Inshort,sociallifebecamethenecessaryconditionofman’sexistence,

inconsequenceofhiscapacitytomodifyhisexternalsurroundingsandadaptthemtohisownwants,by theexerciseofhisprimevalpower inco-operationwithagreateror lessnumberofassociates.Hisdesireshavemultipliedwiththemeansofsatisfyingthem,andhavebecomeneeds.Anddivisionoflaborhasarisenfromman’smethodicaluseofnaturefor his own advantage. Therefore, as now evolved, man could not live apart from hisfellows without falling back into a state of animalism. Through the refinement ofsensibility,withthemultiplicationofsocialrelationships,andthroughhabitimpressedonthespeciesbyhereditarytransmissionforthousandsofcenturies,thisneedofsociallife,thisinterchangeofthoughtandofaffectionbetweenmanandman,hasbecomeamodeofbeingnecessaryforourorganism.Ithasbeentransformedintosympathy,friendshipandlove,andsubsistsindependentlyofthematerialadvantagesthatassociationprocures.Somuchisthisthecase,thatmanwilloftenfacesufferingofeverykind,andevendeath,forthesatisfactionofthesesentiments.

The fact is that a totally different character has been given to the strife for existencebetweenmanandman,andbetweentheinferioranimals,bytheenormousadvantagesthatassociation gives to man; by the fact that his physical powers are altogetherdisproportionate to his intellectual superiority over the beasts, so long as he remainsisolated;byhispossibilityofassociatingwithanever increasingnumberof individuals,and entering into more and more intricate and complex relationships, until he reachesassociation with all humanity; and, finally, perhaps more than all, by his ability toproduce, working in co-operation with others, more than he needs to live upon. It isevident that these causes, togetherwith the sentiments of affection derived from them,mustgivequiteapeculiarcharactertothestruggleforexistenceamonghumanbeings.

Althoughit isnowknown—andtheresearchesofmodernnaturalistsbringuseverydaynew proofs—that co-operation has played, and still plays, amost important part in thedevelopment of the organic world, nevertheless, the difference between the humanstruggle for existence and that of the inferior animals is enormous. It is in factproportionatetothedistanceseparatingmanfromtheotheranimals.AndthisisnonethelesstruebecauseofthatDarwiniantheory,whichthebourgeoisclasshaveriddentodeath,littlesuspectingtheextenttowhichmutualco-operationhasassistedinthedevelopmentoftheloweranimals.

Theloweranimalsfighteitherindividually,or,moreoften,inlittlepermanentortransitorygroups,againstallnature,theotherindividualsoftheirownspeciesincluded.Someofthemore social animals, such as ants, bees, etc., associate together in the same anthill, orbeehive, but are at war with, or indifferent towards, other communities of their ownspecies.Human strifewith nature, on the contrary, tends always to broaden associationamong men, to unite their interests, and to develop each individual’s sentiments ofaffectiontowardsallothers,sothatunitedtheymayconqueranddominatethedangersofexternalnaturebyandforhumanity.

All strife directed towards obtaining advantages independently of other men, and inoppositiontothem,contradictsthesocialnatureofmodernman,andtendstoleaditbacktoamoreanimalcondition.

Solidarity,thatis,harmonyofinterestsandsentiments,thesharingofeachinthegoodofall,andofallinthegoodofeach,isthestateinwhichalonemancanbetruetohisown

nature,andattaintothehighestdevelopmentandhappiness.Itistheaimtowardswhichhumandevelopmenttends.Itistheonegreatprinciple,capableofreconcilingallpresentantagonismsinsociety,otherwiseirreconcilable.Itcausesthelibertyofeachtofindnotitslimits, but its complement, the necessary condition of its continual existence—in thelibertyofall.

“No man,” says Michael Bakunin, “can recognize his own human worth, nor inconsequencerealizehisfulldevelopment,ifhedoesnotrecognizetheworthofhisfellowmen,andinco-operationwiththem,realizehisowndevelopmentthroughthem.Nomancan emancipate himself, unless at the same timehe emancipates those aroundhim.Myfreedom is the freedomofall; for Iamnot really free—freenotonly in thought,but indeed—if my freedom and my right do not find their confirmation and sanction in thelibertyandrightofallmenmyequals.

“Itmattersmuchtomewhatallothermenare,forhoweverindependentImayseem,ormaybelievemyselftobe,byvirtueofmysocialposition,whetheraspope,czar,emperor,orprimeminister,Iamallthewhiletheproductofthosewhoaretheleastamongmen.Ifthese are ignorant, miserable, or enslaved, my existence is limited by their ignorance,misery,orslavery.I,thoughanintelligentandenlightenedman,ammadestupidbytheirstupidity; thoughbrave, am enslavedby their slavery; though rich, tremble before theirpoverty; thoughprivileged,growpaleat thethoughtofpossiblejusticefor them.I,whowishtobefree,cannotbeso,becausearoundmearemenwhodonotyetdesirefreedom,and,notdesiringit,become,asopposedtome,theinstrumentsofmyoppression.”

Solidarity,then,istheconditioninwhichmancanattainthehighestdegreeofsecurityandofwell-being.Therefore,egoism itself, that is, theexclusiveconsiderationof individualinterests,impelsmanandhumansocietytowardssolidarity.Orratheregoismandaltruism(considerationoftheinterestsofothers)areunitedinthisonesentiment,astheinterestoftheindividualisonewiththeinterestsofsociety.

However, man could not pass at once from animalism to humanity; from brutal strifebetweenmanandmantothecollectivestrifeofallmankind,unitedinonebrotherhoodofmutualaidagainstexternalnature.

Guidedbytheadvantagesthatassociationandtheconsequentdivisionoflaboroffer,manevolvedtowardssolidarity,buthisevolutionencounteredanobstaclewhichledhim,andstillleadshim,awayfromhisaim.Hediscoveredthathecouldrealizetheadvantagesofco-operation,at leastup toacertainpoint,andfor thematerialandprimitivewants thatthen comprised all his needs, by making other men subject to himself, instead ofassociatingonanequalitywiththem.Thustheferociousandanti-socialinstincts,inheritedfromhisbestialancestry,againobtainedtheupperhand.Heforcedtheweakertoworkforhim, preferring to domineer over rather than to associate fraternally with his fellows.Perhapsalsoinmostcasesitwasbyexploitingtheconqueredinwarthatmanlearntforthe first time the benefits of association and the help that can be obtained frommutualsupport.

Thusithascomeaboutthattheestablishmentoftheutilityofco-operation,whichoughttolead to the triumph of solidarity in all human concerns, has turned to the advantage ofprivatepropertyandofgovernment;inotherwords,totheexploitationofthelaborofthe

many,forthesakeoftheprivilegedfew.

Therehasalwaysbeenassociationandco-operation,withoutwhichhumanlifewouldbeimpossible;but ithasbeenco-operation imposedand regulatedby the few in theirownparticularinterest.

Fromthisfactarisesagreatcontradictionwithwhichthehistoryofmankindisfilled.Onthe one hand, we find the tendency to associate and fraternize for the purpose ofconqueringandadaptingtheexternalworldtohumanneeds,andforthesatisfactionofthehumanaffections;while, on theotherhandwe see the tendency todivide into asmanyseparate and hostile factions as there are different conditions of life.These factions aredetermined, for instance, bygeographical and ethnological conditions, bydifferences ineconomicposition,byprivilegesacquiredbysomeandsoughttobesecuredbyothers,orbysufferingendured,withtheeverrecurringdesiretorebel.

Theprincipleofeachforhimself,thatis,ofwarofallagainstall,hascomeinthecourseoftimetocomplicate,leadastray,andparalyzethewarofallcombinedagainstnature,forthecommonadvantageofthehumanrace,whichcouldonlybecompletelysuccessfulbyactingontheprincipleofallforeach,andeachforall.

Great have been the evils which humanity has suffered by this intermingling ofdomination and exploitation with human association. But in spite of the atrociousoppressiontowhichthemassessubmit,ofthemisery,vice,crime,anddegradationwhichoppressionandslaveryproduce,among the slavesand theirmasters, and in spiteof thehatreds, theexterminatingwars,and theantagonismsofartificiallycreated interests, thesocial instinct has survived and even developed. Co-operation, having been always thenecessaryconditionforsuccessfulcombatagainstexternalnature,hasthereforebeenthepermanentcauseofmen’scomingtogether,andconsequentlyofthedevelopmentoftheirsympatheticsentiments.Eventheoppressionofthemasseshasitselfcausedtheoppressedto fraternize among themselves. Indeed it has been solely owing to this feeling ofsolidarity,moreorlessconsciousandmoreorlesswidespreadamongtheoppressed,thattheyhavebeenabletoenduretheoppression,andthatmanhasresistedthecausesofdeathinhismidst.

Inthepresent,theimmensedevelopmentofproduction,thegrowthofhumanneedswhichcannotbesatisfiedexceptbytheunitedeffortsofalargenumberofmeninallcountries,the extended means of communication, habits of travel, science, literature, commerce,evenwaritself—allthesehavedrawnandarestilldrawinghumanityintoacompactbody,everysectionofwhich,closelyknit together,canfinditssatisfactionandlibertyonlyinthedevelopmentandhealthofallothersectionscomposingthewhole.

The inhabitant of Naples is as much interested in the amelioration of the hygienicconditionofthepeoplesonthebanksoftheGanges,fromwhencethecholeraisbroughttohim,asintheimprovementofthesewerageofhisowntown.Thewell-being,liberty,orfortuneofthemountaineer,lostamongtheprecipicesoftheAppenines,doesnotdependaloneonthestateofwell-beingorofmiseryinwhichtheinhabitantsofhisownvillagelive,orevenonthegeneralconditionoftheItalianpeople,butalsoontheconditionoftheworkers inAmerica,orAustralia,on thediscoveryofaSwedishscientist,on themoralandmaterialconditionsoftheChinese,onwarorpeaceinAfrica;inshort,itdependson

allthegreatandsmallcircumstanceswhichaffectthehumanbeinginanyspotwhateveroftheworld.

In thepresentconditionof society, thevast solidaritywhichunitesallmen is inagreatdegreeunconscious,sinceitarisesspontaneouslyfromthefrictionofparticularinterests,whilemenoccupythemselveslittleornotatallwithgeneralinterests.Andthisisthemostevidentproofthatsolidarityis thenatural lawofhumanlife,whichimposesitself,sotospeak,inspiteofallobstacles,andeventhoseartificiallycreatedbysocietyasatpresentconstituted.

Ontheotherhand,theoppressedmasses,neverwhollyresignedtooppressionandmisery,whotodaymorethanevershowthemselvesardentforjustice,liberty,andwell-being,arebeginning to understand that they cannot emancipate themselves except by uniting,through solidaritywith all theoppressedandexploitedover thewholeworld.And theyunderstandalsothattheindispensableconditionoftheiremancipationisthepossessionofthe means of production, of the soil and of the instruments of labor, and further theabolitionofprivateproperty.Scienceandtheobservationofsocialphenomenashowthatthisabolitionwouldbeofimmenseadvantageintheend,eventotheprivilegedclasses,ifonlytheycouldbringthemselvestorenouncethespiritofdomination,andconcurwithalltheirfellowmeninlaboringforthecommongood.

Now,shouldtheoppressedmassessomedayrefusetoworkfor theiroppressors,shouldtheytakepossessionofthesoilandtheinstrumentsoflabor,andapplythemfortheirownuse and advantage, and that of all who work, should they no longer submit to thedomination, either of brute force or economic privilege; should the spirit of humanfellowshipandthesentimentofhumansolidarity,strengthenedbycommoninterests,growamongthepeople,andputanendtostrifebetweennations;thenwhatgroundwouldtherebefortheexistenceofagovernment?

Privatepropertyabolished,government—whichisitsdefender—mustdisappear.Shoulditsurvive,itwouldcontinuallytendtoreconstruct,underoneformoranother,aprivilegedandoppressiveclass.

Andtheabolitionofgovernmentdoesnot,norcannot,signifythedoingawaywithhumanassociation.

Farotherwise,forthatco-operationwhichtodayisenforced,anddirectedtotheadvantageof the few, would be free and voluntary, directed to the advantage of all. Therefore itwouldbecomemoreintenseandefficacious.

The social instinct and the sentiment of solidaritywoulddevelop to thehighest degree;andevery individualwoulddo all inhispower for thegoodofothers, asmuch for thesatisfactionofhisownwellunderstoodinterestsasforthegratificationofhissympatheticsentiments.

Bythefreeassociationofall,asocialorganizationwouldarise throughthespontaneousgroupingofmenaccordingtotheirneedsandsympathies,fromthelowtothehigh,fromthesimpletothecomplex,startingfromthemoreimmediatetoarriveatthemoredistantand general interests. This organization would have for its aim the greatest good andfullest liberty to all; it would embrace all humanity in one common brotherhood, and

wouldbemodifiedandimprovedascircumstancesweremodifiedandchanged,accordingtotheteachingsofexperience.

Thissocietyoffreemen,thissocietyoffriendswouldbeAnarchy.

II.

Wehavehithertoconsideredgovernmentasitis,andasitnecessarilymustbeinasocietyfounded upon privilege, upon the exploitation and oppression of man by man, uponantagonismofinterestsandsocialstrife,inaword,uponprivateproperty.

Wehaveseenhowthisstateofstrife,farfrombeinganecessaryconditionofhumanlife,iscontrarytotheinterestsoftheindividualandofthespecies.Wehaveobservedhowco-operation, solidarity (of interest) is the lawof humanprogress, andwehave concludedthat,withtheabolitionofprivatepropertyandthecessationofalldominationofmanoverman, there, would be no reason for government to exist—therefore it ought to beabolished.

But,itmaybeobjected,iftheprincipleonwhichsocialorganizationisnowfoundedweretobechanged,andsolidaritysubstitutedforstrife,commonpropertyforprivateproperty,the government also would change its nature. Instead of being the protector andrepresentativeoftheinterestsofoneclass,itwouldbecome,iftherewerenolongeranyclasses,representativeofallsociety.Itsmissionwouldbetosecureandregulatesocialco-operation in the interests of all, and to fulfil public services of general utility. Itwoulddefendsocietyagainstpossibleattemptstore-establishprivilege,andpreventorrepressallattacks,bywhomsoeversetonfoot,againstthelife,well-being,orlibertyofeach.

There are in society certainmatters too important, requiring toomuch constant, regularattention,forthemtobelefttothevoluntarymanagementofindividuals,withoutdangerofeverythinggettingintodisorder.

If there were no government, who would organize the supply and distribution ofprovisions?Whoregulatematterspertainingtopublichygiene,thepostal,telegraph,andrailway services, etc.?Whowoulddirectpublic instruction?Whoundertake thosegreatworks of exploration, improvement on a large scale, scientific enterprise, etc., whichtransformthefaceoftheearthandaugmentahundredfoldthepowerofman?

Whowouldcareforthepreservationandincreaseofcapital,thatitmightbetransmittedtoposterity,enrichedandimproved?

Who would prevent the destruction of the forests, or the irrational exploitation, andthereforeimpoverishmentofthesoil?

Whowouldtherebetopreventandrepresscrimes,thatis,anti-socialacts?

Whatofthosewho,disregardingthelawofsolidarity,wouldnotwork?Orofthosewhomight spread infectious disease in a country, by refusing to submit to the regulation ofhygienebyscience?Orwhatagaincouldbedonewiththosewho,whetherinsaneorno,mightsetfiretotheharvest,injurechildren,orabuseandtakeadvantageoftheweak?

To destroy private property and abolish existing government, without reconstituting a

governmentthatwouldorganizecollectivelifeandsecuresocialsolidarity,wouldnotbeto abolish privilege, and bring peace and prosperity upon earth. Itwould be to destroy,everysocialbond,toleavehumanitytofallbackintobarbarism,tobeginagainthereignof “each for himself;” which would establish the triumph, firstly, of brute force, and,secondly,ofeconomicprivilege.

Such are the objections brought forward by authoritarians, even by those who areSocialists, that is,whowish to abolish private property, and class government foundeduponthesystemofprivateproperty.

Wereply:

In the firstplace, it isnot true thatwithachangeofsocialconditions, thenatureof thegovernment and its functionswould also change. Organs and functions are inseparableterms.Takefromanorganitsfunction,andeithertheorganwilldie,orthefunctionwillreinstateitself.Placeanarmyinacountrywherethereisnoreasonfororfearofforeignwar,andthisarmywillprovokewar,or,ifitdonotsucceedindoingthat,itwilldisband.A police force, where there are no crimes to discover, and delinquents to arrest, willprovokeorinventcrimes,orwillceasetoexist.

Forcenturies,thereexistedinFranceaninstitution,nowincludedintheadministrationoftheforests,fortheexterminationofthewolvesandothernoxiousbeasts.Noonewillbesurprisedtolearnthat,justonaccountofthisinstitution,wolvesstillexistinFrance,andthat,inrigorousseasons,theydogreatdamage.Thepublictakelittleheedofthewolves,because there are theappointedofficials,whoseduty it is to thinkabout them.And theofficialsdohuntthem,butinanintelligentmanner,sparingtheircaves,andallowingtimeforreproduction,thattheymaynotruntheriskofentirelydestroyingsuchaninterestingspecies.TheFrenchpeasantshaveindeedlittleconfidenceintheseofficialwolf-hunters,andregardthemratherasthewolf-preservers.And,ofcourse,whatwouldtheseofficialsdoiftherewerenolongeranywolvestoexterminate?

Agovernment,thatis,anumberofpersonsdeputedtomakethelaws,andentitledtousethe collective forces of society tomake every individual to respect these laws, alreadyconstitutesaclassprivilegedandseparatedfromtherestofthecommunity.Suchaclass,likeeveryelectedbody,willseekinstinctivelyto.enlargeitspowers;toplaceitselfabovethe control of the people; to impose its tendencies, and to make its own interestspredominate. Placed in a privileged position, the government always finds itself inantagonismtothemasses,ofwhoseforceitdisposes.

Furthermore,agovernment,withthebestintention,couldneversatisfyeverybody,evenifit succeeded in satisfyingsome. Itmust thereforealwaysbedefending itself against thediscontented, and for that reason must ally itself with the satisfied section of thecommunityfornecessarysupport.Andin thismannerwillariseagain theoldstoryofaprivilegedclass,whichcannothelpbutbedevelopedinconjunctionwiththegovernment.Thisclass,ifitcouldnotagainacquirepossessionofthesoil,wouldcertainlymonopolizethemostfavoredspots,andwouldnotbeintheendlessoppressive,orlessaninstrumentofexploitationthanthecapitalistclass.

The governors, accustomed to command, would never wish to mix with the common

crowd.Iftheycouldnotretainthepowerintheirownhands,theywouldatleastsecuretothemselvesprivilegedpositionsforthetimewhentheywouldbeoutofoffice.Theywoulduse all the means they have in their power to get their own friends elected as theirsuccessors,whowouldintheirturnbesupportedandprotectedbytheirpredecessors.Andthusthegovernmentwouldpassandrepassintothesamehands,andthedemocracy,thatis,thegovernmentpresumablyofthewholepeople,wouldend,asitalwayshasdone,inbecominganoligarchy,orthegovernmentofafew,thegovernmentofaclass.

Andthisall-powerful,oppressive,all-absorbingoligarchywouldhavealwaysinitscare,thatis,atitsdisposition,everybitofsocialcapital,allpublicservices,fromtheproductionand distribution of provisions to the manufacture of matches, from the control of theuniversitytothatofthemusichall.

But let us even suppose that the government did not necessarily constitute a privilegedclass,andcouldexistwithoutformingarounditselfanewprivilegedclass.Letusimaginethat it could remain truly representative, the servant—if youwill—of all society.Whatpurposewoulditthenserve?Inwhatparticularandinwhatmannerwoulditaugmentthepower, intelligence,spiritofsolidarity,careof thegeneralwelfare,presentandtocome,thatatanygivenmomentexistedinagivensociety?

It isalways theoldstoryof themanwithboundlimbs,who,havingmanaged to live inspite of his bands, believes that he lives bymeans of them.We are accustomed to liveunder agovernment,whichmakesuseof all that energy, that intelligence, and thatwillwhichitcandirecttoitsownends;butwhichhinders,paralyzesandsuppressesthosethatareuselessorhostiletoit.Andweimaginethatallthatisdoneinsocietyisdonebyvirtueof the government, and that without the government there would be neither energy,intelligence, nor goodwill in society. So it happens (aswe have already said) that theproprietorwhohaspossessedhimselfof thesoil,has itcultivatedforhisownparticularprofit,leavingthelaborerthebarestnecessitiesoflifeforwhichhecanandwillcontinueto labor.While theenslaved laborer thinks thathe couldnot livewithouthismaster, asthoughitwerehewhocreatedtheearthandtheforcesofnature.

What can government of itself add to the moral and material forces which exist in asociety?UnlessitbeliketheGodoftheBible,whocreatedtheuniverseoutofnothing?

Asnothingiscreatedintheso-calledmaterialworld,sointhismorecomplicatedformofthe material world, which is the social world, nothing can be created. And thereforegovernorscandisposeofnootherforcethanthatwhichisalreadyinsociety.Andindeednotbyanymeansofallofthat,asmuchforceisnecessarilyparalyzedanddestroyedbygovernmentalmethodsofaction,whilemoreagainiswastedinthefrictionwithrebelliouselements,inevitablygreatinsuchanartificialmechanism.Whenevergovernorsoriginateanythingof themselves, it is asmenandnot asgovernors, that theydo so.Andof thatamount of force, bothmaterial andmoral, which does remain at the disposition of thegovernment, only an infinitesimally small part achieves an end really useful to society.The remainder is either consumed in actively repressing rebellious opposition, or isotherwisedivertedfromtheaimofgeneralutility,andturnedtotheprofitofthefew,andtotheinjuryofthemajorityofmen.

So much has been made of the part that individual initiative and social action play

respectively in the life and progress of human society; and such is the confusion ofmetaphysical language, that thosewhoaffirm that individual initiative is the sourceandagencyofallactionseemtobeassertingsomethingquitepreposterous.Inreality, it isatruism,whichbecomesapparentdirectlywebegintoexplaintheactualfactsrepresentedbythesewords.

The real being is the man, the individual; society or the collectivity, and the State orgovernmentwhichprofessestorepresentit,ifnothollowabstractions,canbenothingelsethanaggregatesofindividuals.Andit iswithintheindividualorganismthatall thoughtsand all human action necessarily have their origin. Originally individual, they becomecollective thoughts and actions, when shared in common by many individuals. Socialaction,then,isnotthenegation,northecomplementofindividualinitiative,butitisthesumtotaloftheinitiatives,thoughtsandactionsofalltheindividualscomposingsociety:aresultwhich,other thingsequal, ismoreor lessgreataccordingas the individual forcestend toward the same aim, or are divergent and opposed. If, on the other hand, as theauthoritariansmakeout,bysocialactionismeantgovernmentalaction,thenitisagaintheresult of individual forces, but only of those individuals who either form part of thegovernment, or by virtue of their position are enabled to influence the conduct of thegovernment.

Thus,inthecontestofcenturiesbetweenlibertyandauthority,or,inotherwords,betweensocial equality and social castes, the question at issue has not really been the relationsbetweensocietyandtheindividual,northeincreaseofindividualindependenceatthecostofsocialcontrol,orviceversa.Ratherithashadtodowithpreventinganyoneindividualfromoppressingtheothers;withgivingtoeveryonethesamerightsandthesamemeansofaction.Ithashadtodowithsubstitutingtheinitiativeofall,whichmustnaturallyresultin the advantage of all, for the initiative of the few, which necessarily results in thesuppressionofall theothers. It isalways, inshort, thequestionofputtinganendto thedomination and exploitationofmanbyman in such away that all are interested in thecommonwelfare;andthattheindividualforceofeach,insteadofoppressing,combatingor suppressingothers,will find thepossibility of complete development, and everyonewillseektoassociatewithothersforthegreateradvantageofall.

Fromwhatwe have said, it follows that the existence of a government, even upon thehypothesis that the ideal government of authoritarian Socialistswere possible, far fromproducing an increase of productive force, would immensely diminish it; because thegovernmentwouldrestrictinitiativetothefew.Itwouldgivethesefewtherighttodoallthings,withoutbeingable,ofcourse,toendowthemwiththeknowledgeorunderstandingofallthings.

Infact,ifyoudivestlegislationandalltheoperationsofgovernmentofwhatisintendedtoprotect the privileged, and what represents the wishes of the privileged classes alone,nothingremainsbuttheaggregateofindividualgovernors.“TheState,”saysSismondi,“isalways a conservative power that authorizes, regulates and organizes the conquests ofprogress (andhistory testifies that it applies them to theprofit of its ownand theotherprivileged classes) but never does inaugurate them. New ideas always originate frombeneath, are conceived in the foundations of society, and then, when divulged, theybecome opinion and grow. But they must always meet on their path, and combat the

constitutedpowersoftradition,custom,privilegeanderror.”

In order to understandhow society could existwithout a government, it is sufficient toturnour attention for a short space towhat actually goeson in our present society.Weshallseethatinrealitythemostimportantsocialfunctionsarefulfilledevennow-a-daysoutsidetheinterventionofgovernment.Alsothatgovernmentonlyinterferestoexploitthemasses,ordefendtheprivilegedclass,or, lastly, tosanction,mostunnecessarily,all thathas been done without its aid, often in spite of and in opposition to it. Men work,exchange, study, travel, followas theychoose the current rulesofmorality, orhygiene;theyprofitby theprogressof scienceandart,havenumberlessmutual interestswithoutever feeling the need of anyone to direct themhow to conduct themselves in regard tothesematters.On thecontrary, it is just those things inwhich there isnogovernmentalinterference that prosper best, and that give rise to the least contention, beingunconsciouslyadaptedtothewishofallinthewayfoundmostusefulandagreeable.

Nor isgovernmentmorenecessary in thecaseof largeundertakings,or for thosepublicserviceswhich require the constant co-operationofmanypeopleof different conditionsand countries. Thousands of these undertakings are even now the work of voluntarilyformed associations. And these are, by the acknowledgment of every one, theundertakings which succeed the best. Nor do we refer to the association of capitalists,organizedbymeansofexploitation,althougheventheyshowcapabilitiesandpowersoffreeassociation,whichmayextendadlibitumuntilitembracesallthepeoplesofalllands,and includes the widest and most varying interests. But we speak rather of thoseassociations inspiredby the loveofhumanity,orby thepassion forknowledge,orevensimplyby thedesire foramusementand loveofapplause,as thesebetter representsuchgroupingaswillexistinasocietywhere,privatepropertyandinternalstrifebetweenmenbeingabolished,eachwill findhis interests synonymouswith the interestsofeveryoneelse, andhisgreatest satisfaction indoinggoodandpleasingothers.Scientific societiesandcongresses, international life-boatandRedCrossassociations,etc., laborers’unions,peacesocieties,volunteerswhohastentotherescueattimesofgreatpubliccalamityareallexamples,among thousands,of thatpowerof thespiritofassociation,whichalwaysshowsitselfwhenaneedarises,oranenthusiasmtakeshold,andthemeansdonotfail.Thatvoluntaryassociationsdonotcovertheworld,anddonotembraceeverybranchofmaterial and moral activity, is the fault of the obstacles placed in their way bygovernments,oftheantagonismscreatedbythepossessionofprivateproperty,andoftheimpotence anddegradation towhich themonopolizingofwealthon thepart of the fewreducesthemajorityofmankind.

Thegovernmenttakescharge,forinstance,ofthepostalandtelegraphicservices.Butinwhatwaydoesitreallyassistthem?Whenthepeopleareinsuchaconditionastobeabletoenjoy,andfeeltheneedofsuchservices,theywillthinkaboutorganizingthem;andtheman with the necessary technical knowledge will not require a certificate from thegovernmenttoenablehimtosettowork.Themoregeneralandurgenttheneed,themorevolunteerswilloffertosatisfyit.Wouldthepeoplehavetheabilitynecessarytoprovideand distribute provisions? Oh! never fear, they will not die of hunger, waiting for agovernmenttopasslawsonthesubject.Whereveragovernmentexists,itmustwaituntilthepeoplehave firstorganizedeverything,and thencomewith its laws to sanctionand

exploit thatwhich has been already done. It is evident that private interest is the greatmotiveforallactivity.Thatbeingso,whentheinterestofeveryonebecomestheinterestofeach(anditnecessarilywillbecomesoassoonasprivatepropertyisabolished)thenallwillbeactive.Andifnowtheyworkintheinterestofthefew,somuchthemoreandsomuchthebetterwilltheyworktosatisfytheinterestsofall.Itishardtounderstandhowanyonecanbelievethatpublicservicesindispensabletosocial lifecanbebettersecuredbyorderofagovernmentthanthroughtheworkersthemselves,whobytheirownchoiceor by agreement made with others, carry them out under the immediate control of allinterested.

Certainly in every collective undertaking on a large scale, there is need for division oflabor,fortechnicaldirection,administration,etc.Buttheauthoritariansaremerelyplayingwithwords,when theydeduce a reason for the existenceofgovernment, from theveryrealnecessityfororganizationoflabor.Thegovernment,wemustrepeat,istheaggregateoftheindividualswhohavehadgiventhem,orhavetakentherightorthemeanstomakelaws,andforcethepeopletoobeythem.Theadministrators,engineers,etc.,ontheotherhand,aremenwhoreceiveorassumethechargeofdoingacertainwork,andwhodoit.Government signifies delegation of power, that is, abdication of the initiative andsovereigntyofeveryoneintothehandsofthefew.Administrationsignifiesdelegationofwork,thatis,achargegivenandaccepted,thefreeexchangeofservicesfoundedonfreeagreement.

A governor is a privileged person, because he has the right to command others, and toavail himself of the force of others, to make his own ideas and desires triumph. Anadministratorortechnicaldirectorisaworkerlikeothers,inasociety,ofcourse,whereallhave equal opportunities of development, and all are, or can be, at the same timeintellectual andmanualworkers;when therearenootherdifferencesbetweenmen thanthosederivedfromdiversityoftalents,andallworkandallsocialfunctionsgiveanequalrighttotheenjoymentofsocialadvantages.Thefunctionsofgovernmentare,inshort,nottobeconfoundedwithadministrativefunctions,astheyareessentiallydifferent.Thattheyare today so often confused is entirely on account of the existence of economic andpoliticalprivilege.

But let us hasten to pass on to those functions for which government is thoughtindispensablebyallwhoarenotAnarchists.Thesearetheinternalandexternaldefenceofsociety,thatis,War,PoliceandJustice.

Government being abolished, and social wealth at the disposal of every one, allantagonismbetweenvariousnationswouldsooncease;andtherewouldconsequentlybenomorecauseforwar.Moreover,inthepresentstateoftheworld,inanycountrywherethespiritofrebellionisgrowing,evenifitdonotfindanechothroughouttheland,itwillbecertainofsomuchsympathythatthegovernmentwillnotdaretosendallitstroopstoaforeignwar,forfeartherevolutionshouldbreakoutathome.Butevensupposingthattherulers of countries not yet emancipatedwouldwish and could attempt to reduce a freepeople to servitude, would these require a government to enable them to defendthemselves? To make war, we need men who have the necessary geographical andtechnicalknowledge,and,aboveall,peoplewillingtofight.Agovernmenthasnomeansofaugmentingtheabilityoftheformer,orthewillingnessorcourageofthelatter.Andthe

experienceofhistoryteachesthatapeoplereallydesirousofdefendingtheirowncountryareinvincible.InItalyeveryoneknowshowthronestremble,andregulararmiesofhiredsoldiersvanishbeforetroopsofvolunteers,thatis,armiesAnarchicallyformed.

Andas to thepoliceandjustice,manyimaginethat if itwerenotfor thepoliceandthejudges,everybodywouldbe free tokill,violateor injureothersas thehumor tookhim;thatAnarchists, if theyaretruetotheirprinciples,wouldliketoseethisstrangekindofliberty respected; “liberty” that violates or destroys the life and freedom of othersunrestrained.Suchpeoplebelievethatwe,havingoverthrownthegovernmentandprivateproperty, shall then tranquilly allow the re-establishment of both, out of respect for the“liberty”ofthosewhomayfeeltheneedofhavingagovernmentandprivateproperty.Astrangemodeindeedofconstruingourideas!Intruth,onemaybetteranswersuchnotionswithashrugoftheshouldersthanbytakingthetroubletoconfutethem.

Thelibertywewishfor,forourselvesandothers,isnotanabsolute,abstract,metaphysicalliberty,whichinpracticecanonlyamounttotheoppressionoftheweak.Butwewishforatangibleliberty,thepossibleliberty,whichistheconsciouscommunionofinterests,thatis,voluntarysolidarity.Weproclaimthemaxim:Doasyouwill;andinthisourprogramisalmostentirelycontained,because,asmaybeeasilyunderstood,weholdthatinasocietywithoutgovernmentorproperty,eachonewillwishthatwhichheshould.

Butif,inconsequenceofafalseeducation,receivedinthepresentsociety,orofphysicaldisease,orwhateverothercause,anindividualshouldwishtoinjureothers,youmaybesureweshouldadoptallthemeansinourpowertopreventhim.Asweknowthataman’scharacter is the consequence of his physical organism, and of the cosmic and socialinfluences surrounding him, we certainly shall not confound the sacred right of self-defence, with the absurdly assumed right to punish. Also, we shall not regard thedelinquent,thatis,themanwhocommitsanti-socialacts,astherebelheseemsintheeyesof the judges nowadays. We shall regard him as a sick brother in need of cure. Wethereforeshallnotacttowardshiminthespiritofhatred,whenrepressinghim,butshallconfine ourselves solely to self-protection.We shall not seek to revenge ourselves, butrather to rescue the unfortunate one by every means that science suggests. In theory,Anarchists may go astray like others, losing sight of the reality under a semblance oflogic;but it isquitecertain that theemancipatedpeoplewillnot let theirdearlyboughtlibertyandwelfarebeattackedwithimpunity.Ifthenecessityarose,theywouldprovidefortheirowndefenceagainsttheanti-socialtendenciesofcertainamongstthem.Buthowdothosewhosebusinessitnowistomakethelaws,protectsociety?Orthoseotherswholivebyseekingforandinventingnewinfringementsoflaw?Evennow,whenthemassesofthepeoplereallydisapproveofanythingandthinkitinjurious,theyalwaysfindawaytopreventitverymuchmoreeffectuallythanalltheprofessionallegislators,constablesorjudges. During insurrections, the people, though very mistakenly, have enforced therespectforprivateproperty;andtheyhavesecuredthisrespectfarbetterthananarmyofpolicemencouldhavedone.

Customsalwaysfollowtheneedsandsentimentsofthemajority;andtheyarealwaysthemorerespected,thelesstheyaresubjecttothesanctionoflaw.Thisisbecauseeveryonesees and comprehends their utility, and because the interested parties, not deludingthemselveswiththeideathatgovernmentwillprotectthem,arethemselvesconcernedin

seeingthecustomrespected.TheeconomicaluseofwaterisofverygreatimportancetoacaravancrossingthedesertsofAfrica.Underthesecircumstances,waterisasacredthing;andnosanemandreamsofwastingit.Conspiratorsareobligedtoactsecretly;sosecrecyispreservedamongthem,andobloquyrestsonwhosoeverviolatesit.Gamblingdebtsarenotguaranteedbylaw;butamonggamblersitisconsidereddishonorablenottopaythem,andthedelinquentfeelshimselfdishonoredbynotfulfillinghisobligations.

Isitonaccountofthepolicethatmorepeoplearenotmurdered?ThegreaterpartoftheItalianpeopleneversee thepoliceexceptat long intervals.Millionsofmengoover themountainsand through thecountry, far from theprotectingeyeofauthority,where theymightbeattackedwithouttheslightestfearoftheirassailantsbeingtraced;buttheyrunnogreaterriskthanthosewholiveinthebestguardedspots.Statisticsshowthatthenumberofcrimesriseinproportiontotheincreaseofrepressivemeasures;whiletheyvaryrapidlywiththefluctuationsofeconomicconditionsandwiththestateofpublicopinion.

Preventivelaws,however,onlyconcernunusual,exceptionalacts.Every-daylifegoesonbeyondthelimitsofthecriminalcode,andisregulatedalmostunconsciouslybythetacitand voluntary assent of all, bymeans of a number of usages and customsmuchmoreimportanttosociallifethanthedictatesoflaw.Andtheyarealsomuchbetterobserved,althoughcompletelydivestedofanysanctionbeyondthenaturalodiumwhichfallsuponthosewhoviolatethem,andsuchinjuryasthisodiumbringswithit.

Whendisputesarise,wouldnotvoluntarilyacceptedarbitrationorthepressureofpublicopinionbefarmore likely tobringabouta justsettlementof thedifficulties inquestionthananirresponsiblemagistrate,whohastherighttopassjudgmentuponeverybodyandeverything,andwhoisnecessarilyincompetentandthereforeunjust?

Asevery formofgovernmentonlyserves toprotect theprivilegedclasses, sodopoliceand judges only aim at repressing those crimes, often not considered criminal by themasses,which offend only the privileges of the rulers or property-owners. For the realdefenceofsociety,thedefenceofthewelfareandlibertyofall,therecanbenothingmoreperniciousthantheformationofthisclassoffunctionaries,whoexistonthepretenceofdefendingall,andthereforehabituallyregardeverymanasgametobehunteddown,oftenstrikingatthecommandofasuperiorofficer,withoutthemselvesevenknowingwhy,likehiredassassinsandmercenaries.

All thatyouhavesaidmaybe true,saysome;Anarchymaybeaperfect formofsociallife;butwehavenodesiretotakealeapinthedark.Therefore,tellushowyoursocietywill be organized. Then follows a long string of questions, which would be veryinterestingifitwereourbusinesstostudytheproblemsthatmightariseinanemancipatedsociety,butofwhichitisuselessandabsurdtoimaginethatwecouldnowofferadefinitesolution. According to whatmethodwill children be taught? Howwill production anddistributionbeorganized?Willtherestillbelargecities,orwillpeoplespreadequallyoverallthesurfaceoftheearth?WillalltheinhabitantsofSiberiawinteratNice?Willeveryonedineonpartridgesanddrinkchampagne?Whowillbe theminersandsailors?Whowillclearthedrains?Willthesickbenursedathomeorinhospitals?Whowillarrangetherailwaytime-table?Whatwillhappeniftheengine-driverfallsillwhilethetrainisonitsway? And so on, without end, as though we could prophesy all the knowledge and

experienceofthefuturetime,orcould,inthenameofAnarchy,prescribeforthecomingmanwhattimeheshouldgotobed,andonwhatdaysheshouldcuthisnails!

Indeedifourreadersexpectfromusananswertothesequestions,oreventothoseamongthemreallyseriousand important,whichcannotbeanythingmore thanourownprivateopinion at this present hour,wemust have succeeded badly in our endeavor to explainwhatAnarchyis.

We are no more prophets than other men; and should we pretend to give an officialsolutiontoalltheproblemsthatwillariseinthelifeofthefuturesociety,weshouldhaveindeed a curious idea of the abolition of government.We should then be describing agovernment,dictating,liketheclergy,auniversalcodeforthepresentandallfuturetime.Seeing thatwehaveneither police nor prisons to enforce our doctrine, humanitymightlaughwithimpunityatusandourpretensions.

Nevertheless, we consider seriously all the problems of social life which now suggestthemselves, on account of their scientific interest, and because, hoping to seeAnarchyrealized,wewishtohelptowardstheorganizationofthenewsociety.Wehavethereforeourownideasonthesesubjects, ideaswhicharetoourmindslikelytobepermanentortransitory, according to the respective cases. And did space permit, we might addsomewhatmoreon thesepoints.But the fact thatwe today think in a certainwayonagivenquestionisnoproofthatsuchwillbethemodeofprocedureinthefuture.Whocanforeseetheactivitieswhichmaydevelopinhumanitywhenitisemancipatedfrommiseryandoppression?Whenallhavethemeansofinstructionandself-development?Whenthestrifebetweenmen,with thehatredandrancour itbreeds,willbeno longeranecessarycondition of existence? Who can foresee the progress of science, the new sources ofproduction,meansofcommunication,etc.?

Theoneessentialisthatasocietybeconstitutedinwhichtheexploitationanddominationofmanbymanareimpossible.Thatthesociety,inotherwords,besuchthatthemeansofexistenceanddevelopmentoflaborbefreeandopentoeveryone,andallbeabletoco-operate,accordingtotheirwishesandtheirknowledge,intheorganizationofsociallife.Undersuchconditions,everythingwillnecessarilybeperformedincompliancewith theneedsofall,accordingtotheknowledgeandpossibilitiesofthemoment.Andeverythingwillimprovewiththeincreaseofknowledgeandpower.

Infact,aprogramwhichwouldtouchthebasisofthenewsocialconstitutioncouldnotdomore, after all, than indicate a method. Andmethod, more than anything else, definespartiesanddeterminestheirimportanceinhistory.Methodapart,everyonesayshewishesfor the good of mankind; and many do truly wish for it. As parties disappear, everyorganizedactiondirectedtoadefiniteenddisappearslikewise.ItisthereforenecessarytoconsiderAnarchyas,aboveall,amethod.

Therearetwomethodsbywhichthedifferentparties,notAnarchistic,expect,orsaytheyexpect, to bring about the greatest good of each and all. These are the authoritarian orStateSocialistand the individualistmethods.The formerentrusts thedirectionofsociallifetoafew;anditwouldresultintheexploitationandoppressionofthemassesbythatfew.Thesecondpartytruststothefreeinitiativeofindividuals,andproclaims,ifnottheabolition, the reduction of government.However, as it respects private property, and isfoundedon theprincipleofeachforhimself,and thereforeoncompetition, its liberty isonly the libertyof the strong, the licenseof thosewhohave, tooppress andexploit theweakwhohavenothing.Farfromproducingharmony, itwouldtendalwaystoaugment

the distance between the rich and the poor, and end also through exploitation anddomination in authority. This second method, Individualism, is in theory a kind ofAnarchy without Socialism. It is therefore no better than a lie, because liberty is notpossible without equality, and true Anarchy cannot be without Solidarity, withoutSocialism.Thecriticismwhich Individualistspassongovernment ismerely thewish todepriveitofcertainfunctions,tovirtuallyhandthemovertothecapitalist.Butitcannotattack those repressive functionswhich form theessenceofgovernment; forwithoutanarmed force the proprietary system could not be upheld. Nay, even more, underIndividualism,therepressivepowerofgovernmentmustalwaysincrease,inproportiontotheincrease,bymeansoffreecompetition,ofthewantofequalityandharmony.

Anarchistspresentanewmethod;thefreeinitiativeofallandfreeagreement;then,aftertherevolutionaryabolitionofprivateproperty,everyonewillhaveequalpowertodisposeofsocialwealth.Thismethod,notadmittingthere-establishmentofprivateproperty,mustlead,bymeansoffreeassociation,tothecompletetriumphoftheprinciplesofsolidarity.

Thusweseethatall theproblemsputforwardtocombattheAnarchisticideaareonthecontraryargumentsinfavorofAnarchy;becauseitaloneindicatesthewayinwhich,byexperience,thosesolutionswhichcorrespondtothedictaofscience,andtotheneedsandwishesofall,canbestbefound.

Howwillchildrenbeeducated?Wedonotknow.Whatthen?Theparents,teachersandallwhoare interestedin theprogressof therisinggeneration,willmeet,discuss,agreeanddiffer, and then divide according to their various opinions, putting into practice themethods which they respectively hold to be best. That method which, when tried,producesthebestresults,willtriumphintheend.

Andsoforalltheproblemsthatmayarise.

According to what we have so far said, it is evident that Anarchy, as the Anarchistsconceive it, and as alone it can be comprehended, is based on Socialism. Furthermore,were it not for that school of Socialists who artificially divide the natural unity of thesocial question, considering only some detached points, and were it not also for theequivocationswithwhich theystrive tohinder thesocial revolution,wemight say rightawaythatAnarchyissynonymouswithSocialism.Becausebothsignifytheabolitionofexploitationandofthedominationofmanoverman,whethermaintainedbytheforceofarmsorbythemonopolizationofthemeansoflife.

Anarchy, like Socialism, has for its basis and necessary point of departure equality ofconditions. Its aim issolidarity, and itsmethod liberty. It isnotperfection,nor is it theabsoluteideal,which,likethehorizon,alwaysrecedesasweadvancetowardsit.Butitistheopenroadtoallprogressandtoallimprovement,madeintheinterestofallhumanity.

There are authoritarianswho grant thatAnarchy is themode of social lifewhich aloneopensthewaytotheattainmentofthehighestpossiblegoodformankind,becauseitalonecanputanend toeveryclass interested inkeeping themassesoppressedandmiserable.They also grant that Anarchy is possible, because it does nothing more than releasehumanity from an obstacle—government—against which it has always had to fight itspainful way towards progress. Nevertheless, these authoritarians, reinforced by many

warmloversof libertyandjustice in theory,retire into their lastentrenchments,becausetheyare afraidof liberty, andcannotbepersuaded thatmankindcould live andprosperwithoutteachersandpastors;still,hardpressedbythetruth,theypitifullydemandtohavethereignoflibertyputoffforawhile,indeedforaslongaspossible.

Suchisthesubstanceoftheargumentsthatmeetusatthisstage.

Asocietywithoutagovernment,whichwouldactbyfree,voluntaryco-operation,trustingentirelytothespontaneousactionofthoseinterested,andfoundedaltogetheronsolidarityandsympathy,iscertainly,theysay,averybeautifulideal,but,likeallideals,itisacastlein theair.We findourselvesplaced inahumansociety,whichhasalwaysbeendividedintooppressorsandoppressed;andiftheformerarefullofthespiritofdomination,andhaveallthevicesoftyrants,thelatterarecorruptedbyservility,andhavethosestillworsevices,whichare theresultofenslavement.Thesentimentofsolidarity is far frombeingdominantinmanatthepresentday;andifit istruethatthedifferentclassesofmenarebecomingmoreandmoreunanimousamongthemselves,itisnonethelesstruethatthatwhich is most conspicuous and impresses itself most on human character today is thestruggle for existence. It is a fact that each fights daily against every one else, andcompetitionpressesuponall,workmenandmasters,causingeverymantobecomeawolftowards every other man. How can these men, educated in a society based uponantagonism between individuals as well as classes, be transformed in a moment andbecomecapableoflivinginasocietyinwhicheachshalldoashelikes,andasheshould,without external coercion, caring for thegoodofothers, simplyby the impulseof theirownnature?Andwithwhatheartorwhatcommonsensecanyoutrusttoarevolutiononthepartofanignorant,turbulentmass,weakenedbymisery,stupefiedbypriestcraft,whoare today blindly sanguinary and tomorrow will let themselves be humbugged by anyknave,whodarestocallhimself theirmaster?Woulditnotbemoreprudent toadvancegradually towards the Anarchistic ideal, passing through Republican, Democratic andSocialistic stages? Will not an educative government, composed of the best men, benecessarytopreparetheadvancinggenerationsfortheirfuturedestiny?

These objections also ought not to appear valid if we have succeeded in making ourreadersunderstandwhatwehavealreadysaid,and inconvincing themof it.But inanycase,evenattheriskofrepetition,itmaybeaswelltoanswerthem.

Wefindourselvescontinuallymetbythefalsenotionthatgovernment is in itselfanewforce,sprunguponeknowsnotwhence,whichofitselfaddssomethingtothesumoftheforceandcapabilityofthosewhomitiscomposedandofthosewhoobeyit.While,onthecontrary, all that is done is doneby individualmen.Thegovernment, as agovernment,adds nothing save the tendency to monopolize for the advantage of certain parties orclasses,andtorepressallinitiativefrombeyonditsowncircle.

Toabolishauthorityorgovernmentdoesnotmeantodestroytheindividualorcollectiveforces,whichareatworkinsociety,nor the influencemenexertoveroneanother.Thatwouldbetoreducehumanitytoanaggregateofinertandseparateatoms;animpossibilitywhich,ifitcouldbeperformed,wouldbethedestructionofanysociety,thedeathblowtomankind.Toabolishauthority,meanstoabolishthemonopolyofforceandofinfluence.Itmeanstoabolishthatstateofthingsbywhichsocialforce,thatis,thecollectiveforceofallinasociety,ismadetheinstrumentofthethought,willandinterestsofasmallnumber

ofindividuals.These,bymeansofthecollectiveforce,suppressthelibertyofeveryoneelse, to theadvantageof theirownideas. Inotherwords, itmeans todestroyamodeoforganization by means of which the future is exploited, between one revolution andanother,totheprofitofthosewhohavebeenthevictorsofthemoment.

MichaelBakunin,inanarticlepublishedin1872,assertsthatthegreatmeansofactionofthe International were the propagating of their ideas, and the organization of thespontaneousactionofitsmembersinregardtothemasses.Hethenadds:

“Towhoevermightpretendthatactionsoorganizedwouldbeanoutrageonthelibertyofthemasses,oranattempttocreateanewauthoritativepower,wewouldreplythatheisasophist and a fool. Somuch theworse for thosewho ignore the natural, social law ofhuman solidarity, to the extent of imagining that an absolute mutual independence ofindividualsandofmassesisapossibleorevendesirablething.Todesireit,wouldbetowishforthedestructionofsociety;forallsociallifeisnothingelsethanthismutualandincessant interdependenceamongindividualsandmasses.All individuals,eventhemostgiftedandstrongest,indeedmostofallthemostgiftedandstrongest,areateverymomentoftheirlives,atthesametime,producersandproducts.Equallibertyforeveryindividualis only the resultant, continually reproduced, of this mass of material, intellectual andmoral influence exercised on him by all the individuals around him, belonging to thesocietyinwhichhewasborn,hasdevelopedanddies.Towishtoescapethisinfluenceinthenameofatranscendentalliberty,divine,absolutelyegoisticandsufficienttoitself,isthe tendency to annihilation. To refrain from influencing others,wouldmean to refrainfrom all social action, indeed to abstain from all expression of one’s thoughts andsentiments,andsimplytobecomenon-existent.Thisindependence,somuchextolledbyidealistsandmetaphysicians, individual libertyconceived in thissensewouldamount toself-annihilation.

“Innature,asinhumansociety,whichisalsoapartofthissamenature,allthatexistslivesonly by complying with the supreme conditions of interaction, which is more or lesspositiveandpotentwithregardtothelivesofotherbeings,accordingtothenatureoftheindividual.Andwhenwevindicatethelibertyofthemasses,wedonotpretendtoabolishanythingofthenaturalinfluencesthatindividualsorgroupsofindividualsexertupononeanother.Whatwewish for is theabolitionof artificial influences,whichareprivileged,legalandofficial.”

Certainly,inthepresentstateofmankind,oppressedbymisery,stupefiedbysuperstitionand sunk in degradation, the human lot depends upon a relatively small number ofindividuals. Of course, all men will not be able to rise in a moment to the height ofperceivingtheirduty,oreventheenjoymentofsoregulatingtheirownactionthatothersalsowillderivethegreatestpossiblebenefitfromit.Butbecausenowadaysthethoughtfulandguidingforcesatworkinsocietyarefew, that isnoreasonforparalyzingthemstillmore,andforthesubjectionofmanyindividualstothedirectionofafew.Itisnoreasonforconstitutingsocietyinsuchamannerthatthemostactiveforces,thehighestcapacitiesare,intheend,foundoutsidethegovernment,andalmostdeprivedofinfluenceonsociallife.Allthisnowhappensowingtotheinertiathatsecuredpositionsfoster,toheredity,toprotectionism, to party spirit and to all the mechanism of government. For those ingovernment office, taken out of their former social position, primarily concerned in

retainingpower,loseallpowertoactspontaneously,andbecomeonlyanobstacletothefreeactionofothers.

Withtheabolitionofthisnegativepotencyconstitutinggovernment,societywillbecomethatwhich it can be,with the given forces and capabilities of themoment. If there areeducatedmendesirousofspreadingeducation,theywillorganizetheschools,andwillbeconstrainedtomaketheuseandenjoymenttobederivedfromeducationfelt.Andiftherearenosuchmen,oronlyafewofthem,agovernmentcannotcreatethem.Allitcando,asin fact it does nowadays, is to take these few away frompractical, fruitfulwork in thesphereofeducation,andputthemtodirectfromabovewhathastobeimposedbythehelpof a police system. So they make out of intelligent and impassionate teachers merepoliticians, who become useless parasites, entirely absorbed in imposing their ownhobbies,andinmaintainingthemselvesinpower.

Iftherearedoctorsandteachersofhygiene,theywillorganizethemselvesfortheserviceofhealth.Andiftherearenone,agovernmentcannotcreatethem;allthatitcandoistodiscredit them in the eyes of the people, who are inclined to entertain suspicions,sometimesonlytoowellfounded,withregardtoeverythingwhichisimposeduponthem.

Ifthereareengineersandmechanics,theywillorganizetherailways,etc;andiftherearenone,agovernmentcannotcreatethem.

The revolution, by abolishing government and private property, will not create forcewhichdoesnotexist;butitwillleaveafreefieldfortheexerciseofallavailableforceandofallexistentcapacity.Whileitwilldestroyeveryclassinterestedinkeepingthemassesdegraded, it will act in such a way that every one will be free to work and make hisinfluencefelt,inproportiontohisowncapacity,andinconformitywithhissentimentsandinterests.Anditisonlythusthattheelevationofthemassesispossible;foritisonlywithlibertythatonecanlearntobefree,asitisonlybyworkingthatonecanlearntowork.Agovernment, even had it no other advantages,must always have that of habituating thegoverned to subjection, and must also tend to become more oppressive and morenecessary,inproportionasitssubjectsaremoreobedientanddocile.

But suppose governmentwere the direction of affairs by the best people.Who are thebest?Andhowshallwerecognizetheirsuperiority.Themajorityaregenerallyattachedtoold prejudices, and have ideas and instincts already outgrown by the more favoredminority. But of the various minorities, who all believe themselves in the right, as nodoubtmanyof themare inpart,whichshallbechosen to rule?Andbywhom?Andbywhat criterion? Seeing that the future alone can prove which among them is the mustsuperior.Ifyouchooseahundredpartisansofdictatorship,youwilldiscoverthateachoneofthehundredbelieveshimselfcapableofbeing,ifnotsoledictator,atleastofassistingverymaterially in thedictatorialgovernment.Thedictatorswouldbethosewho,byonemeansoranother,succeededin imposingthemselvesonsociety.And, incourseof time,alltheirenergywouldinevitablybeemployedindefendingthemselvesagainsttheattacksoftheiradversaries,totallyobliviousoftheirdesire,ifevertheyhadhadit,tobemerelyaneducativepower.

Should government be, on the other hand, elected by universal suffrage, and so be theemanation,more or less sincere, of thewishof themajority?But if you consider these

worthy electors as incapableof providing for their own interests, howcan they everbecapableofthemselveschoosingdirectorstoguidethemwisely?Howsolvethisproblemofsocialalchemy:Toelectagovernmentofgeniusesbythevotesofamassoffools?Andwhatwillbe the lotof theminority,whoare themost intelligent,mostactiveandmostadvancedinsociety?

Tosolve thesocialproblemto theadvantageofall, there isonlyoneway.Toexpel thegovernmentby revolutionarymeans, toexpropriate theholdersof socialwealth,puttingeverythingatthedispositionofall,andtoleaveallexistingforce,capacityandgood-willamongmenfreetoprovidefortheneedsofall.

WefightforAnarchyandforSocialism;becausewebelievethatAnarchyandSocialismoughttobebrought intooperationassoonaspossible.Whichmeansthat therevolutionmustdriveawaythegovernment,abolishprivateproperty,andentrustallpublicservice,which will then embrace all social life, to the spontaneous, free, unofficial andunauthorizedoperationofallthoseinterestedandallthosewillingvolunteers.

Therewillcertainlybedifficultiesandinconveniences;butthepeoplewillberesolute;andthey alone can solve all difficulties Anarchically, that is, by direct action of thoseinterestedandbyfreeagreement.

WecannotsaywhetherAnarchyandSocialismwill triumphafter thenextrevolutionaryattempt;butthisiscertain,thatifanyoftheso-calledtransitionprogramstriumph,itwillbebecausewehavebeentemporarilybeaten,andneverbecausewehavethoughtitwisetoleaveinexistenceanyonepartofthatevilsystemunderwhichhumanitygroans.

Whateverhappens,weshallhavesomeinfluenceonevents,byournumbers,ourenergy,ourintelligenceandoursteadfastness.Also,evenifwearenowconquered,ourworkwillnothavebeeninvain;forthemoredecidedweshallhavebeeninaimingattherealizationofallourdemands,thelesstherewillbeofgovernmentandofprivatepropertyinthenewsociety.Andwe shall have done a greatwork; for human progress ismeasured by thedegreeinwhichgovernmentandprivatepropertyareadministered.

Iftodaywefallwithoutloweringourcolors,ourcauseiscertainofvictorytomorrow.

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