Making sense of university writing

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Making Sense of University Writing

How to Write Scholarly Research Essays


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Writing & Learning Services, January 2011

WHAT IS SCHOLARLY WRITING?

The most common university writing assignment is the research paper, which is alsoreferred to as the scholarly paper. This type of assignment requires you to consult and usea wide range of academic sources such as books, articles, and some Internet sites. Whilesome research paper assignments require you to focus strictly on reporting the results of

your research, others will require you to incorporate your own analysis of this research aswell.

There are several components that, together, make an essay scholarly. The first isresearch. Scholarly writers conduct research using credible sources and carefully considerthis research. They then use this research to form a reasonable argument (a thesis) anduse their sources to support that argument. Secondly, scholarly writers demonstrate theirresearch skills by crediting the sourcesthat theyve used. In university, you must cite allof your sources, even if youre putting everything into your own words . Your ability to citeyour sources properly indicates that youve done extensiveresearch and that youre a fairscholar who is willing to give credit where credit is due. Thirdly, scholarly writers are able to

organize their essays in a logical way that includes a clear, strong thesis, topic sentences,supporting evidence, and appropriate transitions. Lastly, scholarly writers have a goodunderstanding ofsentence structure, grammar, punctuation, and tone.

STEPS FOR WRITING A SCHOLARLY PAPER

Writing, whether creative or scholarly, is a highly individual process. Discovering your ownpreferred method takes time and practice, but it is a good idea to follow a few basic stepsuntil you are comfortable enough as a writer to adapt the writing process to suit your ownpreferences.

Step 1: Select a Topic

Read your assignment carefully and make sure you understand everything that isrequired of you. Rather than just skim the list of topics your instructor has given you,take note of what the purpose of the assignment is, how it relates to the entirecourse, what limitations your instructor has placed on the assignment, and what theinstructors expectations are. If anything is unclear, ask your instructor to explain it.

Once you understand the relevance of the assignment and what you are expectedto accomplish in your essay, select a topic. Choose the one that interests you themost and that you believe will allow you to do your best work. This is not to say thatyou should always avoid a challenge and pick the topic you think will be easiest.Doing your best work sometimes means doing work that challenges you. Butwhatever topic you choose, make sure that you are interested in what youll bewriting about!

Step 2: Do Some Preliminary Research

Preliminary research helps scholars gain a better understanding of their topic,determine what kinds of academic sources are available, and narrow down theirtopic so that they can better direct their research.


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Once you have selected a topic, take some time to read through the relevantsections of your textbook(s) and go to the library to try to find a very general bookabout your topic. If one is available, look over the table of contents and skim througha few of the chapters. By reading the table of contents, you can see how anotherauthor has broken down a topic and get an idea of what sort of information isavailable. In addition, skimming through a few chapters might give you some ideasabout how you can narrow your research. If you cant find a book that dealsspecifically with your topic, try to find a journal article that relates to it. Evennewspapers or magazines can sometimes be valuable when conducting preliminaryresearch!

Step 3: Narrow Your Topic and Create a Working Thesis

In most cases, instructors assign general topics that need to be narrowed down.When narrowing your topic, keep in mind that it must be broad enough that you canresearch it thoroughly and write about it for the required length of the essay, and itmust be narrow enough that you can make a specific argument or statement that

you will prove in the body of your paper.

After narrowing your topic, write a working thesis. This is a tentative thesisstatement that is intended to guide your research. Even though a working thesis willchange over the course of the research/writing process, it is important that you startwith one. It may be as simple as stating your position without providing anyspecifics. For instance, Yes, all first-year university students should have to take 6credits of English, orThere are a number of things elementary teachers can do toprevent bullying. Without a working thesis, your research will lack direction and youwill likely find yourself frustrated and overwhelmed because you are trying to makesense of too much information.

Step 4: Gather Sources

Start by gathering the sources that look like they will be the most useful to you. Lookfor books, articles, essays, or chapters of books that deal specifically with yournarrowed topic. Once you find a couple of fruitful sources, take a look at thoseauthors references to get leads for other possible sources. Research often workslike a chain reaction, with one source leading to another source, which leads toanother source, which leads to another source, and so on.

Also, be sure to leave yourself plenty of time for the research process. Some

sources may not be located on campus, so its important that you leave enough timefor interlibrary loans or to place holds on items that have been checked out by otherstudents. In addition, useful information is sometimes spread over a variety ofsources rather than concentrated among a few sources, in which case the researchprocess will take more time.


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Step 5: Selectively Read Your Sources and Take Notes

Unless you are reading a journal article, it is not usually necessary to read an entiresource to find useful information. Scan the table of contents and subheadings todetermine which sections look as if they are relevant to your topic. Searching for afew key words in the index can also be helpful.

As you take notes, make sure you record in detail which notes came from whichsources, and from what page. The last thing you want to do is spend precious timethe night before a paper is due trying to figure out where you found a piece ofinformation!

Step 6: Organize Notes, Group Ideas, and Revisit Your Working Thesis

Look through all of your research notes and group similar ideas. After doing this,you should have a better idea of what your essays main ideas will be and how yourargument will unfold. Then, revisit your working thesis and revise it so that it is morespecific and it reflects the main ideas of your essay.

Step 7: Create an Outline

Seeing everything laid out in an outline will help you determine whether there aregaps in your research. It also helps you see the relationships between your pointsand how each point serves to support your thesis, and it will help you stay on trackas you write your essay.

Step 8: Find Additional Sources (If Necessary)

Dont assume that your instructor wont notice that there are obvious holes in your

research! If you noticed while doing your outline that certain points need moreevidence, that you dont have enough ideas to meet your word requirement, or thatyour ideas cannot be tied together in a way that makes sense, now is the time tohead back to the library to search for more sources to fill in those gaps.

Note that additional research might be more time consuming than your initialresearch because youll likely have already found all of the obvious sources.

Additional research might require more sleuthing to find bits of information that arein sources that dont immediately look helpful.

Step 9: Write Your First Draft

Concentrate only on forming a logical argument. Start with your thesis, and thenwrite your body paragraphs. The purpose of a first draft is to get your ideas down onpaper and to incorporate your research and your own ideas. Do not spend timeobsessing over the introduction and conclusion, word choice, formatting, or editing.


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Step 10: Write the Introduction and Conclusion

Your introduction should begin by introducing the reader to your topic. Provide somegeneral information to pique the readers interest. Then, lead the reader to yourthesis statement.

In a similar fashion, your conclusion should begin by restating your thesis beforeexpanding into a more general discussion of the implications of your essay. It shouldnot introduce any new research or ideas that have not already been discussed inthe body of the essay.

When writing your introduction and conclusion, be mindful of how much space theytake up. The intro and conclusion of a paper are not meant to present all theinformation you found that you couldnt fit into your essay! As a general guideline,an introduction and conclusion of about to of a page each (double spaced) isusually sufficient for a 1500-2000 word essay. However, always be sure to ask yourinstructor if he/she has any other requirements or preferences when it comes tointroductions and conclusions.

Step 11: Write Your Final Draft Revise, Edit, Proofread, and Revisit Thesis

Revising involves any major changes you might need to make to your essay. Forinstance, you might decide that idea C is best presented as idea A, so you switchthem around. When revising, you should also make sure that each paragraphexpresses one idea only, that your evidence supports your topic sentences, and thatyour ideas havent strayed from the topic.

The editing stage is where you ensure that you have cited all of your research, thatall of your paragraphs have appropriate topic sentences, that youve used

transitions between your ideas to show how they relate to one another, that youruse of language and tone is appropriate, that youve avoided repetition, and thateach sentence is clear and complete.

The proofreading stage is where you make sure that your grammar, spelling, andpunctuation are correct and that your essay is free of contractions (such as cant ortheyre).

Finally, after revising, editing, and proofreading your essay, look at your thesisstatement again to ensure that your essay has accomplished everything you set outto do and has done so in the same order you set out to do it. If after polishing the

body of your paper you decide that your thesis is a little misleading, change it.

Always leave yourself lots of time to complete this step. It looks simple, but writersoften need to look over their work many times to ensure that they havent missedsomething. However, if you try to look over your essay several times in a row, yourelikely to miss many of your mistakes. Its important to give yourself a break betweenreadings so that you can read the essay with fresh eyes each time.

Step 12: Reward Yourself for Surviving the Scholarly Writing Process!!!


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Organization in a Research Paper

A. The Introduction

1. The Thesis Statement

The thesis statement in your paper relays the basic stand you take, the opinion you have,or the point you are trying to prove. Its your main idea your controlling idea that tiestogether and gives direction to all the elements of your paper. A thesis statement is bestplaced as the last sentence of your introduction. Even before you start doing the bulk ofyour research, and while you are writing your paper, you may want to write with a workingthesis. A working thesis is one that you can change as you go. If you finish your paper andare still satisfied with the working thesis you started with, check your paragraphs topicsentences to make sure the thesis is still suitable.

2. Writing the Introduction

You may not want to write your introductory paragraph first. Indeed, it may be easier foryou to write it after your body paragraphs because sometimes it is easier to introduce atopic once you know it better. However, when you are ready to write your introduction,begin by introducing your topic, gradually becoming more specific, and finally ending withyourthesis statement. The length of your introduction will depend on the length of yourpaper.

B. The Body Coherence, Unity and Transitions

After you have done your research, made an outline, and written a working thesis, you areready to put together the body of your paper. You need to have coherence and unity inorder for your reader to be able to make sense of what you are trying to prove. Remember,each body paragraph will need a topic sentence to show how that paragraph helps provethe idea put forth in your thesis.

First of all, you need to have a paper that is organized logically. Try out different ways ofordering your research, and keep in mind that your argument will be stronger because youhave considered how and why you have organized your paper. Once your paper isorganized in a way that makes sense and all the information you present supports yourthesis, your paper will have unity. Now you need to make sure you have used transitions.

Think of transitions as the rocks across the stream that you use to get to the other sidesafely. Some are small and some are large, but all of them together get you to that otherside. Transitions lead your reader through your paper, so he or she will know exactly whenyou are coming to a new idea or adding to an idea you already stated. For example, youcan use words like in addition when you are adding to an idea, or you can use first,second, last when you are ordering ideas. While there are many more transitions wordsyou can use, you must also use transition statements (like this one!).


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Transition statements may be the concluding sentences of your paragraphs. Transitionalsentences help the reader switch more smoothly from one main idea to another.You canuse sentences like, Although environment has been considered by many experts to be themain cause of cancer today, there is another theory that states that genetic factors are theprimary reason people suffer from cancer. The first part of this sentence clearly states thatcancer is caused by environment; the second part of the sentence lets your reader knowthat you are going to discuss the opposing view: People suffer from cancer because ofgenetic factors.

C. The Conclusion

The conclusion must include a restatement of the thesis statement. Also, somesummarization of your main points indeed should be included in order to create ease offlow in your conclusion. Lastly, you must introduce a wide-ranging significance of or futureresearch having to do with your topic.

For example:

You are writing a research paper on prison inmates and how a large percentage of themhave the disorders, fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) or fetal alcohol effect (FAE). You discusswhat some of the characteristics of these disorders are, including that those with FAS andFAE do not understand the consequences of their actions. You also present researchshowing a high percentage of these prisoners are re-offenders.

Your conclusion could be:

There are high percentages of inmates in Canadian prisons who suffer from FAS orFAE, and they persistently re-offend; as a result, great portions of their lives are spent in

prison (Johnson, 2002, para. 5). Smiths (2003) study showed that prison has not helpedreform the majority of these inmates (pp. 47-75). Because of the characteristics of FAS andFAE disorders, such as an inability to understand the consequences of behavior, moreresearch needs to be done to study whether a prison setting is appropriate for theseinmates, or whether their needs would be best served by the mental health careprofession.

In this conclusion, the first sentence is a restatement of the thesis. Then there is asummary of some points. Notice the last sentence. It is questioning the future and thesignificance of all the research discussed in this paper.


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THE THESIS STATEMENT

The thesis of your paper is the basic stand you take, the opinion you express, and the point you make aboutyour subject. Its your main idea your controlling idea that ties together and gives direction to all otherseparate elements in your paper. Your primary purpose in your paper is to persuade the reader that yourthesis is valid.

The first step in creating a workable thesis is to write a one-sentence version of the thesis, which is called a

thesis statement.If you need more than one sentence to write your thesis statement, your thesis is probably notunified, has too many ideas, or it may be too broad for your paper.

Writing with a thesis statement gives your paper focus and a purpose and eliminates thetendency to drift off topic.

What a Thesis Isnt

A thesis is not a title.

The title Decline of Baseball doesnt say anything about the decline of baseball. Is it good? Is itbad? Is it happening? Remember that your thesis has to take a stand and in your paper you will tryto prove that your thesis is true.

Thesis statement: In recent years, baseball has experienced a steady decline in popularity.

A thesis is not an announcement of the subject.

In this paper I will tell you something about the emotions I felt on viewing the Grand Canyon. This is anannouncement of what your paper is about, but it doesnt say anything about the subject. Remember thatyour thesis must assert something. What kind of emotions did you feel? What exactly do you want todiscuss in this paper?

Thesis statement: When I saw the Grand Canyon I was filled with awe and wonder and an appreciation ofthe beauty of our land.

A thesis is not a statement of absolute fact. A thesis must show an opinion or an in terpretation.

Fact: All Grant MacEwan students must take English 101.Thesis: Forcing all Grant MacEwan students to take English 101 is a mistake.

What a Good Thesis is

A good thesis is restricted.

The more restricted the thesis, the better the chances to explore it fully.Too broad: People are too selfish.Better: Human selfishness is seen at its worse in rush hour.

A good thesis is unified, and contains one major idea only.

Too many ideas: The new health program is excellent, but it has several drawbacks, and it should be runonly on an experimental basis for two or three years.Better: Despite its general excellence, the new health program should be run only on an experimental basisfor two or three years.

A good thesis is specific.

If your ideas are vague, your paper will be dull and your thesis difficult to prove.Vague: Drug addiction is a big problem.Better: Drug addiction has caused a huge increase in crimes of violence.


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Transitions

Transitions are words, phrases, clauses, and sentences that connect ideas. They help thereader understand relationships like time, space, addition, emphasis, example,comparison-contrast, and cause-effect. By using transitions, you help the reader see therelationships between your ideas, sentences, and paragraphs.

In the first passage below, there are no transitions to link ideas. The revision that followsillustrates the frequency with which good writers use transitional devices to help theirreaders follow the logic and organization. The added transitions are underlined. Note thatas a result of the added transitions, the revised paragraph makes much more sense.

Original Passage

Candidates see the depressed economy as a major issue in the eighth district.Brolliette proposes tax incentives to lure big businesses into the area. The Republicanincumbent voted for the huge tax incentive that brought two moderate-sized businesses to

the area. Citizens have been hit with major increases in their personal property tax bills.The businesses offered over 1,200 jobs. Almost all the jobs have gone to employees whoaccepted a transfer. One business plant closed in the Southwest. Irate local citizens arefooting the tax bill for jobs not open to them. Brolliette defends the position. Kinsingtonnewarned City Council and Country Council members that citizens would resent the increase.He fought for citizen protection before he announced his candidacy for office. Heunderstands the working mans plight and the ramifications of big business on the littlemans pocketbook.

Revised to Include Transi t ions

Each candidate sees the depressed economy as a major issue in the eighth district.Brolliette proposes tax incentives to lure big businesses into the area. The Republicanincumbent, in fact, voted for the huge tax incentive that brought two moderate-sizedbusinesses to the area. Suddenly, however, area citizens have been hit with majorincreases in their personal property tax bills, some as much as double. Although thebusinesses offered over 1,200 jobs, almost all the jobs have gone to employees whoaccepted a transfer as a result ofone business plant closing in the Southwest. Therefore,irate local citizens are footing the tax bill for jobs not open to them. Brolliette continues todefend the position. Kinsingtonne, on the other hand, warned City Council and CountryCouncil members that citizens would resent the increase. He fought for citizen protectioneven before he announced his candidacy for office. Apparently, he understands theworking mans plight and the ramifications of big business on the little mans pocketbook.


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COMMON TRANSITIONS

Here is a list of some of the most common transitional expressions arranged by category.Use good judgment in selecting words from these categories.

Cause and Effect

AccordinglyAs a resultBecauseConsequentlySinceThereforeThus

Addition

Also, tooAt the same timeBesidesEqually importantFinallyFurtherFurthermoreLastlyMoreoverNext

In addition

Comparison

By way of comparisonIn a similar wayLet us compareLikewiseSimilarly

Summary

From what has been saidIn briefIn shortIn summaryIn conclusionOn the whole

Time

After a short time

AfterwardsAt lengthFinallyImmediatelyIn the futureIn the pastMeanwhileSoonSubsequentlyUltimately

At last

Eventually

Place

BesideBeyondHereThereOn the other side

Explanation

For exampleFor instanceIncidentallyIndeedIn factIn other wordsIn particularNamelySpecificallyThat is

Contrast

AlthoughAt the same timeHoweverIn contrastIn spite ofNeverthelessOn the contrary

Though

Purpose

For this purposeFor this reasonTo this endWith this in mind


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TONE

Tone is the one element of good writing that students find most elusive. Tone is a verygeneral term that refers to all aspects of writing, such as word choice, formality, grammar,and voice. It is what gives a piece of writing that certain je ne sais quoi. It takes plenty ofexperience and practice to establish good tone in your writing, so be patient. And while not

all aspects of tone can be explained or taught, there are a few things that you can keep inmind when trying to write in such a way that sounds scholarly.

Use Appropriate LanguageThere is a difference between the way we speak casually with our friends and the way wewrite an essay. For instance, dont start your paper by saying, So, Darwin is prettyinteresting to read. He lived a long time ago, but he actually had some super good things tosay about the world that are still soapplicable. You could say, Anthropologists all overthe world still hold fast to Darwins theories and use them as a basis to create new ones.However, when trying to avoid the use of casual language, make sure that you dont moveto the other end of the spectrum and use language that sounds pretentious. Dont confuse

your reader with a proliferation of interjections, meandering sentences, descriptions, orcomplex wording.

Scholarly writers use language that is clear and concise, free of slang or misplaced wordsthat always seem to find their way into our speech, and that doesnt distract the reader bytrying to sound too lofty.

Be Sure of Your ArgumentWatch out for words like perhaps, possibly, maybe, might, etc. Rather than say,Johnson perhaps makes a valid point when he says, say, Johnson makes a valid pointwhen he says. Dont ever let your reader think that you doubt what youre saying or that

you dont have a firm position.

Be Wary of ExaggerationSometimes you need to emphasize certain points, but dont go overboard. If you say, Jane

Austen is positively the most glorious and revered female writer of all time, your reader willbe turned off. Be reasonable. For instance, Jane Austen is still widely regarded as one ofthe best female novelists of the nineteenth century sounds much more rational, and it is astatement your reader is likely to accept.

Dont Address Your Reader DirectlyYou should never address your reader as you in an academic essay. For example,

instead of saying, If you examine the arguments of both Beck and Himmley, you will seethat Shakespeare did not write all of the plays listed under his name, say, The argum entsof both Beck and Himmley provide convincing evidence that Shakespeare did not write allof the plays listed under his name.


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Keep Your Emotions in CheckAlthough you will benefit from writing about a subject youre passionate about, it isimportant to remember that your emotional response has no place in an academic essay.

An example of writing that is too emotional for an academic paper would be:

We must stop testing cosmetics on animals! It is not right that hundreds ofthousands of mice, rabbits, and guinea pigs suffer so that women can have newformulations of creams to slather on their withered faces! The cosmetics industry isan industry that claims to enhance beauty while at the same time continuing to useugly practices in the development of new products. We must take a stand!

While such passionate exclamations do have a place in, say, a speech or newspapercolumn, they are not appropriate for an academic essay. Your evidence and sense of logicare what you should use to get your point across. What you could say:

According to William Stevenson, 90% of cosmetics produced have been tested onanimals in an inhumane way (44). Sylvia Benson concurs and adds that there arecompanies that do provide creams that have not been tested on animals; thesehave been proven to work as well as creams from companies who use animaltesting (Stevenson 45). She also explains that if women opt to purchase creamsthat are produced free from animal harm, more traditional methods of testing onanimals will gradually decrease over time (308).

These are just a few points to help you develop your academic tone. To further establishyour tone as a scholarly writer, its a good idea to read scholarly writing and attempt toidentify what it is that makes it sound academic. When you have some time, look at thedatabases and read a few articles. Pay attention to how those authors express themselves:What kind of language do they use? How do they make you feel as a reader? How do theypresent their arguments? How do they draw connections between their points? How dothey incorporate evidence? With time and patience, youll find your own academic voice.


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Revising Your Paper

When you revise a paper, you do much more than check for grammar mistakes andspelling errors. Effective revision helps you to rethink your ideas and to present them morelogically and coherently. If you carefully follow the steps listed below, you should be ableto transform a first draft into a finished essay that more accurately conveys your

understanding of your subject. Remember that the difference between a weak paper and astrong paper usually lies not in the amount of information presented but in the writersability to present the information in a way that makes sense to the reader.

1. As you re-read your essay, see if you have expressed your central idea as clearlyas you can. If you havent, restate your thesis so that it is clearer and more precise.

2. Jot down the major point in each of your middle paragraphs. Ask yourself if eachmiddle paragraph states one idea clearly and develops it adequately. If the mainidea is not stated clearly in a paragraph, you may need to add a topic sentence tothat paragraph. Perhaps some of the paragraphs containing similar ideas should be

combined. If more than one main idea is in a paragraph, you may have to separateone of the main ideas and place it in another paragraph. Some paragraphs mayneed more details and examples to develop their main ideas.

3. Rewrite your introduction. It should begin fairly broadly and gradually focus on yourthesis. Be sure to include your thesis in your introduction.

4. Rewrite your conclusion. Be sure that it rewords your thesis and sums up the majorpoints of your essay.


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Checklist for Revising

The body of my essay expresses the central idea of my thesis. I have not strayedfrom my central idea, and I have accomplished everything I set out to do with mythesis statement.

Each paragraph expresses one idea.

I have provided adequate details and examples to support each idea.

My essay is unified.

o All sentences in each paragraph support the topic sentence of thatparagraph.

o All of my paragraphs have topic sentences that clearly relate to my thesis.

o My paragraphs follow a logical order, and it is the same order in which Ipresent each idea in my thesis.

My introduction begins by engaging the reader and ends with a clearly written thesis

statement. I have included background information that is general, yet relevant, tomy topic and have not rambled on with lengthy definitions or explanations.

My conclusion gives closure to my essay. I have reworded my thesis andsummarized the main points of my essay, and I have not included any newinformation that has not already been discussed in my essay.

Checklist for Editing and Proofreading

I have cited all of my quotations andparaphrases, and I have followed the requiredformat (usually APA, MLA, or Chicago).

Each sentence is clear and complete. There are no sentence fragments, commasplices, or dangling modifiers (see handouts).

My use of commas, semicolons, colons, periods, and other punctuation is correct(see handouts).

I have not used any contractions or informal language in my essay.

My essay is free of spelling errors.

I have not been repetitive in my word choice, and I have consulted both a thesaurusanda dictionary when finding new ways to phrase something.

I have not confused words that seem similar but that mean different things, such asaffect/effect, woman/women, advice/advise, or loose/lose.

I have used Canadian spellings.


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Sentence Combining

OPTION 1: USES COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS AND COMMASCREATES A COMPOUND SENTENCE

, and , so , nor, but , yet , or, for

Were going to the movies, and we have just enough money for admission and popcorn.

OPTION 2: USES A SEMICOLON (;)CREATES A COMPOUND SENTENCE

Were going to the movies; we have just enough money for admission and popcorn.

OPTION 3: USES A SEMICOLON AND CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBCREATES A COMPOUND SENTENCE

; moreover, ; otherwise, ; also,; besides, ; therefore, ; anyway,; furthermore, ; consequently, ; finally,; indeed, ; of course, ; incidentally,; in fact, ; for example, ; instead,; likewise, ; for instance, ; similarly,; however, ; meanwhile, ; thus,; nevertheless, ; accordingly, ; still,; then,

Were going to the movies; incidentally, we have just enough money for admission.

OPTION 4: USES SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS AND RELATIVE PRONOUNSCREATES A COMPLEX SENTENCE, SOMETIMES WITH A COMMA

although because thatsince when whatwhile after which

as as if whobefore if whoseunless until whateverwhether whenever whicheverwhereas as long as whoevereven if so that whomthough as though whomeveras soon as just consideringin order that

Althoughwe dont have enough money for popcorn, we do have enough money foradmission.

We have enough money for admission to the movies althoughwe dont have enough to buypopcorn.

A League of Their Own,which was filmed in part in Indiana, starred Madonna.

Any movie which is filmed in Indiana is unusual for the film industry.


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Dangling Modifiers

A dangling modifieris an element (usually a phrase, clause, or pronoun) of the sentencethat is misplaced. Usually, dangling modifiers force readers to guess which noun thephrase or pronoun corresponds with, often with strange miscommunications being theresult.

Examples:

Sleeping peacefully, a large spider jumped on my face.Was the spider sleeping peacefully? No.While I was sleeping peacefully, a large spider jumped on my face.

When cut in half, you can see the apple seeds.Can you see the apple seeds when you are cut in half? No.When the apple is cut in half, you can see the seeds.

While running with knives, my knee was stabbed.Was my knee running with knives? No.While running with knives, I stabbed my knee.

After taking a taxi, Marys purse was missing.Did Marys purse take the taxi? No.

After taking a taxi, Mary discovered that her purse was missing.

Eating my dinner quietly, an explosion scared me.Was an explosion eating my dinner? No.While I was eating my dinner quietly, an explosion scared me.

To accomplish this end, it is necessary for us to work hard.Itis going to accomplish this end? No.To accomplish this end, we must work hard.

Walking on the sidewalk, the Mercedes ran over me.Was the Mercedes walking on the sidewalk? No.Walking on the sidewalk, I was run over by the Mercedes.

Living in Paris, the underground was easy for Jim to use.Was the underground living in Paris? No.

Living in Paris, Jim found the underground easy to use.

While running to catch the bus, Johns school bag broke. Was Johns school bag running to catch the bus? No.While John was running to catch the bus, his school bag broke.


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Subordinating Conjunctions

after before since untilalthough even if so that whenas even though than wheneveras if if that where

as though in order that though whereverbecause once unless while

A clause contains a subject and a verb (predicate). A subordinate clause cannot standalone as a sentence.

In the following examples, the subordinating clause is italicized and the subordinatingconjunction is bolded.

IfI dont study this week, I shall fail the exam.I shall fail the exam i fI dont study this week.

BecauseI missed the bus, I was late for work.I was late for work becauseI missed the bus.

Unlessit stops raining,we wont be able to have a picnic.We wont be able to have a picnic unlessit stops raining.

Whenit stopped raining, we went for a walk.We went for a walk whenit stopped raining.

Even thoug hI like him, he doesnt like me.

He doesnt like me even thoug hI like him.

Notice that if the subordinating clause comes first in a sentence, it is followed by a comma.A comma is not used if the subordinating clause comes at the end of the sentence.


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Conjunctive Adverbs

accordinglyalsoanywaybesides

certainlyconsequentlyfinallyfurtherfurthermorehencehoweverincidentallyindeedinsteadlikewise

meanwhilemoreovernamelynevertheless

nextnonethelessnowotherwisesimilarlystillthenthereafterthereforethusundoubtedly

Conjunctive adverbs modify groups of words, showing how their clauses relate to otherclauses. These connectors are usually moveable in a sentence.

Conjunctive adverbs connect equal clauses; they relate the idea of one main clause to thatof a preceding main clause. Between the two clauses, the punctuation mark must be eithera semicolon or a period.

Writers usually, but not always, follow the conjunctive adverb with a comma.

For example: The seasons last game was cancelled.Nonetheless, we won thechampionship.

Jim talks of nothing but himself; however, I still like him.

Read the directions carefully; then follow them exactly.


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USAGE: Common Word Mix-Ups

Words Examples Meanings

accept The man accepted the trophy. verb meaning receive

except Everyone except Bill was at the hockey practice. preposition meaning but

advice Do you want my advice? noun meaning suggestion

advise I advise you to stop smoking. verb meaning offer a suggestion

affect Nervousness affected my performance. verb meaning cause a change

effect Nervousness had a disastrous effect on my performance.The prisoner effected an escape.

noun meaning the result of a change

verb meaning to bring about

choose We always choose our own speech topics. verb, present tense, meaning select

chose Last year I chose to speak on free trade. verb, past tense, meaning selected

coarse The artist made a coarse preparatory sketch. adjective meaning rough, crude, notfine

course My brother is taking a course in philosophy at GMC. has several meanings but is used onlyas a noun or a verb

desert The frightened soldier deserted his companions in thedesert.

verb meaning abandonnoun meaning a dry region

dessert On my birthday, we had spice cake for dessert. noun meaning sweet food servedafter a meal

hear I always hear the alarm clock. verb meaning perceive sound throughthe ear

here Set up the projector here. adverb meaning in this place

its A flower turns its blossoms towards the sun. possessive pronoun meaningbelonging to it

its Its essential for the entire plant to have light. contraction meaning it is

lead These pipes are made of lead. noun meaning a kind of metal

Lead us to the auditorium. verb, present tense, meaning guide

led We led the visitors to the auditorium. verb, past tense, meaning guided

loose Set the animal loose. adjective meaning not fixed orfastened (rhymes with goose)

lose Do not lose your keys. verb meaning misplace

of This is a dictionary of literary terms. a preposition

ve I wish I couldve recopied my essay. contraction of verb have

our How do you like our art display? possessive adjective meaningbelonging to us

are Are you going to the concert? form of the verb to be

passed As the students passed by, the candidates passed outpamphlets.

verb meaning went by or gave

past We drove past the college.

In the past, Grant MacEwan College had only one campus.

adverb meaning beyond

noun or adjective meaning the timebefore the present

principal Ms. Montclair is the principal of a school.The principal cause of failure is procrastination.

noun meaning chief personadjective meaning chief

principle Scientific discovery is based on established principles. noun meaning a basic truth or belief

quiet Please be quiet in the library. adjective or noun meaning not makinga sound

quite He was not quite finished. adverb meaning completely

quit Please quit shouting at me. verb meaning stopsole I ordered sole for dinner.

The sole of his shoe was damaged.

He was the sole survivor of the car crash.

noun meaning a flat ocean fish orbottom part of a shoe

adjective meaning single or only

soul Some people believe that the soul lives on after the body.She was a kind soul.

noun meaning the part of a persondistinct from the body or simply aperson


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stationary Heavy equipment is usually stationary. adjective meaning not moving

stationery I always get stationery at the Grant MacEwanbookstore.

noun meaning writing paper

than The new computer program was quicker than the oldone.

conjunction or preposition

then I got out my biology book, but then I decided to studypsychology.

adverb meaning at that time or next

their Students concentrate on their studies. possessive adjective meaning

belonging to themthere Put your lab equipment over there. adverb meaning in that place

theyre Theyre the first people in line. contraction of they are

through We walked through the library. functions only as a preposition

threw The basketball player threw the ball across the court. verb, past tense, meaning hurled ortossed

to I go to the college on Mondays and Wednesdays. functions only as a preposition

too I, too, spent too much time finishing the exam. adverb meaning also and more thanenough

two She is taking two nursing courses. adjective or noun meaning one morethan one (2)

weather Outdoor sports are enjoyable in fine weather. noun meaning condition of theatmosphere

whether She didnt know whether to laugh or cry. conjunction used to introduce a choice

were The exam results were excellent. verb, past tense of are, form of to

bewhere Where is the registrars office? adverb meaning in what place

which Which campus has the best parking? functions as a pronoun or as anadjective

witch The witch was able to perform magic spells. noun meaning woman supposed tohave magical powers

whos Whos playing the part of Hamlet? contraction meaning who is or whohas

whose Whose book is this?

The professor, whose name was Smith, spoke well.

pronoun meaning of or belonging towhich personadjective meaning of whom

your Your student identification is ready. possessive adjective meaningbelongingto you

youre Youre going to have to register in a math course. contraction meaning you are

Practice:The following sentences contain word mix-up errors.

A. All accept a few of the worlds zoos are more humane today then they were in passed years.B. Specially trained people our available to advice zoo personnel, whos job it is too care for the

animals.C. In most facilities, its possible for the animals to run lose in quit large areas whenever they chose.D. Of coarse, your likely two see the odd animal in a cage, but chances are its their for observation on

the orders of a veterinarian.

Answers:A. All except a few of the worlds zoos are more humane today than they were in past years.

B. Specially trained people are available to advise zoo personnel, whose job it is to care for the animals.

C. In most facilities, its possible for the animals to run loose in quite large areas whenever they choose.

D. Of course, youre likely to see the odd animal in a cage, but chances are its there for observation on the orders of aveterinarian.

Making sense of university writing

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