JOSEPH R JENKINS AND LINDA M. JENKINS

Making Peer Tutoring WorkSystematic training, active supervision,

structured lessons, daily progressmeasurement, and an emphasis on masterycharacterize the peer tutoring program for

elementary and secondary studentsin Lake Washington.

Peer and cross-age tutoring hasdeep roots, dating no doubt toprehistoric times. Tutorial in-

struction (parents teaching their off-spring how to make a fire and to huntand adolescents instructing youngersiblings about edible berries androots) was probably the first pedagogyamong primitive societies. Since thenit has been periodically rediscovered

in schoolrooms throughout the world.Although we have been developing

and evaruating peer and cross-age tu-toring programs for 14 years, we con-tinue to be struck by the power inher-ent in this intervention, and by howoften schools bypass it when searchingfor effective ways to meet academicand social competence goals.

Aside from the obvious intuitive

merits of tutorial instruction (e.g., pac-ing that is tuned to the individualstudent's rate of mastery, intensivepractice for those who need it,achievement and personal benefits tothe tutors themselves), recent cost-effectiveness research indicates that ityields greater achievement per dollarthan other popular educational inno-vations (Levin et al. 1984). For exam-

aat sAOi *in beas eeP a'ots and aess bweaad the program and least to bhier aAeve.memfor boh

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pie, when program costs were equat-ed and reading and math outcomesexamined, researchers found that peertutoring produced more than twice asmuch achievement as did computer-assisted instruction, three times morethan reducing class size from 35 to 30students, and close to four times great-er achievement than would resultfrom lengthening the school day byone hour.

Lake Washington's PeerTutoring ModelThe Lake Washington School District(Kirkland, Washington) has conductedpeer tutoring programs for elemen-tary and secondary students for thepast four years. Students receiving tu-toring in these programs cut acrossthe spectrum of socioeconomic levelsand ethnic backgrounds. Some havelearning disabilities, others are slowlearners, but all have failed to achievesatisfactorily with ordinary classroominstruction. The elementary and sec-ondary versions of the tutoring modeldiffer primarily in program organiza-tion and instructional content.

Elementary model. Remedial andspecial education resource teachers atthe elementary level organize and su-pervise peer tutoring. Every day stu-dents report to the resource room,where they are taught basic skills(reading, math, or spelling) by a peeror an older student. Lesson content isclosely correlated with the classroomprogram, and the basic lesson struc-ture changes little from day to day. Atypical beginning reading lesson con-ducted by a tutor might involve severalminutes' work on letter sounds and onnew words, with the remainder of theperiod devoted to oral reading. Thegoal of tutoring is to enable students,through supplementary classroom in-struction, to master the school's learn-ing objectives and profit from regularclassroom instruction.

The program manager, usually aspecial or remedial education teacher,develops a procedure for measuringstudent performance on each aspect ofthe lesson. Tutors measure and chartprogress daily, and the manager em-ploys these data in making instruction-al modifications.

Secondary model. Tutoring classesat the secondary level are part of theregularly scheduled course offerings.

From the semester's courses in whichthey are enrolled, students select thecourse(s) for which they wish to re-ceive help. Other students taking thesame courses enroll as tutors. Tutor-ing lessons are thus individualized.The tutoring class meets dailythroughout a semester. Tutees attendboth their content class and their tu-toring class. As many as 10 to 15 tutorsmay work with the samie number oftutees in a given peer tutoring period.Both tutors and tutees receive electivecredit for the tutoring class, and tuteesalso receive credit for the content classfor which they are tutored. The pro-gram's goal is to help students obtainpassing grades.

Each content teacher selects an ex-emplary student as a notetaker to re-cord classroom lectures and delivereach day's notes to the tutor programmanager. Tutors use these notes tohelp students complete their ownnotes and to study the class lectures.

Components of SuccessfulPeer Tutoring ProgramsThe magnitude of tutoring effects canvary considerably depending on suchfactors as the degree of program struc-ture, cognitive level of the lessons,training of the tutors, and level ofmonitoring and supervision by teach-ers (Cohen et al. 1982; Jenkins andJenkins 1981, 1985). From researchand experience we have identified anumber of characteristics of successful

"Structured lessonsfree teachers ... toassume a managerialrole, monitorseveral tutoringprojectssimultaneously, andrevise problemlessons."

tutoring programs.1. Tingpn ree~s smoot ubub

tutors bae a b*ly soid andcarefut prescred leon f~mwStructured lessons free teahders frominventing new activities for tutors eachday and also allow them to assume amanagerial role, monitor several tu-toring projects simultaneously, and re-vise problem lessons. We find that thebasic lesson format remains the samefor 90 percent of the students.

2. Classroom Idens define bc-tires in erms of iber c/awoom awric-ulums and ealuate sudents' coAetence in relation to succ or failwrein tbose ma diah. Remedial servicesbased on students' classroom curricu-lums will more likely improve theirperformance in that curriculum. Incontrast, services based on anothercurriculum, even if they effectivelyteach that curriculum's objectives, areless likely to teach the skills that class-room teachers use as their criteria.

3. Teac5ers select tutoring contentcarefulv and ensure art studentsmaster t. Conventional wisdom sug-gests the importance of carefully se-lecting tutoring content and of guaran-teeing that students master thecontent In a mastery-based tutoringmodel, a skill is identified and taughtevery day until students learn it

4. Freyuency and duration of tutor-ing lessons are gien caefid considr-ation. Time available for tutoring maybe greatly affected by schedules suchas whole-school grouping for readingand math, the number of periods avail-able in which students can earn creditsfor graduation, and competing ex-tracurricular or service activities.

Two studies that investigated thescheduling factor in elementary tutor-ing programs (Ellson et al. 1968, May-hall and Jenkins 1977) found tutoringmost effective when scheduled dailyfor moderate length (half-hour) ses-sions. At the elementary level, tutoringrequires transition time to compen-sate for the disruptiveness of the com-ings and goings of tutors and tutees.Classroom teachers who supply tutorsand tutees usually prefer a fixed dailyperiod when their students are out ofthe room so they can plan for andconcentrate exclusively on the remain-ing students.

For secondary schools, ease ofscheduling tutoring increases with the

MARCH 1987

number of periods when the programis offered Priority registration is help-ful, especially for tutors who may havemore complex course schedules. Thetutor manager may need one releasedday to modify the schedule and bal-ance the classes between tutors andtutees.

5. Systematic training is essential tosutain an effectie tutoring program.Left on their own, older children will

"In a mastery-basedtutoring model, askill is identifiedand taught every dayuntil studentslearn it."

occasionally show impatience with,boss, or ridicule younger studentswhom they are "helping" (Lippit1968). Untrained tutors tend not toconfirm accurate responses regularly,give corrective feedback, offer praise,and engage in friendly conversationbefore and after tutoring (Nieder-meyer 1970). At Lake Washington, tu-tors learn interpersonal skills that en-able them to relate to their students inways that result in comfortable andsatisfying experiences for both mem-bers of the tutoring dyad. For exam-ple, trainees learn positive verbal andnonverbal communication skills (e.g.,active listening, conversing, and prais-ing good effort), and how to give cleardirections and confirm correct re-sponses. They learn not to overpromptand show impatience, annoyance, ordisappointment. Errors are lookedupon as a signal for more teaching, notas occasions for disapproval.

Specialized teaching proceduressuch as teaching letter sounds, soundblending, arithmetic algorithms, spe-cialized correction procedures, literalor inferential questioning, note-taking,and organization of notes aroundmain ideas are also required for tutorswho use them.

A smoother, more efficient daily op-eration results when tutors are shownhow to gather and replace instruction-

al materials, measure and record stu-dent performance, allocate time tospecific tasks, follow the establishedlesson format, and monitor or partici-pate in post-tutoring games. Traineesneed to know the purpose of theprogram and the responsibilities thataccompany being a tutor. Responsibil-ities pertaining to tutoring itself in-clude the regular time commitment,punctuality, confidentiality, and posi-tive regard for the tutee. The tutors'own classroom responsibilities in-clude maintaining high-quality workand keeping informed about any infor-mation they missed while out of theclassroom.

In Lake Washington's elementaryand secondary programs, initial tutortraining lasts approximately twoweeks. Additional training is sched-uled periodically. Thereafter, the first5 to 10 minutes of each tutoring classare used for mini-lessons on teachingand study procedures.

Program managers model lessoncomponents and small-scale instruc-tional episodes, and then trainees al-ternate tutor and tutee roles. The man-ager demonstrates an entire lessonwhile trainees observe. Finally, tutorsare introduced to their jobs by assum-ing responsibility for parts of lessons.

During the first few solo tutoringsessions, the program manager closelymonitors lessons and holds post-tutor-ing debriefing sessions. Thus, it ishelpful to stagger beginning tutors'first lessons so that only a few start ona given day. Later, as tutors grow moreaccustomed to their roles, managersreduce, but never completely drop,monitoring and debriefing sessions.

6. A positive class climate and actiesrpervsion are signcant factors in

aoring programs. Managers encour-age and shape respect and mutualconcern between tutors and tutees.On some days managers may spendmost of the lesson with one or twopairs, but they should visit every tutor-ing pair at least once during the ses-sion. Active supervision helps keeptutors and tutees interested and leadsto higher achievement

7. Daily meastaemen of students'progress is essential. In governmentand industry, as well as in classrooms,decision making improves when peo-ple have access to pertinent infor-mation. The tutor manager uses the

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daily performance data that tutors col-lect on each teaching objective to de-termine when instructional proce-dures require change and students areready tor new material. An additionalbenefit of maintaining a data system isthat students are less likely to drift off-task when they recognize that theirprogress toward specific objectiveswill be measured every day.

At Lake Washington, considerabletime goes into teaching the tutors adata system. In the elementary model,trainees learn what performance datathey will collect (e.g., percent correctin math facts, bral reading, and spell-ing) and procedures for collectingthem (e.g., random samples of mathfacts from specified domains, prese-lected reading passages). Trainees usestopwatches and pocket calculators tocompute summary statistics.

In the secondary model, tutors andtutees keep several types of records tohelp the manager monitor assign-ments, tests, and classroomperformance.

* Each tutee keeps a daily record ofclass assignments, which the tutorcross-checks with the notetaker'srecord.

*To establish and adjust study pri-orities, tutors maintain a monthly cal-endar that lists tests, assignments, andprojects.

* At the end of the period, eachtutoring dyad evaluates accomplish-ments, establishes a tentative goal forthe next day, and records this informa-tion in a log. The manager consults thelogs in order to make suggestionsabout the number and quality of theirgoals and to rate their effectiveness inmeeting them.

* Tutors make weekly progresschecks by visiting briefly (three to fiveminutes) with content teachers to in-quire about completed assignments,test scores, attendance, and class par-ticipation, and to solicit ways to helptutees succeed in the course.

Starting a Tutoring ProgramTo initiate tutoring in an elementaryschool, a program developer first se-cures the support of the principal,staff, and parents. A good rule is tostart small, identifying students whoneed additional practice and who donot have serious behavior problems.The next step is to assess the students'

mastery of curriculum objectives,identifying what they need to learnnext.

To initiate a tutoring program in asecondary school, the program devel-oper obtains a commitment frombuilding administrators. The develop-er then selects staff to teach the classesand identifies the number of periodsin which tutoring will be offered. Werecommend that tutoring be availableto any motivated student who volun-teers. The program manager makes apresentation to secure staff support,writes a course catalog description ofthe tutoring class, and arranges forelective and/or occupational credit fortutors and tutees.

Recruitment and SchedulingAt the elementary level, the programdeveloper obtains names of potentialtutors from teachers and holds anorientation meeting with nominees,who must obtain parental permissionfor participation. The next step is toschedule tutoring periods agreeableto teachers of tutees and tutors.

The most effective recruiters at thesecondary level are classroom teach-ers and counselors who personallyrecommend the program to potentialtutors. The tutor manager can sched-ule classroom presentations to de-scribe the program and leave applica-

6 ey recognze *t der protourdpcd ojeit wil beme *d eb day

tion forms with the classroom teacher.Once a program has been establshedin a building, former tutors and tts:can participate in recruitment presen-tations. Recruiting tutors is a time-consuming task for the mnager, re-quiring two to three days of releasedtime each semester.

Recruiting tutees follows the sameprocess. Teacher and counselor refer-rals are effective. Parents who areaware of the program may encourgetheir children to participate, and stu-dents may refer themselves if theyanticipate difficulty in a course. Thetutor manager interviews referrals toensure that they are motivated toparticipate.

After tutees have selected a targetclass and identified both the teacherand period, the manager consults per-tinent classroom teachers to identifygood notetakers. Teachers arrange forthese students to take notes and deliv-er a copy daily to the tutor room,along with any hand-outs.

Selecting and Pairing Tutorswith LearnersAlthough elementary teachers havedesigned high-quality programs usingtutors as young as seven, eight, andnine, fifth- and sixth-graders are gen-erally preferred as tutors because theyare easier to train, require less super-vision, and are better able to managediscipline problems. Academically ca-pable students often can give up someclassroom study time for tutoring andstill complete their assignments.

At thesecondary level, teachers pre-fer students who are currently or wereformerly enrolled in the target contentclass. Given the class notes, studyguides, and text, though, reasonablygood students can successfully tutor incourses they have not personallytaken.

Maintaining Tutors'Involvement and InterestKeeping tutors motivated is a chal-lenge. The most important reinforceris personal attention from the manag-er in the form of discussions about thetutoring project and sometimes aboutmore personal matters. Table I listseffective procedures for maintainingtutors' involvement. Combinations ofmotivational procedures such as thesehave held the interest of tutors at Lake

MAIiol 1967 6'MAR 1987 6'

StudeRt S bnf academically, but dhy also gain socal maty by airmrig responsblty for others

Washington for up to four consecutiveyears of service.

Peer tutoring provides a more car-ing climate in the school; students andteachers monitor each other's behav-ior and invest in each other's success.As Goodlad (1984) reports, secondarystudents seek to be recognized andcared about as persons and, yet, thestructure of the secondary school alltoo often prevents this from happen-ing Interaction between the manager,tutor, and tutee provides abundantopportunities to develop personalrelationships.

Benefits to TutorsStudents who tutor benefit academi-cally from the experience (Cohen etal. 1982), but tutoring has even broad-er influences. Coleman (1974) pro-posed that the environment of youngpeople should provide not only anopportunity for reaching traditionalschool goals, but also an opportunityfor gaining "social maturity" throughresponsibilities that affect the lives ofothers.

Society holds to an ideal that chil-dren will grow into responsible citi-zens who care for and help others.Naisbitt (1983) argues that as societybecomes more high tech, it will needto become more high touch. Yet inex-

plicably, within its major institution forsocializing the young, society rarelypermits students to assume and prac-tice these responsibilities. Nor doesthe instruction systematically super-vise or actively shape effective helpingand caring behaviors.

Chuck Martin, principal at LakeWashington High School, reports that"this program has contributed more tohelping students succeed and in creat-ing a caring environment than anyintervention we've tried in my sixyears at this school." Were we to ac-cept seriously as one of our goals thedevelopment of social maturity, wemight include more opportunities andexperiences, like tutoring, that wouldfacilitate its attainment.

References

Cohen, P. A, J. A. Kulik, and C. C. Kulik."Educational Outcomes of Tutoring"Amnericn Education Researcb Journal19 (February 1982): 237-248.

Coleman, J. S. Youth: Translation to Adult-hood Chicago: University of ChicagoPress, 1974.

Ellson, D. G., P. Harris, and L A Barber. "AField Test of Programmed and DirectedTutoring," Reading Research Quarterly 3(1968): 307-367.

Goodlad, J. . A Place Called School. NewYork: McGraw-Hill Book Company,1984.

Jenkins, J. R, and L. M. Jenkins. Cross-Ageand Peer Tutoring: Help for Childrenwith earning Problems. Reston, Va.:Council for Exceptional Children, 1981.

Jenkins, J. K, and L. M. Jenkins. "PeerTutoring in Eleme: tary and SecondaryProvgrams" Focus on Exceptional Chil-dren 17, 6 (1985): 1-12.

Levin, H., G. Glass, and C Meister Cost-Effectiveness of Four Educational Inter-ventions. Stanford, Calif.: Institute forResearch on Educational Finance andGovernance, Stanford University, 1984.

Lippint, P. "Cross-Age Helpers." NationalEducational Association Journal(March 1968): 24-26.

Mayhall, W. F., and J. R Jenkins. "Schedul-ing Daily or Less-Than-Daily Instruction:Implications for Resource Programs."Journal of Learning Disabilities 10, 3(1977): 159-163.

Naisbin, J. Megatrends. New York: WarnerBooks, 1983.

Niedermeyer, F. C. "Effects of Training onthe Instructional Behaviors of StudentTutors." 7he Journal of Educational Re-search 64 (November 1970): 119-123.

Joseph R. Jemkins is Professor of SpecialEducation and Director of the Experimen-tal Education Unit, Child Development andMental Retardation Center, University ofWashington, Seattle, WA 98195. Linda M.Jenkins is a Program Developer in SpecialServices, Lake Washington School District,10903 N.E. 53rd St., Kirkland, WA 98033.

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Copyright © 1987 by the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. All rights reserved.