Making narrative connections? Exploring how late teens ... · Making narrative connections?...
Transcript of Making narrative connections? Exploring how late teens ... · Making narrative connections?...
London Review of Education DOIhttpsdoiorg1018546LRE15204Volume15Number2July2017
Making narrative connections Exploring how late teens relate their own lives to the historically significant past
ElizabethDawesDuraisinghHarvard Graduate School of Education
Abstract
Thispaperreportsonastudythatinvited18716ndash18-year-oldstudentsintheUnitedStatestodrawdiagramsshowingconnectionsbetweentheirownlivesandthepastInterviewsweresubsequentlyheldwith26studyparticipantsThedegreetowhichstudentsmadeconnectionsbetweentheirownlivesandthepastandthevariouswaysinwhichtheyintegratedpersonalandhistoricalnarrativesarediscussedwiththreeexamplesexploredindetailThewaysinwhichinterviewedstudentstalkedabouttheirdiagramspointtothesignificanceofindividualsrsquounderstandingsofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgeforhowtheyusethepasttoorienttheirownlives
Keywordshistoricalconsciousnesshistoricalunderstandinghistoryeducationidentity
Historyeducatorsareincreasingly interestedinwhatyoungpeopleknoworthinkaboutthepastndashratherthanwhattheydonrsquotndashwiththeassumptionthattakingstudentsrsquoexistingthinkingintoaccountcouldenhancehistoryeducationpracticesSimilarlymotivatedthisresearchtookanopen-ended approach towardsexploring youngpeoplersquos historical consciousnessorhowtheyusethepasttohelporienttheirlivesOtherpapersinthisissueexaminethewaysinwhichyoungpeopleunderstandorconstructnarrativesaboutacollectiveorhistorically significantpastThispapertakesasomewhatdifferenttackgiventhatindividualsintheirlateteensaredevelopmentallyprimedtoconsiderissuesofidentitywhatkindsofstrategiesdotheyusetoconnecttheirownlifestoriesorpersonalnarrativestothehistoricallysignificantpastincludingbutnotlimitedtonationalnarrativesFurtherhowdotheytalkaboutthesenarrativestrategiesandhowmightthewaysinwhichtheytalkaboutthemrelatetotheirunderstandingsofthenatureofhistoricalknowledge
This exploratory study involved 187 16ndash18-year-olds in four different state schools intheGreaterBostonareaintheUnitedStatesfurthercontextualdetailsareprovidedbelowStudentsdrewdiagramstoexplainhowthepast lsquohelpsexplainwhoyouareandthelifeyouare living or hope to liversquo and provided accompanyingwritten explanations (in an exerciseadaptedfromSeixas1997)Interviewswereconductedwith26studentsabouttheirresponsesThe187diagramsvariedgreatlyintermsofbothformandcontentwithapproximatelyone-fifthofdiagramsreflectingonlystudentsrsquopersonalexperiencesHowevermoststudentsdidmakeconnectionsbetweentheirownlivesandthehistoricallysignificantpastnearlyalwaysinhighlypersonalizedwaysthatbore littleresemblanceto lsquoofficialrsquohistorytextbooknarratives
Emailelizabeth_duraisinghgseharvardedu copyCopyright2017DuraisinghThisisanOpenAccessarticledistributedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttributionLicencewhichpermits unrestricteduse distribution and reproduction in anymediumprovidedtheoriginalauthorandsourcearecredited
London Review of Education 175
Theyusedvariousnarrativestrategiessituatingtheirownlifestorywithinabroaderhistoricalcontextexploringtherelationshipbetweenindividualsandbiggerhistoricalprocessestetheringtheirownlifestorytothestoryofagrouporcommunitytowhomtheyfelttheybelonged(eganationaracialethnicgroupareligionhumankindwrit large)presentingtheirown lifeasbeingattheconfluenceofvariousunfoldinghistoricalnarrativesandorexploringhowthepastishelpingtoshapetheongoingstoryoftheirownpersonaldevelopment
Mappingoutsomeofthewaysinwhichindividualsnarrativelyconnecttheirownstoriesto a broader human past contributes to existing theory about historical consciousnessMoreoverdifferencesintheways inwhichyoungpeoplespokeabouttheirdiagramssuggestthattheirassumptionsaboutthenatureofhistoricalknowledgendashthatistheirepistemologicalunderstandings of history ndash relate to important differences in terms of how they conceiveof their identitiesand liveshintingat thepotentiallyprofound impactof thekindofhistoryeducationthatpromotesrigoroushistoricalthinking
Below relevant literatures on historical consciousness narratives identity and historyeducationarediscussedThestudymethodsarethenoutlinedAnoverviewofthestudyfindingsisprovidedbeforemorein-depthdiscussionofthreestudentdiagramsandhowthosestudentstalkedabouttheirdiagramsispresentedThepaperconcludesbyreflectingontheimplicationsofthestudyrsquosfindingsandpossibleavenuesforfutureresearch
Conceptual framework
Individual historical consciousness
Historicalconsciousness isaconceptofgrowinginteresttoexpertswhohavepioneeredandpressedfordisciplinaryapproachestoteachinghistory(Ahonen2005Lee2004aSeixas2004)ApplicabletobothindividualsandcommunitieshistoricalconsciousnessisfundamentallyabouthowashumansweorientourselvesintimeandrelateourownlivestothepastandfuturewhattheoristJoumlrnRuumlsencallslsquohistoricalidentityrsquo(1993)Importantlyorientationinvolvesbothsituatingoneself (whereamIwenow)anddirecting oneself (whereamIwegoing)withinahistorical continuum that expands beyond onersquos personal life experience For communitieshistoricalconsciousnessisintimatelyboundupwithcollectivememoryincludingtheselectionofwhichpubliceventsgetcommemoratedorevenrememberedandhowthecommunityrsquosoriginsareexplained(Lowenthal1996Nora1996Ruumlsen1993)WhilerecognizingthatindividualsareinseparablefromthelargerenterpriseofcollectivememorythisstudyrelatestoaspectsofindividualhistoricalconsciousnessndashthatishowyoungpeopleorientormakesenseoftheirownliveswithinahistoricalcontinuumRuumlsenemphasizesthathistoricalconsciousnessisnotlimitedtolsquohowmuchrsquohistoryindividualsknoweventhoughacertainlevelofknowledgeorlsquoexperiencersquoisaprerequisitelsquowhatisimportanttodiscoverinregardtohistoricalconsciousnessisnottheextentofknowledgeinvolvedbutrathertheframeworkandeffectiveprinciplesoperativeinmakingsenseofthepastrsquo(Ruumlsen199380)Thisstudyhelpsaddresstheneedforinitialsmall-scalequalitative investigations into individualhistoricalconsciousness (Billman-MachechaandHausen2005Lee2004bSeixas2005)
The role of narratives
This study assumes that we construct and enact meaning and identity through discourseparticularly through narratives which lie at the heart of how we make sense of who weare and our relationship to the world (Bruner 1990 Hammack and Pilecki 2012) Bruner
176 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
definesnarrativesas lsquoactsofmeaningrsquoorculturalproducts throughwhichweconstructourunderstandingof theworldndashconstructions thataccording toDanto(1965)arenecessarilyinfusedwithreferencestothepastBrunercontrastsnarrativeswithlsquoparadigmaticrsquoorlsquologico-scientificrsquo thinkingwhich involves trying to identifyeventsas instancesofanestablished law(Polkinghorne1988)Brunerbelievesthatthereareuniversalstobefoundacrossnarrativessuchasalsquostructureofcommittedtimersquowithabeginningmiddleandendorganizedaccordingtotheirhumanrelevance(Bruner200526)ThoughboundedbyhumanactionsstoriestypicallygeneratelsquogistsormoralsrsquothattranscendtheparticularitiesofthenarrativetoldandinvitetheaudiencetojudgethereasonsbehindindividualactionsNarrativescanberepresentedthroughavarietyofformsincludingthediagramsthatareanalysedinthispaperImportantlyBrunerfindsitimpossibletoseparatethethoughtthatgaverisetoanarrativeandthenarrativeitselfsuchadistinctionisnotmadeinthispaper
Researchshowsthatnarrativesplayakeyroleintheformationofnationalidentity(Billig1995 Reicher and Hopkins 2001) and theories about political processes and onersquos roleandagencywithinthem(Andrews2007)SimilarlytheoreticiansincludingRuumlsenconsidernarratives integral tohistorical consciousness (Polkinghorne 2005Ruumlsen 1993Wertsch2004)ReferringtolsquothenarrativecompetenceofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquoRuumlsenpositsthattelling stories ishow individuals synthesizedifferentdimensionsof timeand imposemoralmeaningonthepast
IneverydaydiscoursewerarelytellcompleteandcoherentnarrativesRatheritisthroughlsquosmall storiesrsquoor lsquonarrative fragmentsrsquo thatweshift inandoutofdifferentwaysofnarrativetelling(Baynham2010)asreflectedinthedatacollectedforthisstudyHammackandPilecki(2012)suggestthatthewaysinwhichweselectorconstructnarrativesareoftenlsquosaturatedwithemotionrsquoandnotalwaysrationalorconsistentAsindividualswenecessarilycreatenarrativesaccordingtothelsquoculturaltoolsrsquoavailabletous(Wertsch2002)includingnationalnarrativesTheprevailingQueacutebeacutecois narrative for instance is thatofmelancholic tragedy (Leacutetourneauand Moisan 2004) while a progressive lsquonarrative templatersquo of American exceptionalismpredominates intheUnitedStates(VanSledright2008Wertsch2004)Schoolstraditionallyplay an important role inpropagatingofficialhistorynarrativeshowever youngpeople alsointeract with many other kinds of sources that relay information about the past includingpopularfilmsnewsmedianational ceremoniesandritualsbooks televisiondocumentariesfamilies religious communities museums and historic sites (Barton 2001 Rosenzweig andThelen1998Wineburget al2007)InthisstudythestudentsinterviewedreferredtomovieshistoricsitesandfamilyhistoryforinstanceaswellaswhattheyhadlearnedinschoolorreadaboutelsewhereThatistheyengagedwithnarrativesthatwereculturallyavailabletothemalbeitinuniqueandpersonallymeaningfulways
Identity
Forthepurposesofthisstudylsquoidentityrsquoisdefinedaslsquotheattempttodifferentiateandintegrateasenseofselfalongdifferentsocialandpersonaldimensionsrsquo(Bamberg20116)Acomplexandmultidimensionalendeavour it invokesoverlappingsocioculturalcategories includinggenderraceethnicityoccupationclassnationstatereligionandsexualorientationThecurrentstudyassumedthatidentityisactivelyconstructed bytheindividualratherthanpassivelylsquoownedrsquoorlsquoreceivedrsquo situational insofar as it develops in context and is subject to change and shaped by narrativesasindicatedaboveImportantlythestudentsrsquoperceptionoftheresearcherndashanEnglish-accentedwhitefemaleofapproximatelyfortyyearsoldaffiliatedwithauniversityndashas
London Review of Education 177
wellastheparticularschoolcontextsinwhichtheyinteractedwithherwouldhaveinfluencedthenarrativestheychosetotellparticularlyduringtheinterviews
Developmentalpsychologistsmeanwhileview lateadolescenceasthepre-eminenttimeinthelifecycleforexplicitlyaddressingissuesofidentity(Erikson1968NakkulaandToshalis2006)asitisaperiodwhenyoungpeopletypicallydevelopanintegratedsenseofselfandthecapacityorcognitivetoolstoconsidertheirlivesinanabstractsenseorasanoveralllsquostoryrsquo(DamonandHart1988Harter1999McAdams1993) Indeedemergingresearchsuggeststhatdevelopingtheabilitytocreateautobiographicalandintergenerationalnarrativesiscrucialfor theemotional andpsychological stabilityof youngpeople (Fivushet al 2011McLeanet al2010)Moreoverat least incontemporarywesterncontextsquestionsconcerningonersquosidentityandlifepurposeunderstandablycometotheforeasyoungpeoplepreparetoleavetheirfamiliesandattain increasedautonomyThisstudychosetofocuson16-to18-year-oldsonthegroundsthattheywouldbelikelytobebothwillingandabletoreflectontherelationshipbetweenthemselvesandhistory
Historical knowledge and understanding
A few quantitative studies have tried to measure young peoplersquos attitudes towards thepastmostnotablythatofAngvikandVonBorries(1997)Meanwhilestudiesincorporatingqualitative approacheshave shownhowyoungpeoplersquos familyornational affiliations affectthekindsofnarrativestheytellaboutthepast(Welzer2008)ortheirhistoricalreasoning(Goldberg et al 2008) Other studies have shown that studentsrsquo social and culturalenvironments impacthowtheymakemeaningoftheirhistoryeducationandthattheyarefar from passive recipients of textbook narratives (Barton and Levstik 2004Goldberg et al 2006Rantala2011) Stillothershave shownhowstudentsrsquo interpretationsofnationalhistorydifferaccordingtotheirracialethnicidentity(Almarza2001Epstein1998HawkeyandPrior2011Peck2010Traille2007)andimmigrationstatusandexperience(An2009Grever et al2008)Whilethisbodyofresearchisinformativethefocusinthisstudywason theways inwhich young people explicitlymake connections between themselves andhistoryOtherstudieshaveexploredhowyoungpeoplethinkaboutthemselvesasmembersofaspecificgeneration(Lenz2011)personallyrelatetoschoolhistorytopics(BartonandMcCully2005)or feel a senseofconnectedness to theoverall studyofhistory (AudigierandFink2010Haeberli2005)Howeverthesestudieshavenotfocusedonthenarrativeprocessesbywhichindividualsrelatetheirownlivestothepast
Finally this study draws on literature concerning young peoplersquos historical thinkingparticularlywithregardtotheirthinkingaboutthenatureofhistoricalknowledgeForexampleacommonmisconceptionamongchildrenisthathistoricalknowledgeisjustlsquotherersquoanddoesnotneedtobeconstructedfromhistoricalsources(Ashby2005Lee2005Wineburg2001)althoughtheymayeventuallydeveloptheinsightthathistoricalaccountsarecontingentandmustanswerquestionsandfitcriteria(LeeandShemilt2004)Borrowingfromthatworkthisstudybroadly consideredwhether young people talked about their diagrams (andother historicalaccountsincludingnarrativeaccounts)astentativeinterpretationsoftheirrelationshiptothepastorasstraightforwardunambiguousaccountsItisworthnothingthattodatetherehasbeenalackofclarityregardingthetheoreticalrelationshipbetweenepistemologicalunderstandingsofhistoryandhistoricalconsciousness(Lee2004b)althougharecentpaperpointstoanintegralrelationshipbetweenthetwowithasophisticated(orlsquogeneticrsquo)levelofhistoricalconsciousnessnecessitatingthedevelopmentofalsquohistoriographicalgazersquo(Thorp2014)
178 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
This study drew then from diverse bodies of literature some theoretical and someempiricallygroundedTheoverarchingimpetuswastounderstandwaysinwhichyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothehistoricallysignificantpastWhilethisstudyemphasizesthehighlyindividualandcontext-specificwaysinwhichyoungpeoplecreateorweavetogethernarrativesaboutthemselvesandthepastitalsointegratesinsightsfromcognitiveresearchthatpointtothepredictabledevelopmentofmoreenduringepistemologicalordisciplinaryunderstandingsamongyoungpeopleThesetwoapproacheswhilepotentiallyincompatiblecanbereconciledifstudentsareseenasdevelopingcapacitiesformeaning-makingratherthanholdingparticularideas(HoferandPintrich2002Kegan1982)Howstudentsdeploytheirfundamentalepistemologicalunderstandingsmayvaryfromonediscursivecontexttoanotherbutstudentswhohavenotgraspedtheconstructedandcontingentnatureofhistorical interpretations for instancearenevergoingtoconstructnarrativesinwaysthatreflectthatunderstanding
Methods
Sample
Ofthefourresearchsitestwoschoolsweresituatedinaffluentsuburbancommunitiesonewasinamixed-incomesemi-urbancommunityandonewasinamixed-incomeurbancommunityTable1presentsdemographicfeaturesoftheoverallsampleasself-reportedbystudentsThesamplewas balanced by gender andwas somewhat raciallyethnically diverse however thestudywasnotintendedtobegeneralizabletosomebroaderpopulationespeciallyaspotentiallyimportant information was not collected regarding studentsrsquo socialeconomic or religiousbackgroundsMoreoverthestudywasfocusedonthegeneralprocessesbywhichstudentsusedthepasttomakesenseoftheirlivesidentitiesandvaluesratherthanontheactualsubstantiveconnections that theymadeUnderstandable differences inwhat students talked about (egslaveryandthecivilrightsmovementvstheIslamicRevolutioninIran)werelessimportantforthisstudythanhowtheytalkedaboutthepastorwhatkindofepistemological stance theytooktowardsit(whichwerenotexpectedtobeinfluencedbygenderorracialethnicbackground)
Bydintofbeingenrolledincollegepreparationclasses(HonorsorAP)thesestudentswererelatively successful academically and likely tobeable toarticulate their relationshiptothepastalthoughinformationabouttheirgradesorhistoryeducationwasnotavailableStudentsparticipatedduring class time towards theendof the school year in a varietyofsubject area contexts (accounting English literature government history andpsychology)The subsampleof the 26 interviewed studentswas intentionally diverse in terms bothofdemographiccharacteristics andof theirdiagramsandwritten responsesWith respect tostudentworkvariationwassoughtregarding(1)thenumberofconnectionsstudentsmadebetweenthemselvesandthepast(2)therelativesophisticationoftheirreasoningaboutthenatureofhistoricalknowledgeas indicatedbya follow-upactivity (seebelow)and (3) theuniquenessortypicalityoftheirdiagramsrelativetotherestofthesampleHowever it isimportanttonotethatforreasonsoftimingtheinterviewsamplewasselectedbasedonaninitialreadingofthediagramsandotherwrittenresponsesratherthanonthemorethoroughanalysisdescribedbelowAllinterviewswerefullytranscribed
London Review of Education 179
Table 1Breakdownofsample(n=187)
Number of students in
overall sample
of overall sample
Number of students interviewed
of students interviewed
Gender (n=187)
Male 105 56 14 50
Female 82 44 14 50
Race ethnicity (n=175)
African-American 9 5 4 14
Asian 24 14 2 7
Hispanic 3 2 0 0
NativeAmerican 0 0 0 0
White 124 67 18 64
Mixedother 14 8 4 14
Family mobility and language (n=175)
Atleastoneforeignbornparent
74 39 11 40
Studenthasalwayslivedincurrentneighbourhood
111 59 15 54
StudenthaslivedoutsideNewEngland
50 27 5 29
LanguageotherthanEnglishspokenathome
56 30 9 32
Demographicdetailsweremissingforsomeofthesample
Data collection
AsmentionedstudentswereaskedtodrawadiagramonablankpieceofpapertoshowhowthepastlsquohelpsexplainwhoyouareandthelifeyouarelivingorhopetoliversquoandtothenexplaintheformandcontentoftheirdiagramTheideawasthataconcisediagramformatwouldallowstudentstoconstructanoverviewofthewaysinwhichtheythoughtaboutthemselvesinrelationtothepastalthoughitwasusuallyunclearifthisrelationshipwassomethingtheyhadreflectedonpreviouslyTheopen-endednatureofthetaskallowedstudentstoapproachitinwaysthatwerepersonallymeaningfultothemStudentstypicallyspentapproximately45minutesonthetaskWhilethispaperfocusesonthediagramsstudentswentontocompleteotheractivitiesincludingonedesignedtosurfacetheirepistemologicalreasoningaboutthenatureofhistoricalaccounts(adaptedfromBoixMansilla2001)whichtheyalsodiscussedintheirinterviews
Initial coding rounds
StudentsrsquodiagramsprovedhighlyvariedposingachallengeforanalysisInitialcodingfocusedonthecontentofstudentsrsquodiagramsAcrossallthediagramsalmosthalfoftheitems(46percent)relatedtostudentsrsquodirectpersonalexperiencessuchasstartinganewschoolormovinghouseorfeaturesoftheireverydaylivesincludingpersonalitytraitshobbiesortastesOnlyaquarteroftheitemsreferredtowhatmightbecalledthehistoricalpasteventslikelytofeatureinstudentsrsquohistorytextbooksandwhichprecededtheirbirthsAfurther9percentofitemsreferredtolsquohistoricalrsquoeventsoccurringwithinthestudentsrsquoownlifetimesorcontemporaneouslysuchastheelectionofBushorObamaandtheWaronTerror20percentofitemscomprisedthemesortopicsnottiedtoaparticulartimeorperiodsuchasimmigrationracismorliterature
180 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
ThevaguewordingofthetaskinstructionsndashlsquoshowhowthepasthelpsexplainwhoyouareandthelifeyouarelivingrsquondashmeantthatmanystudentslegitimatelychosetofocusontheirownpastaswellasorinsteadofthehistoricallysignificantpastClosetoafifthofstudents(17percent)includedonly eventsthateithertheyorimmediatemembersoftheirfamilyhadpersonallyexperiencedandoraspectsoftheirpresent-daylivesOverathirdofstudents(34percent)includedmostlyoronlysuchitems(lsquomostlyrsquowasdefinedastwo-thirdsormoreofitems)Overatenthofstudents(13percent)includedmostlyoronlyhistoricallysignificantitemsintheirdiagramswhileclosetohalf(47percent)combineddifferenttypesofitemssothatnoonetypedominatedWhilesuchstatisticsarguablyhintattherelativesensitivityofindividualstudentstothepastthesheeramountofhistorythatindividualschosetoincludeintheirdiagramswasnotusefulforindicatingthedegreetowhichorprocessbywhichtheyweremakingconnectionsbetweentheirownlivesandthepast
Thenextroundofanalysisattemptedtodifferentiatebetweenstudentswhotoldstoriesto explain their personal connection to the past and those who approached the questionmore lsquoanalyticallyrsquo as per Brunerrsquos distinction between narrative and paradigmatic thinkingHowevergiventhecentralityofnarrativestohowwemakemeaningofour lives itprovedmore productive to focus on theways inwhich students integrated personal and historicalnarrativesintheirdiagramsBrunercommentingonwrittentextshasstatedthatlsquoitisnotthatnarrativeandparadigmaticmodesofdiscoursefusefortheydonotItisratherthatthelogicalorparadigmaticmodeisbroughttobearonthetaskofexplicatingthebreachinthenarrativersquo(Bruner200594)Thisdistinctionplayedoutinthisstudyasfollowsstudentstypicallydrewadiagramcontainingnarrativethreads(orasinglecoherentnarrative)andthenwroteexplanatoryor logical comments eitherwithinor alongside thediagram Interviewed students retoldorelaboratedonthesenarrativeswhilealsobreakingoutintoanalyticcommentaryonthem
Findings overview Studentsrsquo incorporation of personal and historical narratives into their diagrams
Table2summarizesthewaysinwhichstudentscombinedpersonalandhistoricallysignificantitemsintheirdiagrams iftheydidatallandtheoverallnarrativeeffect ifanyThelabels inboldindicatethepresenceofwhatappearedtobecoherentoverarchingnarrativeswithinthediagramsndashbethatpersonalnarrativeshistoricalnarrativesoronesthatbroughtthesetwokindsofnarrativetogetherPersonalnarrativesrefertostoriesaboutstudentsrsquoownlivesorthoseoftheirimmediatefamilyHistoricalnarrativesinvolvethehistoricallysignificantpastasrecognizedbyarelativelylargegroupofpeopleincludinghistoriansTheycouldbenarrativesaboutparticulareventsorhistoricaldevelopmentssuchasthestruggleforwomenrsquosrightsortheUnitedStatesgainingindependencefromBritainmoreinterpretativesweepsofperiodsofhistorysuchasthetwentiethcenturyorevenaddresshowhistoryitselfunfolds
ItisimportanttonotethatstudentswerenotaskedtoproducecoherentnarrativesoftheirrelationshiptothepastintheirdiagramsanabsenceofacoherentnarrativedoesnotmeanthatindividualstudentswereincapableofandorresistanttoproducingthemjustthattheydidnotdosointhiscontextMoreoversincestudentsweregiventhechallengingtaskofsimultaneouslythinking of items to include and arranging those items diagrammatically some diagrams canbeinterpretedasaninitialjottingdownofideasndashalthoughasTable2indicatessomeofthediagrams that appeared tobe listsor brainstormseffectivelyoperated as narratives if thereweresufficientthematiccoherenceandadequatecontext forthechoiceof itemsHoweverinthecaseofstudentswhowerenotintervieweditisimpossibletoknowiftheyintentionallyselectedordevelopedparticularnarrativestrategiesThemostcompellingdiagrams(a)included
London Review of Education 181
lessthantwo-thirdsofitemsrelatedtopersonalorfamilyexperiencestastesinterestsetcandatleastsomehistoricallysignificantitemsand(b)integratedpersonalandhistoricalnarrativesHoweverTable2shouldbereadasasummaryoffindingsratherthanasanevaluativeschema
Table 2Asummaryofcontenttypeandnarrativestrategyintheoverallsampleofdiagrams(n=168)
A Diagrams onlyincludepersonalorfamilyexperiencestastesinterestsetc(n=31)
LISTBRAINSTORMCurrentinterestsfriendsfamilyvaluesinfluences 20
CHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHTellsstoryofownlifeandorimmediatefamily
Personal narrative
11
B Two-thirdsormoreofincludeditemsarepersonalorfamilyexperiencestastesinterestsetcbutotherkindsofitemsareincluded(n=29)
LISTBRAINSTORMCurrentinterestsfriendsfamilyetcwithhistorycitedasaninterestor eventsorinfluencesincludingitemsofbroadhistoricorcontemporarysignificance
17
CHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHTellsstoryofownlifesomeprecedinghistoryisincludedasbackgroundandor broadercontextualdetailisincludedndashegcontemporaryeventsordevelopments
Personal narrative with links to the historically significant past
12
C Two-thirdsormoreofincludeditemsarehistoricallysignificantevents(n=24)
LISTBRAINSTORMSeeminglyrandomconnectionsorverygeneralrationaleforincludingitemsegthingsthathaveaffectedmethingsIbelieveareimportant
13
LISTBRAINSTORMCoherentthemeitemscollectivelyservetolinkownlifestorytobiggerhistoricalnarrative(s)
Personal narrative linked to historical narrative
7
CHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHChronologicaloverviewofhistorywithselfatendorasapointonatimeline
Historical narrative with self inserted
4
D IntegrateddiagramMixtureofdifferentkindsofitems(n=84)
LISTBRAINSTORMSeeminglyrandomconnectionsorverygeneralrationaleforincludingitemsegthingsthathaveaffectedmethingsIbelieveareimportantorhavelearnedfrom 23
LISTBRAINSTORMCoherentthemeitemscollectivelyservetolinkownlifestorytobiggerhistoricalnarrative(s)
Personal narrative linked to historical narrative
13
VARIEDFORMSSubsumespersonalnarrativewithinthatofagrouptowhichheorshebelongs(egAlgerianMuslimsAshkenaziJewsAmericanshumanrace)
Personal and historical narrative tethered (STUART)
9
BROADCHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHContextualizesownorfamilystorywithinbroaderhistoricalcontextshowshowownstoryorfamilyrsquosstoryhasbeenintertwinedwithhistoricaleventsortrends
Personal narrative contextualized within broader historical narrative (MELVIN)
23
VARIEDFORMSPresentsselfasaproductandorpartofaconfluenceofnarrativesmayinvolvecomplexcausalconnections
Personal narrative seen as product of historical narrative(s) andor at confluence of different narratives (JESS)
16
NumberofdiagramsinsamplefittingthiscategoryDiagramsthatonlyincludedgeneralthemeswereexcludedfromthisanalysis
182 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
Studentsrsquo narrative strategies Melvin Stuart and Jess
While giving a senseof thedistributionof approacheswithin theoverall sampleTable 2 isnecessarilyreductionistandfailstocapturewhatitlookedlikeinpracticeforparticularstudentstomakenarrativeconnectionsbetweentheirownlivesandthepastThispaperturnsnowtothreespecificcasestoprovidemorenuanceddiscussionandtoshowthatstudentsconnectedthemselvestothepast inhighly individualizedwaysMelvinStuartand Jess(allpseudonyms)wereselectedbecausetheycreateddiagramswithmixedcontentbutuseddifferentnarrativestrategies to bring personal and historical narratives together as indicated in SectionD ofTable2Furthermoretherewereinterestingdifferencesinthewaysinwhichtheytalkedabouttheirdiagrams
InwhatfollowsafewimpressionisticdetailsaregivenabouteachstudenttoemphasizetheirindividualityaswellastoconveytheresearcherrsquosperspectivethedetailsarenotnecessarilysignificantThenevidencefromthestudentsrsquodiagramstheirwrittenexplanationsandinterviewsarewoventogether
Melvin Historically contextualizing his own life story exploring the relationship between individuals and bigger historical processes
Melvinwas a soft-spoken affable studentwhowore abaseball capduringhis interviewHereferredtohisCaribbeanheritageandlargefamily(heistheyoungestofeightchildren)aswellashisreligiousfaithHehastravelledextensivelytovisitfamilyintheCaribbeanandEuropeandhaslivedinvariousGreaterBostonneighbourhoods
MelvinrsquosdiagramatfirstglanceisstructuredintheformofaswirlingtimelineHestartswith the Emancipation Proclamation ndash the abolition of slavery at the end of the AmericanCivilWarndashwhichispresentedasanecessaryconditionorbackgroundenablinghispersonalstorylsquomyeducationlevelmyqualityoflifeprobablywhereIlivewouldhavebeencompletelydifferentrsquoHoweverhisdiagramdoesnotfollowastrictchronologydespitethearrowsthatconnectthedifferentitemsTheendofthetimelineisonlylooselystructuredfeaturingaspectsofMelvinrsquoslifecircumstancessuchaswherehelivestheeducationhehasreceivedthetravelhehascompletedandhowtheselifecircumstanceshavehadanimpactonwhoheistodayWhileMelvinincorporatesthehistoricallysignificantpastintohisdiagramhisfocusissomewhattiltedtowardshispersonallifestory
NonethelessMelvindoesmorethanmerelydescribehisownlifehesituatesitwithinabroaderhistoricalcontextHisexplanatorynotescentreonhowhecametohaveexcellentlifeprospectsdespitethechallengesheperceivesofbeingayoungblackmanlivingintheUnitedStatesBeginninghispersonaltimelinewiththeEmancipationProclamationandtheendingoftheJimCrowlawsservestoacknowledgehisrelativegoodfortunecomparedwithpreviousgenerationshealsoconnectshisownstorytoawidercollectivenarrativeofsocialprogressandtechnologicalchangewhichaffectlsquoprettymucheveryoneinmygenerationrsquoByonlyselectinglsquothingsbeyondhiscontrolrsquo forhisdiagramMelvinusesthediagramnarrativetoexploretherelationshipbetweenindividuallivesorfreewillandlargersocietalorhistoricalforcesInhisinterview he also referred to his siblings his parentsrsquo political and religious views and theliberalcontextofMassachusettsasinfluencesbeyondhiscontrolthathavehelpedtoshapehimblurringthedistinctionbetweenpastandpresentinhisbidtoexplorethedegreetowhichweshapeourowndestinies
London Review of Education 183
Fig
ure
1M
elvinrsquosdiagram
184 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
Fig
ure
2Stuartrsquosdiagram
London Review of Education 185
Stuart Situating his own life at the confluence of various historical narratives tethering his own story to the history of humanity
StuartwasaboyofItalianAmericanextractionwithspikedhairwhosefamilyhaslivedinthesamesemi-urbanneighbourhoodofGreaterBostonforseveralgenerationsHejokedaroundwithhispeersinclassbutbecamestrikinglyseriousinthecontextoftheinterviewspeakinginaheartfeltwayabouthisfamilyandhisprideinbeingAmericanHealsostatedthathistorywashisfavouritesubject
Stuartrsquosdiagramwaswide-rangingintermsofboththemeandtimespanHepickedthefollowingthemeslsquowarsandbattlesrsquowhichleduptooratleastprecededlsquomodernterrorismrsquolsquofamouspeoplersquowithJesusChristtheonlynamedpersonlsquoconstructionandfactorizationrsquo[sic]whichtracesbroadtechnologicaldevelopmentsinhumanhistoryandlsquolandandthefoundersrsquowhich broadly relates to the discovery andor establishment of different empires or nationstates The general chronological element to the threads suggests narratives unfolding overtimeanimpressionreinforcedbyacommentmadebyStuartinhisinterview
InterviewerObviously IrsquoveaskedyoutodothisbuthaveyouthoughtaboutthisbigpicturebeforeOrwasitjustmdash
StuartIactuallyhaveIwasjustlikesittingathomeandjustlikethinkinglikewhydideverythingstartandlikehowitactuallypusheditselfintoeachotheranditdevelopedintoeverythingandthenIcamealongandIfeltlikeIwasapartofiteventhoughIwasnrsquotlikephysicallyapartofitLikeIthoughtIwasinvolvedbecauseofallthishappening
Hismetaphoriclanguagewhichconveysasenseofhistoricaleventsslidingorpilingintooneanotherdrawsattentiontohisbeingimmersedinsomebiggerstoryconcerningthewholeofhumanhistory
InhisdiagramStuartsituateshislifeattheconfluenceofdifferentnarrativestrandsunfoldinginhistoryhealsotethershispersonalstorytothatofhumankindwritlargeThatisinbeingasked to show how his own life connects to the past he elects to tell a broader story ofhumanityIfwecompareStuartrsquosdiagramtothatofMelvin it is lessofanexplorationofhisindividualstoryandmoreanexpressionaboutbelongingtoacollectivestory
Jess Exploring how the past is helping shape the ongoing story of her own personal development situating her own life at the confluence of various historical narratives
Jesswasagirlwith longbrownhairanaccomplishedgymnastanddancerShespokeofherJewish ancestry and her familyrsquos involvement in the LGBTmovement as well as her closeattachmenttoherlocalurbancommunitywhereshehaslivedherwholelifeShearticulatedherwordscarefullyoftenpausingasiftoreflectbeforerespondingtoquestions
AtfirstglanceJessrsquosdiagramdoesnotexhibitthekindofflowvisibleintheprevioustwodiagramsHoweverthereisaswirlingdynamicatplaymadeevidentbyherverbalexplanationofherdiagram
SoattheverycentreofmydiagramIhavejustalittlekindofbubblethatsayslsquomersquoAndImadeitabubblebecauseIthinkIrsquomnotallthatsortofwelldefinedbutitrsquosallsortofjustmushandthingsjustkindofflowinandinfluencemeSoIhavesortofacirclearoundmyselfandIhaveabunchofdifferentsortsofmovementsandeventsinhistorythatIthinkhavemostinfluencedmesuchastheenvironmentalmovementsandenvironmentaldegradationThecivilrightsmovementstheGLBTmovementswomenrsquosrightsmovementsJewishhistoryJewishmovementsandwarsaresortofthemaineventsthatinfluencedmeandtheninmoreofaninnercircleIhavemorebroad
186 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
topicssuchaseducationtechnologydancingandmusicthathavendashtheyallhavetheirownsortofhistoryandtheyallhaveapastthatIdonrsquotnecessarilyknowasmuchaboutinaconcretewaybutumndashallofthosethingsinfluencemesotheyrsquoreallflowingintothecentreThatrsquoswhereIam
Figure 3Jessrsquosdiagram
InthiscaseherongoingpersonaldevelopmentarguablyprovidesthenarrativecentrepieceorunifyingfactorThediagramalsoservesasanassertionofheremergingidentityndashintermsofeventsthathaveinfluencedhervaluesandsenseofwhosheisaswellasherpersonaltalentsandinterestsAsbecameevidentinherinterviewhowevershealsosituatesherselfasbeingattheconfluenceofdifferenthistoricalnarrativesForexampleshetalksaboutbeingatacertainmoment in thehistoryof theenvironmentwhichhasbeenshapedbypreviousgenerationsrsquoactionslsquomygenerationwersquoregoingtobereallyreallydealingwiththatrsquoShetalksaboutbeingshapedbyandinheritingthelegacyofthewomenrsquosrightsmovementcivilrightsmovementandJewishhistoryWithregardtothegayrightsmovementinwhichherfamilyhasbeenimmersedshehasasenseofbeingpartofhistoryinthemakinglsquothemovementisnow Youknowtherersquosbeenmovementsinthepastcertainlybutitrsquoslikeahugethingnowrsquo
How students talked about their diagrams The importance of epistemology
Theways inwhich students in the study talked about their diagramswere revealing of thepotentialrelationshipbetweentheirunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgeandtheir individualhistoricalconsciousnessInparticulartherewasacontrastbetweenstudents
London Review of Education 187
who presented their diagrams as contingent subjective interpretations of the relationshipbetweentheirownlivesandthepastandthosewhoappearedtopresenttheirdiagramsasself-evidentstraightforwardrepresentations
Jessforinstancetalkedfromthestartaboutnotbeinglsquoallthatwelldefinedrsquoasreflectedby the blob at the centre of her diagram There is a sense of fluidity ormovement in herdiagramndashasmuchintermsofherowninterpretationofherownplaceinhistoryasineventsordevelopmentsthemselvesShowinganawarenessofthelimitationsofherownknowledgeshestatesthatshedidnotwanttoexcludeitemsfromherdiagramsimplybecauseofherownignorance
MoreoverintalkingaboutthedifferentelementsofherdiagramshespokeinmetacognitivetermsaboutthedifferencesbetweenlearningaboutJewishhistoryatthetemplewhereitwasframedas lsquoourhistoryrsquoandatschoolwhereitwastreatedassomeoneelsersquoshistoryWithregardtothewomenrsquosrightsmovementshesaid
Sowomenrsquos rightsrsquomovements ndash umm ndashmymomwas a pretty hardcore feminist and IrsquovedefinitelyinheritedsomeofthatandIrsquovereallyenjoyedmostlythisyearactuallyndashIlearnedaboutwomenrsquosrightsinUSHistoryandthatrsquosbeenreallyinterestingsortofhowthatrsquosplayedoutAndprobablybecauseofmymotherandotheradultsandotherwomenthatIrsquovegrownupwithIrsquomlikendashveryconsciousofthatthatIamawomanandthatotherwomenhavedonealottogettowhereIamtodayAndtherersquosdefinitelyasenseofprideformeIhavealwaysbeenverysortofconsciousofthatheritage
Here Jesspresents the impactof themovementassomewhat inevitablegivenhermotherrsquosvaluesHowevershealsorefersexplicitlytoherenjoymentandinterestinlearningaboutthistopicatschoolSheexpresseshersenseofconnectiontowomenrsquoshistoryandheractiveprideinitwhilealsoprovidinganexplanationforwhyshefeelsconnectedtoitshowingacapacityforself-reflectionormetacognitionItisworthnotinghoweverthatshedidnotcommentontheprogressivetemplatethatseemedtoundergirdhernarrative
StuartincontrastpresentedhisdiagraminmorefixedtermsWheninvitedtotalkaboutitheproceededtolisteverythingcontainedwithinit
WellfirstofallIputthelandandthefoundersbecausethesearethebasicgroupsandpeoplethatstartedeverythingThepeoplewhostartedMesopotamiaAncientThebesyouknowlikethatPeoplewhowereintheRomanEmpireallthoseVikingsthefamousexplorersChristopherColumbusMagellanetceterahellip
Inthisextracthe iscitingundisputed lsquofactsrsquohedoesnotusemodifying languagebut insteadstates straightforwardlywhat happenedWhen asked how he knew about these aspects ofthepastheresponded lsquoMostofthestuffcamefromschool Iwas justtryingtothinkwhathappenedrsquo Stuart expressed a greatdealof connection to thepast including asmentionedearlierthathefeltpartofanongoinghistoricalprocessWhileJessspokewithprideyetanalyticdetachmentofherconnectiontothewomenrsquosmovementStuartdidnotexhibitthecapacitytotalkinametacognitivewayaboutthecontentorformofhisdiagramndashalthoughthisdoesnotmeanthathewasincapableofdoingso
Inhis interviewStuartalso talkedabout learning fromhisgrandmotherabout thepastincludinglifelessonsshegleanedfromweatheringtheGreatDepressionHereferredtohercorroboratingwhathelearnedatschool
Anditrsquoscoolbecause[myteacher]canteachmeaboutitatthesametimeandthenshecanjusttellmeaboutthestuffItrsquosreallycoolhellipIlikeaskherlsquoDoyourememberthisrsquohelliplsquoDoyourememberbootleggingandstufflikethatrsquoAndshewaslikelsquoyeaIrememberthatrsquowhichiscoolbecauseyouactuallyknowwhathappenedYoucanjusttalktoheraboutit
188 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
It is notable that he does not talk about hearing his grandmotherrsquos perspective about whathappenedratherheviewsherasanauthorityonhistorypresumablybecausehethinksshedirectlyexperiencedwhatisinhistextbook
Melvinrsquosstancetowardhisdiagramwasmoretentativeinnosmallpartbecauseheactuallyproducedtwodiagramsthefirstversionwasabrainstormofinfluencesonhislifewhichhethought conveyed an even spreadof influences on his lifeHowever in the second version(featuredinthispaper)lsquoItriedtomakeitinchronologicalordersotospeakLikewhatwasinheritedthenthingsthataffectedmelateronrsquoFurtherhespokerepeatedlyabouthisparticularlifeexperiencesaffectinghisperspectiveontheworldandonthepast
YouknowIwasnrsquotbroughtupinthesametypeofenvironmentthat[myparents]wereIwasbroughtupinAmericainMassachusettsatthatAndIthoughtthatwassomethingthatreallyaffectsyouanditaffectshowyoulookatliketheinternationalpoliticalsystemandwhatnothellipIthinkbecausemyparentsarefromoverseasitdefinitelyhelpsmelookatthingsonalargerscaleButIdodefinitelythinkincomparisontothemIlookatthingsfromanAmericanperspective
At the same time he assumes some commonality with other people such as people fromhisgenerationwhoaregrowingup inadigitalenvironment InMelvinrsquoscasehisoverarchingnarrativeisabout thewayinwhichhisoutlookandlifeprospectshavebeenaffectedbythepastandexternalforceshoweverheisalsoabletolsquostepoutsidersquothatnarrativetoreflectonthewaysinwhichhisapproachtothetaskhasbeeninfluencedbythoseverylifeexperiencesandfamilyinfluencesLikeStuartheisclosetohisgrandmotherHoweverwhenhereferstotalkingwithherabout thepastandher life inTrinidadhiscomment isaboutherperspective lsquotheobstaclesofyourpastdefinitelyaffectyourpointofviewrsquoInturnhetalksaboutherinfluenceonhimlsquoIthinkthestoriesthatyoursquoretolddefinitelyaffectthewayyouthinkrsquo
OtherstudentsmadecommentsthatindicatedarelationshipbetweentheirawarenessoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgeandthewaysinwhichtheyviewedtheirownrelationshiptothepastThey(1)acknowledgedtheirownsubjectivityandorthelimitationsoftheirperspectiveontheirrelationshiptothepast(2)presentedtheirdiagramsandexplanationsas tentative and subject to alteration andor (3) stepped outside themselves to reflect ontheir reactions to learningabouthistory In factwhile Jesswas theonly studentwhomadecommentsthatcoveredallthreeofthesecategoriesfewstudentsappearedtotakethemorestraightforwardviewofhistoricalknowledgeapparentlyevincedbyStuartThefactthatstudentsinthesamplewereacademicallysuccessfulaged16ndash18andlivinginacitywithahighlyeducatedworkforceandmajoracademicinstitutionsprobablyneedstobetakenintoaccountwithregardtothisfinding
ItisalsoworthreiteratingthattheresearcherwasnotaproverbialflyonthewallwhilecollectingthisdataForexampleStuartpresentedhimselfasagoodstudentwholikedhistoryandrespectedhiselders justpriortotheinterviewtherewasadrugsbustattheschoolbypoliceanditispossiblehewantedtoconveythathewasalsquodecentkidrsquoMelvindiscussedhisrelative good fortune comparedwithother youngblackmen (including implicitly others athisschool)insodoinghewasabletocommunicatethathewasfromahighlyeducatedfamilylivinginadesirablepartoftownJessmeanwhilepositionedherselfasathoughtfulpoliticallyinformedstudentWhiletheseimpressionsarepurelyspeculativetheysuggestthattheschoolcontextandtheperceivedidentityoftheresearcherndashaswellastheframingoftheactivityndashhelpedtoshapewhatstudentschosetoshareHoweverrecognizingthatthereislikelytobesomefluidityintermsofhowindividualsrelatetheirownlivestothepastdoesnotdiminishthefindingthattheyoungpeopleinthisstudyusedavarietyofnarrativestrategiestodosoorthatthewaysinwhichtheytalkedaboutthosestrategiesappearedtodifferaccordingtotheirepistemologicalunderstandings
London Review of Education 189
Implications
InconjunctionwiththeoverallsummaryshowninTable2thesethreecasesprovidesnapshotsofdifferentways inwhichyoungpeopleusednarrativestrategiestoconnecttheirownlivesto the past aswell as differences in theways inwhich they talked about those strategiesWhilethisstudyishighlyexploratorythesecasespointtotheapparentdiversityofways inwhichyoungpeoplethinkaboutthemselvesinrelationtothepastaswellasthesignificanceof epistemological understanding in the construction of individual historical consciousnessOf coursemany questions remain For example was the ability of Jess andMelvin to talkreflectively about their diagrams and their relationship to thepast an indicationof rigoroushistoricalunderstandinginadisciplinarysenseorofmoregenericcriticalorabstractthinkingskills Further howdo teensrsquo broaddevelopmental trajectoriesndash such as thoseoutlinedbyErikson(1968)ndash intersectwiththeirhistoricalunderstanding Itwouldbe interestingtoaskchildrenofdifferentagestocompletethediagramtaskYoungerstudentswouldpresumablyfind it challenging tocreate anarrative about theirown lives in toto as indeed someof thestudentsinthisstudymayhavedoneExaminingthepotentiallinksbetweenthedevelopmentofautobiographicalstory-tellingskillsandhowyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastcouldbeanotherproductivelineofresearch
Methodologicallythestudyopensupsomeinterestingpossibilitiesespeciallyasthediagramactivity invited students to synthesize their thinking about their personal connections to thepastinarelativelyopen-endedmannerThetaskinstructionsandoranalysiscouldbealteredtoinvestigaterelatedphenomenaForexamplehowifatalldostudentsdealwiththeideathataspeopletheyareevolvingandmayhaveashiftingrelationshiptoorperspectiveonthepastTowhatextentdotheyportraythemselvesasactiveagentsintheirownrightratherthanindividualssubjecttoforcesbeyondtheircontrolHowdodifferencesamongtheirvariouslsquometa-historicalrsquounderstandingssuchastheirworkingideasabouthistoricalcausalityrelatetohowtheytalkaboutthemselves inrelation to thepastHowwould theyposition themselvesrelative toperceivednationalnarrativesWhile it is impossible toproveadirectrelationship fromthis singlestudyndashorthereasonsbehindsucharelationshipndashstudentswhodisplayedanunderstandingoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgealsogavetheimpressionofbeingmoreempoweredintermsoftalkingabouttheirfutureandnavigatingtheirownemergingidentities
Withregardtopractice therangeofpersonaldiagramsproducedbystudentsconfirmsthatifteachersarelookingtobuildontheirstudentsrsquoexistingideasandunderstandingsalsquoonesizefitsallrsquoapproach is likely tobemisguidedandnon-inclusiveandthatnationalnarrativesare only one kind of narrative towhich young people feel connected This paper does notadvocatethatyoungpeoplebeinvitedtorelateeverythingtheylearninhistorytothemselvesHoweverofferingopen-endedandpotentiallycreativeopportunitiesforthemtoreflectontheconnectionstheyperceivebetweenthemselvesandthepastislikelytobeengagingparticularlyforolderteensgiventheirbroaderdevelopmentalneedtoestablishindependentidentities
FurthermoresuchopportunitiescanactivelybuildhistoricalunderstandingGiventhesheervarietyofdiagramsthatwillalmostcertainlybeproducedwithinasingleclassroomstudentscan learn a greatdeal by looking at anddiscussing thediagramsof their peers inways thatdeveloptheirunderstandingthatpeoplehavedifferentperspectivesonthepastandthattheseperspectivesareshapedat least inpartbybiographicalorothercontextual factorsLookingatothersrsquodiagramscanopenupdifferentpossibilitiesforyoungpeopleintermsofhowtheythinkabouttheirownrelationshiptothepastandgivethemanewperspectiveontheirownidentityandoutlookIndeedthepowerofthisapproachcanbefurtherenhancedifclassroomsaredigitallyconnectedtoclassroomsinothercountriesengaginginthesameactivityinpartbecauseitallowsprevailingandassumednationalnarrativestobecomevisible
190 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
While somepeoplewouldcertainly resist thenotionof lettingyoungpeopleuse schoolhistoryasavenueforexploringorinterpretingtheirownlivesidentitiesandvaluesthisresearchshedslightonsomeofthevariedwaysinwhichyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastoruseitfororientingpurposesAsJessinparticulardemonstratedasophisticatedunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgecangohandinhandwithaself-awarenessandevenprideinonersquosrelationshiptothepastWearguablyoweittoourstudentstohelpthemthinkaboutwhotheyareandthelivestheyarelivingorwanttoliveinourrapidlychangingandevermorecomplexworldWeneedtosupportthemtointerpretthepastandtodeveloprobusthistoricalunderstandingswealsoneedtosupportthemtointerprettheirownnarratives
Acknowledgements
TheauthorwishestothanktheGermanacosFoundationforsupportingtheresearchdiscussedinthispaperaswellasHowardGardnerHelenHasteandMeiraLevinsonforprovidingguidancewiththeresearchMycolleaguesEdwardClappandShariTishmangavehelpfulfeedbackonearlydrafts
Notes on the contributor
ElizabethDawesDuraisinghisaresearchassociateandprincipalinvestigatoratProjectZeroaresearchcentreat theHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducationwhereshealsoservesasalectureroneducationShewaspreviouslyahighschoolhistoryteacherforeightyearsworkinginbothEnglandandAustralia
References
AhonenS(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessAviableparadigmforhistoryeducationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(6)697ndash707
Almarza DJ (2001) lsquoContexts shaping minority language studentsrsquo perceptions of American historyrsquo Journal of Social Studies Research25(2)4ndash22
AnS(2009)lsquoLearningUShistoryinanageofglobalizationandtransnationalmigrationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)763ndash87
AndrewsM(2007)Shaping History Narratives of political changeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressAngvikMandVonBorriesB(eds)(1997)Youth and History A comparative European survey on historical
consciousness and political attitudes among adolescentsHamburgKoumlrber-StiftungAshbyR(2005)lsquoStudentsrsquoapproachestovalidatinghistoricalclaimsrsquoInAshbyRGordonPandLeeP
(eds)Understanding History Recent research in history educationLondonRoutledge21ndash36AudigierFandFinkN(2010)lsquoPupilsandschoolhistoryinFranceandSwitzerlandrsquo Education 3ndash1338
(3)329ndash39BambergM(2011)lsquoWhoamINarrationanditscontributiontoselfandidentityrsquo Theory and Psychology
21(1)3ndash24BartonKC(2001)lsquolsquolsquoYoursquodbewantingtoknowaboutthepastrdquoSocialcontextsofchildrenrsquoshistorical
understandinginNorthernIrelandandtheUSArsquo Comparative Education37(1)89ndash106BartonKCandLevstikLS(2004)Teaching History for the Common GoodMahwahNJLawrenceErlbaum
AssociatesBartonKCandMcCullyAW(2005)lsquoHistoryidentityandtheschoolcurriculuminNorthernIreland
Anempiricalstudyofsecondarystudentsrsquoideasandperspectivesrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(1)85ndash116
London Review of Education 191
Baynham M (2010) lsquoAlexandra Georgakopoulou Small stories interaction and identitiesrsquo Applied Linguistics31(3)471ndash3
BilligM(1995)Banal NationalismLondonSAGEPublicationsBillmann-Mahecha E and Hausen M (2005) lsquoEmpirical psychological approaches to the historical
consciousnessofchildrenrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks163ndash86
BoixMansillaV(2001)The Pursuit of Understanding A study of exemplary high school studentsrsquo conceptions of knowledge validation in science and history EdDthesisHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducation
BrunerJS(1990)Acts of MeaningCambridgeMAHarvardUniversityPressBrunerJS(2005)lsquoPastandpresentasnarrativeconstructionsrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and
Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks23ndash43DamonWandHartD (1988)Self-Understanding in Childhood and AdolescenceNewYorkCambridge
UniversityPressDantoAC(1965)Analytical Philosophy of HistoryCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressEpsteinT(1998)lsquoDeconstructingdifferencesinAfrican-AmericanandEuropean-Americanadolescentsrsquo
perspectivesonUShistoryrsquo Curriculum Inquiry28(4)397ndash423EriksonEH(1968)Identity Youth and CrisisNewYorkWWNortonFivush R Bohanek JG and ZamanW (2011) lsquoPersonal and intergenerational narratives in relation
to adolescentsrsquowell-beingrsquo InHabermasT (ed)The Development of Autobiographical Reasoning in Adolescence and Beyond (NewDirectionsforChildandAdolescentDevelopment131)45ndash57
GoldbergTPoratDandSchwarzBB(2006)lsquolsquoHerestartedtheriftweseetodayrsquoStudentandtextbooknarrativesbetweenofficialandcountermemoryrsquo Narrative Inquiry16(2)319ndash47
GoldbergTSchwarzBBandPoratD(2008)lsquoLivinganddormantcollectivememoriesascontextsofhistorylearningrsquo Learning and Instruction18(3)223ndash37
GreverMHaydnTandRibbensK(2008)lsquoIdentityandschoolhistoryTheperspectiveofyoungpeoplefromtheNetherlandsandEnglandrsquo British Journal of Educational Studies56(1)76ndash94
HaeberliP(2005) lsquoRelatingtohistoryAnempiricaltypologyrsquo International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research5(1)1ndash10
Hammack PL and Pilecki A (2012) lsquoNarrative as a rootmetaphor for political psychologyrsquo Political Psychology33(1)75ndash103
HarterS(1999)The Construction of the Self A developmental perspectiveNewYorkGuilfordPressHawkey K and Prior J (2011) lsquoHistory memory cultures and meaning in the classroomrsquo Journal of
Curriculum Studies43(2)231ndash47HoferBKandPintrichPR(eds)(2002)Personal Epistemology The psychology of beliefs about knowledge and
knowing MahwahNJLawrenceErlbaumAssociatesKeganR (1982)The Evolving Self Problem and process in human development CambridgeMAHarvard
UniversityPressLee P (2004a) lsquoUnderstanding historyrsquo In Seixas P (ed) Theorizing Historical Consciousness Toronto
UniversityofTorontoPress129ndash64LeeP(2004b)lsquoldquoWalkingbackwardsintotomorrowrdquoHistoricalconsciousnessandunderstandinghistoryrsquo
International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research4(1)1ndash46LeePJ(2005)lsquoPuttingprinciplesintopracticeUnderstandinghistoryrsquoInDonovanMSandBransford
JD (eds)How Students Learn History mathematics and science in the classroomWashingtonDCNationalAcademiesPress31ndash77
LeePandShemiltD(2004)lsquolsquolsquoIjustwishwecouldgobackinthepastandfindoutwhatreallyhappenedrdquoProgressioninunderstandingabouthistoricalaccountsrsquo Teaching History 11725ndash31
LenzC(2011) lsquoGenealogyandarchaeologyAnalyzinggenerationalpositioning inhistoricalnarrativesrsquo Journal of Comparative Family Studies42(3)319ndash27
LeacutetourneauJandMoisanS(2004)lsquoYoungpeoplersquosassimilationofacollectivehistoricalmemoryAcasestudyofQuebeckersofFrench-CanadianheritagersquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress109ndash28
192 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
LowenthalD(1996)Possessed by the Past The heritage crusade and the spoils of historyNewYorkFreePress
McAdamsDP(1993)The Stories We Live By Personal myths and the making of the selfNewYorkGuilfordPress
McLean KC Breen AV and FournierMA (2010) lsquoConstructing the self in earlymiddle and lateadolescentboysNarrativeidentityindividuationandwell-beingrsquo Journal of Research on Adolescence20(1)166ndash87
NakkulaMJandToshalisE(2006)Understanding Youth Adolescent development for educatorsCambridgeMAHarvardEducationPress
NoraP(1996)Realms of Memory Rethinking the French pastTransGoldhammerANewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
PeckCL (2010) lsquolsquolsquoItrsquos not like [Irsquom]Chinese andCanadian I am inbetweenrdquoEthnicity and studentsrsquoconceptionsofhistoricalsignificancersquo Theory and Research in Social Education38(4)574ndash617
PolkinghorneDE(1988)Narrative Knowing and the Human SciencesAlbanyStateUniversityofNewYorkPress
Polkinghorne DE (2005) lsquoNarrative psychology and historical consciousness Relationships andperspectivesrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks3ndash22
RantalaJ(2011)lsquoChildrenasconsumersofhistoricalcultureinFinlandrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies43(4)493ndash506
ReicherSandHopkinsN(2001)Self and Nation Categorization contestation and mobilizationLondonSAGEPublications
RosenzweigRandThelenDP(1998)The Presence of the Past Popular uses of history in American lifeNewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
RuumlsenJ(1993)Studies in MetahistoryPretoriaHumanSciencesResearchCouncilSeixasP(1997)lsquoMappingtheterrainofhistoricalsignificancersquo Social Education61(1)22ndash7SeixasP(2004)lsquoIntroductionrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityof
TorontoPress3ndash20SeixasP(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessTheprogressofknowledgeinapostprogressiveagersquoInStraub
J(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks141ndash62SeixasP(2009)lsquoNationalhistoryandbeyondrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)719ndash22ThorpR(2014)lsquoTowardsanepistemologicaltheoryofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquoHistorical Encounters A
Journal of Historical Consciousness Historical Cultures and History Education1(1)20ndash31TrailleK (2007) lsquolsquolsquoYou should be proud about your history Theymademe feel ashamedrdquoTeaching
historyhurtsrsquo Teaching History 12731ndash7VanSledrightB (2008) lsquoNarrativesofnation-statehistoricalknowledgeandschoolhistoryeducationrsquo
Review of Research in Education32(1)109ndash46WelzerH(2008)lsquoCollateraldamageofhistoryeducationNationalsocialismandtheHolocaustinGerman
familymemoryrsquo Social Research75(1)287ndash314WertschJV(2002)Voices of Collective RememberingCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressWertschJV(2004)lsquoSpecificnarrativesandschematicnarrativetemplatesrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing
Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress49ndash62Wineburg S (2001)Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts Charting the future of teaching the past
PhiladelphiaTempleUniversityPressWineburgSMosborgSPoratDandDuncanA(2007)lsquoCommonbeliefandtheculturalcurriculum
Anintergenerationalstudyofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquo American Educational Research Journal44(1)40ndash76
London Review of Education 193
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
This paperwas published in a special feature called lsquoNegotiating the nation Young peoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo
Thearticlesinthefeatureareasfollows
Angier K (2017) lsquoIn search of historical consciousness An investigation into young South AfricansrsquoknowledgeandunderstandingofldquotheirrdquonationalhistoriesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
DawesDuraisinghE (2017) lsquoMakingnarrativeconnectionsExploringhow late teensrelate theirownnarrativestothehistoricallysignificantpastrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GoldbergT(2017) lsquoTheusefulpast innegotiationAdolescentsrsquouseofhistory innegotiationof inter-groupconflictrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GreverMandVanderVliesT(2017)lsquoWhynationalnarrativesareperpetuatedAliteraturereviewonnewinsightsfromhistorytextbookresearchrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
HolmbergU(2017)lsquoldquoIwasborninthereignhelliprdquoHistoricalorientationinUgandanstudentsrsquonationalnarrativesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
LeacutetourneauJandChapmanA(2017)lsquoEditorialndashNegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
LeacutevesqueS(2017)lsquoHistoryasaldquoGPSrdquoOntheusesofhistoricalnarrativeforFrenchCanadianstudentsrsquolifeorientationandidentityrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
OlofssonHSamuelsson JStolareMandWendell J (2017) lsquoTheSwedesandtheirhistoryrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
SheehanMandDavisonM(2017)lsquoldquoWeneedtoremembertheydiedforusrdquoHowyoungpeopleinNewZealandmakemeaningofwarremembranceandcommemorationoftheFirstWorldWarrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
VanHavereTWilsKDepaepeFVerschaffelLandVanNieuwenhuyseK(2017)lsquoFlemishstudentsrsquohistoricalreferenceknowledgeandnarrativesoftheBelgiannationalpastattheendofsecondaryeducationrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
WertschJV(2017)lsquoForeword ndash NegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
London Review of Education 175
Theyusedvariousnarrativestrategiessituatingtheirownlifestorywithinabroaderhistoricalcontextexploringtherelationshipbetweenindividualsandbiggerhistoricalprocessestetheringtheirownlifestorytothestoryofagrouporcommunitytowhomtheyfelttheybelonged(eganationaracialethnicgroupareligionhumankindwrit large)presentingtheirown lifeasbeingattheconfluenceofvariousunfoldinghistoricalnarrativesandorexploringhowthepastishelpingtoshapetheongoingstoryoftheirownpersonaldevelopment
Mappingoutsomeofthewaysinwhichindividualsnarrativelyconnecttheirownstoriesto a broader human past contributes to existing theory about historical consciousnessMoreoverdifferencesintheways inwhichyoungpeoplespokeabouttheirdiagramssuggestthattheirassumptionsaboutthenatureofhistoricalknowledgendashthatistheirepistemologicalunderstandings of history ndash relate to important differences in terms of how they conceiveof their identitiesand liveshintingat thepotentiallyprofound impactof thekindofhistoryeducationthatpromotesrigoroushistoricalthinking
Below relevant literatures on historical consciousness narratives identity and historyeducationarediscussedThestudymethodsarethenoutlinedAnoverviewofthestudyfindingsisprovidedbeforemorein-depthdiscussionofthreestudentdiagramsandhowthosestudentstalkedabouttheirdiagramsispresentedThepaperconcludesbyreflectingontheimplicationsofthestudyrsquosfindingsandpossibleavenuesforfutureresearch
Conceptual framework
Individual historical consciousness
Historicalconsciousness isaconceptofgrowinginteresttoexpertswhohavepioneeredandpressedfordisciplinaryapproachestoteachinghistory(Ahonen2005Lee2004aSeixas2004)ApplicabletobothindividualsandcommunitieshistoricalconsciousnessisfundamentallyabouthowashumansweorientourselvesintimeandrelateourownlivestothepastandfuturewhattheoristJoumlrnRuumlsencallslsquohistoricalidentityrsquo(1993)Importantlyorientationinvolvesbothsituatingoneself (whereamIwenow)anddirecting oneself (whereamIwegoing)withinahistorical continuum that expands beyond onersquos personal life experience For communitieshistoricalconsciousnessisintimatelyboundupwithcollectivememoryincludingtheselectionofwhichpubliceventsgetcommemoratedorevenrememberedandhowthecommunityrsquosoriginsareexplained(Lowenthal1996Nora1996Ruumlsen1993)WhilerecognizingthatindividualsareinseparablefromthelargerenterpriseofcollectivememorythisstudyrelatestoaspectsofindividualhistoricalconsciousnessndashthatishowyoungpeopleorientormakesenseoftheirownliveswithinahistoricalcontinuumRuumlsenemphasizesthathistoricalconsciousnessisnotlimitedtolsquohowmuchrsquohistoryindividualsknoweventhoughacertainlevelofknowledgeorlsquoexperiencersquoisaprerequisitelsquowhatisimportanttodiscoverinregardtohistoricalconsciousnessisnottheextentofknowledgeinvolvedbutrathertheframeworkandeffectiveprinciplesoperativeinmakingsenseofthepastrsquo(Ruumlsen199380)Thisstudyhelpsaddresstheneedforinitialsmall-scalequalitative investigations into individualhistoricalconsciousness (Billman-MachechaandHausen2005Lee2004bSeixas2005)
The role of narratives
This study assumes that we construct and enact meaning and identity through discourseparticularly through narratives which lie at the heart of how we make sense of who weare and our relationship to the world (Bruner 1990 Hammack and Pilecki 2012) Bruner
176 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
definesnarrativesas lsquoactsofmeaningrsquoorculturalproducts throughwhichweconstructourunderstandingof theworldndashconstructions thataccording toDanto(1965)arenecessarilyinfusedwithreferencestothepastBrunercontrastsnarrativeswithlsquoparadigmaticrsquoorlsquologico-scientificrsquo thinkingwhich involves trying to identifyeventsas instancesofanestablished law(Polkinghorne1988)Brunerbelievesthatthereareuniversalstobefoundacrossnarrativessuchasalsquostructureofcommittedtimersquowithabeginningmiddleandendorganizedaccordingtotheirhumanrelevance(Bruner200526)ThoughboundedbyhumanactionsstoriestypicallygeneratelsquogistsormoralsrsquothattranscendtheparticularitiesofthenarrativetoldandinvitetheaudiencetojudgethereasonsbehindindividualactionsNarrativescanberepresentedthroughavarietyofformsincludingthediagramsthatareanalysedinthispaperImportantlyBrunerfindsitimpossibletoseparatethethoughtthatgaverisetoanarrativeandthenarrativeitselfsuchadistinctionisnotmadeinthispaper
Researchshowsthatnarrativesplayakeyroleintheformationofnationalidentity(Billig1995 Reicher and Hopkins 2001) and theories about political processes and onersquos roleandagencywithinthem(Andrews2007)SimilarlytheoreticiansincludingRuumlsenconsidernarratives integral tohistorical consciousness (Polkinghorne 2005Ruumlsen 1993Wertsch2004)ReferringtolsquothenarrativecompetenceofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquoRuumlsenpositsthattelling stories ishow individuals synthesizedifferentdimensionsof timeand imposemoralmeaningonthepast
IneverydaydiscoursewerarelytellcompleteandcoherentnarrativesRatheritisthroughlsquosmall storiesrsquoor lsquonarrative fragmentsrsquo thatweshift inandoutofdifferentwaysofnarrativetelling(Baynham2010)asreflectedinthedatacollectedforthisstudyHammackandPilecki(2012)suggestthatthewaysinwhichweselectorconstructnarrativesareoftenlsquosaturatedwithemotionrsquoandnotalwaysrationalorconsistentAsindividualswenecessarilycreatenarrativesaccordingtothelsquoculturaltoolsrsquoavailabletous(Wertsch2002)includingnationalnarrativesTheprevailingQueacutebeacutecois narrative for instance is thatofmelancholic tragedy (Leacutetourneauand Moisan 2004) while a progressive lsquonarrative templatersquo of American exceptionalismpredominates intheUnitedStates(VanSledright2008Wertsch2004)Schoolstraditionallyplay an important role inpropagatingofficialhistorynarrativeshowever youngpeople alsointeract with many other kinds of sources that relay information about the past includingpopularfilmsnewsmedianational ceremoniesandritualsbooks televisiondocumentariesfamilies religious communities museums and historic sites (Barton 2001 Rosenzweig andThelen1998Wineburget al2007)InthisstudythestudentsinterviewedreferredtomovieshistoricsitesandfamilyhistoryforinstanceaswellaswhattheyhadlearnedinschoolorreadaboutelsewhereThatistheyengagedwithnarrativesthatwereculturallyavailabletothemalbeitinuniqueandpersonallymeaningfulways
Identity
Forthepurposesofthisstudylsquoidentityrsquoisdefinedaslsquotheattempttodifferentiateandintegrateasenseofselfalongdifferentsocialandpersonaldimensionsrsquo(Bamberg20116)Acomplexandmultidimensionalendeavour it invokesoverlappingsocioculturalcategories includinggenderraceethnicityoccupationclassnationstatereligionandsexualorientationThecurrentstudyassumedthatidentityisactivelyconstructed bytheindividualratherthanpassivelylsquoownedrsquoorlsquoreceivedrsquo situational insofar as it develops in context and is subject to change and shaped by narrativesasindicatedaboveImportantlythestudentsrsquoperceptionoftheresearcherndashanEnglish-accentedwhitefemaleofapproximatelyfortyyearsoldaffiliatedwithauniversityndashas
London Review of Education 177
wellastheparticularschoolcontextsinwhichtheyinteractedwithherwouldhaveinfluencedthenarrativestheychosetotellparticularlyduringtheinterviews
Developmentalpsychologistsmeanwhileview lateadolescenceasthepre-eminenttimeinthelifecycleforexplicitlyaddressingissuesofidentity(Erikson1968NakkulaandToshalis2006)asitisaperiodwhenyoungpeopletypicallydevelopanintegratedsenseofselfandthecapacityorcognitivetoolstoconsidertheirlivesinanabstractsenseorasanoveralllsquostoryrsquo(DamonandHart1988Harter1999McAdams1993) Indeedemergingresearchsuggeststhatdevelopingtheabilitytocreateautobiographicalandintergenerationalnarrativesiscrucialfor theemotional andpsychological stabilityof youngpeople (Fivushet al 2011McLeanet al2010)Moreoverat least incontemporarywesterncontextsquestionsconcerningonersquosidentityandlifepurposeunderstandablycometotheforeasyoungpeoplepreparetoleavetheirfamiliesandattain increasedautonomyThisstudychosetofocuson16-to18-year-oldsonthegroundsthattheywouldbelikelytobebothwillingandabletoreflectontherelationshipbetweenthemselvesandhistory
Historical knowledge and understanding
A few quantitative studies have tried to measure young peoplersquos attitudes towards thepastmostnotablythatofAngvikandVonBorries(1997)Meanwhilestudiesincorporatingqualitative approacheshave shownhowyoungpeoplersquos familyornational affiliations affectthekindsofnarrativestheytellaboutthepast(Welzer2008)ortheirhistoricalreasoning(Goldberg et al 2008) Other studies have shown that studentsrsquo social and culturalenvironments impacthowtheymakemeaningoftheirhistoryeducationandthattheyarefar from passive recipients of textbook narratives (Barton and Levstik 2004Goldberg et al 2006Rantala2011) Stillothershave shownhowstudentsrsquo interpretationsofnationalhistorydifferaccordingtotheirracialethnicidentity(Almarza2001Epstein1998HawkeyandPrior2011Peck2010Traille2007)andimmigrationstatusandexperience(An2009Grever et al2008)Whilethisbodyofresearchisinformativethefocusinthisstudywason theways inwhich young people explicitlymake connections between themselves andhistoryOtherstudieshaveexploredhowyoungpeoplethinkaboutthemselvesasmembersofaspecificgeneration(Lenz2011)personallyrelatetoschoolhistorytopics(BartonandMcCully2005)or feel a senseofconnectedness to theoverall studyofhistory (AudigierandFink2010Haeberli2005)Howeverthesestudieshavenotfocusedonthenarrativeprocessesbywhichindividualsrelatetheirownlivestothepast
Finally this study draws on literature concerning young peoplersquos historical thinkingparticularlywithregardtotheirthinkingaboutthenatureofhistoricalknowledgeForexampleacommonmisconceptionamongchildrenisthathistoricalknowledgeisjustlsquotherersquoanddoesnotneedtobeconstructedfromhistoricalsources(Ashby2005Lee2005Wineburg2001)althoughtheymayeventuallydeveloptheinsightthathistoricalaccountsarecontingentandmustanswerquestionsandfitcriteria(LeeandShemilt2004)Borrowingfromthatworkthisstudybroadly consideredwhether young people talked about their diagrams (andother historicalaccountsincludingnarrativeaccounts)astentativeinterpretationsoftheirrelationshiptothepastorasstraightforwardunambiguousaccountsItisworthnothingthattodatetherehasbeenalackofclarityregardingthetheoreticalrelationshipbetweenepistemologicalunderstandingsofhistoryandhistoricalconsciousness(Lee2004b)althougharecentpaperpointstoanintegralrelationshipbetweenthetwowithasophisticated(orlsquogeneticrsquo)levelofhistoricalconsciousnessnecessitatingthedevelopmentofalsquohistoriographicalgazersquo(Thorp2014)
178 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
This study drew then from diverse bodies of literature some theoretical and someempiricallygroundedTheoverarchingimpetuswastounderstandwaysinwhichyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothehistoricallysignificantpastWhilethisstudyemphasizesthehighlyindividualandcontext-specificwaysinwhichyoungpeoplecreateorweavetogethernarrativesaboutthemselvesandthepastitalsointegratesinsightsfromcognitiveresearchthatpointtothepredictabledevelopmentofmoreenduringepistemologicalordisciplinaryunderstandingsamongyoungpeopleThesetwoapproacheswhilepotentiallyincompatiblecanbereconciledifstudentsareseenasdevelopingcapacitiesformeaning-makingratherthanholdingparticularideas(HoferandPintrich2002Kegan1982)Howstudentsdeploytheirfundamentalepistemologicalunderstandingsmayvaryfromonediscursivecontexttoanotherbutstudentswhohavenotgraspedtheconstructedandcontingentnatureofhistorical interpretations for instancearenevergoingtoconstructnarrativesinwaysthatreflectthatunderstanding
Methods
Sample
Ofthefourresearchsitestwoschoolsweresituatedinaffluentsuburbancommunitiesonewasinamixed-incomesemi-urbancommunityandonewasinamixed-incomeurbancommunityTable1presentsdemographicfeaturesoftheoverallsampleasself-reportedbystudentsThesamplewas balanced by gender andwas somewhat raciallyethnically diverse however thestudywasnotintendedtobegeneralizabletosomebroaderpopulationespeciallyaspotentiallyimportant information was not collected regarding studentsrsquo socialeconomic or religiousbackgroundsMoreoverthestudywasfocusedonthegeneralprocessesbywhichstudentsusedthepasttomakesenseoftheirlivesidentitiesandvaluesratherthanontheactualsubstantiveconnections that theymadeUnderstandable differences inwhat students talked about (egslaveryandthecivilrightsmovementvstheIslamicRevolutioninIran)werelessimportantforthisstudythanhowtheytalkedaboutthepastorwhatkindofepistemological stance theytooktowardsit(whichwerenotexpectedtobeinfluencedbygenderorracialethnicbackground)
Bydintofbeingenrolledincollegepreparationclasses(HonorsorAP)thesestudentswererelatively successful academically and likely tobeable toarticulate their relationshiptothepastalthoughinformationabouttheirgradesorhistoryeducationwasnotavailableStudentsparticipatedduring class time towards theendof the school year in a varietyofsubject area contexts (accounting English literature government history andpsychology)The subsampleof the 26 interviewed studentswas intentionally diverse in terms bothofdemographiccharacteristics andof theirdiagramsandwritten responsesWith respect tostudentworkvariationwassoughtregarding(1)thenumberofconnectionsstudentsmadebetweenthemselvesandthepast(2)therelativesophisticationoftheirreasoningaboutthenatureofhistoricalknowledgeas indicatedbya follow-upactivity (seebelow)and (3) theuniquenessortypicalityoftheirdiagramsrelativetotherestofthesampleHowever it isimportanttonotethatforreasonsoftimingtheinterviewsamplewasselectedbasedonaninitialreadingofthediagramsandotherwrittenresponsesratherthanonthemorethoroughanalysisdescribedbelowAllinterviewswerefullytranscribed
London Review of Education 179
Table 1Breakdownofsample(n=187)
Number of students in
overall sample
of overall sample
Number of students interviewed
of students interviewed
Gender (n=187)
Male 105 56 14 50
Female 82 44 14 50
Race ethnicity (n=175)
African-American 9 5 4 14
Asian 24 14 2 7
Hispanic 3 2 0 0
NativeAmerican 0 0 0 0
White 124 67 18 64
Mixedother 14 8 4 14
Family mobility and language (n=175)
Atleastoneforeignbornparent
74 39 11 40
Studenthasalwayslivedincurrentneighbourhood
111 59 15 54
StudenthaslivedoutsideNewEngland
50 27 5 29
LanguageotherthanEnglishspokenathome
56 30 9 32
Demographicdetailsweremissingforsomeofthesample
Data collection
AsmentionedstudentswereaskedtodrawadiagramonablankpieceofpapertoshowhowthepastlsquohelpsexplainwhoyouareandthelifeyouarelivingorhopetoliversquoandtothenexplaintheformandcontentoftheirdiagramTheideawasthataconcisediagramformatwouldallowstudentstoconstructanoverviewofthewaysinwhichtheythoughtaboutthemselvesinrelationtothepastalthoughitwasusuallyunclearifthisrelationshipwassomethingtheyhadreflectedonpreviouslyTheopen-endednatureofthetaskallowedstudentstoapproachitinwaysthatwerepersonallymeaningfultothemStudentstypicallyspentapproximately45minutesonthetaskWhilethispaperfocusesonthediagramsstudentswentontocompleteotheractivitiesincludingonedesignedtosurfacetheirepistemologicalreasoningaboutthenatureofhistoricalaccounts(adaptedfromBoixMansilla2001)whichtheyalsodiscussedintheirinterviews
Initial coding rounds
StudentsrsquodiagramsprovedhighlyvariedposingachallengeforanalysisInitialcodingfocusedonthecontentofstudentsrsquodiagramsAcrossallthediagramsalmosthalfoftheitems(46percent)relatedtostudentsrsquodirectpersonalexperiencessuchasstartinganewschoolormovinghouseorfeaturesoftheireverydaylivesincludingpersonalitytraitshobbiesortastesOnlyaquarteroftheitemsreferredtowhatmightbecalledthehistoricalpasteventslikelytofeatureinstudentsrsquohistorytextbooksandwhichprecededtheirbirthsAfurther9percentofitemsreferredtolsquohistoricalrsquoeventsoccurringwithinthestudentsrsquoownlifetimesorcontemporaneouslysuchastheelectionofBushorObamaandtheWaronTerror20percentofitemscomprisedthemesortopicsnottiedtoaparticulartimeorperiodsuchasimmigrationracismorliterature
180 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
ThevaguewordingofthetaskinstructionsndashlsquoshowhowthepasthelpsexplainwhoyouareandthelifeyouarelivingrsquondashmeantthatmanystudentslegitimatelychosetofocusontheirownpastaswellasorinsteadofthehistoricallysignificantpastClosetoafifthofstudents(17percent)includedonly eventsthateithertheyorimmediatemembersoftheirfamilyhadpersonallyexperiencedandoraspectsoftheirpresent-daylivesOverathirdofstudents(34percent)includedmostlyoronlysuchitems(lsquomostlyrsquowasdefinedastwo-thirdsormoreofitems)Overatenthofstudents(13percent)includedmostlyoronlyhistoricallysignificantitemsintheirdiagramswhileclosetohalf(47percent)combineddifferenttypesofitemssothatnoonetypedominatedWhilesuchstatisticsarguablyhintattherelativesensitivityofindividualstudentstothepastthesheeramountofhistorythatindividualschosetoincludeintheirdiagramswasnotusefulforindicatingthedegreetowhichorprocessbywhichtheyweremakingconnectionsbetweentheirownlivesandthepast
Thenextroundofanalysisattemptedtodifferentiatebetweenstudentswhotoldstoriesto explain their personal connection to the past and those who approached the questionmore lsquoanalyticallyrsquo as per Brunerrsquos distinction between narrative and paradigmatic thinkingHowevergiventhecentralityofnarrativestohowwemakemeaningofour lives itprovedmore productive to focus on theways inwhich students integrated personal and historicalnarrativesintheirdiagramsBrunercommentingonwrittentextshasstatedthatlsquoitisnotthatnarrativeandparadigmaticmodesofdiscoursefusefortheydonotItisratherthatthelogicalorparadigmaticmodeisbroughttobearonthetaskofexplicatingthebreachinthenarrativersquo(Bruner200594)Thisdistinctionplayedoutinthisstudyasfollowsstudentstypicallydrewadiagramcontainingnarrativethreads(orasinglecoherentnarrative)andthenwroteexplanatoryor logical comments eitherwithinor alongside thediagram Interviewed students retoldorelaboratedonthesenarrativeswhilealsobreakingoutintoanalyticcommentaryonthem
Findings overview Studentsrsquo incorporation of personal and historical narratives into their diagrams
Table2summarizesthewaysinwhichstudentscombinedpersonalandhistoricallysignificantitemsintheirdiagrams iftheydidatallandtheoverallnarrativeeffect ifanyThelabels inboldindicatethepresenceofwhatappearedtobecoherentoverarchingnarrativeswithinthediagramsndashbethatpersonalnarrativeshistoricalnarrativesoronesthatbroughtthesetwokindsofnarrativetogetherPersonalnarrativesrefertostoriesaboutstudentsrsquoownlivesorthoseoftheirimmediatefamilyHistoricalnarrativesinvolvethehistoricallysignificantpastasrecognizedbyarelativelylargegroupofpeopleincludinghistoriansTheycouldbenarrativesaboutparticulareventsorhistoricaldevelopmentssuchasthestruggleforwomenrsquosrightsortheUnitedStatesgainingindependencefromBritainmoreinterpretativesweepsofperiodsofhistorysuchasthetwentiethcenturyorevenaddresshowhistoryitselfunfolds
ItisimportanttonotethatstudentswerenotaskedtoproducecoherentnarrativesoftheirrelationshiptothepastintheirdiagramsanabsenceofacoherentnarrativedoesnotmeanthatindividualstudentswereincapableofandorresistanttoproducingthemjustthattheydidnotdosointhiscontextMoreoversincestudentsweregiventhechallengingtaskofsimultaneouslythinking of items to include and arranging those items diagrammatically some diagrams canbeinterpretedasaninitialjottingdownofideasndashalthoughasTable2indicatessomeofthediagrams that appeared tobe listsor brainstormseffectivelyoperated as narratives if thereweresufficientthematiccoherenceandadequatecontext forthechoiceof itemsHoweverinthecaseofstudentswhowerenotintervieweditisimpossibletoknowiftheyintentionallyselectedordevelopedparticularnarrativestrategiesThemostcompellingdiagrams(a)included
London Review of Education 181
lessthantwo-thirdsofitemsrelatedtopersonalorfamilyexperiencestastesinterestsetcandatleastsomehistoricallysignificantitemsand(b)integratedpersonalandhistoricalnarrativesHoweverTable2shouldbereadasasummaryoffindingsratherthanasanevaluativeschema
Table 2Asummaryofcontenttypeandnarrativestrategyintheoverallsampleofdiagrams(n=168)
A Diagrams onlyincludepersonalorfamilyexperiencestastesinterestsetc(n=31)
LISTBRAINSTORMCurrentinterestsfriendsfamilyvaluesinfluences 20
CHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHTellsstoryofownlifeandorimmediatefamily
Personal narrative
11
B Two-thirdsormoreofincludeditemsarepersonalorfamilyexperiencestastesinterestsetcbutotherkindsofitemsareincluded(n=29)
LISTBRAINSTORMCurrentinterestsfriendsfamilyetcwithhistorycitedasaninterestor eventsorinfluencesincludingitemsofbroadhistoricorcontemporarysignificance
17
CHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHTellsstoryofownlifesomeprecedinghistoryisincludedasbackgroundandor broadercontextualdetailisincludedndashegcontemporaryeventsordevelopments
Personal narrative with links to the historically significant past
12
C Two-thirdsormoreofincludeditemsarehistoricallysignificantevents(n=24)
LISTBRAINSTORMSeeminglyrandomconnectionsorverygeneralrationaleforincludingitemsegthingsthathaveaffectedmethingsIbelieveareimportant
13
LISTBRAINSTORMCoherentthemeitemscollectivelyservetolinkownlifestorytobiggerhistoricalnarrative(s)
Personal narrative linked to historical narrative
7
CHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHChronologicaloverviewofhistorywithselfatendorasapointonatimeline
Historical narrative with self inserted
4
D IntegrateddiagramMixtureofdifferentkindsofitems(n=84)
LISTBRAINSTORMSeeminglyrandomconnectionsorverygeneralrationaleforincludingitemsegthingsthathaveaffectedmethingsIbelieveareimportantorhavelearnedfrom 23
LISTBRAINSTORMCoherentthemeitemscollectivelyservetolinkownlifestorytobiggerhistoricalnarrative(s)
Personal narrative linked to historical narrative
13
VARIEDFORMSSubsumespersonalnarrativewithinthatofagrouptowhichheorshebelongs(egAlgerianMuslimsAshkenaziJewsAmericanshumanrace)
Personal and historical narrative tethered (STUART)
9
BROADCHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHContextualizesownorfamilystorywithinbroaderhistoricalcontextshowshowownstoryorfamilyrsquosstoryhasbeenintertwinedwithhistoricaleventsortrends
Personal narrative contextualized within broader historical narrative (MELVIN)
23
VARIEDFORMSPresentsselfasaproductandorpartofaconfluenceofnarrativesmayinvolvecomplexcausalconnections
Personal narrative seen as product of historical narrative(s) andor at confluence of different narratives (JESS)
16
NumberofdiagramsinsamplefittingthiscategoryDiagramsthatonlyincludedgeneralthemeswereexcludedfromthisanalysis
182 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
Studentsrsquo narrative strategies Melvin Stuart and Jess
While giving a senseof thedistributionof approacheswithin theoverall sampleTable 2 isnecessarilyreductionistandfailstocapturewhatitlookedlikeinpracticeforparticularstudentstomakenarrativeconnectionsbetweentheirownlivesandthepastThispaperturnsnowtothreespecificcasestoprovidemorenuanceddiscussionandtoshowthatstudentsconnectedthemselvestothepast inhighly individualizedwaysMelvinStuartand Jess(allpseudonyms)wereselectedbecausetheycreateddiagramswithmixedcontentbutuseddifferentnarrativestrategies to bring personal and historical narratives together as indicated in SectionD ofTable2Furthermoretherewereinterestingdifferencesinthewaysinwhichtheytalkedabouttheirdiagrams
InwhatfollowsafewimpressionisticdetailsaregivenabouteachstudenttoemphasizetheirindividualityaswellastoconveytheresearcherrsquosperspectivethedetailsarenotnecessarilysignificantThenevidencefromthestudentsrsquodiagramstheirwrittenexplanationsandinterviewsarewoventogether
Melvin Historically contextualizing his own life story exploring the relationship between individuals and bigger historical processes
Melvinwas a soft-spoken affable studentwhowore abaseball capduringhis interviewHereferredtohisCaribbeanheritageandlargefamily(heistheyoungestofeightchildren)aswellashisreligiousfaithHehastravelledextensivelytovisitfamilyintheCaribbeanandEuropeandhaslivedinvariousGreaterBostonneighbourhoods
MelvinrsquosdiagramatfirstglanceisstructuredintheformofaswirlingtimelineHestartswith the Emancipation Proclamation ndash the abolition of slavery at the end of the AmericanCivilWarndashwhichispresentedasanecessaryconditionorbackgroundenablinghispersonalstorylsquomyeducationlevelmyqualityoflifeprobablywhereIlivewouldhavebeencompletelydifferentrsquoHoweverhisdiagramdoesnotfollowastrictchronologydespitethearrowsthatconnectthedifferentitemsTheendofthetimelineisonlylooselystructuredfeaturingaspectsofMelvinrsquoslifecircumstancessuchaswherehelivestheeducationhehasreceivedthetravelhehascompletedandhowtheselifecircumstanceshavehadanimpactonwhoheistodayWhileMelvinincorporatesthehistoricallysignificantpastintohisdiagramhisfocusissomewhattiltedtowardshispersonallifestory
NonethelessMelvindoesmorethanmerelydescribehisownlifehesituatesitwithinabroaderhistoricalcontextHisexplanatorynotescentreonhowhecametohaveexcellentlifeprospectsdespitethechallengesheperceivesofbeingayoungblackmanlivingintheUnitedStatesBeginninghispersonaltimelinewiththeEmancipationProclamationandtheendingoftheJimCrowlawsservestoacknowledgehisrelativegoodfortunecomparedwithpreviousgenerationshealsoconnectshisownstorytoawidercollectivenarrativeofsocialprogressandtechnologicalchangewhichaffectlsquoprettymucheveryoneinmygenerationrsquoByonlyselectinglsquothingsbeyondhiscontrolrsquo forhisdiagramMelvinusesthediagramnarrativetoexploretherelationshipbetweenindividuallivesorfreewillandlargersocietalorhistoricalforcesInhisinterview he also referred to his siblings his parentsrsquo political and religious views and theliberalcontextofMassachusettsasinfluencesbeyondhiscontrolthathavehelpedtoshapehimblurringthedistinctionbetweenpastandpresentinhisbidtoexplorethedegreetowhichweshapeourowndestinies
London Review of Education 183
Fig
ure
1M
elvinrsquosdiagram
184 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
Fig
ure
2Stuartrsquosdiagram
London Review of Education 185
Stuart Situating his own life at the confluence of various historical narratives tethering his own story to the history of humanity
StuartwasaboyofItalianAmericanextractionwithspikedhairwhosefamilyhaslivedinthesamesemi-urbanneighbourhoodofGreaterBostonforseveralgenerationsHejokedaroundwithhispeersinclassbutbecamestrikinglyseriousinthecontextoftheinterviewspeakinginaheartfeltwayabouthisfamilyandhisprideinbeingAmericanHealsostatedthathistorywashisfavouritesubject
Stuartrsquosdiagramwaswide-rangingintermsofboththemeandtimespanHepickedthefollowingthemeslsquowarsandbattlesrsquowhichleduptooratleastprecededlsquomodernterrorismrsquolsquofamouspeoplersquowithJesusChristtheonlynamedpersonlsquoconstructionandfactorizationrsquo[sic]whichtracesbroadtechnologicaldevelopmentsinhumanhistoryandlsquolandandthefoundersrsquowhich broadly relates to the discovery andor establishment of different empires or nationstates The general chronological element to the threads suggests narratives unfolding overtimeanimpressionreinforcedbyacommentmadebyStuartinhisinterview
InterviewerObviously IrsquoveaskedyoutodothisbuthaveyouthoughtaboutthisbigpicturebeforeOrwasitjustmdash
StuartIactuallyhaveIwasjustlikesittingathomeandjustlikethinkinglikewhydideverythingstartandlikehowitactuallypusheditselfintoeachotheranditdevelopedintoeverythingandthenIcamealongandIfeltlikeIwasapartofiteventhoughIwasnrsquotlikephysicallyapartofitLikeIthoughtIwasinvolvedbecauseofallthishappening
Hismetaphoriclanguagewhichconveysasenseofhistoricaleventsslidingorpilingintooneanotherdrawsattentiontohisbeingimmersedinsomebiggerstoryconcerningthewholeofhumanhistory
InhisdiagramStuartsituateshislifeattheconfluenceofdifferentnarrativestrandsunfoldinginhistoryhealsotethershispersonalstorytothatofhumankindwritlargeThatisinbeingasked to show how his own life connects to the past he elects to tell a broader story ofhumanityIfwecompareStuartrsquosdiagramtothatofMelvin it is lessofanexplorationofhisindividualstoryandmoreanexpressionaboutbelongingtoacollectivestory
Jess Exploring how the past is helping shape the ongoing story of her own personal development situating her own life at the confluence of various historical narratives
Jesswasagirlwith longbrownhairanaccomplishedgymnastanddancerShespokeofherJewish ancestry and her familyrsquos involvement in the LGBTmovement as well as her closeattachmenttoherlocalurbancommunitywhereshehaslivedherwholelifeShearticulatedherwordscarefullyoftenpausingasiftoreflectbeforerespondingtoquestions
AtfirstglanceJessrsquosdiagramdoesnotexhibitthekindofflowvisibleintheprevioustwodiagramsHoweverthereisaswirlingdynamicatplaymadeevidentbyherverbalexplanationofherdiagram
SoattheverycentreofmydiagramIhavejustalittlekindofbubblethatsayslsquomersquoAndImadeitabubblebecauseIthinkIrsquomnotallthatsortofwelldefinedbutitrsquosallsortofjustmushandthingsjustkindofflowinandinfluencemeSoIhavesortofacirclearoundmyselfandIhaveabunchofdifferentsortsofmovementsandeventsinhistorythatIthinkhavemostinfluencedmesuchastheenvironmentalmovementsandenvironmentaldegradationThecivilrightsmovementstheGLBTmovementswomenrsquosrightsmovementsJewishhistoryJewishmovementsandwarsaresortofthemaineventsthatinfluencedmeandtheninmoreofaninnercircleIhavemorebroad
186 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
topicssuchaseducationtechnologydancingandmusicthathavendashtheyallhavetheirownsortofhistoryandtheyallhaveapastthatIdonrsquotnecessarilyknowasmuchaboutinaconcretewaybutumndashallofthosethingsinfluencemesotheyrsquoreallflowingintothecentreThatrsquoswhereIam
Figure 3Jessrsquosdiagram
InthiscaseherongoingpersonaldevelopmentarguablyprovidesthenarrativecentrepieceorunifyingfactorThediagramalsoservesasanassertionofheremergingidentityndashintermsofeventsthathaveinfluencedhervaluesandsenseofwhosheisaswellasherpersonaltalentsandinterestsAsbecameevidentinherinterviewhowevershealsosituatesherselfasbeingattheconfluenceofdifferenthistoricalnarrativesForexampleshetalksaboutbeingatacertainmoment in thehistoryof theenvironmentwhichhasbeenshapedbypreviousgenerationsrsquoactionslsquomygenerationwersquoregoingtobereallyreallydealingwiththatrsquoShetalksaboutbeingshapedbyandinheritingthelegacyofthewomenrsquosrightsmovementcivilrightsmovementandJewishhistoryWithregardtothegayrightsmovementinwhichherfamilyhasbeenimmersedshehasasenseofbeingpartofhistoryinthemakinglsquothemovementisnow Youknowtherersquosbeenmovementsinthepastcertainlybutitrsquoslikeahugethingnowrsquo
How students talked about their diagrams The importance of epistemology
Theways inwhich students in the study talked about their diagramswere revealing of thepotentialrelationshipbetweentheirunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgeandtheir individualhistoricalconsciousnessInparticulartherewasacontrastbetweenstudents
London Review of Education 187
who presented their diagrams as contingent subjective interpretations of the relationshipbetweentheirownlivesandthepastandthosewhoappearedtopresenttheirdiagramsasself-evidentstraightforwardrepresentations
Jessforinstancetalkedfromthestartaboutnotbeinglsquoallthatwelldefinedrsquoasreflectedby the blob at the centre of her diagram There is a sense of fluidity ormovement in herdiagramndashasmuchintermsofherowninterpretationofherownplaceinhistoryasineventsordevelopmentsthemselvesShowinganawarenessofthelimitationsofherownknowledgeshestatesthatshedidnotwanttoexcludeitemsfromherdiagramsimplybecauseofherownignorance
MoreoverintalkingaboutthedifferentelementsofherdiagramshespokeinmetacognitivetermsaboutthedifferencesbetweenlearningaboutJewishhistoryatthetemplewhereitwasframedas lsquoourhistoryrsquoandatschoolwhereitwastreatedassomeoneelsersquoshistoryWithregardtothewomenrsquosrightsmovementshesaid
Sowomenrsquos rightsrsquomovements ndash umm ndashmymomwas a pretty hardcore feminist and IrsquovedefinitelyinheritedsomeofthatandIrsquovereallyenjoyedmostlythisyearactuallyndashIlearnedaboutwomenrsquosrightsinUSHistoryandthatrsquosbeenreallyinterestingsortofhowthatrsquosplayedoutAndprobablybecauseofmymotherandotheradultsandotherwomenthatIrsquovegrownupwithIrsquomlikendashveryconsciousofthatthatIamawomanandthatotherwomenhavedonealottogettowhereIamtodayAndtherersquosdefinitelyasenseofprideformeIhavealwaysbeenverysortofconsciousofthatheritage
Here Jesspresents the impactof themovementassomewhat inevitablegivenhermotherrsquosvaluesHowevershealsorefersexplicitlytoherenjoymentandinterestinlearningaboutthistopicatschoolSheexpresseshersenseofconnectiontowomenrsquoshistoryandheractiveprideinitwhilealsoprovidinganexplanationforwhyshefeelsconnectedtoitshowingacapacityforself-reflectionormetacognitionItisworthnotinghoweverthatshedidnotcommentontheprogressivetemplatethatseemedtoundergirdhernarrative
StuartincontrastpresentedhisdiagraminmorefixedtermsWheninvitedtotalkaboutitheproceededtolisteverythingcontainedwithinit
WellfirstofallIputthelandandthefoundersbecausethesearethebasicgroupsandpeoplethatstartedeverythingThepeoplewhostartedMesopotamiaAncientThebesyouknowlikethatPeoplewhowereintheRomanEmpireallthoseVikingsthefamousexplorersChristopherColumbusMagellanetceterahellip
Inthisextracthe iscitingundisputed lsquofactsrsquohedoesnotusemodifying languagebut insteadstates straightforwardlywhat happenedWhen asked how he knew about these aspects ofthepastheresponded lsquoMostofthestuffcamefromschool Iwas justtryingtothinkwhathappenedrsquo Stuart expressed a greatdealof connection to thepast including asmentionedearlierthathefeltpartofanongoinghistoricalprocessWhileJessspokewithprideyetanalyticdetachmentofherconnectiontothewomenrsquosmovementStuartdidnotexhibitthecapacitytotalkinametacognitivewayaboutthecontentorformofhisdiagramndashalthoughthisdoesnotmeanthathewasincapableofdoingso
Inhis interviewStuartalso talkedabout learning fromhisgrandmotherabout thepastincludinglifelessonsshegleanedfromweatheringtheGreatDepressionHereferredtohercorroboratingwhathelearnedatschool
Anditrsquoscoolbecause[myteacher]canteachmeaboutitatthesametimeandthenshecanjusttellmeaboutthestuffItrsquosreallycoolhellipIlikeaskherlsquoDoyourememberthisrsquohelliplsquoDoyourememberbootleggingandstufflikethatrsquoAndshewaslikelsquoyeaIrememberthatrsquowhichiscoolbecauseyouactuallyknowwhathappenedYoucanjusttalktoheraboutit
188 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
It is notable that he does not talk about hearing his grandmotherrsquos perspective about whathappenedratherheviewsherasanauthorityonhistorypresumablybecausehethinksshedirectlyexperiencedwhatisinhistextbook
Melvinrsquosstancetowardhisdiagramwasmoretentativeinnosmallpartbecauseheactuallyproducedtwodiagramsthefirstversionwasabrainstormofinfluencesonhislifewhichhethought conveyed an even spreadof influences on his lifeHowever in the second version(featuredinthispaper)lsquoItriedtomakeitinchronologicalordersotospeakLikewhatwasinheritedthenthingsthataffectedmelateronrsquoFurtherhespokerepeatedlyabouthisparticularlifeexperiencesaffectinghisperspectiveontheworldandonthepast
YouknowIwasnrsquotbroughtupinthesametypeofenvironmentthat[myparents]wereIwasbroughtupinAmericainMassachusettsatthatAndIthoughtthatwassomethingthatreallyaffectsyouanditaffectshowyoulookatliketheinternationalpoliticalsystemandwhatnothellipIthinkbecausemyparentsarefromoverseasitdefinitelyhelpsmelookatthingsonalargerscaleButIdodefinitelythinkincomparisontothemIlookatthingsfromanAmericanperspective
At the same time he assumes some commonality with other people such as people fromhisgenerationwhoaregrowingup inadigitalenvironment InMelvinrsquoscasehisoverarchingnarrativeisabout thewayinwhichhisoutlookandlifeprospectshavebeenaffectedbythepastandexternalforceshoweverheisalsoabletolsquostepoutsidersquothatnarrativetoreflectonthewaysinwhichhisapproachtothetaskhasbeeninfluencedbythoseverylifeexperiencesandfamilyinfluencesLikeStuartheisclosetohisgrandmotherHoweverwhenhereferstotalkingwithherabout thepastandher life inTrinidadhiscomment isaboutherperspective lsquotheobstaclesofyourpastdefinitelyaffectyourpointofviewrsquoInturnhetalksaboutherinfluenceonhimlsquoIthinkthestoriesthatyoursquoretolddefinitelyaffectthewayyouthinkrsquo
OtherstudentsmadecommentsthatindicatedarelationshipbetweentheirawarenessoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgeandthewaysinwhichtheyviewedtheirownrelationshiptothepastThey(1)acknowledgedtheirownsubjectivityandorthelimitationsoftheirperspectiveontheirrelationshiptothepast(2)presentedtheirdiagramsandexplanationsas tentative and subject to alteration andor (3) stepped outside themselves to reflect ontheir reactions to learningabouthistory In factwhile Jesswas theonly studentwhomadecommentsthatcoveredallthreeofthesecategoriesfewstudentsappearedtotakethemorestraightforwardviewofhistoricalknowledgeapparentlyevincedbyStuartThefactthatstudentsinthesamplewereacademicallysuccessfulaged16ndash18andlivinginacitywithahighlyeducatedworkforceandmajoracademicinstitutionsprobablyneedstobetakenintoaccountwithregardtothisfinding
ItisalsoworthreiteratingthattheresearcherwasnotaproverbialflyonthewallwhilecollectingthisdataForexampleStuartpresentedhimselfasagoodstudentwholikedhistoryandrespectedhiselders justpriortotheinterviewtherewasadrugsbustattheschoolbypoliceanditispossiblehewantedtoconveythathewasalsquodecentkidrsquoMelvindiscussedhisrelative good fortune comparedwithother youngblackmen (including implicitly others athisschool)insodoinghewasabletocommunicatethathewasfromahighlyeducatedfamilylivinginadesirablepartoftownJessmeanwhilepositionedherselfasathoughtfulpoliticallyinformedstudentWhiletheseimpressionsarepurelyspeculativetheysuggestthattheschoolcontextandtheperceivedidentityoftheresearcherndashaswellastheframingoftheactivityndashhelpedtoshapewhatstudentschosetoshareHoweverrecognizingthatthereislikelytobesomefluidityintermsofhowindividualsrelatetheirownlivestothepastdoesnotdiminishthefindingthattheyoungpeopleinthisstudyusedavarietyofnarrativestrategiestodosoorthatthewaysinwhichtheytalkedaboutthosestrategiesappearedtodifferaccordingtotheirepistemologicalunderstandings
London Review of Education 189
Implications
InconjunctionwiththeoverallsummaryshowninTable2thesethreecasesprovidesnapshotsofdifferentways inwhichyoungpeopleusednarrativestrategiestoconnecttheirownlivesto the past aswell as differences in theways inwhich they talked about those strategiesWhilethisstudyishighlyexploratorythesecasespointtotheapparentdiversityofways inwhichyoungpeoplethinkaboutthemselvesinrelationtothepastaswellasthesignificanceof epistemological understanding in the construction of individual historical consciousnessOf coursemany questions remain For example was the ability of Jess andMelvin to talkreflectively about their diagrams and their relationship to thepast an indicationof rigoroushistoricalunderstandinginadisciplinarysenseorofmoregenericcriticalorabstractthinkingskills Further howdo teensrsquo broaddevelopmental trajectoriesndash such as thoseoutlinedbyErikson(1968)ndash intersectwiththeirhistoricalunderstanding Itwouldbe interestingtoaskchildrenofdifferentagestocompletethediagramtaskYoungerstudentswouldpresumablyfind it challenging tocreate anarrative about theirown lives in toto as indeed someof thestudentsinthisstudymayhavedoneExaminingthepotentiallinksbetweenthedevelopmentofautobiographicalstory-tellingskillsandhowyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastcouldbeanotherproductivelineofresearch
Methodologicallythestudyopensupsomeinterestingpossibilitiesespeciallyasthediagramactivity invited students to synthesize their thinking about their personal connections to thepastinarelativelyopen-endedmannerThetaskinstructionsandoranalysiscouldbealteredtoinvestigaterelatedphenomenaForexamplehowifatalldostudentsdealwiththeideathataspeopletheyareevolvingandmayhaveashiftingrelationshiptoorperspectiveonthepastTowhatextentdotheyportraythemselvesasactiveagentsintheirownrightratherthanindividualssubjecttoforcesbeyondtheircontrolHowdodifferencesamongtheirvariouslsquometa-historicalrsquounderstandingssuchastheirworkingideasabouthistoricalcausalityrelatetohowtheytalkaboutthemselves inrelation to thepastHowwould theyposition themselvesrelative toperceivednationalnarrativesWhile it is impossible toproveadirectrelationship fromthis singlestudyndashorthereasonsbehindsucharelationshipndashstudentswhodisplayedanunderstandingoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgealsogavetheimpressionofbeingmoreempoweredintermsoftalkingabouttheirfutureandnavigatingtheirownemergingidentities
Withregardtopractice therangeofpersonaldiagramsproducedbystudentsconfirmsthatifteachersarelookingtobuildontheirstudentsrsquoexistingideasandunderstandingsalsquoonesizefitsallrsquoapproach is likely tobemisguidedandnon-inclusiveandthatnationalnarrativesare only one kind of narrative towhich young people feel connected This paper does notadvocatethatyoungpeoplebeinvitedtorelateeverythingtheylearninhistorytothemselvesHoweverofferingopen-endedandpotentiallycreativeopportunitiesforthemtoreflectontheconnectionstheyperceivebetweenthemselvesandthepastislikelytobeengagingparticularlyforolderteensgiventheirbroaderdevelopmentalneedtoestablishindependentidentities
FurthermoresuchopportunitiescanactivelybuildhistoricalunderstandingGiventhesheervarietyofdiagramsthatwillalmostcertainlybeproducedwithinasingleclassroomstudentscan learn a greatdeal by looking at anddiscussing thediagramsof their peers inways thatdeveloptheirunderstandingthatpeoplehavedifferentperspectivesonthepastandthattheseperspectivesareshapedat least inpartbybiographicalorothercontextual factorsLookingatothersrsquodiagramscanopenupdifferentpossibilitiesforyoungpeopleintermsofhowtheythinkabouttheirownrelationshiptothepastandgivethemanewperspectiveontheirownidentityandoutlookIndeedthepowerofthisapproachcanbefurtherenhancedifclassroomsaredigitallyconnectedtoclassroomsinothercountriesengaginginthesameactivityinpartbecauseitallowsprevailingandassumednationalnarrativestobecomevisible
190 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
While somepeoplewouldcertainly resist thenotionof lettingyoungpeopleuse schoolhistoryasavenueforexploringorinterpretingtheirownlivesidentitiesandvaluesthisresearchshedslightonsomeofthevariedwaysinwhichyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastoruseitfororientingpurposesAsJessinparticulardemonstratedasophisticatedunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgecangohandinhandwithaself-awarenessandevenprideinonersquosrelationshiptothepastWearguablyoweittoourstudentstohelpthemthinkaboutwhotheyareandthelivestheyarelivingorwanttoliveinourrapidlychangingandevermorecomplexworldWeneedtosupportthemtointerpretthepastandtodeveloprobusthistoricalunderstandingswealsoneedtosupportthemtointerprettheirownnarratives
Acknowledgements
TheauthorwishestothanktheGermanacosFoundationforsupportingtheresearchdiscussedinthispaperaswellasHowardGardnerHelenHasteandMeiraLevinsonforprovidingguidancewiththeresearchMycolleaguesEdwardClappandShariTishmangavehelpfulfeedbackonearlydrafts
Notes on the contributor
ElizabethDawesDuraisinghisaresearchassociateandprincipalinvestigatoratProjectZeroaresearchcentreat theHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducationwhereshealsoservesasalectureroneducationShewaspreviouslyahighschoolhistoryteacherforeightyearsworkinginbothEnglandandAustralia
References
AhonenS(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessAviableparadigmforhistoryeducationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(6)697ndash707
Almarza DJ (2001) lsquoContexts shaping minority language studentsrsquo perceptions of American historyrsquo Journal of Social Studies Research25(2)4ndash22
AnS(2009)lsquoLearningUShistoryinanageofglobalizationandtransnationalmigrationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)763ndash87
AndrewsM(2007)Shaping History Narratives of political changeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressAngvikMandVonBorriesB(eds)(1997)Youth and History A comparative European survey on historical
consciousness and political attitudes among adolescentsHamburgKoumlrber-StiftungAshbyR(2005)lsquoStudentsrsquoapproachestovalidatinghistoricalclaimsrsquoInAshbyRGordonPandLeeP
(eds)Understanding History Recent research in history educationLondonRoutledge21ndash36AudigierFandFinkN(2010)lsquoPupilsandschoolhistoryinFranceandSwitzerlandrsquo Education 3ndash1338
(3)329ndash39BambergM(2011)lsquoWhoamINarrationanditscontributiontoselfandidentityrsquo Theory and Psychology
21(1)3ndash24BartonKC(2001)lsquolsquolsquoYoursquodbewantingtoknowaboutthepastrdquoSocialcontextsofchildrenrsquoshistorical
understandinginNorthernIrelandandtheUSArsquo Comparative Education37(1)89ndash106BartonKCandLevstikLS(2004)Teaching History for the Common GoodMahwahNJLawrenceErlbaum
AssociatesBartonKCandMcCullyAW(2005)lsquoHistoryidentityandtheschoolcurriculuminNorthernIreland
Anempiricalstudyofsecondarystudentsrsquoideasandperspectivesrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(1)85ndash116
London Review of Education 191
Baynham M (2010) lsquoAlexandra Georgakopoulou Small stories interaction and identitiesrsquo Applied Linguistics31(3)471ndash3
BilligM(1995)Banal NationalismLondonSAGEPublicationsBillmann-Mahecha E and Hausen M (2005) lsquoEmpirical psychological approaches to the historical
consciousnessofchildrenrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks163ndash86
BoixMansillaV(2001)The Pursuit of Understanding A study of exemplary high school studentsrsquo conceptions of knowledge validation in science and history EdDthesisHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducation
BrunerJS(1990)Acts of MeaningCambridgeMAHarvardUniversityPressBrunerJS(2005)lsquoPastandpresentasnarrativeconstructionsrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and
Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks23ndash43DamonWandHartD (1988)Self-Understanding in Childhood and AdolescenceNewYorkCambridge
UniversityPressDantoAC(1965)Analytical Philosophy of HistoryCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressEpsteinT(1998)lsquoDeconstructingdifferencesinAfrican-AmericanandEuropean-Americanadolescentsrsquo
perspectivesonUShistoryrsquo Curriculum Inquiry28(4)397ndash423EriksonEH(1968)Identity Youth and CrisisNewYorkWWNortonFivush R Bohanek JG and ZamanW (2011) lsquoPersonal and intergenerational narratives in relation
to adolescentsrsquowell-beingrsquo InHabermasT (ed)The Development of Autobiographical Reasoning in Adolescence and Beyond (NewDirectionsforChildandAdolescentDevelopment131)45ndash57
GoldbergTPoratDandSchwarzBB(2006)lsquolsquoHerestartedtheriftweseetodayrsquoStudentandtextbooknarrativesbetweenofficialandcountermemoryrsquo Narrative Inquiry16(2)319ndash47
GoldbergTSchwarzBBandPoratD(2008)lsquoLivinganddormantcollectivememoriesascontextsofhistorylearningrsquo Learning and Instruction18(3)223ndash37
GreverMHaydnTandRibbensK(2008)lsquoIdentityandschoolhistoryTheperspectiveofyoungpeoplefromtheNetherlandsandEnglandrsquo British Journal of Educational Studies56(1)76ndash94
HaeberliP(2005) lsquoRelatingtohistoryAnempiricaltypologyrsquo International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research5(1)1ndash10
Hammack PL and Pilecki A (2012) lsquoNarrative as a rootmetaphor for political psychologyrsquo Political Psychology33(1)75ndash103
HarterS(1999)The Construction of the Self A developmental perspectiveNewYorkGuilfordPressHawkey K and Prior J (2011) lsquoHistory memory cultures and meaning in the classroomrsquo Journal of
Curriculum Studies43(2)231ndash47HoferBKandPintrichPR(eds)(2002)Personal Epistemology The psychology of beliefs about knowledge and
knowing MahwahNJLawrenceErlbaumAssociatesKeganR (1982)The Evolving Self Problem and process in human development CambridgeMAHarvard
UniversityPressLee P (2004a) lsquoUnderstanding historyrsquo In Seixas P (ed) Theorizing Historical Consciousness Toronto
UniversityofTorontoPress129ndash64LeeP(2004b)lsquoldquoWalkingbackwardsintotomorrowrdquoHistoricalconsciousnessandunderstandinghistoryrsquo
International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research4(1)1ndash46LeePJ(2005)lsquoPuttingprinciplesintopracticeUnderstandinghistoryrsquoInDonovanMSandBransford
JD (eds)How Students Learn History mathematics and science in the classroomWashingtonDCNationalAcademiesPress31ndash77
LeePandShemiltD(2004)lsquolsquolsquoIjustwishwecouldgobackinthepastandfindoutwhatreallyhappenedrdquoProgressioninunderstandingabouthistoricalaccountsrsquo Teaching History 11725ndash31
LenzC(2011) lsquoGenealogyandarchaeologyAnalyzinggenerationalpositioning inhistoricalnarrativesrsquo Journal of Comparative Family Studies42(3)319ndash27
LeacutetourneauJandMoisanS(2004)lsquoYoungpeoplersquosassimilationofacollectivehistoricalmemoryAcasestudyofQuebeckersofFrench-CanadianheritagersquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress109ndash28
192 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
LowenthalD(1996)Possessed by the Past The heritage crusade and the spoils of historyNewYorkFreePress
McAdamsDP(1993)The Stories We Live By Personal myths and the making of the selfNewYorkGuilfordPress
McLean KC Breen AV and FournierMA (2010) lsquoConstructing the self in earlymiddle and lateadolescentboysNarrativeidentityindividuationandwell-beingrsquo Journal of Research on Adolescence20(1)166ndash87
NakkulaMJandToshalisE(2006)Understanding Youth Adolescent development for educatorsCambridgeMAHarvardEducationPress
NoraP(1996)Realms of Memory Rethinking the French pastTransGoldhammerANewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
PeckCL (2010) lsquolsquolsquoItrsquos not like [Irsquom]Chinese andCanadian I am inbetweenrdquoEthnicity and studentsrsquoconceptionsofhistoricalsignificancersquo Theory and Research in Social Education38(4)574ndash617
PolkinghorneDE(1988)Narrative Knowing and the Human SciencesAlbanyStateUniversityofNewYorkPress
Polkinghorne DE (2005) lsquoNarrative psychology and historical consciousness Relationships andperspectivesrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks3ndash22
RantalaJ(2011)lsquoChildrenasconsumersofhistoricalcultureinFinlandrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies43(4)493ndash506
ReicherSandHopkinsN(2001)Self and Nation Categorization contestation and mobilizationLondonSAGEPublications
RosenzweigRandThelenDP(1998)The Presence of the Past Popular uses of history in American lifeNewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
RuumlsenJ(1993)Studies in MetahistoryPretoriaHumanSciencesResearchCouncilSeixasP(1997)lsquoMappingtheterrainofhistoricalsignificancersquo Social Education61(1)22ndash7SeixasP(2004)lsquoIntroductionrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityof
TorontoPress3ndash20SeixasP(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessTheprogressofknowledgeinapostprogressiveagersquoInStraub
J(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks141ndash62SeixasP(2009)lsquoNationalhistoryandbeyondrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)719ndash22ThorpR(2014)lsquoTowardsanepistemologicaltheoryofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquoHistorical Encounters A
Journal of Historical Consciousness Historical Cultures and History Education1(1)20ndash31TrailleK (2007) lsquolsquolsquoYou should be proud about your history Theymademe feel ashamedrdquoTeaching
historyhurtsrsquo Teaching History 12731ndash7VanSledrightB (2008) lsquoNarrativesofnation-statehistoricalknowledgeandschoolhistoryeducationrsquo
Review of Research in Education32(1)109ndash46WelzerH(2008)lsquoCollateraldamageofhistoryeducationNationalsocialismandtheHolocaustinGerman
familymemoryrsquo Social Research75(1)287ndash314WertschJV(2002)Voices of Collective RememberingCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressWertschJV(2004)lsquoSpecificnarrativesandschematicnarrativetemplatesrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing
Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress49ndash62Wineburg S (2001)Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts Charting the future of teaching the past
PhiladelphiaTempleUniversityPressWineburgSMosborgSPoratDandDuncanA(2007)lsquoCommonbeliefandtheculturalcurriculum
Anintergenerationalstudyofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquo American Educational Research Journal44(1)40ndash76
London Review of Education 193
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
This paperwas published in a special feature called lsquoNegotiating the nation Young peoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo
Thearticlesinthefeatureareasfollows
Angier K (2017) lsquoIn search of historical consciousness An investigation into young South AfricansrsquoknowledgeandunderstandingofldquotheirrdquonationalhistoriesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
DawesDuraisinghE (2017) lsquoMakingnarrativeconnectionsExploringhow late teensrelate theirownnarrativestothehistoricallysignificantpastrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GoldbergT(2017) lsquoTheusefulpast innegotiationAdolescentsrsquouseofhistory innegotiationof inter-groupconflictrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GreverMandVanderVliesT(2017)lsquoWhynationalnarrativesareperpetuatedAliteraturereviewonnewinsightsfromhistorytextbookresearchrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
HolmbergU(2017)lsquoldquoIwasborninthereignhelliprdquoHistoricalorientationinUgandanstudentsrsquonationalnarrativesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
LeacutetourneauJandChapmanA(2017)lsquoEditorialndashNegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
LeacutevesqueS(2017)lsquoHistoryasaldquoGPSrdquoOntheusesofhistoricalnarrativeforFrenchCanadianstudentsrsquolifeorientationandidentityrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
OlofssonHSamuelsson JStolareMandWendell J (2017) lsquoTheSwedesandtheirhistoryrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
SheehanMandDavisonM(2017)lsquoldquoWeneedtoremembertheydiedforusrdquoHowyoungpeopleinNewZealandmakemeaningofwarremembranceandcommemorationoftheFirstWorldWarrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
VanHavereTWilsKDepaepeFVerschaffelLandVanNieuwenhuyseK(2017)lsquoFlemishstudentsrsquohistoricalreferenceknowledgeandnarrativesoftheBelgiannationalpastattheendofsecondaryeducationrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
WertschJV(2017)lsquoForeword ndash NegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
176 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
definesnarrativesas lsquoactsofmeaningrsquoorculturalproducts throughwhichweconstructourunderstandingof theworldndashconstructions thataccording toDanto(1965)arenecessarilyinfusedwithreferencestothepastBrunercontrastsnarrativeswithlsquoparadigmaticrsquoorlsquologico-scientificrsquo thinkingwhich involves trying to identifyeventsas instancesofanestablished law(Polkinghorne1988)Brunerbelievesthatthereareuniversalstobefoundacrossnarrativessuchasalsquostructureofcommittedtimersquowithabeginningmiddleandendorganizedaccordingtotheirhumanrelevance(Bruner200526)ThoughboundedbyhumanactionsstoriestypicallygeneratelsquogistsormoralsrsquothattranscendtheparticularitiesofthenarrativetoldandinvitetheaudiencetojudgethereasonsbehindindividualactionsNarrativescanberepresentedthroughavarietyofformsincludingthediagramsthatareanalysedinthispaperImportantlyBrunerfindsitimpossibletoseparatethethoughtthatgaverisetoanarrativeandthenarrativeitselfsuchadistinctionisnotmadeinthispaper
Researchshowsthatnarrativesplayakeyroleintheformationofnationalidentity(Billig1995 Reicher and Hopkins 2001) and theories about political processes and onersquos roleandagencywithinthem(Andrews2007)SimilarlytheoreticiansincludingRuumlsenconsidernarratives integral tohistorical consciousness (Polkinghorne 2005Ruumlsen 1993Wertsch2004)ReferringtolsquothenarrativecompetenceofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquoRuumlsenpositsthattelling stories ishow individuals synthesizedifferentdimensionsof timeand imposemoralmeaningonthepast
IneverydaydiscoursewerarelytellcompleteandcoherentnarrativesRatheritisthroughlsquosmall storiesrsquoor lsquonarrative fragmentsrsquo thatweshift inandoutofdifferentwaysofnarrativetelling(Baynham2010)asreflectedinthedatacollectedforthisstudyHammackandPilecki(2012)suggestthatthewaysinwhichweselectorconstructnarrativesareoftenlsquosaturatedwithemotionrsquoandnotalwaysrationalorconsistentAsindividualswenecessarilycreatenarrativesaccordingtothelsquoculturaltoolsrsquoavailabletous(Wertsch2002)includingnationalnarrativesTheprevailingQueacutebeacutecois narrative for instance is thatofmelancholic tragedy (Leacutetourneauand Moisan 2004) while a progressive lsquonarrative templatersquo of American exceptionalismpredominates intheUnitedStates(VanSledright2008Wertsch2004)Schoolstraditionallyplay an important role inpropagatingofficialhistorynarrativeshowever youngpeople alsointeract with many other kinds of sources that relay information about the past includingpopularfilmsnewsmedianational ceremoniesandritualsbooks televisiondocumentariesfamilies religious communities museums and historic sites (Barton 2001 Rosenzweig andThelen1998Wineburget al2007)InthisstudythestudentsinterviewedreferredtomovieshistoricsitesandfamilyhistoryforinstanceaswellaswhattheyhadlearnedinschoolorreadaboutelsewhereThatistheyengagedwithnarrativesthatwereculturallyavailabletothemalbeitinuniqueandpersonallymeaningfulways
Identity
Forthepurposesofthisstudylsquoidentityrsquoisdefinedaslsquotheattempttodifferentiateandintegrateasenseofselfalongdifferentsocialandpersonaldimensionsrsquo(Bamberg20116)Acomplexandmultidimensionalendeavour it invokesoverlappingsocioculturalcategories includinggenderraceethnicityoccupationclassnationstatereligionandsexualorientationThecurrentstudyassumedthatidentityisactivelyconstructed bytheindividualratherthanpassivelylsquoownedrsquoorlsquoreceivedrsquo situational insofar as it develops in context and is subject to change and shaped by narrativesasindicatedaboveImportantlythestudentsrsquoperceptionoftheresearcherndashanEnglish-accentedwhitefemaleofapproximatelyfortyyearsoldaffiliatedwithauniversityndashas
London Review of Education 177
wellastheparticularschoolcontextsinwhichtheyinteractedwithherwouldhaveinfluencedthenarrativestheychosetotellparticularlyduringtheinterviews
Developmentalpsychologistsmeanwhileview lateadolescenceasthepre-eminenttimeinthelifecycleforexplicitlyaddressingissuesofidentity(Erikson1968NakkulaandToshalis2006)asitisaperiodwhenyoungpeopletypicallydevelopanintegratedsenseofselfandthecapacityorcognitivetoolstoconsidertheirlivesinanabstractsenseorasanoveralllsquostoryrsquo(DamonandHart1988Harter1999McAdams1993) Indeedemergingresearchsuggeststhatdevelopingtheabilitytocreateautobiographicalandintergenerationalnarrativesiscrucialfor theemotional andpsychological stabilityof youngpeople (Fivushet al 2011McLeanet al2010)Moreoverat least incontemporarywesterncontextsquestionsconcerningonersquosidentityandlifepurposeunderstandablycometotheforeasyoungpeoplepreparetoleavetheirfamiliesandattain increasedautonomyThisstudychosetofocuson16-to18-year-oldsonthegroundsthattheywouldbelikelytobebothwillingandabletoreflectontherelationshipbetweenthemselvesandhistory
Historical knowledge and understanding
A few quantitative studies have tried to measure young peoplersquos attitudes towards thepastmostnotablythatofAngvikandVonBorries(1997)Meanwhilestudiesincorporatingqualitative approacheshave shownhowyoungpeoplersquos familyornational affiliations affectthekindsofnarrativestheytellaboutthepast(Welzer2008)ortheirhistoricalreasoning(Goldberg et al 2008) Other studies have shown that studentsrsquo social and culturalenvironments impacthowtheymakemeaningoftheirhistoryeducationandthattheyarefar from passive recipients of textbook narratives (Barton and Levstik 2004Goldberg et al 2006Rantala2011) Stillothershave shownhowstudentsrsquo interpretationsofnationalhistorydifferaccordingtotheirracialethnicidentity(Almarza2001Epstein1998HawkeyandPrior2011Peck2010Traille2007)andimmigrationstatusandexperience(An2009Grever et al2008)Whilethisbodyofresearchisinformativethefocusinthisstudywason theways inwhich young people explicitlymake connections between themselves andhistoryOtherstudieshaveexploredhowyoungpeoplethinkaboutthemselvesasmembersofaspecificgeneration(Lenz2011)personallyrelatetoschoolhistorytopics(BartonandMcCully2005)or feel a senseofconnectedness to theoverall studyofhistory (AudigierandFink2010Haeberli2005)Howeverthesestudieshavenotfocusedonthenarrativeprocessesbywhichindividualsrelatetheirownlivestothepast
Finally this study draws on literature concerning young peoplersquos historical thinkingparticularlywithregardtotheirthinkingaboutthenatureofhistoricalknowledgeForexampleacommonmisconceptionamongchildrenisthathistoricalknowledgeisjustlsquotherersquoanddoesnotneedtobeconstructedfromhistoricalsources(Ashby2005Lee2005Wineburg2001)althoughtheymayeventuallydeveloptheinsightthathistoricalaccountsarecontingentandmustanswerquestionsandfitcriteria(LeeandShemilt2004)Borrowingfromthatworkthisstudybroadly consideredwhether young people talked about their diagrams (andother historicalaccountsincludingnarrativeaccounts)astentativeinterpretationsoftheirrelationshiptothepastorasstraightforwardunambiguousaccountsItisworthnothingthattodatetherehasbeenalackofclarityregardingthetheoreticalrelationshipbetweenepistemologicalunderstandingsofhistoryandhistoricalconsciousness(Lee2004b)althougharecentpaperpointstoanintegralrelationshipbetweenthetwowithasophisticated(orlsquogeneticrsquo)levelofhistoricalconsciousnessnecessitatingthedevelopmentofalsquohistoriographicalgazersquo(Thorp2014)
178 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
This study drew then from diverse bodies of literature some theoretical and someempiricallygroundedTheoverarchingimpetuswastounderstandwaysinwhichyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothehistoricallysignificantpastWhilethisstudyemphasizesthehighlyindividualandcontext-specificwaysinwhichyoungpeoplecreateorweavetogethernarrativesaboutthemselvesandthepastitalsointegratesinsightsfromcognitiveresearchthatpointtothepredictabledevelopmentofmoreenduringepistemologicalordisciplinaryunderstandingsamongyoungpeopleThesetwoapproacheswhilepotentiallyincompatiblecanbereconciledifstudentsareseenasdevelopingcapacitiesformeaning-makingratherthanholdingparticularideas(HoferandPintrich2002Kegan1982)Howstudentsdeploytheirfundamentalepistemologicalunderstandingsmayvaryfromonediscursivecontexttoanotherbutstudentswhohavenotgraspedtheconstructedandcontingentnatureofhistorical interpretations for instancearenevergoingtoconstructnarrativesinwaysthatreflectthatunderstanding
Methods
Sample
Ofthefourresearchsitestwoschoolsweresituatedinaffluentsuburbancommunitiesonewasinamixed-incomesemi-urbancommunityandonewasinamixed-incomeurbancommunityTable1presentsdemographicfeaturesoftheoverallsampleasself-reportedbystudentsThesamplewas balanced by gender andwas somewhat raciallyethnically diverse however thestudywasnotintendedtobegeneralizabletosomebroaderpopulationespeciallyaspotentiallyimportant information was not collected regarding studentsrsquo socialeconomic or religiousbackgroundsMoreoverthestudywasfocusedonthegeneralprocessesbywhichstudentsusedthepasttomakesenseoftheirlivesidentitiesandvaluesratherthanontheactualsubstantiveconnections that theymadeUnderstandable differences inwhat students talked about (egslaveryandthecivilrightsmovementvstheIslamicRevolutioninIran)werelessimportantforthisstudythanhowtheytalkedaboutthepastorwhatkindofepistemological stance theytooktowardsit(whichwerenotexpectedtobeinfluencedbygenderorracialethnicbackground)
Bydintofbeingenrolledincollegepreparationclasses(HonorsorAP)thesestudentswererelatively successful academically and likely tobeable toarticulate their relationshiptothepastalthoughinformationabouttheirgradesorhistoryeducationwasnotavailableStudentsparticipatedduring class time towards theendof the school year in a varietyofsubject area contexts (accounting English literature government history andpsychology)The subsampleof the 26 interviewed studentswas intentionally diverse in terms bothofdemographiccharacteristics andof theirdiagramsandwritten responsesWith respect tostudentworkvariationwassoughtregarding(1)thenumberofconnectionsstudentsmadebetweenthemselvesandthepast(2)therelativesophisticationoftheirreasoningaboutthenatureofhistoricalknowledgeas indicatedbya follow-upactivity (seebelow)and (3) theuniquenessortypicalityoftheirdiagramsrelativetotherestofthesampleHowever it isimportanttonotethatforreasonsoftimingtheinterviewsamplewasselectedbasedonaninitialreadingofthediagramsandotherwrittenresponsesratherthanonthemorethoroughanalysisdescribedbelowAllinterviewswerefullytranscribed
London Review of Education 179
Table 1Breakdownofsample(n=187)
Number of students in
overall sample
of overall sample
Number of students interviewed
of students interviewed
Gender (n=187)
Male 105 56 14 50
Female 82 44 14 50
Race ethnicity (n=175)
African-American 9 5 4 14
Asian 24 14 2 7
Hispanic 3 2 0 0
NativeAmerican 0 0 0 0
White 124 67 18 64
Mixedother 14 8 4 14
Family mobility and language (n=175)
Atleastoneforeignbornparent
74 39 11 40
Studenthasalwayslivedincurrentneighbourhood
111 59 15 54
StudenthaslivedoutsideNewEngland
50 27 5 29
LanguageotherthanEnglishspokenathome
56 30 9 32
Demographicdetailsweremissingforsomeofthesample
Data collection
AsmentionedstudentswereaskedtodrawadiagramonablankpieceofpapertoshowhowthepastlsquohelpsexplainwhoyouareandthelifeyouarelivingorhopetoliversquoandtothenexplaintheformandcontentoftheirdiagramTheideawasthataconcisediagramformatwouldallowstudentstoconstructanoverviewofthewaysinwhichtheythoughtaboutthemselvesinrelationtothepastalthoughitwasusuallyunclearifthisrelationshipwassomethingtheyhadreflectedonpreviouslyTheopen-endednatureofthetaskallowedstudentstoapproachitinwaysthatwerepersonallymeaningfultothemStudentstypicallyspentapproximately45minutesonthetaskWhilethispaperfocusesonthediagramsstudentswentontocompleteotheractivitiesincludingonedesignedtosurfacetheirepistemologicalreasoningaboutthenatureofhistoricalaccounts(adaptedfromBoixMansilla2001)whichtheyalsodiscussedintheirinterviews
Initial coding rounds
StudentsrsquodiagramsprovedhighlyvariedposingachallengeforanalysisInitialcodingfocusedonthecontentofstudentsrsquodiagramsAcrossallthediagramsalmosthalfoftheitems(46percent)relatedtostudentsrsquodirectpersonalexperiencessuchasstartinganewschoolormovinghouseorfeaturesoftheireverydaylivesincludingpersonalitytraitshobbiesortastesOnlyaquarteroftheitemsreferredtowhatmightbecalledthehistoricalpasteventslikelytofeatureinstudentsrsquohistorytextbooksandwhichprecededtheirbirthsAfurther9percentofitemsreferredtolsquohistoricalrsquoeventsoccurringwithinthestudentsrsquoownlifetimesorcontemporaneouslysuchastheelectionofBushorObamaandtheWaronTerror20percentofitemscomprisedthemesortopicsnottiedtoaparticulartimeorperiodsuchasimmigrationracismorliterature
180 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
ThevaguewordingofthetaskinstructionsndashlsquoshowhowthepasthelpsexplainwhoyouareandthelifeyouarelivingrsquondashmeantthatmanystudentslegitimatelychosetofocusontheirownpastaswellasorinsteadofthehistoricallysignificantpastClosetoafifthofstudents(17percent)includedonly eventsthateithertheyorimmediatemembersoftheirfamilyhadpersonallyexperiencedandoraspectsoftheirpresent-daylivesOverathirdofstudents(34percent)includedmostlyoronlysuchitems(lsquomostlyrsquowasdefinedastwo-thirdsormoreofitems)Overatenthofstudents(13percent)includedmostlyoronlyhistoricallysignificantitemsintheirdiagramswhileclosetohalf(47percent)combineddifferenttypesofitemssothatnoonetypedominatedWhilesuchstatisticsarguablyhintattherelativesensitivityofindividualstudentstothepastthesheeramountofhistorythatindividualschosetoincludeintheirdiagramswasnotusefulforindicatingthedegreetowhichorprocessbywhichtheyweremakingconnectionsbetweentheirownlivesandthepast
Thenextroundofanalysisattemptedtodifferentiatebetweenstudentswhotoldstoriesto explain their personal connection to the past and those who approached the questionmore lsquoanalyticallyrsquo as per Brunerrsquos distinction between narrative and paradigmatic thinkingHowevergiventhecentralityofnarrativestohowwemakemeaningofour lives itprovedmore productive to focus on theways inwhich students integrated personal and historicalnarrativesintheirdiagramsBrunercommentingonwrittentextshasstatedthatlsquoitisnotthatnarrativeandparadigmaticmodesofdiscoursefusefortheydonotItisratherthatthelogicalorparadigmaticmodeisbroughttobearonthetaskofexplicatingthebreachinthenarrativersquo(Bruner200594)Thisdistinctionplayedoutinthisstudyasfollowsstudentstypicallydrewadiagramcontainingnarrativethreads(orasinglecoherentnarrative)andthenwroteexplanatoryor logical comments eitherwithinor alongside thediagram Interviewed students retoldorelaboratedonthesenarrativeswhilealsobreakingoutintoanalyticcommentaryonthem
Findings overview Studentsrsquo incorporation of personal and historical narratives into their diagrams
Table2summarizesthewaysinwhichstudentscombinedpersonalandhistoricallysignificantitemsintheirdiagrams iftheydidatallandtheoverallnarrativeeffect ifanyThelabels inboldindicatethepresenceofwhatappearedtobecoherentoverarchingnarrativeswithinthediagramsndashbethatpersonalnarrativeshistoricalnarrativesoronesthatbroughtthesetwokindsofnarrativetogetherPersonalnarrativesrefertostoriesaboutstudentsrsquoownlivesorthoseoftheirimmediatefamilyHistoricalnarrativesinvolvethehistoricallysignificantpastasrecognizedbyarelativelylargegroupofpeopleincludinghistoriansTheycouldbenarrativesaboutparticulareventsorhistoricaldevelopmentssuchasthestruggleforwomenrsquosrightsortheUnitedStatesgainingindependencefromBritainmoreinterpretativesweepsofperiodsofhistorysuchasthetwentiethcenturyorevenaddresshowhistoryitselfunfolds
ItisimportanttonotethatstudentswerenotaskedtoproducecoherentnarrativesoftheirrelationshiptothepastintheirdiagramsanabsenceofacoherentnarrativedoesnotmeanthatindividualstudentswereincapableofandorresistanttoproducingthemjustthattheydidnotdosointhiscontextMoreoversincestudentsweregiventhechallengingtaskofsimultaneouslythinking of items to include and arranging those items diagrammatically some diagrams canbeinterpretedasaninitialjottingdownofideasndashalthoughasTable2indicatessomeofthediagrams that appeared tobe listsor brainstormseffectivelyoperated as narratives if thereweresufficientthematiccoherenceandadequatecontext forthechoiceof itemsHoweverinthecaseofstudentswhowerenotintervieweditisimpossibletoknowiftheyintentionallyselectedordevelopedparticularnarrativestrategiesThemostcompellingdiagrams(a)included
London Review of Education 181
lessthantwo-thirdsofitemsrelatedtopersonalorfamilyexperiencestastesinterestsetcandatleastsomehistoricallysignificantitemsand(b)integratedpersonalandhistoricalnarrativesHoweverTable2shouldbereadasasummaryoffindingsratherthanasanevaluativeschema
Table 2Asummaryofcontenttypeandnarrativestrategyintheoverallsampleofdiagrams(n=168)
A Diagrams onlyincludepersonalorfamilyexperiencestastesinterestsetc(n=31)
LISTBRAINSTORMCurrentinterestsfriendsfamilyvaluesinfluences 20
CHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHTellsstoryofownlifeandorimmediatefamily
Personal narrative
11
B Two-thirdsormoreofincludeditemsarepersonalorfamilyexperiencestastesinterestsetcbutotherkindsofitemsareincluded(n=29)
LISTBRAINSTORMCurrentinterestsfriendsfamilyetcwithhistorycitedasaninterestor eventsorinfluencesincludingitemsofbroadhistoricorcontemporarysignificance
17
CHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHTellsstoryofownlifesomeprecedinghistoryisincludedasbackgroundandor broadercontextualdetailisincludedndashegcontemporaryeventsordevelopments
Personal narrative with links to the historically significant past
12
C Two-thirdsormoreofincludeditemsarehistoricallysignificantevents(n=24)
LISTBRAINSTORMSeeminglyrandomconnectionsorverygeneralrationaleforincludingitemsegthingsthathaveaffectedmethingsIbelieveareimportant
13
LISTBRAINSTORMCoherentthemeitemscollectivelyservetolinkownlifestorytobiggerhistoricalnarrative(s)
Personal narrative linked to historical narrative
7
CHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHChronologicaloverviewofhistorywithselfatendorasapointonatimeline
Historical narrative with self inserted
4
D IntegrateddiagramMixtureofdifferentkindsofitems(n=84)
LISTBRAINSTORMSeeminglyrandomconnectionsorverygeneralrationaleforincludingitemsegthingsthathaveaffectedmethingsIbelieveareimportantorhavelearnedfrom 23
LISTBRAINSTORMCoherentthemeitemscollectivelyservetolinkownlifestorytobiggerhistoricalnarrative(s)
Personal narrative linked to historical narrative
13
VARIEDFORMSSubsumespersonalnarrativewithinthatofagrouptowhichheorshebelongs(egAlgerianMuslimsAshkenaziJewsAmericanshumanrace)
Personal and historical narrative tethered (STUART)
9
BROADCHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHContextualizesownorfamilystorywithinbroaderhistoricalcontextshowshowownstoryorfamilyrsquosstoryhasbeenintertwinedwithhistoricaleventsortrends
Personal narrative contextualized within broader historical narrative (MELVIN)
23
VARIEDFORMSPresentsselfasaproductandorpartofaconfluenceofnarrativesmayinvolvecomplexcausalconnections
Personal narrative seen as product of historical narrative(s) andor at confluence of different narratives (JESS)
16
NumberofdiagramsinsamplefittingthiscategoryDiagramsthatonlyincludedgeneralthemeswereexcludedfromthisanalysis
182 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
Studentsrsquo narrative strategies Melvin Stuart and Jess
While giving a senseof thedistributionof approacheswithin theoverall sampleTable 2 isnecessarilyreductionistandfailstocapturewhatitlookedlikeinpracticeforparticularstudentstomakenarrativeconnectionsbetweentheirownlivesandthepastThispaperturnsnowtothreespecificcasestoprovidemorenuanceddiscussionandtoshowthatstudentsconnectedthemselvestothepast inhighly individualizedwaysMelvinStuartand Jess(allpseudonyms)wereselectedbecausetheycreateddiagramswithmixedcontentbutuseddifferentnarrativestrategies to bring personal and historical narratives together as indicated in SectionD ofTable2Furthermoretherewereinterestingdifferencesinthewaysinwhichtheytalkedabouttheirdiagrams
InwhatfollowsafewimpressionisticdetailsaregivenabouteachstudenttoemphasizetheirindividualityaswellastoconveytheresearcherrsquosperspectivethedetailsarenotnecessarilysignificantThenevidencefromthestudentsrsquodiagramstheirwrittenexplanationsandinterviewsarewoventogether
Melvin Historically contextualizing his own life story exploring the relationship between individuals and bigger historical processes
Melvinwas a soft-spoken affable studentwhowore abaseball capduringhis interviewHereferredtohisCaribbeanheritageandlargefamily(heistheyoungestofeightchildren)aswellashisreligiousfaithHehastravelledextensivelytovisitfamilyintheCaribbeanandEuropeandhaslivedinvariousGreaterBostonneighbourhoods
MelvinrsquosdiagramatfirstglanceisstructuredintheformofaswirlingtimelineHestartswith the Emancipation Proclamation ndash the abolition of slavery at the end of the AmericanCivilWarndashwhichispresentedasanecessaryconditionorbackgroundenablinghispersonalstorylsquomyeducationlevelmyqualityoflifeprobablywhereIlivewouldhavebeencompletelydifferentrsquoHoweverhisdiagramdoesnotfollowastrictchronologydespitethearrowsthatconnectthedifferentitemsTheendofthetimelineisonlylooselystructuredfeaturingaspectsofMelvinrsquoslifecircumstancessuchaswherehelivestheeducationhehasreceivedthetravelhehascompletedandhowtheselifecircumstanceshavehadanimpactonwhoheistodayWhileMelvinincorporatesthehistoricallysignificantpastintohisdiagramhisfocusissomewhattiltedtowardshispersonallifestory
NonethelessMelvindoesmorethanmerelydescribehisownlifehesituatesitwithinabroaderhistoricalcontextHisexplanatorynotescentreonhowhecametohaveexcellentlifeprospectsdespitethechallengesheperceivesofbeingayoungblackmanlivingintheUnitedStatesBeginninghispersonaltimelinewiththeEmancipationProclamationandtheendingoftheJimCrowlawsservestoacknowledgehisrelativegoodfortunecomparedwithpreviousgenerationshealsoconnectshisownstorytoawidercollectivenarrativeofsocialprogressandtechnologicalchangewhichaffectlsquoprettymucheveryoneinmygenerationrsquoByonlyselectinglsquothingsbeyondhiscontrolrsquo forhisdiagramMelvinusesthediagramnarrativetoexploretherelationshipbetweenindividuallivesorfreewillandlargersocietalorhistoricalforcesInhisinterview he also referred to his siblings his parentsrsquo political and religious views and theliberalcontextofMassachusettsasinfluencesbeyondhiscontrolthathavehelpedtoshapehimblurringthedistinctionbetweenpastandpresentinhisbidtoexplorethedegreetowhichweshapeourowndestinies
London Review of Education 183
Fig
ure
1M
elvinrsquosdiagram
184 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
Fig
ure
2Stuartrsquosdiagram
London Review of Education 185
Stuart Situating his own life at the confluence of various historical narratives tethering his own story to the history of humanity
StuartwasaboyofItalianAmericanextractionwithspikedhairwhosefamilyhaslivedinthesamesemi-urbanneighbourhoodofGreaterBostonforseveralgenerationsHejokedaroundwithhispeersinclassbutbecamestrikinglyseriousinthecontextoftheinterviewspeakinginaheartfeltwayabouthisfamilyandhisprideinbeingAmericanHealsostatedthathistorywashisfavouritesubject
Stuartrsquosdiagramwaswide-rangingintermsofboththemeandtimespanHepickedthefollowingthemeslsquowarsandbattlesrsquowhichleduptooratleastprecededlsquomodernterrorismrsquolsquofamouspeoplersquowithJesusChristtheonlynamedpersonlsquoconstructionandfactorizationrsquo[sic]whichtracesbroadtechnologicaldevelopmentsinhumanhistoryandlsquolandandthefoundersrsquowhich broadly relates to the discovery andor establishment of different empires or nationstates The general chronological element to the threads suggests narratives unfolding overtimeanimpressionreinforcedbyacommentmadebyStuartinhisinterview
InterviewerObviously IrsquoveaskedyoutodothisbuthaveyouthoughtaboutthisbigpicturebeforeOrwasitjustmdash
StuartIactuallyhaveIwasjustlikesittingathomeandjustlikethinkinglikewhydideverythingstartandlikehowitactuallypusheditselfintoeachotheranditdevelopedintoeverythingandthenIcamealongandIfeltlikeIwasapartofiteventhoughIwasnrsquotlikephysicallyapartofitLikeIthoughtIwasinvolvedbecauseofallthishappening
Hismetaphoriclanguagewhichconveysasenseofhistoricaleventsslidingorpilingintooneanotherdrawsattentiontohisbeingimmersedinsomebiggerstoryconcerningthewholeofhumanhistory
InhisdiagramStuartsituateshislifeattheconfluenceofdifferentnarrativestrandsunfoldinginhistoryhealsotethershispersonalstorytothatofhumankindwritlargeThatisinbeingasked to show how his own life connects to the past he elects to tell a broader story ofhumanityIfwecompareStuartrsquosdiagramtothatofMelvin it is lessofanexplorationofhisindividualstoryandmoreanexpressionaboutbelongingtoacollectivestory
Jess Exploring how the past is helping shape the ongoing story of her own personal development situating her own life at the confluence of various historical narratives
Jesswasagirlwith longbrownhairanaccomplishedgymnastanddancerShespokeofherJewish ancestry and her familyrsquos involvement in the LGBTmovement as well as her closeattachmenttoherlocalurbancommunitywhereshehaslivedherwholelifeShearticulatedherwordscarefullyoftenpausingasiftoreflectbeforerespondingtoquestions
AtfirstglanceJessrsquosdiagramdoesnotexhibitthekindofflowvisibleintheprevioustwodiagramsHoweverthereisaswirlingdynamicatplaymadeevidentbyherverbalexplanationofherdiagram
SoattheverycentreofmydiagramIhavejustalittlekindofbubblethatsayslsquomersquoAndImadeitabubblebecauseIthinkIrsquomnotallthatsortofwelldefinedbutitrsquosallsortofjustmushandthingsjustkindofflowinandinfluencemeSoIhavesortofacirclearoundmyselfandIhaveabunchofdifferentsortsofmovementsandeventsinhistorythatIthinkhavemostinfluencedmesuchastheenvironmentalmovementsandenvironmentaldegradationThecivilrightsmovementstheGLBTmovementswomenrsquosrightsmovementsJewishhistoryJewishmovementsandwarsaresortofthemaineventsthatinfluencedmeandtheninmoreofaninnercircleIhavemorebroad
186 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
topicssuchaseducationtechnologydancingandmusicthathavendashtheyallhavetheirownsortofhistoryandtheyallhaveapastthatIdonrsquotnecessarilyknowasmuchaboutinaconcretewaybutumndashallofthosethingsinfluencemesotheyrsquoreallflowingintothecentreThatrsquoswhereIam
Figure 3Jessrsquosdiagram
InthiscaseherongoingpersonaldevelopmentarguablyprovidesthenarrativecentrepieceorunifyingfactorThediagramalsoservesasanassertionofheremergingidentityndashintermsofeventsthathaveinfluencedhervaluesandsenseofwhosheisaswellasherpersonaltalentsandinterestsAsbecameevidentinherinterviewhowevershealsosituatesherselfasbeingattheconfluenceofdifferenthistoricalnarrativesForexampleshetalksaboutbeingatacertainmoment in thehistoryof theenvironmentwhichhasbeenshapedbypreviousgenerationsrsquoactionslsquomygenerationwersquoregoingtobereallyreallydealingwiththatrsquoShetalksaboutbeingshapedbyandinheritingthelegacyofthewomenrsquosrightsmovementcivilrightsmovementandJewishhistoryWithregardtothegayrightsmovementinwhichherfamilyhasbeenimmersedshehasasenseofbeingpartofhistoryinthemakinglsquothemovementisnow Youknowtherersquosbeenmovementsinthepastcertainlybutitrsquoslikeahugethingnowrsquo
How students talked about their diagrams The importance of epistemology
Theways inwhich students in the study talked about their diagramswere revealing of thepotentialrelationshipbetweentheirunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgeandtheir individualhistoricalconsciousnessInparticulartherewasacontrastbetweenstudents
London Review of Education 187
who presented their diagrams as contingent subjective interpretations of the relationshipbetweentheirownlivesandthepastandthosewhoappearedtopresenttheirdiagramsasself-evidentstraightforwardrepresentations
Jessforinstancetalkedfromthestartaboutnotbeinglsquoallthatwelldefinedrsquoasreflectedby the blob at the centre of her diagram There is a sense of fluidity ormovement in herdiagramndashasmuchintermsofherowninterpretationofherownplaceinhistoryasineventsordevelopmentsthemselvesShowinganawarenessofthelimitationsofherownknowledgeshestatesthatshedidnotwanttoexcludeitemsfromherdiagramsimplybecauseofherownignorance
MoreoverintalkingaboutthedifferentelementsofherdiagramshespokeinmetacognitivetermsaboutthedifferencesbetweenlearningaboutJewishhistoryatthetemplewhereitwasframedas lsquoourhistoryrsquoandatschoolwhereitwastreatedassomeoneelsersquoshistoryWithregardtothewomenrsquosrightsmovementshesaid
Sowomenrsquos rightsrsquomovements ndash umm ndashmymomwas a pretty hardcore feminist and IrsquovedefinitelyinheritedsomeofthatandIrsquovereallyenjoyedmostlythisyearactuallyndashIlearnedaboutwomenrsquosrightsinUSHistoryandthatrsquosbeenreallyinterestingsortofhowthatrsquosplayedoutAndprobablybecauseofmymotherandotheradultsandotherwomenthatIrsquovegrownupwithIrsquomlikendashveryconsciousofthatthatIamawomanandthatotherwomenhavedonealottogettowhereIamtodayAndtherersquosdefinitelyasenseofprideformeIhavealwaysbeenverysortofconsciousofthatheritage
Here Jesspresents the impactof themovementassomewhat inevitablegivenhermotherrsquosvaluesHowevershealsorefersexplicitlytoherenjoymentandinterestinlearningaboutthistopicatschoolSheexpresseshersenseofconnectiontowomenrsquoshistoryandheractiveprideinitwhilealsoprovidinganexplanationforwhyshefeelsconnectedtoitshowingacapacityforself-reflectionormetacognitionItisworthnotinghoweverthatshedidnotcommentontheprogressivetemplatethatseemedtoundergirdhernarrative
StuartincontrastpresentedhisdiagraminmorefixedtermsWheninvitedtotalkaboutitheproceededtolisteverythingcontainedwithinit
WellfirstofallIputthelandandthefoundersbecausethesearethebasicgroupsandpeoplethatstartedeverythingThepeoplewhostartedMesopotamiaAncientThebesyouknowlikethatPeoplewhowereintheRomanEmpireallthoseVikingsthefamousexplorersChristopherColumbusMagellanetceterahellip
Inthisextracthe iscitingundisputed lsquofactsrsquohedoesnotusemodifying languagebut insteadstates straightforwardlywhat happenedWhen asked how he knew about these aspects ofthepastheresponded lsquoMostofthestuffcamefromschool Iwas justtryingtothinkwhathappenedrsquo Stuart expressed a greatdealof connection to thepast including asmentionedearlierthathefeltpartofanongoinghistoricalprocessWhileJessspokewithprideyetanalyticdetachmentofherconnectiontothewomenrsquosmovementStuartdidnotexhibitthecapacitytotalkinametacognitivewayaboutthecontentorformofhisdiagramndashalthoughthisdoesnotmeanthathewasincapableofdoingso
Inhis interviewStuartalso talkedabout learning fromhisgrandmotherabout thepastincludinglifelessonsshegleanedfromweatheringtheGreatDepressionHereferredtohercorroboratingwhathelearnedatschool
Anditrsquoscoolbecause[myteacher]canteachmeaboutitatthesametimeandthenshecanjusttellmeaboutthestuffItrsquosreallycoolhellipIlikeaskherlsquoDoyourememberthisrsquohelliplsquoDoyourememberbootleggingandstufflikethatrsquoAndshewaslikelsquoyeaIrememberthatrsquowhichiscoolbecauseyouactuallyknowwhathappenedYoucanjusttalktoheraboutit
188 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
It is notable that he does not talk about hearing his grandmotherrsquos perspective about whathappenedratherheviewsherasanauthorityonhistorypresumablybecausehethinksshedirectlyexperiencedwhatisinhistextbook
Melvinrsquosstancetowardhisdiagramwasmoretentativeinnosmallpartbecauseheactuallyproducedtwodiagramsthefirstversionwasabrainstormofinfluencesonhislifewhichhethought conveyed an even spreadof influences on his lifeHowever in the second version(featuredinthispaper)lsquoItriedtomakeitinchronologicalordersotospeakLikewhatwasinheritedthenthingsthataffectedmelateronrsquoFurtherhespokerepeatedlyabouthisparticularlifeexperiencesaffectinghisperspectiveontheworldandonthepast
YouknowIwasnrsquotbroughtupinthesametypeofenvironmentthat[myparents]wereIwasbroughtupinAmericainMassachusettsatthatAndIthoughtthatwassomethingthatreallyaffectsyouanditaffectshowyoulookatliketheinternationalpoliticalsystemandwhatnothellipIthinkbecausemyparentsarefromoverseasitdefinitelyhelpsmelookatthingsonalargerscaleButIdodefinitelythinkincomparisontothemIlookatthingsfromanAmericanperspective
At the same time he assumes some commonality with other people such as people fromhisgenerationwhoaregrowingup inadigitalenvironment InMelvinrsquoscasehisoverarchingnarrativeisabout thewayinwhichhisoutlookandlifeprospectshavebeenaffectedbythepastandexternalforceshoweverheisalsoabletolsquostepoutsidersquothatnarrativetoreflectonthewaysinwhichhisapproachtothetaskhasbeeninfluencedbythoseverylifeexperiencesandfamilyinfluencesLikeStuartheisclosetohisgrandmotherHoweverwhenhereferstotalkingwithherabout thepastandher life inTrinidadhiscomment isaboutherperspective lsquotheobstaclesofyourpastdefinitelyaffectyourpointofviewrsquoInturnhetalksaboutherinfluenceonhimlsquoIthinkthestoriesthatyoursquoretolddefinitelyaffectthewayyouthinkrsquo
OtherstudentsmadecommentsthatindicatedarelationshipbetweentheirawarenessoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgeandthewaysinwhichtheyviewedtheirownrelationshiptothepastThey(1)acknowledgedtheirownsubjectivityandorthelimitationsoftheirperspectiveontheirrelationshiptothepast(2)presentedtheirdiagramsandexplanationsas tentative and subject to alteration andor (3) stepped outside themselves to reflect ontheir reactions to learningabouthistory In factwhile Jesswas theonly studentwhomadecommentsthatcoveredallthreeofthesecategoriesfewstudentsappearedtotakethemorestraightforwardviewofhistoricalknowledgeapparentlyevincedbyStuartThefactthatstudentsinthesamplewereacademicallysuccessfulaged16ndash18andlivinginacitywithahighlyeducatedworkforceandmajoracademicinstitutionsprobablyneedstobetakenintoaccountwithregardtothisfinding
ItisalsoworthreiteratingthattheresearcherwasnotaproverbialflyonthewallwhilecollectingthisdataForexampleStuartpresentedhimselfasagoodstudentwholikedhistoryandrespectedhiselders justpriortotheinterviewtherewasadrugsbustattheschoolbypoliceanditispossiblehewantedtoconveythathewasalsquodecentkidrsquoMelvindiscussedhisrelative good fortune comparedwithother youngblackmen (including implicitly others athisschool)insodoinghewasabletocommunicatethathewasfromahighlyeducatedfamilylivinginadesirablepartoftownJessmeanwhilepositionedherselfasathoughtfulpoliticallyinformedstudentWhiletheseimpressionsarepurelyspeculativetheysuggestthattheschoolcontextandtheperceivedidentityoftheresearcherndashaswellastheframingoftheactivityndashhelpedtoshapewhatstudentschosetoshareHoweverrecognizingthatthereislikelytobesomefluidityintermsofhowindividualsrelatetheirownlivestothepastdoesnotdiminishthefindingthattheyoungpeopleinthisstudyusedavarietyofnarrativestrategiestodosoorthatthewaysinwhichtheytalkedaboutthosestrategiesappearedtodifferaccordingtotheirepistemologicalunderstandings
London Review of Education 189
Implications
InconjunctionwiththeoverallsummaryshowninTable2thesethreecasesprovidesnapshotsofdifferentways inwhichyoungpeopleusednarrativestrategiestoconnecttheirownlivesto the past aswell as differences in theways inwhich they talked about those strategiesWhilethisstudyishighlyexploratorythesecasespointtotheapparentdiversityofways inwhichyoungpeoplethinkaboutthemselvesinrelationtothepastaswellasthesignificanceof epistemological understanding in the construction of individual historical consciousnessOf coursemany questions remain For example was the ability of Jess andMelvin to talkreflectively about their diagrams and their relationship to thepast an indicationof rigoroushistoricalunderstandinginadisciplinarysenseorofmoregenericcriticalorabstractthinkingskills Further howdo teensrsquo broaddevelopmental trajectoriesndash such as thoseoutlinedbyErikson(1968)ndash intersectwiththeirhistoricalunderstanding Itwouldbe interestingtoaskchildrenofdifferentagestocompletethediagramtaskYoungerstudentswouldpresumablyfind it challenging tocreate anarrative about theirown lives in toto as indeed someof thestudentsinthisstudymayhavedoneExaminingthepotentiallinksbetweenthedevelopmentofautobiographicalstory-tellingskillsandhowyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastcouldbeanotherproductivelineofresearch
Methodologicallythestudyopensupsomeinterestingpossibilitiesespeciallyasthediagramactivity invited students to synthesize their thinking about their personal connections to thepastinarelativelyopen-endedmannerThetaskinstructionsandoranalysiscouldbealteredtoinvestigaterelatedphenomenaForexamplehowifatalldostudentsdealwiththeideathataspeopletheyareevolvingandmayhaveashiftingrelationshiptoorperspectiveonthepastTowhatextentdotheyportraythemselvesasactiveagentsintheirownrightratherthanindividualssubjecttoforcesbeyondtheircontrolHowdodifferencesamongtheirvariouslsquometa-historicalrsquounderstandingssuchastheirworkingideasabouthistoricalcausalityrelatetohowtheytalkaboutthemselves inrelation to thepastHowwould theyposition themselvesrelative toperceivednationalnarrativesWhile it is impossible toproveadirectrelationship fromthis singlestudyndashorthereasonsbehindsucharelationshipndashstudentswhodisplayedanunderstandingoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgealsogavetheimpressionofbeingmoreempoweredintermsoftalkingabouttheirfutureandnavigatingtheirownemergingidentities
Withregardtopractice therangeofpersonaldiagramsproducedbystudentsconfirmsthatifteachersarelookingtobuildontheirstudentsrsquoexistingideasandunderstandingsalsquoonesizefitsallrsquoapproach is likely tobemisguidedandnon-inclusiveandthatnationalnarrativesare only one kind of narrative towhich young people feel connected This paper does notadvocatethatyoungpeoplebeinvitedtorelateeverythingtheylearninhistorytothemselvesHoweverofferingopen-endedandpotentiallycreativeopportunitiesforthemtoreflectontheconnectionstheyperceivebetweenthemselvesandthepastislikelytobeengagingparticularlyforolderteensgiventheirbroaderdevelopmentalneedtoestablishindependentidentities
FurthermoresuchopportunitiescanactivelybuildhistoricalunderstandingGiventhesheervarietyofdiagramsthatwillalmostcertainlybeproducedwithinasingleclassroomstudentscan learn a greatdeal by looking at anddiscussing thediagramsof their peers inways thatdeveloptheirunderstandingthatpeoplehavedifferentperspectivesonthepastandthattheseperspectivesareshapedat least inpartbybiographicalorothercontextual factorsLookingatothersrsquodiagramscanopenupdifferentpossibilitiesforyoungpeopleintermsofhowtheythinkabouttheirownrelationshiptothepastandgivethemanewperspectiveontheirownidentityandoutlookIndeedthepowerofthisapproachcanbefurtherenhancedifclassroomsaredigitallyconnectedtoclassroomsinothercountriesengaginginthesameactivityinpartbecauseitallowsprevailingandassumednationalnarrativestobecomevisible
190 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
While somepeoplewouldcertainly resist thenotionof lettingyoungpeopleuse schoolhistoryasavenueforexploringorinterpretingtheirownlivesidentitiesandvaluesthisresearchshedslightonsomeofthevariedwaysinwhichyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastoruseitfororientingpurposesAsJessinparticulardemonstratedasophisticatedunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgecangohandinhandwithaself-awarenessandevenprideinonersquosrelationshiptothepastWearguablyoweittoourstudentstohelpthemthinkaboutwhotheyareandthelivestheyarelivingorwanttoliveinourrapidlychangingandevermorecomplexworldWeneedtosupportthemtointerpretthepastandtodeveloprobusthistoricalunderstandingswealsoneedtosupportthemtointerprettheirownnarratives
Acknowledgements
TheauthorwishestothanktheGermanacosFoundationforsupportingtheresearchdiscussedinthispaperaswellasHowardGardnerHelenHasteandMeiraLevinsonforprovidingguidancewiththeresearchMycolleaguesEdwardClappandShariTishmangavehelpfulfeedbackonearlydrafts
Notes on the contributor
ElizabethDawesDuraisinghisaresearchassociateandprincipalinvestigatoratProjectZeroaresearchcentreat theHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducationwhereshealsoservesasalectureroneducationShewaspreviouslyahighschoolhistoryteacherforeightyearsworkinginbothEnglandandAustralia
References
AhonenS(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessAviableparadigmforhistoryeducationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(6)697ndash707
Almarza DJ (2001) lsquoContexts shaping minority language studentsrsquo perceptions of American historyrsquo Journal of Social Studies Research25(2)4ndash22
AnS(2009)lsquoLearningUShistoryinanageofglobalizationandtransnationalmigrationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)763ndash87
AndrewsM(2007)Shaping History Narratives of political changeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressAngvikMandVonBorriesB(eds)(1997)Youth and History A comparative European survey on historical
consciousness and political attitudes among adolescentsHamburgKoumlrber-StiftungAshbyR(2005)lsquoStudentsrsquoapproachestovalidatinghistoricalclaimsrsquoInAshbyRGordonPandLeeP
(eds)Understanding History Recent research in history educationLondonRoutledge21ndash36AudigierFandFinkN(2010)lsquoPupilsandschoolhistoryinFranceandSwitzerlandrsquo Education 3ndash1338
(3)329ndash39BambergM(2011)lsquoWhoamINarrationanditscontributiontoselfandidentityrsquo Theory and Psychology
21(1)3ndash24BartonKC(2001)lsquolsquolsquoYoursquodbewantingtoknowaboutthepastrdquoSocialcontextsofchildrenrsquoshistorical
understandinginNorthernIrelandandtheUSArsquo Comparative Education37(1)89ndash106BartonKCandLevstikLS(2004)Teaching History for the Common GoodMahwahNJLawrenceErlbaum
AssociatesBartonKCandMcCullyAW(2005)lsquoHistoryidentityandtheschoolcurriculuminNorthernIreland
Anempiricalstudyofsecondarystudentsrsquoideasandperspectivesrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(1)85ndash116
London Review of Education 191
Baynham M (2010) lsquoAlexandra Georgakopoulou Small stories interaction and identitiesrsquo Applied Linguistics31(3)471ndash3
BilligM(1995)Banal NationalismLondonSAGEPublicationsBillmann-Mahecha E and Hausen M (2005) lsquoEmpirical psychological approaches to the historical
consciousnessofchildrenrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks163ndash86
BoixMansillaV(2001)The Pursuit of Understanding A study of exemplary high school studentsrsquo conceptions of knowledge validation in science and history EdDthesisHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducation
BrunerJS(1990)Acts of MeaningCambridgeMAHarvardUniversityPressBrunerJS(2005)lsquoPastandpresentasnarrativeconstructionsrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and
Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks23ndash43DamonWandHartD (1988)Self-Understanding in Childhood and AdolescenceNewYorkCambridge
UniversityPressDantoAC(1965)Analytical Philosophy of HistoryCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressEpsteinT(1998)lsquoDeconstructingdifferencesinAfrican-AmericanandEuropean-Americanadolescentsrsquo
perspectivesonUShistoryrsquo Curriculum Inquiry28(4)397ndash423EriksonEH(1968)Identity Youth and CrisisNewYorkWWNortonFivush R Bohanek JG and ZamanW (2011) lsquoPersonal and intergenerational narratives in relation
to adolescentsrsquowell-beingrsquo InHabermasT (ed)The Development of Autobiographical Reasoning in Adolescence and Beyond (NewDirectionsforChildandAdolescentDevelopment131)45ndash57
GoldbergTPoratDandSchwarzBB(2006)lsquolsquoHerestartedtheriftweseetodayrsquoStudentandtextbooknarrativesbetweenofficialandcountermemoryrsquo Narrative Inquiry16(2)319ndash47
GoldbergTSchwarzBBandPoratD(2008)lsquoLivinganddormantcollectivememoriesascontextsofhistorylearningrsquo Learning and Instruction18(3)223ndash37
GreverMHaydnTandRibbensK(2008)lsquoIdentityandschoolhistoryTheperspectiveofyoungpeoplefromtheNetherlandsandEnglandrsquo British Journal of Educational Studies56(1)76ndash94
HaeberliP(2005) lsquoRelatingtohistoryAnempiricaltypologyrsquo International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research5(1)1ndash10
Hammack PL and Pilecki A (2012) lsquoNarrative as a rootmetaphor for political psychologyrsquo Political Psychology33(1)75ndash103
HarterS(1999)The Construction of the Self A developmental perspectiveNewYorkGuilfordPressHawkey K and Prior J (2011) lsquoHistory memory cultures and meaning in the classroomrsquo Journal of
Curriculum Studies43(2)231ndash47HoferBKandPintrichPR(eds)(2002)Personal Epistemology The psychology of beliefs about knowledge and
knowing MahwahNJLawrenceErlbaumAssociatesKeganR (1982)The Evolving Self Problem and process in human development CambridgeMAHarvard
UniversityPressLee P (2004a) lsquoUnderstanding historyrsquo In Seixas P (ed) Theorizing Historical Consciousness Toronto
UniversityofTorontoPress129ndash64LeeP(2004b)lsquoldquoWalkingbackwardsintotomorrowrdquoHistoricalconsciousnessandunderstandinghistoryrsquo
International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research4(1)1ndash46LeePJ(2005)lsquoPuttingprinciplesintopracticeUnderstandinghistoryrsquoInDonovanMSandBransford
JD (eds)How Students Learn History mathematics and science in the classroomWashingtonDCNationalAcademiesPress31ndash77
LeePandShemiltD(2004)lsquolsquolsquoIjustwishwecouldgobackinthepastandfindoutwhatreallyhappenedrdquoProgressioninunderstandingabouthistoricalaccountsrsquo Teaching History 11725ndash31
LenzC(2011) lsquoGenealogyandarchaeologyAnalyzinggenerationalpositioning inhistoricalnarrativesrsquo Journal of Comparative Family Studies42(3)319ndash27
LeacutetourneauJandMoisanS(2004)lsquoYoungpeoplersquosassimilationofacollectivehistoricalmemoryAcasestudyofQuebeckersofFrench-CanadianheritagersquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress109ndash28
192 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
LowenthalD(1996)Possessed by the Past The heritage crusade and the spoils of historyNewYorkFreePress
McAdamsDP(1993)The Stories We Live By Personal myths and the making of the selfNewYorkGuilfordPress
McLean KC Breen AV and FournierMA (2010) lsquoConstructing the self in earlymiddle and lateadolescentboysNarrativeidentityindividuationandwell-beingrsquo Journal of Research on Adolescence20(1)166ndash87
NakkulaMJandToshalisE(2006)Understanding Youth Adolescent development for educatorsCambridgeMAHarvardEducationPress
NoraP(1996)Realms of Memory Rethinking the French pastTransGoldhammerANewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
PeckCL (2010) lsquolsquolsquoItrsquos not like [Irsquom]Chinese andCanadian I am inbetweenrdquoEthnicity and studentsrsquoconceptionsofhistoricalsignificancersquo Theory and Research in Social Education38(4)574ndash617
PolkinghorneDE(1988)Narrative Knowing and the Human SciencesAlbanyStateUniversityofNewYorkPress
Polkinghorne DE (2005) lsquoNarrative psychology and historical consciousness Relationships andperspectivesrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks3ndash22
RantalaJ(2011)lsquoChildrenasconsumersofhistoricalcultureinFinlandrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies43(4)493ndash506
ReicherSandHopkinsN(2001)Self and Nation Categorization contestation and mobilizationLondonSAGEPublications
RosenzweigRandThelenDP(1998)The Presence of the Past Popular uses of history in American lifeNewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
RuumlsenJ(1993)Studies in MetahistoryPretoriaHumanSciencesResearchCouncilSeixasP(1997)lsquoMappingtheterrainofhistoricalsignificancersquo Social Education61(1)22ndash7SeixasP(2004)lsquoIntroductionrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityof
TorontoPress3ndash20SeixasP(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessTheprogressofknowledgeinapostprogressiveagersquoInStraub
J(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks141ndash62SeixasP(2009)lsquoNationalhistoryandbeyondrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)719ndash22ThorpR(2014)lsquoTowardsanepistemologicaltheoryofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquoHistorical Encounters A
Journal of Historical Consciousness Historical Cultures and History Education1(1)20ndash31TrailleK (2007) lsquolsquolsquoYou should be proud about your history Theymademe feel ashamedrdquoTeaching
historyhurtsrsquo Teaching History 12731ndash7VanSledrightB (2008) lsquoNarrativesofnation-statehistoricalknowledgeandschoolhistoryeducationrsquo
Review of Research in Education32(1)109ndash46WelzerH(2008)lsquoCollateraldamageofhistoryeducationNationalsocialismandtheHolocaustinGerman
familymemoryrsquo Social Research75(1)287ndash314WertschJV(2002)Voices of Collective RememberingCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressWertschJV(2004)lsquoSpecificnarrativesandschematicnarrativetemplatesrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing
Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress49ndash62Wineburg S (2001)Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts Charting the future of teaching the past
PhiladelphiaTempleUniversityPressWineburgSMosborgSPoratDandDuncanA(2007)lsquoCommonbeliefandtheculturalcurriculum
Anintergenerationalstudyofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquo American Educational Research Journal44(1)40ndash76
London Review of Education 193
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
This paperwas published in a special feature called lsquoNegotiating the nation Young peoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo
Thearticlesinthefeatureareasfollows
Angier K (2017) lsquoIn search of historical consciousness An investigation into young South AfricansrsquoknowledgeandunderstandingofldquotheirrdquonationalhistoriesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
DawesDuraisinghE (2017) lsquoMakingnarrativeconnectionsExploringhow late teensrelate theirownnarrativestothehistoricallysignificantpastrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GoldbergT(2017) lsquoTheusefulpast innegotiationAdolescentsrsquouseofhistory innegotiationof inter-groupconflictrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GreverMandVanderVliesT(2017)lsquoWhynationalnarrativesareperpetuatedAliteraturereviewonnewinsightsfromhistorytextbookresearchrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
HolmbergU(2017)lsquoldquoIwasborninthereignhelliprdquoHistoricalorientationinUgandanstudentsrsquonationalnarrativesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
LeacutetourneauJandChapmanA(2017)lsquoEditorialndashNegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
LeacutevesqueS(2017)lsquoHistoryasaldquoGPSrdquoOntheusesofhistoricalnarrativeforFrenchCanadianstudentsrsquolifeorientationandidentityrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
OlofssonHSamuelsson JStolareMandWendell J (2017) lsquoTheSwedesandtheirhistoryrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
SheehanMandDavisonM(2017)lsquoldquoWeneedtoremembertheydiedforusrdquoHowyoungpeopleinNewZealandmakemeaningofwarremembranceandcommemorationoftheFirstWorldWarrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
VanHavereTWilsKDepaepeFVerschaffelLandVanNieuwenhuyseK(2017)lsquoFlemishstudentsrsquohistoricalreferenceknowledgeandnarrativesoftheBelgiannationalpastattheendofsecondaryeducationrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
WertschJV(2017)lsquoForeword ndash NegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
London Review of Education 177
wellastheparticularschoolcontextsinwhichtheyinteractedwithherwouldhaveinfluencedthenarrativestheychosetotellparticularlyduringtheinterviews
Developmentalpsychologistsmeanwhileview lateadolescenceasthepre-eminenttimeinthelifecycleforexplicitlyaddressingissuesofidentity(Erikson1968NakkulaandToshalis2006)asitisaperiodwhenyoungpeopletypicallydevelopanintegratedsenseofselfandthecapacityorcognitivetoolstoconsidertheirlivesinanabstractsenseorasanoveralllsquostoryrsquo(DamonandHart1988Harter1999McAdams1993) Indeedemergingresearchsuggeststhatdevelopingtheabilitytocreateautobiographicalandintergenerationalnarrativesiscrucialfor theemotional andpsychological stabilityof youngpeople (Fivushet al 2011McLeanet al2010)Moreoverat least incontemporarywesterncontextsquestionsconcerningonersquosidentityandlifepurposeunderstandablycometotheforeasyoungpeoplepreparetoleavetheirfamiliesandattain increasedautonomyThisstudychosetofocuson16-to18-year-oldsonthegroundsthattheywouldbelikelytobebothwillingandabletoreflectontherelationshipbetweenthemselvesandhistory
Historical knowledge and understanding
A few quantitative studies have tried to measure young peoplersquos attitudes towards thepastmostnotablythatofAngvikandVonBorries(1997)Meanwhilestudiesincorporatingqualitative approacheshave shownhowyoungpeoplersquos familyornational affiliations affectthekindsofnarrativestheytellaboutthepast(Welzer2008)ortheirhistoricalreasoning(Goldberg et al 2008) Other studies have shown that studentsrsquo social and culturalenvironments impacthowtheymakemeaningoftheirhistoryeducationandthattheyarefar from passive recipients of textbook narratives (Barton and Levstik 2004Goldberg et al 2006Rantala2011) Stillothershave shownhowstudentsrsquo interpretationsofnationalhistorydifferaccordingtotheirracialethnicidentity(Almarza2001Epstein1998HawkeyandPrior2011Peck2010Traille2007)andimmigrationstatusandexperience(An2009Grever et al2008)Whilethisbodyofresearchisinformativethefocusinthisstudywason theways inwhich young people explicitlymake connections between themselves andhistoryOtherstudieshaveexploredhowyoungpeoplethinkaboutthemselvesasmembersofaspecificgeneration(Lenz2011)personallyrelatetoschoolhistorytopics(BartonandMcCully2005)or feel a senseofconnectedness to theoverall studyofhistory (AudigierandFink2010Haeberli2005)Howeverthesestudieshavenotfocusedonthenarrativeprocessesbywhichindividualsrelatetheirownlivestothepast
Finally this study draws on literature concerning young peoplersquos historical thinkingparticularlywithregardtotheirthinkingaboutthenatureofhistoricalknowledgeForexampleacommonmisconceptionamongchildrenisthathistoricalknowledgeisjustlsquotherersquoanddoesnotneedtobeconstructedfromhistoricalsources(Ashby2005Lee2005Wineburg2001)althoughtheymayeventuallydeveloptheinsightthathistoricalaccountsarecontingentandmustanswerquestionsandfitcriteria(LeeandShemilt2004)Borrowingfromthatworkthisstudybroadly consideredwhether young people talked about their diagrams (andother historicalaccountsincludingnarrativeaccounts)astentativeinterpretationsoftheirrelationshiptothepastorasstraightforwardunambiguousaccountsItisworthnothingthattodatetherehasbeenalackofclarityregardingthetheoreticalrelationshipbetweenepistemologicalunderstandingsofhistoryandhistoricalconsciousness(Lee2004b)althougharecentpaperpointstoanintegralrelationshipbetweenthetwowithasophisticated(orlsquogeneticrsquo)levelofhistoricalconsciousnessnecessitatingthedevelopmentofalsquohistoriographicalgazersquo(Thorp2014)
178 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
This study drew then from diverse bodies of literature some theoretical and someempiricallygroundedTheoverarchingimpetuswastounderstandwaysinwhichyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothehistoricallysignificantpastWhilethisstudyemphasizesthehighlyindividualandcontext-specificwaysinwhichyoungpeoplecreateorweavetogethernarrativesaboutthemselvesandthepastitalsointegratesinsightsfromcognitiveresearchthatpointtothepredictabledevelopmentofmoreenduringepistemologicalordisciplinaryunderstandingsamongyoungpeopleThesetwoapproacheswhilepotentiallyincompatiblecanbereconciledifstudentsareseenasdevelopingcapacitiesformeaning-makingratherthanholdingparticularideas(HoferandPintrich2002Kegan1982)Howstudentsdeploytheirfundamentalepistemologicalunderstandingsmayvaryfromonediscursivecontexttoanotherbutstudentswhohavenotgraspedtheconstructedandcontingentnatureofhistorical interpretations for instancearenevergoingtoconstructnarrativesinwaysthatreflectthatunderstanding
Methods
Sample
Ofthefourresearchsitestwoschoolsweresituatedinaffluentsuburbancommunitiesonewasinamixed-incomesemi-urbancommunityandonewasinamixed-incomeurbancommunityTable1presentsdemographicfeaturesoftheoverallsampleasself-reportedbystudentsThesamplewas balanced by gender andwas somewhat raciallyethnically diverse however thestudywasnotintendedtobegeneralizabletosomebroaderpopulationespeciallyaspotentiallyimportant information was not collected regarding studentsrsquo socialeconomic or religiousbackgroundsMoreoverthestudywasfocusedonthegeneralprocessesbywhichstudentsusedthepasttomakesenseoftheirlivesidentitiesandvaluesratherthanontheactualsubstantiveconnections that theymadeUnderstandable differences inwhat students talked about (egslaveryandthecivilrightsmovementvstheIslamicRevolutioninIran)werelessimportantforthisstudythanhowtheytalkedaboutthepastorwhatkindofepistemological stance theytooktowardsit(whichwerenotexpectedtobeinfluencedbygenderorracialethnicbackground)
Bydintofbeingenrolledincollegepreparationclasses(HonorsorAP)thesestudentswererelatively successful academically and likely tobeable toarticulate their relationshiptothepastalthoughinformationabouttheirgradesorhistoryeducationwasnotavailableStudentsparticipatedduring class time towards theendof the school year in a varietyofsubject area contexts (accounting English literature government history andpsychology)The subsampleof the 26 interviewed studentswas intentionally diverse in terms bothofdemographiccharacteristics andof theirdiagramsandwritten responsesWith respect tostudentworkvariationwassoughtregarding(1)thenumberofconnectionsstudentsmadebetweenthemselvesandthepast(2)therelativesophisticationoftheirreasoningaboutthenatureofhistoricalknowledgeas indicatedbya follow-upactivity (seebelow)and (3) theuniquenessortypicalityoftheirdiagramsrelativetotherestofthesampleHowever it isimportanttonotethatforreasonsoftimingtheinterviewsamplewasselectedbasedonaninitialreadingofthediagramsandotherwrittenresponsesratherthanonthemorethoroughanalysisdescribedbelowAllinterviewswerefullytranscribed
London Review of Education 179
Table 1Breakdownofsample(n=187)
Number of students in
overall sample
of overall sample
Number of students interviewed
of students interviewed
Gender (n=187)
Male 105 56 14 50
Female 82 44 14 50
Race ethnicity (n=175)
African-American 9 5 4 14
Asian 24 14 2 7
Hispanic 3 2 0 0
NativeAmerican 0 0 0 0
White 124 67 18 64
Mixedother 14 8 4 14
Family mobility and language (n=175)
Atleastoneforeignbornparent
74 39 11 40
Studenthasalwayslivedincurrentneighbourhood
111 59 15 54
StudenthaslivedoutsideNewEngland
50 27 5 29
LanguageotherthanEnglishspokenathome
56 30 9 32
Demographicdetailsweremissingforsomeofthesample
Data collection
AsmentionedstudentswereaskedtodrawadiagramonablankpieceofpapertoshowhowthepastlsquohelpsexplainwhoyouareandthelifeyouarelivingorhopetoliversquoandtothenexplaintheformandcontentoftheirdiagramTheideawasthataconcisediagramformatwouldallowstudentstoconstructanoverviewofthewaysinwhichtheythoughtaboutthemselvesinrelationtothepastalthoughitwasusuallyunclearifthisrelationshipwassomethingtheyhadreflectedonpreviouslyTheopen-endednatureofthetaskallowedstudentstoapproachitinwaysthatwerepersonallymeaningfultothemStudentstypicallyspentapproximately45minutesonthetaskWhilethispaperfocusesonthediagramsstudentswentontocompleteotheractivitiesincludingonedesignedtosurfacetheirepistemologicalreasoningaboutthenatureofhistoricalaccounts(adaptedfromBoixMansilla2001)whichtheyalsodiscussedintheirinterviews
Initial coding rounds
StudentsrsquodiagramsprovedhighlyvariedposingachallengeforanalysisInitialcodingfocusedonthecontentofstudentsrsquodiagramsAcrossallthediagramsalmosthalfoftheitems(46percent)relatedtostudentsrsquodirectpersonalexperiencessuchasstartinganewschoolormovinghouseorfeaturesoftheireverydaylivesincludingpersonalitytraitshobbiesortastesOnlyaquarteroftheitemsreferredtowhatmightbecalledthehistoricalpasteventslikelytofeatureinstudentsrsquohistorytextbooksandwhichprecededtheirbirthsAfurther9percentofitemsreferredtolsquohistoricalrsquoeventsoccurringwithinthestudentsrsquoownlifetimesorcontemporaneouslysuchastheelectionofBushorObamaandtheWaronTerror20percentofitemscomprisedthemesortopicsnottiedtoaparticulartimeorperiodsuchasimmigrationracismorliterature
180 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
ThevaguewordingofthetaskinstructionsndashlsquoshowhowthepasthelpsexplainwhoyouareandthelifeyouarelivingrsquondashmeantthatmanystudentslegitimatelychosetofocusontheirownpastaswellasorinsteadofthehistoricallysignificantpastClosetoafifthofstudents(17percent)includedonly eventsthateithertheyorimmediatemembersoftheirfamilyhadpersonallyexperiencedandoraspectsoftheirpresent-daylivesOverathirdofstudents(34percent)includedmostlyoronlysuchitems(lsquomostlyrsquowasdefinedastwo-thirdsormoreofitems)Overatenthofstudents(13percent)includedmostlyoronlyhistoricallysignificantitemsintheirdiagramswhileclosetohalf(47percent)combineddifferenttypesofitemssothatnoonetypedominatedWhilesuchstatisticsarguablyhintattherelativesensitivityofindividualstudentstothepastthesheeramountofhistorythatindividualschosetoincludeintheirdiagramswasnotusefulforindicatingthedegreetowhichorprocessbywhichtheyweremakingconnectionsbetweentheirownlivesandthepast
Thenextroundofanalysisattemptedtodifferentiatebetweenstudentswhotoldstoriesto explain their personal connection to the past and those who approached the questionmore lsquoanalyticallyrsquo as per Brunerrsquos distinction between narrative and paradigmatic thinkingHowevergiventhecentralityofnarrativestohowwemakemeaningofour lives itprovedmore productive to focus on theways inwhich students integrated personal and historicalnarrativesintheirdiagramsBrunercommentingonwrittentextshasstatedthatlsquoitisnotthatnarrativeandparadigmaticmodesofdiscoursefusefortheydonotItisratherthatthelogicalorparadigmaticmodeisbroughttobearonthetaskofexplicatingthebreachinthenarrativersquo(Bruner200594)Thisdistinctionplayedoutinthisstudyasfollowsstudentstypicallydrewadiagramcontainingnarrativethreads(orasinglecoherentnarrative)andthenwroteexplanatoryor logical comments eitherwithinor alongside thediagram Interviewed students retoldorelaboratedonthesenarrativeswhilealsobreakingoutintoanalyticcommentaryonthem
Findings overview Studentsrsquo incorporation of personal and historical narratives into their diagrams
Table2summarizesthewaysinwhichstudentscombinedpersonalandhistoricallysignificantitemsintheirdiagrams iftheydidatallandtheoverallnarrativeeffect ifanyThelabels inboldindicatethepresenceofwhatappearedtobecoherentoverarchingnarrativeswithinthediagramsndashbethatpersonalnarrativeshistoricalnarrativesoronesthatbroughtthesetwokindsofnarrativetogetherPersonalnarrativesrefertostoriesaboutstudentsrsquoownlivesorthoseoftheirimmediatefamilyHistoricalnarrativesinvolvethehistoricallysignificantpastasrecognizedbyarelativelylargegroupofpeopleincludinghistoriansTheycouldbenarrativesaboutparticulareventsorhistoricaldevelopmentssuchasthestruggleforwomenrsquosrightsortheUnitedStatesgainingindependencefromBritainmoreinterpretativesweepsofperiodsofhistorysuchasthetwentiethcenturyorevenaddresshowhistoryitselfunfolds
ItisimportanttonotethatstudentswerenotaskedtoproducecoherentnarrativesoftheirrelationshiptothepastintheirdiagramsanabsenceofacoherentnarrativedoesnotmeanthatindividualstudentswereincapableofandorresistanttoproducingthemjustthattheydidnotdosointhiscontextMoreoversincestudentsweregiventhechallengingtaskofsimultaneouslythinking of items to include and arranging those items diagrammatically some diagrams canbeinterpretedasaninitialjottingdownofideasndashalthoughasTable2indicatessomeofthediagrams that appeared tobe listsor brainstormseffectivelyoperated as narratives if thereweresufficientthematiccoherenceandadequatecontext forthechoiceof itemsHoweverinthecaseofstudentswhowerenotintervieweditisimpossibletoknowiftheyintentionallyselectedordevelopedparticularnarrativestrategiesThemostcompellingdiagrams(a)included
London Review of Education 181
lessthantwo-thirdsofitemsrelatedtopersonalorfamilyexperiencestastesinterestsetcandatleastsomehistoricallysignificantitemsand(b)integratedpersonalandhistoricalnarrativesHoweverTable2shouldbereadasasummaryoffindingsratherthanasanevaluativeschema
Table 2Asummaryofcontenttypeandnarrativestrategyintheoverallsampleofdiagrams(n=168)
A Diagrams onlyincludepersonalorfamilyexperiencestastesinterestsetc(n=31)
LISTBRAINSTORMCurrentinterestsfriendsfamilyvaluesinfluences 20
CHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHTellsstoryofownlifeandorimmediatefamily
Personal narrative
11
B Two-thirdsormoreofincludeditemsarepersonalorfamilyexperiencestastesinterestsetcbutotherkindsofitemsareincluded(n=29)
LISTBRAINSTORMCurrentinterestsfriendsfamilyetcwithhistorycitedasaninterestor eventsorinfluencesincludingitemsofbroadhistoricorcontemporarysignificance
17
CHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHTellsstoryofownlifesomeprecedinghistoryisincludedasbackgroundandor broadercontextualdetailisincludedndashegcontemporaryeventsordevelopments
Personal narrative with links to the historically significant past
12
C Two-thirdsormoreofincludeditemsarehistoricallysignificantevents(n=24)
LISTBRAINSTORMSeeminglyrandomconnectionsorverygeneralrationaleforincludingitemsegthingsthathaveaffectedmethingsIbelieveareimportant
13
LISTBRAINSTORMCoherentthemeitemscollectivelyservetolinkownlifestorytobiggerhistoricalnarrative(s)
Personal narrative linked to historical narrative
7
CHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHChronologicaloverviewofhistorywithselfatendorasapointonatimeline
Historical narrative with self inserted
4
D IntegrateddiagramMixtureofdifferentkindsofitems(n=84)
LISTBRAINSTORMSeeminglyrandomconnectionsorverygeneralrationaleforincludingitemsegthingsthathaveaffectedmethingsIbelieveareimportantorhavelearnedfrom 23
LISTBRAINSTORMCoherentthemeitemscollectivelyservetolinkownlifestorytobiggerhistoricalnarrative(s)
Personal narrative linked to historical narrative
13
VARIEDFORMSSubsumespersonalnarrativewithinthatofagrouptowhichheorshebelongs(egAlgerianMuslimsAshkenaziJewsAmericanshumanrace)
Personal and historical narrative tethered (STUART)
9
BROADCHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHContextualizesownorfamilystorywithinbroaderhistoricalcontextshowshowownstoryorfamilyrsquosstoryhasbeenintertwinedwithhistoricaleventsortrends
Personal narrative contextualized within broader historical narrative (MELVIN)
23
VARIEDFORMSPresentsselfasaproductandorpartofaconfluenceofnarrativesmayinvolvecomplexcausalconnections
Personal narrative seen as product of historical narrative(s) andor at confluence of different narratives (JESS)
16
NumberofdiagramsinsamplefittingthiscategoryDiagramsthatonlyincludedgeneralthemeswereexcludedfromthisanalysis
182 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
Studentsrsquo narrative strategies Melvin Stuart and Jess
While giving a senseof thedistributionof approacheswithin theoverall sampleTable 2 isnecessarilyreductionistandfailstocapturewhatitlookedlikeinpracticeforparticularstudentstomakenarrativeconnectionsbetweentheirownlivesandthepastThispaperturnsnowtothreespecificcasestoprovidemorenuanceddiscussionandtoshowthatstudentsconnectedthemselvestothepast inhighly individualizedwaysMelvinStuartand Jess(allpseudonyms)wereselectedbecausetheycreateddiagramswithmixedcontentbutuseddifferentnarrativestrategies to bring personal and historical narratives together as indicated in SectionD ofTable2Furthermoretherewereinterestingdifferencesinthewaysinwhichtheytalkedabouttheirdiagrams
InwhatfollowsafewimpressionisticdetailsaregivenabouteachstudenttoemphasizetheirindividualityaswellastoconveytheresearcherrsquosperspectivethedetailsarenotnecessarilysignificantThenevidencefromthestudentsrsquodiagramstheirwrittenexplanationsandinterviewsarewoventogether
Melvin Historically contextualizing his own life story exploring the relationship between individuals and bigger historical processes
Melvinwas a soft-spoken affable studentwhowore abaseball capduringhis interviewHereferredtohisCaribbeanheritageandlargefamily(heistheyoungestofeightchildren)aswellashisreligiousfaithHehastravelledextensivelytovisitfamilyintheCaribbeanandEuropeandhaslivedinvariousGreaterBostonneighbourhoods
MelvinrsquosdiagramatfirstglanceisstructuredintheformofaswirlingtimelineHestartswith the Emancipation Proclamation ndash the abolition of slavery at the end of the AmericanCivilWarndashwhichispresentedasanecessaryconditionorbackgroundenablinghispersonalstorylsquomyeducationlevelmyqualityoflifeprobablywhereIlivewouldhavebeencompletelydifferentrsquoHoweverhisdiagramdoesnotfollowastrictchronologydespitethearrowsthatconnectthedifferentitemsTheendofthetimelineisonlylooselystructuredfeaturingaspectsofMelvinrsquoslifecircumstancessuchaswherehelivestheeducationhehasreceivedthetravelhehascompletedandhowtheselifecircumstanceshavehadanimpactonwhoheistodayWhileMelvinincorporatesthehistoricallysignificantpastintohisdiagramhisfocusissomewhattiltedtowardshispersonallifestory
NonethelessMelvindoesmorethanmerelydescribehisownlifehesituatesitwithinabroaderhistoricalcontextHisexplanatorynotescentreonhowhecametohaveexcellentlifeprospectsdespitethechallengesheperceivesofbeingayoungblackmanlivingintheUnitedStatesBeginninghispersonaltimelinewiththeEmancipationProclamationandtheendingoftheJimCrowlawsservestoacknowledgehisrelativegoodfortunecomparedwithpreviousgenerationshealsoconnectshisownstorytoawidercollectivenarrativeofsocialprogressandtechnologicalchangewhichaffectlsquoprettymucheveryoneinmygenerationrsquoByonlyselectinglsquothingsbeyondhiscontrolrsquo forhisdiagramMelvinusesthediagramnarrativetoexploretherelationshipbetweenindividuallivesorfreewillandlargersocietalorhistoricalforcesInhisinterview he also referred to his siblings his parentsrsquo political and religious views and theliberalcontextofMassachusettsasinfluencesbeyondhiscontrolthathavehelpedtoshapehimblurringthedistinctionbetweenpastandpresentinhisbidtoexplorethedegreetowhichweshapeourowndestinies
London Review of Education 183
Fig
ure
1M
elvinrsquosdiagram
184 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
Fig
ure
2Stuartrsquosdiagram
London Review of Education 185
Stuart Situating his own life at the confluence of various historical narratives tethering his own story to the history of humanity
StuartwasaboyofItalianAmericanextractionwithspikedhairwhosefamilyhaslivedinthesamesemi-urbanneighbourhoodofGreaterBostonforseveralgenerationsHejokedaroundwithhispeersinclassbutbecamestrikinglyseriousinthecontextoftheinterviewspeakinginaheartfeltwayabouthisfamilyandhisprideinbeingAmericanHealsostatedthathistorywashisfavouritesubject
Stuartrsquosdiagramwaswide-rangingintermsofboththemeandtimespanHepickedthefollowingthemeslsquowarsandbattlesrsquowhichleduptooratleastprecededlsquomodernterrorismrsquolsquofamouspeoplersquowithJesusChristtheonlynamedpersonlsquoconstructionandfactorizationrsquo[sic]whichtracesbroadtechnologicaldevelopmentsinhumanhistoryandlsquolandandthefoundersrsquowhich broadly relates to the discovery andor establishment of different empires or nationstates The general chronological element to the threads suggests narratives unfolding overtimeanimpressionreinforcedbyacommentmadebyStuartinhisinterview
InterviewerObviously IrsquoveaskedyoutodothisbuthaveyouthoughtaboutthisbigpicturebeforeOrwasitjustmdash
StuartIactuallyhaveIwasjustlikesittingathomeandjustlikethinkinglikewhydideverythingstartandlikehowitactuallypusheditselfintoeachotheranditdevelopedintoeverythingandthenIcamealongandIfeltlikeIwasapartofiteventhoughIwasnrsquotlikephysicallyapartofitLikeIthoughtIwasinvolvedbecauseofallthishappening
Hismetaphoriclanguagewhichconveysasenseofhistoricaleventsslidingorpilingintooneanotherdrawsattentiontohisbeingimmersedinsomebiggerstoryconcerningthewholeofhumanhistory
InhisdiagramStuartsituateshislifeattheconfluenceofdifferentnarrativestrandsunfoldinginhistoryhealsotethershispersonalstorytothatofhumankindwritlargeThatisinbeingasked to show how his own life connects to the past he elects to tell a broader story ofhumanityIfwecompareStuartrsquosdiagramtothatofMelvin it is lessofanexplorationofhisindividualstoryandmoreanexpressionaboutbelongingtoacollectivestory
Jess Exploring how the past is helping shape the ongoing story of her own personal development situating her own life at the confluence of various historical narratives
Jesswasagirlwith longbrownhairanaccomplishedgymnastanddancerShespokeofherJewish ancestry and her familyrsquos involvement in the LGBTmovement as well as her closeattachmenttoherlocalurbancommunitywhereshehaslivedherwholelifeShearticulatedherwordscarefullyoftenpausingasiftoreflectbeforerespondingtoquestions
AtfirstglanceJessrsquosdiagramdoesnotexhibitthekindofflowvisibleintheprevioustwodiagramsHoweverthereisaswirlingdynamicatplaymadeevidentbyherverbalexplanationofherdiagram
SoattheverycentreofmydiagramIhavejustalittlekindofbubblethatsayslsquomersquoAndImadeitabubblebecauseIthinkIrsquomnotallthatsortofwelldefinedbutitrsquosallsortofjustmushandthingsjustkindofflowinandinfluencemeSoIhavesortofacirclearoundmyselfandIhaveabunchofdifferentsortsofmovementsandeventsinhistorythatIthinkhavemostinfluencedmesuchastheenvironmentalmovementsandenvironmentaldegradationThecivilrightsmovementstheGLBTmovementswomenrsquosrightsmovementsJewishhistoryJewishmovementsandwarsaresortofthemaineventsthatinfluencedmeandtheninmoreofaninnercircleIhavemorebroad
186 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
topicssuchaseducationtechnologydancingandmusicthathavendashtheyallhavetheirownsortofhistoryandtheyallhaveapastthatIdonrsquotnecessarilyknowasmuchaboutinaconcretewaybutumndashallofthosethingsinfluencemesotheyrsquoreallflowingintothecentreThatrsquoswhereIam
Figure 3Jessrsquosdiagram
InthiscaseherongoingpersonaldevelopmentarguablyprovidesthenarrativecentrepieceorunifyingfactorThediagramalsoservesasanassertionofheremergingidentityndashintermsofeventsthathaveinfluencedhervaluesandsenseofwhosheisaswellasherpersonaltalentsandinterestsAsbecameevidentinherinterviewhowevershealsosituatesherselfasbeingattheconfluenceofdifferenthistoricalnarrativesForexampleshetalksaboutbeingatacertainmoment in thehistoryof theenvironmentwhichhasbeenshapedbypreviousgenerationsrsquoactionslsquomygenerationwersquoregoingtobereallyreallydealingwiththatrsquoShetalksaboutbeingshapedbyandinheritingthelegacyofthewomenrsquosrightsmovementcivilrightsmovementandJewishhistoryWithregardtothegayrightsmovementinwhichherfamilyhasbeenimmersedshehasasenseofbeingpartofhistoryinthemakinglsquothemovementisnow Youknowtherersquosbeenmovementsinthepastcertainlybutitrsquoslikeahugethingnowrsquo
How students talked about their diagrams The importance of epistemology
Theways inwhich students in the study talked about their diagramswere revealing of thepotentialrelationshipbetweentheirunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgeandtheir individualhistoricalconsciousnessInparticulartherewasacontrastbetweenstudents
London Review of Education 187
who presented their diagrams as contingent subjective interpretations of the relationshipbetweentheirownlivesandthepastandthosewhoappearedtopresenttheirdiagramsasself-evidentstraightforwardrepresentations
Jessforinstancetalkedfromthestartaboutnotbeinglsquoallthatwelldefinedrsquoasreflectedby the blob at the centre of her diagram There is a sense of fluidity ormovement in herdiagramndashasmuchintermsofherowninterpretationofherownplaceinhistoryasineventsordevelopmentsthemselvesShowinganawarenessofthelimitationsofherownknowledgeshestatesthatshedidnotwanttoexcludeitemsfromherdiagramsimplybecauseofherownignorance
MoreoverintalkingaboutthedifferentelementsofherdiagramshespokeinmetacognitivetermsaboutthedifferencesbetweenlearningaboutJewishhistoryatthetemplewhereitwasframedas lsquoourhistoryrsquoandatschoolwhereitwastreatedassomeoneelsersquoshistoryWithregardtothewomenrsquosrightsmovementshesaid
Sowomenrsquos rightsrsquomovements ndash umm ndashmymomwas a pretty hardcore feminist and IrsquovedefinitelyinheritedsomeofthatandIrsquovereallyenjoyedmostlythisyearactuallyndashIlearnedaboutwomenrsquosrightsinUSHistoryandthatrsquosbeenreallyinterestingsortofhowthatrsquosplayedoutAndprobablybecauseofmymotherandotheradultsandotherwomenthatIrsquovegrownupwithIrsquomlikendashveryconsciousofthatthatIamawomanandthatotherwomenhavedonealottogettowhereIamtodayAndtherersquosdefinitelyasenseofprideformeIhavealwaysbeenverysortofconsciousofthatheritage
Here Jesspresents the impactof themovementassomewhat inevitablegivenhermotherrsquosvaluesHowevershealsorefersexplicitlytoherenjoymentandinterestinlearningaboutthistopicatschoolSheexpresseshersenseofconnectiontowomenrsquoshistoryandheractiveprideinitwhilealsoprovidinganexplanationforwhyshefeelsconnectedtoitshowingacapacityforself-reflectionormetacognitionItisworthnotinghoweverthatshedidnotcommentontheprogressivetemplatethatseemedtoundergirdhernarrative
StuartincontrastpresentedhisdiagraminmorefixedtermsWheninvitedtotalkaboutitheproceededtolisteverythingcontainedwithinit
WellfirstofallIputthelandandthefoundersbecausethesearethebasicgroupsandpeoplethatstartedeverythingThepeoplewhostartedMesopotamiaAncientThebesyouknowlikethatPeoplewhowereintheRomanEmpireallthoseVikingsthefamousexplorersChristopherColumbusMagellanetceterahellip
Inthisextracthe iscitingundisputed lsquofactsrsquohedoesnotusemodifying languagebut insteadstates straightforwardlywhat happenedWhen asked how he knew about these aspects ofthepastheresponded lsquoMostofthestuffcamefromschool Iwas justtryingtothinkwhathappenedrsquo Stuart expressed a greatdealof connection to thepast including asmentionedearlierthathefeltpartofanongoinghistoricalprocessWhileJessspokewithprideyetanalyticdetachmentofherconnectiontothewomenrsquosmovementStuartdidnotexhibitthecapacitytotalkinametacognitivewayaboutthecontentorformofhisdiagramndashalthoughthisdoesnotmeanthathewasincapableofdoingso
Inhis interviewStuartalso talkedabout learning fromhisgrandmotherabout thepastincludinglifelessonsshegleanedfromweatheringtheGreatDepressionHereferredtohercorroboratingwhathelearnedatschool
Anditrsquoscoolbecause[myteacher]canteachmeaboutitatthesametimeandthenshecanjusttellmeaboutthestuffItrsquosreallycoolhellipIlikeaskherlsquoDoyourememberthisrsquohelliplsquoDoyourememberbootleggingandstufflikethatrsquoAndshewaslikelsquoyeaIrememberthatrsquowhichiscoolbecauseyouactuallyknowwhathappenedYoucanjusttalktoheraboutit
188 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
It is notable that he does not talk about hearing his grandmotherrsquos perspective about whathappenedratherheviewsherasanauthorityonhistorypresumablybecausehethinksshedirectlyexperiencedwhatisinhistextbook
Melvinrsquosstancetowardhisdiagramwasmoretentativeinnosmallpartbecauseheactuallyproducedtwodiagramsthefirstversionwasabrainstormofinfluencesonhislifewhichhethought conveyed an even spreadof influences on his lifeHowever in the second version(featuredinthispaper)lsquoItriedtomakeitinchronologicalordersotospeakLikewhatwasinheritedthenthingsthataffectedmelateronrsquoFurtherhespokerepeatedlyabouthisparticularlifeexperiencesaffectinghisperspectiveontheworldandonthepast
YouknowIwasnrsquotbroughtupinthesametypeofenvironmentthat[myparents]wereIwasbroughtupinAmericainMassachusettsatthatAndIthoughtthatwassomethingthatreallyaffectsyouanditaffectshowyoulookatliketheinternationalpoliticalsystemandwhatnothellipIthinkbecausemyparentsarefromoverseasitdefinitelyhelpsmelookatthingsonalargerscaleButIdodefinitelythinkincomparisontothemIlookatthingsfromanAmericanperspective
At the same time he assumes some commonality with other people such as people fromhisgenerationwhoaregrowingup inadigitalenvironment InMelvinrsquoscasehisoverarchingnarrativeisabout thewayinwhichhisoutlookandlifeprospectshavebeenaffectedbythepastandexternalforceshoweverheisalsoabletolsquostepoutsidersquothatnarrativetoreflectonthewaysinwhichhisapproachtothetaskhasbeeninfluencedbythoseverylifeexperiencesandfamilyinfluencesLikeStuartheisclosetohisgrandmotherHoweverwhenhereferstotalkingwithherabout thepastandher life inTrinidadhiscomment isaboutherperspective lsquotheobstaclesofyourpastdefinitelyaffectyourpointofviewrsquoInturnhetalksaboutherinfluenceonhimlsquoIthinkthestoriesthatyoursquoretolddefinitelyaffectthewayyouthinkrsquo
OtherstudentsmadecommentsthatindicatedarelationshipbetweentheirawarenessoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgeandthewaysinwhichtheyviewedtheirownrelationshiptothepastThey(1)acknowledgedtheirownsubjectivityandorthelimitationsoftheirperspectiveontheirrelationshiptothepast(2)presentedtheirdiagramsandexplanationsas tentative and subject to alteration andor (3) stepped outside themselves to reflect ontheir reactions to learningabouthistory In factwhile Jesswas theonly studentwhomadecommentsthatcoveredallthreeofthesecategoriesfewstudentsappearedtotakethemorestraightforwardviewofhistoricalknowledgeapparentlyevincedbyStuartThefactthatstudentsinthesamplewereacademicallysuccessfulaged16ndash18andlivinginacitywithahighlyeducatedworkforceandmajoracademicinstitutionsprobablyneedstobetakenintoaccountwithregardtothisfinding
ItisalsoworthreiteratingthattheresearcherwasnotaproverbialflyonthewallwhilecollectingthisdataForexampleStuartpresentedhimselfasagoodstudentwholikedhistoryandrespectedhiselders justpriortotheinterviewtherewasadrugsbustattheschoolbypoliceanditispossiblehewantedtoconveythathewasalsquodecentkidrsquoMelvindiscussedhisrelative good fortune comparedwithother youngblackmen (including implicitly others athisschool)insodoinghewasabletocommunicatethathewasfromahighlyeducatedfamilylivinginadesirablepartoftownJessmeanwhilepositionedherselfasathoughtfulpoliticallyinformedstudentWhiletheseimpressionsarepurelyspeculativetheysuggestthattheschoolcontextandtheperceivedidentityoftheresearcherndashaswellastheframingoftheactivityndashhelpedtoshapewhatstudentschosetoshareHoweverrecognizingthatthereislikelytobesomefluidityintermsofhowindividualsrelatetheirownlivestothepastdoesnotdiminishthefindingthattheyoungpeopleinthisstudyusedavarietyofnarrativestrategiestodosoorthatthewaysinwhichtheytalkedaboutthosestrategiesappearedtodifferaccordingtotheirepistemologicalunderstandings
London Review of Education 189
Implications
InconjunctionwiththeoverallsummaryshowninTable2thesethreecasesprovidesnapshotsofdifferentways inwhichyoungpeopleusednarrativestrategiestoconnecttheirownlivesto the past aswell as differences in theways inwhich they talked about those strategiesWhilethisstudyishighlyexploratorythesecasespointtotheapparentdiversityofways inwhichyoungpeoplethinkaboutthemselvesinrelationtothepastaswellasthesignificanceof epistemological understanding in the construction of individual historical consciousnessOf coursemany questions remain For example was the ability of Jess andMelvin to talkreflectively about their diagrams and their relationship to thepast an indicationof rigoroushistoricalunderstandinginadisciplinarysenseorofmoregenericcriticalorabstractthinkingskills Further howdo teensrsquo broaddevelopmental trajectoriesndash such as thoseoutlinedbyErikson(1968)ndash intersectwiththeirhistoricalunderstanding Itwouldbe interestingtoaskchildrenofdifferentagestocompletethediagramtaskYoungerstudentswouldpresumablyfind it challenging tocreate anarrative about theirown lives in toto as indeed someof thestudentsinthisstudymayhavedoneExaminingthepotentiallinksbetweenthedevelopmentofautobiographicalstory-tellingskillsandhowyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastcouldbeanotherproductivelineofresearch
Methodologicallythestudyopensupsomeinterestingpossibilitiesespeciallyasthediagramactivity invited students to synthesize their thinking about their personal connections to thepastinarelativelyopen-endedmannerThetaskinstructionsandoranalysiscouldbealteredtoinvestigaterelatedphenomenaForexamplehowifatalldostudentsdealwiththeideathataspeopletheyareevolvingandmayhaveashiftingrelationshiptoorperspectiveonthepastTowhatextentdotheyportraythemselvesasactiveagentsintheirownrightratherthanindividualssubjecttoforcesbeyondtheircontrolHowdodifferencesamongtheirvariouslsquometa-historicalrsquounderstandingssuchastheirworkingideasabouthistoricalcausalityrelatetohowtheytalkaboutthemselves inrelation to thepastHowwould theyposition themselvesrelative toperceivednationalnarrativesWhile it is impossible toproveadirectrelationship fromthis singlestudyndashorthereasonsbehindsucharelationshipndashstudentswhodisplayedanunderstandingoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgealsogavetheimpressionofbeingmoreempoweredintermsoftalkingabouttheirfutureandnavigatingtheirownemergingidentities
Withregardtopractice therangeofpersonaldiagramsproducedbystudentsconfirmsthatifteachersarelookingtobuildontheirstudentsrsquoexistingideasandunderstandingsalsquoonesizefitsallrsquoapproach is likely tobemisguidedandnon-inclusiveandthatnationalnarrativesare only one kind of narrative towhich young people feel connected This paper does notadvocatethatyoungpeoplebeinvitedtorelateeverythingtheylearninhistorytothemselvesHoweverofferingopen-endedandpotentiallycreativeopportunitiesforthemtoreflectontheconnectionstheyperceivebetweenthemselvesandthepastislikelytobeengagingparticularlyforolderteensgiventheirbroaderdevelopmentalneedtoestablishindependentidentities
FurthermoresuchopportunitiescanactivelybuildhistoricalunderstandingGiventhesheervarietyofdiagramsthatwillalmostcertainlybeproducedwithinasingleclassroomstudentscan learn a greatdeal by looking at anddiscussing thediagramsof their peers inways thatdeveloptheirunderstandingthatpeoplehavedifferentperspectivesonthepastandthattheseperspectivesareshapedat least inpartbybiographicalorothercontextual factorsLookingatothersrsquodiagramscanopenupdifferentpossibilitiesforyoungpeopleintermsofhowtheythinkabouttheirownrelationshiptothepastandgivethemanewperspectiveontheirownidentityandoutlookIndeedthepowerofthisapproachcanbefurtherenhancedifclassroomsaredigitallyconnectedtoclassroomsinothercountriesengaginginthesameactivityinpartbecauseitallowsprevailingandassumednationalnarrativestobecomevisible
190 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
While somepeoplewouldcertainly resist thenotionof lettingyoungpeopleuse schoolhistoryasavenueforexploringorinterpretingtheirownlivesidentitiesandvaluesthisresearchshedslightonsomeofthevariedwaysinwhichyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastoruseitfororientingpurposesAsJessinparticulardemonstratedasophisticatedunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgecangohandinhandwithaself-awarenessandevenprideinonersquosrelationshiptothepastWearguablyoweittoourstudentstohelpthemthinkaboutwhotheyareandthelivestheyarelivingorwanttoliveinourrapidlychangingandevermorecomplexworldWeneedtosupportthemtointerpretthepastandtodeveloprobusthistoricalunderstandingswealsoneedtosupportthemtointerprettheirownnarratives
Acknowledgements
TheauthorwishestothanktheGermanacosFoundationforsupportingtheresearchdiscussedinthispaperaswellasHowardGardnerHelenHasteandMeiraLevinsonforprovidingguidancewiththeresearchMycolleaguesEdwardClappandShariTishmangavehelpfulfeedbackonearlydrafts
Notes on the contributor
ElizabethDawesDuraisinghisaresearchassociateandprincipalinvestigatoratProjectZeroaresearchcentreat theHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducationwhereshealsoservesasalectureroneducationShewaspreviouslyahighschoolhistoryteacherforeightyearsworkinginbothEnglandandAustralia
References
AhonenS(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessAviableparadigmforhistoryeducationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(6)697ndash707
Almarza DJ (2001) lsquoContexts shaping minority language studentsrsquo perceptions of American historyrsquo Journal of Social Studies Research25(2)4ndash22
AnS(2009)lsquoLearningUShistoryinanageofglobalizationandtransnationalmigrationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)763ndash87
AndrewsM(2007)Shaping History Narratives of political changeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressAngvikMandVonBorriesB(eds)(1997)Youth and History A comparative European survey on historical
consciousness and political attitudes among adolescentsHamburgKoumlrber-StiftungAshbyR(2005)lsquoStudentsrsquoapproachestovalidatinghistoricalclaimsrsquoInAshbyRGordonPandLeeP
(eds)Understanding History Recent research in history educationLondonRoutledge21ndash36AudigierFandFinkN(2010)lsquoPupilsandschoolhistoryinFranceandSwitzerlandrsquo Education 3ndash1338
(3)329ndash39BambergM(2011)lsquoWhoamINarrationanditscontributiontoselfandidentityrsquo Theory and Psychology
21(1)3ndash24BartonKC(2001)lsquolsquolsquoYoursquodbewantingtoknowaboutthepastrdquoSocialcontextsofchildrenrsquoshistorical
understandinginNorthernIrelandandtheUSArsquo Comparative Education37(1)89ndash106BartonKCandLevstikLS(2004)Teaching History for the Common GoodMahwahNJLawrenceErlbaum
AssociatesBartonKCandMcCullyAW(2005)lsquoHistoryidentityandtheschoolcurriculuminNorthernIreland
Anempiricalstudyofsecondarystudentsrsquoideasandperspectivesrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(1)85ndash116
London Review of Education 191
Baynham M (2010) lsquoAlexandra Georgakopoulou Small stories interaction and identitiesrsquo Applied Linguistics31(3)471ndash3
BilligM(1995)Banal NationalismLondonSAGEPublicationsBillmann-Mahecha E and Hausen M (2005) lsquoEmpirical psychological approaches to the historical
consciousnessofchildrenrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks163ndash86
BoixMansillaV(2001)The Pursuit of Understanding A study of exemplary high school studentsrsquo conceptions of knowledge validation in science and history EdDthesisHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducation
BrunerJS(1990)Acts of MeaningCambridgeMAHarvardUniversityPressBrunerJS(2005)lsquoPastandpresentasnarrativeconstructionsrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and
Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks23ndash43DamonWandHartD (1988)Self-Understanding in Childhood and AdolescenceNewYorkCambridge
UniversityPressDantoAC(1965)Analytical Philosophy of HistoryCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressEpsteinT(1998)lsquoDeconstructingdifferencesinAfrican-AmericanandEuropean-Americanadolescentsrsquo
perspectivesonUShistoryrsquo Curriculum Inquiry28(4)397ndash423EriksonEH(1968)Identity Youth and CrisisNewYorkWWNortonFivush R Bohanek JG and ZamanW (2011) lsquoPersonal and intergenerational narratives in relation
to adolescentsrsquowell-beingrsquo InHabermasT (ed)The Development of Autobiographical Reasoning in Adolescence and Beyond (NewDirectionsforChildandAdolescentDevelopment131)45ndash57
GoldbergTPoratDandSchwarzBB(2006)lsquolsquoHerestartedtheriftweseetodayrsquoStudentandtextbooknarrativesbetweenofficialandcountermemoryrsquo Narrative Inquiry16(2)319ndash47
GoldbergTSchwarzBBandPoratD(2008)lsquoLivinganddormantcollectivememoriesascontextsofhistorylearningrsquo Learning and Instruction18(3)223ndash37
GreverMHaydnTandRibbensK(2008)lsquoIdentityandschoolhistoryTheperspectiveofyoungpeoplefromtheNetherlandsandEnglandrsquo British Journal of Educational Studies56(1)76ndash94
HaeberliP(2005) lsquoRelatingtohistoryAnempiricaltypologyrsquo International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research5(1)1ndash10
Hammack PL and Pilecki A (2012) lsquoNarrative as a rootmetaphor for political psychologyrsquo Political Psychology33(1)75ndash103
HarterS(1999)The Construction of the Self A developmental perspectiveNewYorkGuilfordPressHawkey K and Prior J (2011) lsquoHistory memory cultures and meaning in the classroomrsquo Journal of
Curriculum Studies43(2)231ndash47HoferBKandPintrichPR(eds)(2002)Personal Epistemology The psychology of beliefs about knowledge and
knowing MahwahNJLawrenceErlbaumAssociatesKeganR (1982)The Evolving Self Problem and process in human development CambridgeMAHarvard
UniversityPressLee P (2004a) lsquoUnderstanding historyrsquo In Seixas P (ed) Theorizing Historical Consciousness Toronto
UniversityofTorontoPress129ndash64LeeP(2004b)lsquoldquoWalkingbackwardsintotomorrowrdquoHistoricalconsciousnessandunderstandinghistoryrsquo
International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research4(1)1ndash46LeePJ(2005)lsquoPuttingprinciplesintopracticeUnderstandinghistoryrsquoInDonovanMSandBransford
JD (eds)How Students Learn History mathematics and science in the classroomWashingtonDCNationalAcademiesPress31ndash77
LeePandShemiltD(2004)lsquolsquolsquoIjustwishwecouldgobackinthepastandfindoutwhatreallyhappenedrdquoProgressioninunderstandingabouthistoricalaccountsrsquo Teaching History 11725ndash31
LenzC(2011) lsquoGenealogyandarchaeologyAnalyzinggenerationalpositioning inhistoricalnarrativesrsquo Journal of Comparative Family Studies42(3)319ndash27
LeacutetourneauJandMoisanS(2004)lsquoYoungpeoplersquosassimilationofacollectivehistoricalmemoryAcasestudyofQuebeckersofFrench-CanadianheritagersquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress109ndash28
192 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
LowenthalD(1996)Possessed by the Past The heritage crusade and the spoils of historyNewYorkFreePress
McAdamsDP(1993)The Stories We Live By Personal myths and the making of the selfNewYorkGuilfordPress
McLean KC Breen AV and FournierMA (2010) lsquoConstructing the self in earlymiddle and lateadolescentboysNarrativeidentityindividuationandwell-beingrsquo Journal of Research on Adolescence20(1)166ndash87
NakkulaMJandToshalisE(2006)Understanding Youth Adolescent development for educatorsCambridgeMAHarvardEducationPress
NoraP(1996)Realms of Memory Rethinking the French pastTransGoldhammerANewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
PeckCL (2010) lsquolsquolsquoItrsquos not like [Irsquom]Chinese andCanadian I am inbetweenrdquoEthnicity and studentsrsquoconceptionsofhistoricalsignificancersquo Theory and Research in Social Education38(4)574ndash617
PolkinghorneDE(1988)Narrative Knowing and the Human SciencesAlbanyStateUniversityofNewYorkPress
Polkinghorne DE (2005) lsquoNarrative psychology and historical consciousness Relationships andperspectivesrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks3ndash22
RantalaJ(2011)lsquoChildrenasconsumersofhistoricalcultureinFinlandrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies43(4)493ndash506
ReicherSandHopkinsN(2001)Self and Nation Categorization contestation and mobilizationLondonSAGEPublications
RosenzweigRandThelenDP(1998)The Presence of the Past Popular uses of history in American lifeNewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
RuumlsenJ(1993)Studies in MetahistoryPretoriaHumanSciencesResearchCouncilSeixasP(1997)lsquoMappingtheterrainofhistoricalsignificancersquo Social Education61(1)22ndash7SeixasP(2004)lsquoIntroductionrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityof
TorontoPress3ndash20SeixasP(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessTheprogressofknowledgeinapostprogressiveagersquoInStraub
J(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks141ndash62SeixasP(2009)lsquoNationalhistoryandbeyondrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)719ndash22ThorpR(2014)lsquoTowardsanepistemologicaltheoryofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquoHistorical Encounters A
Journal of Historical Consciousness Historical Cultures and History Education1(1)20ndash31TrailleK (2007) lsquolsquolsquoYou should be proud about your history Theymademe feel ashamedrdquoTeaching
historyhurtsrsquo Teaching History 12731ndash7VanSledrightB (2008) lsquoNarrativesofnation-statehistoricalknowledgeandschoolhistoryeducationrsquo
Review of Research in Education32(1)109ndash46WelzerH(2008)lsquoCollateraldamageofhistoryeducationNationalsocialismandtheHolocaustinGerman
familymemoryrsquo Social Research75(1)287ndash314WertschJV(2002)Voices of Collective RememberingCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressWertschJV(2004)lsquoSpecificnarrativesandschematicnarrativetemplatesrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing
Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress49ndash62Wineburg S (2001)Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts Charting the future of teaching the past
PhiladelphiaTempleUniversityPressWineburgSMosborgSPoratDandDuncanA(2007)lsquoCommonbeliefandtheculturalcurriculum
Anintergenerationalstudyofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquo American Educational Research Journal44(1)40ndash76
London Review of Education 193
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
This paperwas published in a special feature called lsquoNegotiating the nation Young peoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo
Thearticlesinthefeatureareasfollows
Angier K (2017) lsquoIn search of historical consciousness An investigation into young South AfricansrsquoknowledgeandunderstandingofldquotheirrdquonationalhistoriesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
DawesDuraisinghE (2017) lsquoMakingnarrativeconnectionsExploringhow late teensrelate theirownnarrativestothehistoricallysignificantpastrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GoldbergT(2017) lsquoTheusefulpast innegotiationAdolescentsrsquouseofhistory innegotiationof inter-groupconflictrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GreverMandVanderVliesT(2017)lsquoWhynationalnarrativesareperpetuatedAliteraturereviewonnewinsightsfromhistorytextbookresearchrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
HolmbergU(2017)lsquoldquoIwasborninthereignhelliprdquoHistoricalorientationinUgandanstudentsrsquonationalnarrativesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
LeacutetourneauJandChapmanA(2017)lsquoEditorialndashNegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
LeacutevesqueS(2017)lsquoHistoryasaldquoGPSrdquoOntheusesofhistoricalnarrativeforFrenchCanadianstudentsrsquolifeorientationandidentityrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
OlofssonHSamuelsson JStolareMandWendell J (2017) lsquoTheSwedesandtheirhistoryrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
SheehanMandDavisonM(2017)lsquoldquoWeneedtoremembertheydiedforusrdquoHowyoungpeopleinNewZealandmakemeaningofwarremembranceandcommemorationoftheFirstWorldWarrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
VanHavereTWilsKDepaepeFVerschaffelLandVanNieuwenhuyseK(2017)lsquoFlemishstudentsrsquohistoricalreferenceknowledgeandnarrativesoftheBelgiannationalpastattheendofsecondaryeducationrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
WertschJV(2017)lsquoForeword ndash NegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
178 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
This study drew then from diverse bodies of literature some theoretical and someempiricallygroundedTheoverarchingimpetuswastounderstandwaysinwhichyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothehistoricallysignificantpastWhilethisstudyemphasizesthehighlyindividualandcontext-specificwaysinwhichyoungpeoplecreateorweavetogethernarrativesaboutthemselvesandthepastitalsointegratesinsightsfromcognitiveresearchthatpointtothepredictabledevelopmentofmoreenduringepistemologicalordisciplinaryunderstandingsamongyoungpeopleThesetwoapproacheswhilepotentiallyincompatiblecanbereconciledifstudentsareseenasdevelopingcapacitiesformeaning-makingratherthanholdingparticularideas(HoferandPintrich2002Kegan1982)Howstudentsdeploytheirfundamentalepistemologicalunderstandingsmayvaryfromonediscursivecontexttoanotherbutstudentswhohavenotgraspedtheconstructedandcontingentnatureofhistorical interpretations for instancearenevergoingtoconstructnarrativesinwaysthatreflectthatunderstanding
Methods
Sample
Ofthefourresearchsitestwoschoolsweresituatedinaffluentsuburbancommunitiesonewasinamixed-incomesemi-urbancommunityandonewasinamixed-incomeurbancommunityTable1presentsdemographicfeaturesoftheoverallsampleasself-reportedbystudentsThesamplewas balanced by gender andwas somewhat raciallyethnically diverse however thestudywasnotintendedtobegeneralizabletosomebroaderpopulationespeciallyaspotentiallyimportant information was not collected regarding studentsrsquo socialeconomic or religiousbackgroundsMoreoverthestudywasfocusedonthegeneralprocessesbywhichstudentsusedthepasttomakesenseoftheirlivesidentitiesandvaluesratherthanontheactualsubstantiveconnections that theymadeUnderstandable differences inwhat students talked about (egslaveryandthecivilrightsmovementvstheIslamicRevolutioninIran)werelessimportantforthisstudythanhowtheytalkedaboutthepastorwhatkindofepistemological stance theytooktowardsit(whichwerenotexpectedtobeinfluencedbygenderorracialethnicbackground)
Bydintofbeingenrolledincollegepreparationclasses(HonorsorAP)thesestudentswererelatively successful academically and likely tobeable toarticulate their relationshiptothepastalthoughinformationabouttheirgradesorhistoryeducationwasnotavailableStudentsparticipatedduring class time towards theendof the school year in a varietyofsubject area contexts (accounting English literature government history andpsychology)The subsampleof the 26 interviewed studentswas intentionally diverse in terms bothofdemographiccharacteristics andof theirdiagramsandwritten responsesWith respect tostudentworkvariationwassoughtregarding(1)thenumberofconnectionsstudentsmadebetweenthemselvesandthepast(2)therelativesophisticationoftheirreasoningaboutthenatureofhistoricalknowledgeas indicatedbya follow-upactivity (seebelow)and (3) theuniquenessortypicalityoftheirdiagramsrelativetotherestofthesampleHowever it isimportanttonotethatforreasonsoftimingtheinterviewsamplewasselectedbasedonaninitialreadingofthediagramsandotherwrittenresponsesratherthanonthemorethoroughanalysisdescribedbelowAllinterviewswerefullytranscribed
London Review of Education 179
Table 1Breakdownofsample(n=187)
Number of students in
overall sample
of overall sample
Number of students interviewed
of students interviewed
Gender (n=187)
Male 105 56 14 50
Female 82 44 14 50
Race ethnicity (n=175)
African-American 9 5 4 14
Asian 24 14 2 7
Hispanic 3 2 0 0
NativeAmerican 0 0 0 0
White 124 67 18 64
Mixedother 14 8 4 14
Family mobility and language (n=175)
Atleastoneforeignbornparent
74 39 11 40
Studenthasalwayslivedincurrentneighbourhood
111 59 15 54
StudenthaslivedoutsideNewEngland
50 27 5 29
LanguageotherthanEnglishspokenathome
56 30 9 32
Demographicdetailsweremissingforsomeofthesample
Data collection
AsmentionedstudentswereaskedtodrawadiagramonablankpieceofpapertoshowhowthepastlsquohelpsexplainwhoyouareandthelifeyouarelivingorhopetoliversquoandtothenexplaintheformandcontentoftheirdiagramTheideawasthataconcisediagramformatwouldallowstudentstoconstructanoverviewofthewaysinwhichtheythoughtaboutthemselvesinrelationtothepastalthoughitwasusuallyunclearifthisrelationshipwassomethingtheyhadreflectedonpreviouslyTheopen-endednatureofthetaskallowedstudentstoapproachitinwaysthatwerepersonallymeaningfultothemStudentstypicallyspentapproximately45minutesonthetaskWhilethispaperfocusesonthediagramsstudentswentontocompleteotheractivitiesincludingonedesignedtosurfacetheirepistemologicalreasoningaboutthenatureofhistoricalaccounts(adaptedfromBoixMansilla2001)whichtheyalsodiscussedintheirinterviews
Initial coding rounds
StudentsrsquodiagramsprovedhighlyvariedposingachallengeforanalysisInitialcodingfocusedonthecontentofstudentsrsquodiagramsAcrossallthediagramsalmosthalfoftheitems(46percent)relatedtostudentsrsquodirectpersonalexperiencessuchasstartinganewschoolormovinghouseorfeaturesoftheireverydaylivesincludingpersonalitytraitshobbiesortastesOnlyaquarteroftheitemsreferredtowhatmightbecalledthehistoricalpasteventslikelytofeatureinstudentsrsquohistorytextbooksandwhichprecededtheirbirthsAfurther9percentofitemsreferredtolsquohistoricalrsquoeventsoccurringwithinthestudentsrsquoownlifetimesorcontemporaneouslysuchastheelectionofBushorObamaandtheWaronTerror20percentofitemscomprisedthemesortopicsnottiedtoaparticulartimeorperiodsuchasimmigrationracismorliterature
180 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
ThevaguewordingofthetaskinstructionsndashlsquoshowhowthepasthelpsexplainwhoyouareandthelifeyouarelivingrsquondashmeantthatmanystudentslegitimatelychosetofocusontheirownpastaswellasorinsteadofthehistoricallysignificantpastClosetoafifthofstudents(17percent)includedonly eventsthateithertheyorimmediatemembersoftheirfamilyhadpersonallyexperiencedandoraspectsoftheirpresent-daylivesOverathirdofstudents(34percent)includedmostlyoronlysuchitems(lsquomostlyrsquowasdefinedastwo-thirdsormoreofitems)Overatenthofstudents(13percent)includedmostlyoronlyhistoricallysignificantitemsintheirdiagramswhileclosetohalf(47percent)combineddifferenttypesofitemssothatnoonetypedominatedWhilesuchstatisticsarguablyhintattherelativesensitivityofindividualstudentstothepastthesheeramountofhistorythatindividualschosetoincludeintheirdiagramswasnotusefulforindicatingthedegreetowhichorprocessbywhichtheyweremakingconnectionsbetweentheirownlivesandthepast
Thenextroundofanalysisattemptedtodifferentiatebetweenstudentswhotoldstoriesto explain their personal connection to the past and those who approached the questionmore lsquoanalyticallyrsquo as per Brunerrsquos distinction between narrative and paradigmatic thinkingHowevergiventhecentralityofnarrativestohowwemakemeaningofour lives itprovedmore productive to focus on theways inwhich students integrated personal and historicalnarrativesintheirdiagramsBrunercommentingonwrittentextshasstatedthatlsquoitisnotthatnarrativeandparadigmaticmodesofdiscoursefusefortheydonotItisratherthatthelogicalorparadigmaticmodeisbroughttobearonthetaskofexplicatingthebreachinthenarrativersquo(Bruner200594)Thisdistinctionplayedoutinthisstudyasfollowsstudentstypicallydrewadiagramcontainingnarrativethreads(orasinglecoherentnarrative)andthenwroteexplanatoryor logical comments eitherwithinor alongside thediagram Interviewed students retoldorelaboratedonthesenarrativeswhilealsobreakingoutintoanalyticcommentaryonthem
Findings overview Studentsrsquo incorporation of personal and historical narratives into their diagrams
Table2summarizesthewaysinwhichstudentscombinedpersonalandhistoricallysignificantitemsintheirdiagrams iftheydidatallandtheoverallnarrativeeffect ifanyThelabels inboldindicatethepresenceofwhatappearedtobecoherentoverarchingnarrativeswithinthediagramsndashbethatpersonalnarrativeshistoricalnarrativesoronesthatbroughtthesetwokindsofnarrativetogetherPersonalnarrativesrefertostoriesaboutstudentsrsquoownlivesorthoseoftheirimmediatefamilyHistoricalnarrativesinvolvethehistoricallysignificantpastasrecognizedbyarelativelylargegroupofpeopleincludinghistoriansTheycouldbenarrativesaboutparticulareventsorhistoricaldevelopmentssuchasthestruggleforwomenrsquosrightsortheUnitedStatesgainingindependencefromBritainmoreinterpretativesweepsofperiodsofhistorysuchasthetwentiethcenturyorevenaddresshowhistoryitselfunfolds
ItisimportanttonotethatstudentswerenotaskedtoproducecoherentnarrativesoftheirrelationshiptothepastintheirdiagramsanabsenceofacoherentnarrativedoesnotmeanthatindividualstudentswereincapableofandorresistanttoproducingthemjustthattheydidnotdosointhiscontextMoreoversincestudentsweregiventhechallengingtaskofsimultaneouslythinking of items to include and arranging those items diagrammatically some diagrams canbeinterpretedasaninitialjottingdownofideasndashalthoughasTable2indicatessomeofthediagrams that appeared tobe listsor brainstormseffectivelyoperated as narratives if thereweresufficientthematiccoherenceandadequatecontext forthechoiceof itemsHoweverinthecaseofstudentswhowerenotintervieweditisimpossibletoknowiftheyintentionallyselectedordevelopedparticularnarrativestrategiesThemostcompellingdiagrams(a)included
London Review of Education 181
lessthantwo-thirdsofitemsrelatedtopersonalorfamilyexperiencestastesinterestsetcandatleastsomehistoricallysignificantitemsand(b)integratedpersonalandhistoricalnarrativesHoweverTable2shouldbereadasasummaryoffindingsratherthanasanevaluativeschema
Table 2Asummaryofcontenttypeandnarrativestrategyintheoverallsampleofdiagrams(n=168)
A Diagrams onlyincludepersonalorfamilyexperiencestastesinterestsetc(n=31)
LISTBRAINSTORMCurrentinterestsfriendsfamilyvaluesinfluences 20
CHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHTellsstoryofownlifeandorimmediatefamily
Personal narrative
11
B Two-thirdsormoreofincludeditemsarepersonalorfamilyexperiencestastesinterestsetcbutotherkindsofitemsareincluded(n=29)
LISTBRAINSTORMCurrentinterestsfriendsfamilyetcwithhistorycitedasaninterestor eventsorinfluencesincludingitemsofbroadhistoricorcontemporarysignificance
17
CHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHTellsstoryofownlifesomeprecedinghistoryisincludedasbackgroundandor broadercontextualdetailisincludedndashegcontemporaryeventsordevelopments
Personal narrative with links to the historically significant past
12
C Two-thirdsormoreofincludeditemsarehistoricallysignificantevents(n=24)
LISTBRAINSTORMSeeminglyrandomconnectionsorverygeneralrationaleforincludingitemsegthingsthathaveaffectedmethingsIbelieveareimportant
13
LISTBRAINSTORMCoherentthemeitemscollectivelyservetolinkownlifestorytobiggerhistoricalnarrative(s)
Personal narrative linked to historical narrative
7
CHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHChronologicaloverviewofhistorywithselfatendorasapointonatimeline
Historical narrative with self inserted
4
D IntegrateddiagramMixtureofdifferentkindsofitems(n=84)
LISTBRAINSTORMSeeminglyrandomconnectionsorverygeneralrationaleforincludingitemsegthingsthathaveaffectedmethingsIbelieveareimportantorhavelearnedfrom 23
LISTBRAINSTORMCoherentthemeitemscollectivelyservetolinkownlifestorytobiggerhistoricalnarrative(s)
Personal narrative linked to historical narrative
13
VARIEDFORMSSubsumespersonalnarrativewithinthatofagrouptowhichheorshebelongs(egAlgerianMuslimsAshkenaziJewsAmericanshumanrace)
Personal and historical narrative tethered (STUART)
9
BROADCHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHContextualizesownorfamilystorywithinbroaderhistoricalcontextshowshowownstoryorfamilyrsquosstoryhasbeenintertwinedwithhistoricaleventsortrends
Personal narrative contextualized within broader historical narrative (MELVIN)
23
VARIEDFORMSPresentsselfasaproductandorpartofaconfluenceofnarrativesmayinvolvecomplexcausalconnections
Personal narrative seen as product of historical narrative(s) andor at confluence of different narratives (JESS)
16
NumberofdiagramsinsamplefittingthiscategoryDiagramsthatonlyincludedgeneralthemeswereexcludedfromthisanalysis
182 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
Studentsrsquo narrative strategies Melvin Stuart and Jess
While giving a senseof thedistributionof approacheswithin theoverall sampleTable 2 isnecessarilyreductionistandfailstocapturewhatitlookedlikeinpracticeforparticularstudentstomakenarrativeconnectionsbetweentheirownlivesandthepastThispaperturnsnowtothreespecificcasestoprovidemorenuanceddiscussionandtoshowthatstudentsconnectedthemselvestothepast inhighly individualizedwaysMelvinStuartand Jess(allpseudonyms)wereselectedbecausetheycreateddiagramswithmixedcontentbutuseddifferentnarrativestrategies to bring personal and historical narratives together as indicated in SectionD ofTable2Furthermoretherewereinterestingdifferencesinthewaysinwhichtheytalkedabouttheirdiagrams
InwhatfollowsafewimpressionisticdetailsaregivenabouteachstudenttoemphasizetheirindividualityaswellastoconveytheresearcherrsquosperspectivethedetailsarenotnecessarilysignificantThenevidencefromthestudentsrsquodiagramstheirwrittenexplanationsandinterviewsarewoventogether
Melvin Historically contextualizing his own life story exploring the relationship between individuals and bigger historical processes
Melvinwas a soft-spoken affable studentwhowore abaseball capduringhis interviewHereferredtohisCaribbeanheritageandlargefamily(heistheyoungestofeightchildren)aswellashisreligiousfaithHehastravelledextensivelytovisitfamilyintheCaribbeanandEuropeandhaslivedinvariousGreaterBostonneighbourhoods
MelvinrsquosdiagramatfirstglanceisstructuredintheformofaswirlingtimelineHestartswith the Emancipation Proclamation ndash the abolition of slavery at the end of the AmericanCivilWarndashwhichispresentedasanecessaryconditionorbackgroundenablinghispersonalstorylsquomyeducationlevelmyqualityoflifeprobablywhereIlivewouldhavebeencompletelydifferentrsquoHoweverhisdiagramdoesnotfollowastrictchronologydespitethearrowsthatconnectthedifferentitemsTheendofthetimelineisonlylooselystructuredfeaturingaspectsofMelvinrsquoslifecircumstancessuchaswherehelivestheeducationhehasreceivedthetravelhehascompletedandhowtheselifecircumstanceshavehadanimpactonwhoheistodayWhileMelvinincorporatesthehistoricallysignificantpastintohisdiagramhisfocusissomewhattiltedtowardshispersonallifestory
NonethelessMelvindoesmorethanmerelydescribehisownlifehesituatesitwithinabroaderhistoricalcontextHisexplanatorynotescentreonhowhecametohaveexcellentlifeprospectsdespitethechallengesheperceivesofbeingayoungblackmanlivingintheUnitedStatesBeginninghispersonaltimelinewiththeEmancipationProclamationandtheendingoftheJimCrowlawsservestoacknowledgehisrelativegoodfortunecomparedwithpreviousgenerationshealsoconnectshisownstorytoawidercollectivenarrativeofsocialprogressandtechnologicalchangewhichaffectlsquoprettymucheveryoneinmygenerationrsquoByonlyselectinglsquothingsbeyondhiscontrolrsquo forhisdiagramMelvinusesthediagramnarrativetoexploretherelationshipbetweenindividuallivesorfreewillandlargersocietalorhistoricalforcesInhisinterview he also referred to his siblings his parentsrsquo political and religious views and theliberalcontextofMassachusettsasinfluencesbeyondhiscontrolthathavehelpedtoshapehimblurringthedistinctionbetweenpastandpresentinhisbidtoexplorethedegreetowhichweshapeourowndestinies
London Review of Education 183
Fig
ure
1M
elvinrsquosdiagram
184 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
Fig
ure
2Stuartrsquosdiagram
London Review of Education 185
Stuart Situating his own life at the confluence of various historical narratives tethering his own story to the history of humanity
StuartwasaboyofItalianAmericanextractionwithspikedhairwhosefamilyhaslivedinthesamesemi-urbanneighbourhoodofGreaterBostonforseveralgenerationsHejokedaroundwithhispeersinclassbutbecamestrikinglyseriousinthecontextoftheinterviewspeakinginaheartfeltwayabouthisfamilyandhisprideinbeingAmericanHealsostatedthathistorywashisfavouritesubject
Stuartrsquosdiagramwaswide-rangingintermsofboththemeandtimespanHepickedthefollowingthemeslsquowarsandbattlesrsquowhichleduptooratleastprecededlsquomodernterrorismrsquolsquofamouspeoplersquowithJesusChristtheonlynamedpersonlsquoconstructionandfactorizationrsquo[sic]whichtracesbroadtechnologicaldevelopmentsinhumanhistoryandlsquolandandthefoundersrsquowhich broadly relates to the discovery andor establishment of different empires or nationstates The general chronological element to the threads suggests narratives unfolding overtimeanimpressionreinforcedbyacommentmadebyStuartinhisinterview
InterviewerObviously IrsquoveaskedyoutodothisbuthaveyouthoughtaboutthisbigpicturebeforeOrwasitjustmdash
StuartIactuallyhaveIwasjustlikesittingathomeandjustlikethinkinglikewhydideverythingstartandlikehowitactuallypusheditselfintoeachotheranditdevelopedintoeverythingandthenIcamealongandIfeltlikeIwasapartofiteventhoughIwasnrsquotlikephysicallyapartofitLikeIthoughtIwasinvolvedbecauseofallthishappening
Hismetaphoriclanguagewhichconveysasenseofhistoricaleventsslidingorpilingintooneanotherdrawsattentiontohisbeingimmersedinsomebiggerstoryconcerningthewholeofhumanhistory
InhisdiagramStuartsituateshislifeattheconfluenceofdifferentnarrativestrandsunfoldinginhistoryhealsotethershispersonalstorytothatofhumankindwritlargeThatisinbeingasked to show how his own life connects to the past he elects to tell a broader story ofhumanityIfwecompareStuartrsquosdiagramtothatofMelvin it is lessofanexplorationofhisindividualstoryandmoreanexpressionaboutbelongingtoacollectivestory
Jess Exploring how the past is helping shape the ongoing story of her own personal development situating her own life at the confluence of various historical narratives
Jesswasagirlwith longbrownhairanaccomplishedgymnastanddancerShespokeofherJewish ancestry and her familyrsquos involvement in the LGBTmovement as well as her closeattachmenttoherlocalurbancommunitywhereshehaslivedherwholelifeShearticulatedherwordscarefullyoftenpausingasiftoreflectbeforerespondingtoquestions
AtfirstglanceJessrsquosdiagramdoesnotexhibitthekindofflowvisibleintheprevioustwodiagramsHoweverthereisaswirlingdynamicatplaymadeevidentbyherverbalexplanationofherdiagram
SoattheverycentreofmydiagramIhavejustalittlekindofbubblethatsayslsquomersquoAndImadeitabubblebecauseIthinkIrsquomnotallthatsortofwelldefinedbutitrsquosallsortofjustmushandthingsjustkindofflowinandinfluencemeSoIhavesortofacirclearoundmyselfandIhaveabunchofdifferentsortsofmovementsandeventsinhistorythatIthinkhavemostinfluencedmesuchastheenvironmentalmovementsandenvironmentaldegradationThecivilrightsmovementstheGLBTmovementswomenrsquosrightsmovementsJewishhistoryJewishmovementsandwarsaresortofthemaineventsthatinfluencedmeandtheninmoreofaninnercircleIhavemorebroad
186 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
topicssuchaseducationtechnologydancingandmusicthathavendashtheyallhavetheirownsortofhistoryandtheyallhaveapastthatIdonrsquotnecessarilyknowasmuchaboutinaconcretewaybutumndashallofthosethingsinfluencemesotheyrsquoreallflowingintothecentreThatrsquoswhereIam
Figure 3Jessrsquosdiagram
InthiscaseherongoingpersonaldevelopmentarguablyprovidesthenarrativecentrepieceorunifyingfactorThediagramalsoservesasanassertionofheremergingidentityndashintermsofeventsthathaveinfluencedhervaluesandsenseofwhosheisaswellasherpersonaltalentsandinterestsAsbecameevidentinherinterviewhowevershealsosituatesherselfasbeingattheconfluenceofdifferenthistoricalnarrativesForexampleshetalksaboutbeingatacertainmoment in thehistoryof theenvironmentwhichhasbeenshapedbypreviousgenerationsrsquoactionslsquomygenerationwersquoregoingtobereallyreallydealingwiththatrsquoShetalksaboutbeingshapedbyandinheritingthelegacyofthewomenrsquosrightsmovementcivilrightsmovementandJewishhistoryWithregardtothegayrightsmovementinwhichherfamilyhasbeenimmersedshehasasenseofbeingpartofhistoryinthemakinglsquothemovementisnow Youknowtherersquosbeenmovementsinthepastcertainlybutitrsquoslikeahugethingnowrsquo
How students talked about their diagrams The importance of epistemology
Theways inwhich students in the study talked about their diagramswere revealing of thepotentialrelationshipbetweentheirunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgeandtheir individualhistoricalconsciousnessInparticulartherewasacontrastbetweenstudents
London Review of Education 187
who presented their diagrams as contingent subjective interpretations of the relationshipbetweentheirownlivesandthepastandthosewhoappearedtopresenttheirdiagramsasself-evidentstraightforwardrepresentations
Jessforinstancetalkedfromthestartaboutnotbeinglsquoallthatwelldefinedrsquoasreflectedby the blob at the centre of her diagram There is a sense of fluidity ormovement in herdiagramndashasmuchintermsofherowninterpretationofherownplaceinhistoryasineventsordevelopmentsthemselvesShowinganawarenessofthelimitationsofherownknowledgeshestatesthatshedidnotwanttoexcludeitemsfromherdiagramsimplybecauseofherownignorance
MoreoverintalkingaboutthedifferentelementsofherdiagramshespokeinmetacognitivetermsaboutthedifferencesbetweenlearningaboutJewishhistoryatthetemplewhereitwasframedas lsquoourhistoryrsquoandatschoolwhereitwastreatedassomeoneelsersquoshistoryWithregardtothewomenrsquosrightsmovementshesaid
Sowomenrsquos rightsrsquomovements ndash umm ndashmymomwas a pretty hardcore feminist and IrsquovedefinitelyinheritedsomeofthatandIrsquovereallyenjoyedmostlythisyearactuallyndashIlearnedaboutwomenrsquosrightsinUSHistoryandthatrsquosbeenreallyinterestingsortofhowthatrsquosplayedoutAndprobablybecauseofmymotherandotheradultsandotherwomenthatIrsquovegrownupwithIrsquomlikendashveryconsciousofthatthatIamawomanandthatotherwomenhavedonealottogettowhereIamtodayAndtherersquosdefinitelyasenseofprideformeIhavealwaysbeenverysortofconsciousofthatheritage
Here Jesspresents the impactof themovementassomewhat inevitablegivenhermotherrsquosvaluesHowevershealsorefersexplicitlytoherenjoymentandinterestinlearningaboutthistopicatschoolSheexpresseshersenseofconnectiontowomenrsquoshistoryandheractiveprideinitwhilealsoprovidinganexplanationforwhyshefeelsconnectedtoitshowingacapacityforself-reflectionormetacognitionItisworthnotinghoweverthatshedidnotcommentontheprogressivetemplatethatseemedtoundergirdhernarrative
StuartincontrastpresentedhisdiagraminmorefixedtermsWheninvitedtotalkaboutitheproceededtolisteverythingcontainedwithinit
WellfirstofallIputthelandandthefoundersbecausethesearethebasicgroupsandpeoplethatstartedeverythingThepeoplewhostartedMesopotamiaAncientThebesyouknowlikethatPeoplewhowereintheRomanEmpireallthoseVikingsthefamousexplorersChristopherColumbusMagellanetceterahellip
Inthisextracthe iscitingundisputed lsquofactsrsquohedoesnotusemodifying languagebut insteadstates straightforwardlywhat happenedWhen asked how he knew about these aspects ofthepastheresponded lsquoMostofthestuffcamefromschool Iwas justtryingtothinkwhathappenedrsquo Stuart expressed a greatdealof connection to thepast including asmentionedearlierthathefeltpartofanongoinghistoricalprocessWhileJessspokewithprideyetanalyticdetachmentofherconnectiontothewomenrsquosmovementStuartdidnotexhibitthecapacitytotalkinametacognitivewayaboutthecontentorformofhisdiagramndashalthoughthisdoesnotmeanthathewasincapableofdoingso
Inhis interviewStuartalso talkedabout learning fromhisgrandmotherabout thepastincludinglifelessonsshegleanedfromweatheringtheGreatDepressionHereferredtohercorroboratingwhathelearnedatschool
Anditrsquoscoolbecause[myteacher]canteachmeaboutitatthesametimeandthenshecanjusttellmeaboutthestuffItrsquosreallycoolhellipIlikeaskherlsquoDoyourememberthisrsquohelliplsquoDoyourememberbootleggingandstufflikethatrsquoAndshewaslikelsquoyeaIrememberthatrsquowhichiscoolbecauseyouactuallyknowwhathappenedYoucanjusttalktoheraboutit
188 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
It is notable that he does not talk about hearing his grandmotherrsquos perspective about whathappenedratherheviewsherasanauthorityonhistorypresumablybecausehethinksshedirectlyexperiencedwhatisinhistextbook
Melvinrsquosstancetowardhisdiagramwasmoretentativeinnosmallpartbecauseheactuallyproducedtwodiagramsthefirstversionwasabrainstormofinfluencesonhislifewhichhethought conveyed an even spreadof influences on his lifeHowever in the second version(featuredinthispaper)lsquoItriedtomakeitinchronologicalordersotospeakLikewhatwasinheritedthenthingsthataffectedmelateronrsquoFurtherhespokerepeatedlyabouthisparticularlifeexperiencesaffectinghisperspectiveontheworldandonthepast
YouknowIwasnrsquotbroughtupinthesametypeofenvironmentthat[myparents]wereIwasbroughtupinAmericainMassachusettsatthatAndIthoughtthatwassomethingthatreallyaffectsyouanditaffectshowyoulookatliketheinternationalpoliticalsystemandwhatnothellipIthinkbecausemyparentsarefromoverseasitdefinitelyhelpsmelookatthingsonalargerscaleButIdodefinitelythinkincomparisontothemIlookatthingsfromanAmericanperspective
At the same time he assumes some commonality with other people such as people fromhisgenerationwhoaregrowingup inadigitalenvironment InMelvinrsquoscasehisoverarchingnarrativeisabout thewayinwhichhisoutlookandlifeprospectshavebeenaffectedbythepastandexternalforceshoweverheisalsoabletolsquostepoutsidersquothatnarrativetoreflectonthewaysinwhichhisapproachtothetaskhasbeeninfluencedbythoseverylifeexperiencesandfamilyinfluencesLikeStuartheisclosetohisgrandmotherHoweverwhenhereferstotalkingwithherabout thepastandher life inTrinidadhiscomment isaboutherperspective lsquotheobstaclesofyourpastdefinitelyaffectyourpointofviewrsquoInturnhetalksaboutherinfluenceonhimlsquoIthinkthestoriesthatyoursquoretolddefinitelyaffectthewayyouthinkrsquo
OtherstudentsmadecommentsthatindicatedarelationshipbetweentheirawarenessoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgeandthewaysinwhichtheyviewedtheirownrelationshiptothepastThey(1)acknowledgedtheirownsubjectivityandorthelimitationsoftheirperspectiveontheirrelationshiptothepast(2)presentedtheirdiagramsandexplanationsas tentative and subject to alteration andor (3) stepped outside themselves to reflect ontheir reactions to learningabouthistory In factwhile Jesswas theonly studentwhomadecommentsthatcoveredallthreeofthesecategoriesfewstudentsappearedtotakethemorestraightforwardviewofhistoricalknowledgeapparentlyevincedbyStuartThefactthatstudentsinthesamplewereacademicallysuccessfulaged16ndash18andlivinginacitywithahighlyeducatedworkforceandmajoracademicinstitutionsprobablyneedstobetakenintoaccountwithregardtothisfinding
ItisalsoworthreiteratingthattheresearcherwasnotaproverbialflyonthewallwhilecollectingthisdataForexampleStuartpresentedhimselfasagoodstudentwholikedhistoryandrespectedhiselders justpriortotheinterviewtherewasadrugsbustattheschoolbypoliceanditispossiblehewantedtoconveythathewasalsquodecentkidrsquoMelvindiscussedhisrelative good fortune comparedwithother youngblackmen (including implicitly others athisschool)insodoinghewasabletocommunicatethathewasfromahighlyeducatedfamilylivinginadesirablepartoftownJessmeanwhilepositionedherselfasathoughtfulpoliticallyinformedstudentWhiletheseimpressionsarepurelyspeculativetheysuggestthattheschoolcontextandtheperceivedidentityoftheresearcherndashaswellastheframingoftheactivityndashhelpedtoshapewhatstudentschosetoshareHoweverrecognizingthatthereislikelytobesomefluidityintermsofhowindividualsrelatetheirownlivestothepastdoesnotdiminishthefindingthattheyoungpeopleinthisstudyusedavarietyofnarrativestrategiestodosoorthatthewaysinwhichtheytalkedaboutthosestrategiesappearedtodifferaccordingtotheirepistemologicalunderstandings
London Review of Education 189
Implications
InconjunctionwiththeoverallsummaryshowninTable2thesethreecasesprovidesnapshotsofdifferentways inwhichyoungpeopleusednarrativestrategiestoconnecttheirownlivesto the past aswell as differences in theways inwhich they talked about those strategiesWhilethisstudyishighlyexploratorythesecasespointtotheapparentdiversityofways inwhichyoungpeoplethinkaboutthemselvesinrelationtothepastaswellasthesignificanceof epistemological understanding in the construction of individual historical consciousnessOf coursemany questions remain For example was the ability of Jess andMelvin to talkreflectively about their diagrams and their relationship to thepast an indicationof rigoroushistoricalunderstandinginadisciplinarysenseorofmoregenericcriticalorabstractthinkingskills Further howdo teensrsquo broaddevelopmental trajectoriesndash such as thoseoutlinedbyErikson(1968)ndash intersectwiththeirhistoricalunderstanding Itwouldbe interestingtoaskchildrenofdifferentagestocompletethediagramtaskYoungerstudentswouldpresumablyfind it challenging tocreate anarrative about theirown lives in toto as indeed someof thestudentsinthisstudymayhavedoneExaminingthepotentiallinksbetweenthedevelopmentofautobiographicalstory-tellingskillsandhowyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastcouldbeanotherproductivelineofresearch
Methodologicallythestudyopensupsomeinterestingpossibilitiesespeciallyasthediagramactivity invited students to synthesize their thinking about their personal connections to thepastinarelativelyopen-endedmannerThetaskinstructionsandoranalysiscouldbealteredtoinvestigaterelatedphenomenaForexamplehowifatalldostudentsdealwiththeideathataspeopletheyareevolvingandmayhaveashiftingrelationshiptoorperspectiveonthepastTowhatextentdotheyportraythemselvesasactiveagentsintheirownrightratherthanindividualssubjecttoforcesbeyondtheircontrolHowdodifferencesamongtheirvariouslsquometa-historicalrsquounderstandingssuchastheirworkingideasabouthistoricalcausalityrelatetohowtheytalkaboutthemselves inrelation to thepastHowwould theyposition themselvesrelative toperceivednationalnarrativesWhile it is impossible toproveadirectrelationship fromthis singlestudyndashorthereasonsbehindsucharelationshipndashstudentswhodisplayedanunderstandingoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgealsogavetheimpressionofbeingmoreempoweredintermsoftalkingabouttheirfutureandnavigatingtheirownemergingidentities
Withregardtopractice therangeofpersonaldiagramsproducedbystudentsconfirmsthatifteachersarelookingtobuildontheirstudentsrsquoexistingideasandunderstandingsalsquoonesizefitsallrsquoapproach is likely tobemisguidedandnon-inclusiveandthatnationalnarrativesare only one kind of narrative towhich young people feel connected This paper does notadvocatethatyoungpeoplebeinvitedtorelateeverythingtheylearninhistorytothemselvesHoweverofferingopen-endedandpotentiallycreativeopportunitiesforthemtoreflectontheconnectionstheyperceivebetweenthemselvesandthepastislikelytobeengagingparticularlyforolderteensgiventheirbroaderdevelopmentalneedtoestablishindependentidentities
FurthermoresuchopportunitiescanactivelybuildhistoricalunderstandingGiventhesheervarietyofdiagramsthatwillalmostcertainlybeproducedwithinasingleclassroomstudentscan learn a greatdeal by looking at anddiscussing thediagramsof their peers inways thatdeveloptheirunderstandingthatpeoplehavedifferentperspectivesonthepastandthattheseperspectivesareshapedat least inpartbybiographicalorothercontextual factorsLookingatothersrsquodiagramscanopenupdifferentpossibilitiesforyoungpeopleintermsofhowtheythinkabouttheirownrelationshiptothepastandgivethemanewperspectiveontheirownidentityandoutlookIndeedthepowerofthisapproachcanbefurtherenhancedifclassroomsaredigitallyconnectedtoclassroomsinothercountriesengaginginthesameactivityinpartbecauseitallowsprevailingandassumednationalnarrativestobecomevisible
190 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
While somepeoplewouldcertainly resist thenotionof lettingyoungpeopleuse schoolhistoryasavenueforexploringorinterpretingtheirownlivesidentitiesandvaluesthisresearchshedslightonsomeofthevariedwaysinwhichyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastoruseitfororientingpurposesAsJessinparticulardemonstratedasophisticatedunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgecangohandinhandwithaself-awarenessandevenprideinonersquosrelationshiptothepastWearguablyoweittoourstudentstohelpthemthinkaboutwhotheyareandthelivestheyarelivingorwanttoliveinourrapidlychangingandevermorecomplexworldWeneedtosupportthemtointerpretthepastandtodeveloprobusthistoricalunderstandingswealsoneedtosupportthemtointerprettheirownnarratives
Acknowledgements
TheauthorwishestothanktheGermanacosFoundationforsupportingtheresearchdiscussedinthispaperaswellasHowardGardnerHelenHasteandMeiraLevinsonforprovidingguidancewiththeresearchMycolleaguesEdwardClappandShariTishmangavehelpfulfeedbackonearlydrafts
Notes on the contributor
ElizabethDawesDuraisinghisaresearchassociateandprincipalinvestigatoratProjectZeroaresearchcentreat theHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducationwhereshealsoservesasalectureroneducationShewaspreviouslyahighschoolhistoryteacherforeightyearsworkinginbothEnglandandAustralia
References
AhonenS(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessAviableparadigmforhistoryeducationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(6)697ndash707
Almarza DJ (2001) lsquoContexts shaping minority language studentsrsquo perceptions of American historyrsquo Journal of Social Studies Research25(2)4ndash22
AnS(2009)lsquoLearningUShistoryinanageofglobalizationandtransnationalmigrationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)763ndash87
AndrewsM(2007)Shaping History Narratives of political changeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressAngvikMandVonBorriesB(eds)(1997)Youth and History A comparative European survey on historical
consciousness and political attitudes among adolescentsHamburgKoumlrber-StiftungAshbyR(2005)lsquoStudentsrsquoapproachestovalidatinghistoricalclaimsrsquoInAshbyRGordonPandLeeP
(eds)Understanding History Recent research in history educationLondonRoutledge21ndash36AudigierFandFinkN(2010)lsquoPupilsandschoolhistoryinFranceandSwitzerlandrsquo Education 3ndash1338
(3)329ndash39BambergM(2011)lsquoWhoamINarrationanditscontributiontoselfandidentityrsquo Theory and Psychology
21(1)3ndash24BartonKC(2001)lsquolsquolsquoYoursquodbewantingtoknowaboutthepastrdquoSocialcontextsofchildrenrsquoshistorical
understandinginNorthernIrelandandtheUSArsquo Comparative Education37(1)89ndash106BartonKCandLevstikLS(2004)Teaching History for the Common GoodMahwahNJLawrenceErlbaum
AssociatesBartonKCandMcCullyAW(2005)lsquoHistoryidentityandtheschoolcurriculuminNorthernIreland
Anempiricalstudyofsecondarystudentsrsquoideasandperspectivesrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(1)85ndash116
London Review of Education 191
Baynham M (2010) lsquoAlexandra Georgakopoulou Small stories interaction and identitiesrsquo Applied Linguistics31(3)471ndash3
BilligM(1995)Banal NationalismLondonSAGEPublicationsBillmann-Mahecha E and Hausen M (2005) lsquoEmpirical psychological approaches to the historical
consciousnessofchildrenrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks163ndash86
BoixMansillaV(2001)The Pursuit of Understanding A study of exemplary high school studentsrsquo conceptions of knowledge validation in science and history EdDthesisHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducation
BrunerJS(1990)Acts of MeaningCambridgeMAHarvardUniversityPressBrunerJS(2005)lsquoPastandpresentasnarrativeconstructionsrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and
Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks23ndash43DamonWandHartD (1988)Self-Understanding in Childhood and AdolescenceNewYorkCambridge
UniversityPressDantoAC(1965)Analytical Philosophy of HistoryCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressEpsteinT(1998)lsquoDeconstructingdifferencesinAfrican-AmericanandEuropean-Americanadolescentsrsquo
perspectivesonUShistoryrsquo Curriculum Inquiry28(4)397ndash423EriksonEH(1968)Identity Youth and CrisisNewYorkWWNortonFivush R Bohanek JG and ZamanW (2011) lsquoPersonal and intergenerational narratives in relation
to adolescentsrsquowell-beingrsquo InHabermasT (ed)The Development of Autobiographical Reasoning in Adolescence and Beyond (NewDirectionsforChildandAdolescentDevelopment131)45ndash57
GoldbergTPoratDandSchwarzBB(2006)lsquolsquoHerestartedtheriftweseetodayrsquoStudentandtextbooknarrativesbetweenofficialandcountermemoryrsquo Narrative Inquiry16(2)319ndash47
GoldbergTSchwarzBBandPoratD(2008)lsquoLivinganddormantcollectivememoriesascontextsofhistorylearningrsquo Learning and Instruction18(3)223ndash37
GreverMHaydnTandRibbensK(2008)lsquoIdentityandschoolhistoryTheperspectiveofyoungpeoplefromtheNetherlandsandEnglandrsquo British Journal of Educational Studies56(1)76ndash94
HaeberliP(2005) lsquoRelatingtohistoryAnempiricaltypologyrsquo International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research5(1)1ndash10
Hammack PL and Pilecki A (2012) lsquoNarrative as a rootmetaphor for political psychologyrsquo Political Psychology33(1)75ndash103
HarterS(1999)The Construction of the Self A developmental perspectiveNewYorkGuilfordPressHawkey K and Prior J (2011) lsquoHistory memory cultures and meaning in the classroomrsquo Journal of
Curriculum Studies43(2)231ndash47HoferBKandPintrichPR(eds)(2002)Personal Epistemology The psychology of beliefs about knowledge and
knowing MahwahNJLawrenceErlbaumAssociatesKeganR (1982)The Evolving Self Problem and process in human development CambridgeMAHarvard
UniversityPressLee P (2004a) lsquoUnderstanding historyrsquo In Seixas P (ed) Theorizing Historical Consciousness Toronto
UniversityofTorontoPress129ndash64LeeP(2004b)lsquoldquoWalkingbackwardsintotomorrowrdquoHistoricalconsciousnessandunderstandinghistoryrsquo
International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research4(1)1ndash46LeePJ(2005)lsquoPuttingprinciplesintopracticeUnderstandinghistoryrsquoInDonovanMSandBransford
JD (eds)How Students Learn History mathematics and science in the classroomWashingtonDCNationalAcademiesPress31ndash77
LeePandShemiltD(2004)lsquolsquolsquoIjustwishwecouldgobackinthepastandfindoutwhatreallyhappenedrdquoProgressioninunderstandingabouthistoricalaccountsrsquo Teaching History 11725ndash31
LenzC(2011) lsquoGenealogyandarchaeologyAnalyzinggenerationalpositioning inhistoricalnarrativesrsquo Journal of Comparative Family Studies42(3)319ndash27
LeacutetourneauJandMoisanS(2004)lsquoYoungpeoplersquosassimilationofacollectivehistoricalmemoryAcasestudyofQuebeckersofFrench-CanadianheritagersquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress109ndash28
192 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
LowenthalD(1996)Possessed by the Past The heritage crusade and the spoils of historyNewYorkFreePress
McAdamsDP(1993)The Stories We Live By Personal myths and the making of the selfNewYorkGuilfordPress
McLean KC Breen AV and FournierMA (2010) lsquoConstructing the self in earlymiddle and lateadolescentboysNarrativeidentityindividuationandwell-beingrsquo Journal of Research on Adolescence20(1)166ndash87
NakkulaMJandToshalisE(2006)Understanding Youth Adolescent development for educatorsCambridgeMAHarvardEducationPress
NoraP(1996)Realms of Memory Rethinking the French pastTransGoldhammerANewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
PeckCL (2010) lsquolsquolsquoItrsquos not like [Irsquom]Chinese andCanadian I am inbetweenrdquoEthnicity and studentsrsquoconceptionsofhistoricalsignificancersquo Theory and Research in Social Education38(4)574ndash617
PolkinghorneDE(1988)Narrative Knowing and the Human SciencesAlbanyStateUniversityofNewYorkPress
Polkinghorne DE (2005) lsquoNarrative psychology and historical consciousness Relationships andperspectivesrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks3ndash22
RantalaJ(2011)lsquoChildrenasconsumersofhistoricalcultureinFinlandrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies43(4)493ndash506
ReicherSandHopkinsN(2001)Self and Nation Categorization contestation and mobilizationLondonSAGEPublications
RosenzweigRandThelenDP(1998)The Presence of the Past Popular uses of history in American lifeNewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
RuumlsenJ(1993)Studies in MetahistoryPretoriaHumanSciencesResearchCouncilSeixasP(1997)lsquoMappingtheterrainofhistoricalsignificancersquo Social Education61(1)22ndash7SeixasP(2004)lsquoIntroductionrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityof
TorontoPress3ndash20SeixasP(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessTheprogressofknowledgeinapostprogressiveagersquoInStraub
J(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks141ndash62SeixasP(2009)lsquoNationalhistoryandbeyondrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)719ndash22ThorpR(2014)lsquoTowardsanepistemologicaltheoryofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquoHistorical Encounters A
Journal of Historical Consciousness Historical Cultures and History Education1(1)20ndash31TrailleK (2007) lsquolsquolsquoYou should be proud about your history Theymademe feel ashamedrdquoTeaching
historyhurtsrsquo Teaching History 12731ndash7VanSledrightB (2008) lsquoNarrativesofnation-statehistoricalknowledgeandschoolhistoryeducationrsquo
Review of Research in Education32(1)109ndash46WelzerH(2008)lsquoCollateraldamageofhistoryeducationNationalsocialismandtheHolocaustinGerman
familymemoryrsquo Social Research75(1)287ndash314WertschJV(2002)Voices of Collective RememberingCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressWertschJV(2004)lsquoSpecificnarrativesandschematicnarrativetemplatesrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing
Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress49ndash62Wineburg S (2001)Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts Charting the future of teaching the past
PhiladelphiaTempleUniversityPressWineburgSMosborgSPoratDandDuncanA(2007)lsquoCommonbeliefandtheculturalcurriculum
Anintergenerationalstudyofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquo American Educational Research Journal44(1)40ndash76
London Review of Education 193
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
This paperwas published in a special feature called lsquoNegotiating the nation Young peoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo
Thearticlesinthefeatureareasfollows
Angier K (2017) lsquoIn search of historical consciousness An investigation into young South AfricansrsquoknowledgeandunderstandingofldquotheirrdquonationalhistoriesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
DawesDuraisinghE (2017) lsquoMakingnarrativeconnectionsExploringhow late teensrelate theirownnarrativestothehistoricallysignificantpastrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GoldbergT(2017) lsquoTheusefulpast innegotiationAdolescentsrsquouseofhistory innegotiationof inter-groupconflictrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GreverMandVanderVliesT(2017)lsquoWhynationalnarrativesareperpetuatedAliteraturereviewonnewinsightsfromhistorytextbookresearchrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
HolmbergU(2017)lsquoldquoIwasborninthereignhelliprdquoHistoricalorientationinUgandanstudentsrsquonationalnarrativesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
LeacutetourneauJandChapmanA(2017)lsquoEditorialndashNegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
LeacutevesqueS(2017)lsquoHistoryasaldquoGPSrdquoOntheusesofhistoricalnarrativeforFrenchCanadianstudentsrsquolifeorientationandidentityrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
OlofssonHSamuelsson JStolareMandWendell J (2017) lsquoTheSwedesandtheirhistoryrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
SheehanMandDavisonM(2017)lsquoldquoWeneedtoremembertheydiedforusrdquoHowyoungpeopleinNewZealandmakemeaningofwarremembranceandcommemorationoftheFirstWorldWarrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
VanHavereTWilsKDepaepeFVerschaffelLandVanNieuwenhuyseK(2017)lsquoFlemishstudentsrsquohistoricalreferenceknowledgeandnarrativesoftheBelgiannationalpastattheendofsecondaryeducationrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
WertschJV(2017)lsquoForeword ndash NegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
London Review of Education 179
Table 1Breakdownofsample(n=187)
Number of students in
overall sample
of overall sample
Number of students interviewed
of students interviewed
Gender (n=187)
Male 105 56 14 50
Female 82 44 14 50
Race ethnicity (n=175)
African-American 9 5 4 14
Asian 24 14 2 7
Hispanic 3 2 0 0
NativeAmerican 0 0 0 0
White 124 67 18 64
Mixedother 14 8 4 14
Family mobility and language (n=175)
Atleastoneforeignbornparent
74 39 11 40
Studenthasalwayslivedincurrentneighbourhood
111 59 15 54
StudenthaslivedoutsideNewEngland
50 27 5 29
LanguageotherthanEnglishspokenathome
56 30 9 32
Demographicdetailsweremissingforsomeofthesample
Data collection
AsmentionedstudentswereaskedtodrawadiagramonablankpieceofpapertoshowhowthepastlsquohelpsexplainwhoyouareandthelifeyouarelivingorhopetoliversquoandtothenexplaintheformandcontentoftheirdiagramTheideawasthataconcisediagramformatwouldallowstudentstoconstructanoverviewofthewaysinwhichtheythoughtaboutthemselvesinrelationtothepastalthoughitwasusuallyunclearifthisrelationshipwassomethingtheyhadreflectedonpreviouslyTheopen-endednatureofthetaskallowedstudentstoapproachitinwaysthatwerepersonallymeaningfultothemStudentstypicallyspentapproximately45minutesonthetaskWhilethispaperfocusesonthediagramsstudentswentontocompleteotheractivitiesincludingonedesignedtosurfacetheirepistemologicalreasoningaboutthenatureofhistoricalaccounts(adaptedfromBoixMansilla2001)whichtheyalsodiscussedintheirinterviews
Initial coding rounds
StudentsrsquodiagramsprovedhighlyvariedposingachallengeforanalysisInitialcodingfocusedonthecontentofstudentsrsquodiagramsAcrossallthediagramsalmosthalfoftheitems(46percent)relatedtostudentsrsquodirectpersonalexperiencessuchasstartinganewschoolormovinghouseorfeaturesoftheireverydaylivesincludingpersonalitytraitshobbiesortastesOnlyaquarteroftheitemsreferredtowhatmightbecalledthehistoricalpasteventslikelytofeatureinstudentsrsquohistorytextbooksandwhichprecededtheirbirthsAfurther9percentofitemsreferredtolsquohistoricalrsquoeventsoccurringwithinthestudentsrsquoownlifetimesorcontemporaneouslysuchastheelectionofBushorObamaandtheWaronTerror20percentofitemscomprisedthemesortopicsnottiedtoaparticulartimeorperiodsuchasimmigrationracismorliterature
180 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
ThevaguewordingofthetaskinstructionsndashlsquoshowhowthepasthelpsexplainwhoyouareandthelifeyouarelivingrsquondashmeantthatmanystudentslegitimatelychosetofocusontheirownpastaswellasorinsteadofthehistoricallysignificantpastClosetoafifthofstudents(17percent)includedonly eventsthateithertheyorimmediatemembersoftheirfamilyhadpersonallyexperiencedandoraspectsoftheirpresent-daylivesOverathirdofstudents(34percent)includedmostlyoronlysuchitems(lsquomostlyrsquowasdefinedastwo-thirdsormoreofitems)Overatenthofstudents(13percent)includedmostlyoronlyhistoricallysignificantitemsintheirdiagramswhileclosetohalf(47percent)combineddifferenttypesofitemssothatnoonetypedominatedWhilesuchstatisticsarguablyhintattherelativesensitivityofindividualstudentstothepastthesheeramountofhistorythatindividualschosetoincludeintheirdiagramswasnotusefulforindicatingthedegreetowhichorprocessbywhichtheyweremakingconnectionsbetweentheirownlivesandthepast
Thenextroundofanalysisattemptedtodifferentiatebetweenstudentswhotoldstoriesto explain their personal connection to the past and those who approached the questionmore lsquoanalyticallyrsquo as per Brunerrsquos distinction between narrative and paradigmatic thinkingHowevergiventhecentralityofnarrativestohowwemakemeaningofour lives itprovedmore productive to focus on theways inwhich students integrated personal and historicalnarrativesintheirdiagramsBrunercommentingonwrittentextshasstatedthatlsquoitisnotthatnarrativeandparadigmaticmodesofdiscoursefusefortheydonotItisratherthatthelogicalorparadigmaticmodeisbroughttobearonthetaskofexplicatingthebreachinthenarrativersquo(Bruner200594)Thisdistinctionplayedoutinthisstudyasfollowsstudentstypicallydrewadiagramcontainingnarrativethreads(orasinglecoherentnarrative)andthenwroteexplanatoryor logical comments eitherwithinor alongside thediagram Interviewed students retoldorelaboratedonthesenarrativeswhilealsobreakingoutintoanalyticcommentaryonthem
Findings overview Studentsrsquo incorporation of personal and historical narratives into their diagrams
Table2summarizesthewaysinwhichstudentscombinedpersonalandhistoricallysignificantitemsintheirdiagrams iftheydidatallandtheoverallnarrativeeffect ifanyThelabels inboldindicatethepresenceofwhatappearedtobecoherentoverarchingnarrativeswithinthediagramsndashbethatpersonalnarrativeshistoricalnarrativesoronesthatbroughtthesetwokindsofnarrativetogetherPersonalnarrativesrefertostoriesaboutstudentsrsquoownlivesorthoseoftheirimmediatefamilyHistoricalnarrativesinvolvethehistoricallysignificantpastasrecognizedbyarelativelylargegroupofpeopleincludinghistoriansTheycouldbenarrativesaboutparticulareventsorhistoricaldevelopmentssuchasthestruggleforwomenrsquosrightsortheUnitedStatesgainingindependencefromBritainmoreinterpretativesweepsofperiodsofhistorysuchasthetwentiethcenturyorevenaddresshowhistoryitselfunfolds
ItisimportanttonotethatstudentswerenotaskedtoproducecoherentnarrativesoftheirrelationshiptothepastintheirdiagramsanabsenceofacoherentnarrativedoesnotmeanthatindividualstudentswereincapableofandorresistanttoproducingthemjustthattheydidnotdosointhiscontextMoreoversincestudentsweregiventhechallengingtaskofsimultaneouslythinking of items to include and arranging those items diagrammatically some diagrams canbeinterpretedasaninitialjottingdownofideasndashalthoughasTable2indicatessomeofthediagrams that appeared tobe listsor brainstormseffectivelyoperated as narratives if thereweresufficientthematiccoherenceandadequatecontext forthechoiceof itemsHoweverinthecaseofstudentswhowerenotintervieweditisimpossibletoknowiftheyintentionallyselectedordevelopedparticularnarrativestrategiesThemostcompellingdiagrams(a)included
London Review of Education 181
lessthantwo-thirdsofitemsrelatedtopersonalorfamilyexperiencestastesinterestsetcandatleastsomehistoricallysignificantitemsand(b)integratedpersonalandhistoricalnarrativesHoweverTable2shouldbereadasasummaryoffindingsratherthanasanevaluativeschema
Table 2Asummaryofcontenttypeandnarrativestrategyintheoverallsampleofdiagrams(n=168)
A Diagrams onlyincludepersonalorfamilyexperiencestastesinterestsetc(n=31)
LISTBRAINSTORMCurrentinterestsfriendsfamilyvaluesinfluences 20
CHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHTellsstoryofownlifeandorimmediatefamily
Personal narrative
11
B Two-thirdsormoreofincludeditemsarepersonalorfamilyexperiencestastesinterestsetcbutotherkindsofitemsareincluded(n=29)
LISTBRAINSTORMCurrentinterestsfriendsfamilyetcwithhistorycitedasaninterestor eventsorinfluencesincludingitemsofbroadhistoricorcontemporarysignificance
17
CHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHTellsstoryofownlifesomeprecedinghistoryisincludedasbackgroundandor broadercontextualdetailisincludedndashegcontemporaryeventsordevelopments
Personal narrative with links to the historically significant past
12
C Two-thirdsormoreofincludeditemsarehistoricallysignificantevents(n=24)
LISTBRAINSTORMSeeminglyrandomconnectionsorverygeneralrationaleforincludingitemsegthingsthathaveaffectedmethingsIbelieveareimportant
13
LISTBRAINSTORMCoherentthemeitemscollectivelyservetolinkownlifestorytobiggerhistoricalnarrative(s)
Personal narrative linked to historical narrative
7
CHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHChronologicaloverviewofhistorywithselfatendorasapointonatimeline
Historical narrative with self inserted
4
D IntegrateddiagramMixtureofdifferentkindsofitems(n=84)
LISTBRAINSTORMSeeminglyrandomconnectionsorverygeneralrationaleforincludingitemsegthingsthathaveaffectedmethingsIbelieveareimportantorhavelearnedfrom 23
LISTBRAINSTORMCoherentthemeitemscollectivelyservetolinkownlifestorytobiggerhistoricalnarrative(s)
Personal narrative linked to historical narrative
13
VARIEDFORMSSubsumespersonalnarrativewithinthatofagrouptowhichheorshebelongs(egAlgerianMuslimsAshkenaziJewsAmericanshumanrace)
Personal and historical narrative tethered (STUART)
9
BROADCHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHContextualizesownorfamilystorywithinbroaderhistoricalcontextshowshowownstoryorfamilyrsquosstoryhasbeenintertwinedwithhistoricaleventsortrends
Personal narrative contextualized within broader historical narrative (MELVIN)
23
VARIEDFORMSPresentsselfasaproductandorpartofaconfluenceofnarrativesmayinvolvecomplexcausalconnections
Personal narrative seen as product of historical narrative(s) andor at confluence of different narratives (JESS)
16
NumberofdiagramsinsamplefittingthiscategoryDiagramsthatonlyincludedgeneralthemeswereexcludedfromthisanalysis
182 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
Studentsrsquo narrative strategies Melvin Stuart and Jess
While giving a senseof thedistributionof approacheswithin theoverall sampleTable 2 isnecessarilyreductionistandfailstocapturewhatitlookedlikeinpracticeforparticularstudentstomakenarrativeconnectionsbetweentheirownlivesandthepastThispaperturnsnowtothreespecificcasestoprovidemorenuanceddiscussionandtoshowthatstudentsconnectedthemselvestothepast inhighly individualizedwaysMelvinStuartand Jess(allpseudonyms)wereselectedbecausetheycreateddiagramswithmixedcontentbutuseddifferentnarrativestrategies to bring personal and historical narratives together as indicated in SectionD ofTable2Furthermoretherewereinterestingdifferencesinthewaysinwhichtheytalkedabouttheirdiagrams
InwhatfollowsafewimpressionisticdetailsaregivenabouteachstudenttoemphasizetheirindividualityaswellastoconveytheresearcherrsquosperspectivethedetailsarenotnecessarilysignificantThenevidencefromthestudentsrsquodiagramstheirwrittenexplanationsandinterviewsarewoventogether
Melvin Historically contextualizing his own life story exploring the relationship between individuals and bigger historical processes
Melvinwas a soft-spoken affable studentwhowore abaseball capduringhis interviewHereferredtohisCaribbeanheritageandlargefamily(heistheyoungestofeightchildren)aswellashisreligiousfaithHehastravelledextensivelytovisitfamilyintheCaribbeanandEuropeandhaslivedinvariousGreaterBostonneighbourhoods
MelvinrsquosdiagramatfirstglanceisstructuredintheformofaswirlingtimelineHestartswith the Emancipation Proclamation ndash the abolition of slavery at the end of the AmericanCivilWarndashwhichispresentedasanecessaryconditionorbackgroundenablinghispersonalstorylsquomyeducationlevelmyqualityoflifeprobablywhereIlivewouldhavebeencompletelydifferentrsquoHoweverhisdiagramdoesnotfollowastrictchronologydespitethearrowsthatconnectthedifferentitemsTheendofthetimelineisonlylooselystructuredfeaturingaspectsofMelvinrsquoslifecircumstancessuchaswherehelivestheeducationhehasreceivedthetravelhehascompletedandhowtheselifecircumstanceshavehadanimpactonwhoheistodayWhileMelvinincorporatesthehistoricallysignificantpastintohisdiagramhisfocusissomewhattiltedtowardshispersonallifestory
NonethelessMelvindoesmorethanmerelydescribehisownlifehesituatesitwithinabroaderhistoricalcontextHisexplanatorynotescentreonhowhecametohaveexcellentlifeprospectsdespitethechallengesheperceivesofbeingayoungblackmanlivingintheUnitedStatesBeginninghispersonaltimelinewiththeEmancipationProclamationandtheendingoftheJimCrowlawsservestoacknowledgehisrelativegoodfortunecomparedwithpreviousgenerationshealsoconnectshisownstorytoawidercollectivenarrativeofsocialprogressandtechnologicalchangewhichaffectlsquoprettymucheveryoneinmygenerationrsquoByonlyselectinglsquothingsbeyondhiscontrolrsquo forhisdiagramMelvinusesthediagramnarrativetoexploretherelationshipbetweenindividuallivesorfreewillandlargersocietalorhistoricalforcesInhisinterview he also referred to his siblings his parentsrsquo political and religious views and theliberalcontextofMassachusettsasinfluencesbeyondhiscontrolthathavehelpedtoshapehimblurringthedistinctionbetweenpastandpresentinhisbidtoexplorethedegreetowhichweshapeourowndestinies
London Review of Education 183
Fig
ure
1M
elvinrsquosdiagram
184 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
Fig
ure
2Stuartrsquosdiagram
London Review of Education 185
Stuart Situating his own life at the confluence of various historical narratives tethering his own story to the history of humanity
StuartwasaboyofItalianAmericanextractionwithspikedhairwhosefamilyhaslivedinthesamesemi-urbanneighbourhoodofGreaterBostonforseveralgenerationsHejokedaroundwithhispeersinclassbutbecamestrikinglyseriousinthecontextoftheinterviewspeakinginaheartfeltwayabouthisfamilyandhisprideinbeingAmericanHealsostatedthathistorywashisfavouritesubject
Stuartrsquosdiagramwaswide-rangingintermsofboththemeandtimespanHepickedthefollowingthemeslsquowarsandbattlesrsquowhichleduptooratleastprecededlsquomodernterrorismrsquolsquofamouspeoplersquowithJesusChristtheonlynamedpersonlsquoconstructionandfactorizationrsquo[sic]whichtracesbroadtechnologicaldevelopmentsinhumanhistoryandlsquolandandthefoundersrsquowhich broadly relates to the discovery andor establishment of different empires or nationstates The general chronological element to the threads suggests narratives unfolding overtimeanimpressionreinforcedbyacommentmadebyStuartinhisinterview
InterviewerObviously IrsquoveaskedyoutodothisbuthaveyouthoughtaboutthisbigpicturebeforeOrwasitjustmdash
StuartIactuallyhaveIwasjustlikesittingathomeandjustlikethinkinglikewhydideverythingstartandlikehowitactuallypusheditselfintoeachotheranditdevelopedintoeverythingandthenIcamealongandIfeltlikeIwasapartofiteventhoughIwasnrsquotlikephysicallyapartofitLikeIthoughtIwasinvolvedbecauseofallthishappening
Hismetaphoriclanguagewhichconveysasenseofhistoricaleventsslidingorpilingintooneanotherdrawsattentiontohisbeingimmersedinsomebiggerstoryconcerningthewholeofhumanhistory
InhisdiagramStuartsituateshislifeattheconfluenceofdifferentnarrativestrandsunfoldinginhistoryhealsotethershispersonalstorytothatofhumankindwritlargeThatisinbeingasked to show how his own life connects to the past he elects to tell a broader story ofhumanityIfwecompareStuartrsquosdiagramtothatofMelvin it is lessofanexplorationofhisindividualstoryandmoreanexpressionaboutbelongingtoacollectivestory
Jess Exploring how the past is helping shape the ongoing story of her own personal development situating her own life at the confluence of various historical narratives
Jesswasagirlwith longbrownhairanaccomplishedgymnastanddancerShespokeofherJewish ancestry and her familyrsquos involvement in the LGBTmovement as well as her closeattachmenttoherlocalurbancommunitywhereshehaslivedherwholelifeShearticulatedherwordscarefullyoftenpausingasiftoreflectbeforerespondingtoquestions
AtfirstglanceJessrsquosdiagramdoesnotexhibitthekindofflowvisibleintheprevioustwodiagramsHoweverthereisaswirlingdynamicatplaymadeevidentbyherverbalexplanationofherdiagram
SoattheverycentreofmydiagramIhavejustalittlekindofbubblethatsayslsquomersquoAndImadeitabubblebecauseIthinkIrsquomnotallthatsortofwelldefinedbutitrsquosallsortofjustmushandthingsjustkindofflowinandinfluencemeSoIhavesortofacirclearoundmyselfandIhaveabunchofdifferentsortsofmovementsandeventsinhistorythatIthinkhavemostinfluencedmesuchastheenvironmentalmovementsandenvironmentaldegradationThecivilrightsmovementstheGLBTmovementswomenrsquosrightsmovementsJewishhistoryJewishmovementsandwarsaresortofthemaineventsthatinfluencedmeandtheninmoreofaninnercircleIhavemorebroad
186 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
topicssuchaseducationtechnologydancingandmusicthathavendashtheyallhavetheirownsortofhistoryandtheyallhaveapastthatIdonrsquotnecessarilyknowasmuchaboutinaconcretewaybutumndashallofthosethingsinfluencemesotheyrsquoreallflowingintothecentreThatrsquoswhereIam
Figure 3Jessrsquosdiagram
InthiscaseherongoingpersonaldevelopmentarguablyprovidesthenarrativecentrepieceorunifyingfactorThediagramalsoservesasanassertionofheremergingidentityndashintermsofeventsthathaveinfluencedhervaluesandsenseofwhosheisaswellasherpersonaltalentsandinterestsAsbecameevidentinherinterviewhowevershealsosituatesherselfasbeingattheconfluenceofdifferenthistoricalnarrativesForexampleshetalksaboutbeingatacertainmoment in thehistoryof theenvironmentwhichhasbeenshapedbypreviousgenerationsrsquoactionslsquomygenerationwersquoregoingtobereallyreallydealingwiththatrsquoShetalksaboutbeingshapedbyandinheritingthelegacyofthewomenrsquosrightsmovementcivilrightsmovementandJewishhistoryWithregardtothegayrightsmovementinwhichherfamilyhasbeenimmersedshehasasenseofbeingpartofhistoryinthemakinglsquothemovementisnow Youknowtherersquosbeenmovementsinthepastcertainlybutitrsquoslikeahugethingnowrsquo
How students talked about their diagrams The importance of epistemology
Theways inwhich students in the study talked about their diagramswere revealing of thepotentialrelationshipbetweentheirunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgeandtheir individualhistoricalconsciousnessInparticulartherewasacontrastbetweenstudents
London Review of Education 187
who presented their diagrams as contingent subjective interpretations of the relationshipbetweentheirownlivesandthepastandthosewhoappearedtopresenttheirdiagramsasself-evidentstraightforwardrepresentations
Jessforinstancetalkedfromthestartaboutnotbeinglsquoallthatwelldefinedrsquoasreflectedby the blob at the centre of her diagram There is a sense of fluidity ormovement in herdiagramndashasmuchintermsofherowninterpretationofherownplaceinhistoryasineventsordevelopmentsthemselvesShowinganawarenessofthelimitationsofherownknowledgeshestatesthatshedidnotwanttoexcludeitemsfromherdiagramsimplybecauseofherownignorance
MoreoverintalkingaboutthedifferentelementsofherdiagramshespokeinmetacognitivetermsaboutthedifferencesbetweenlearningaboutJewishhistoryatthetemplewhereitwasframedas lsquoourhistoryrsquoandatschoolwhereitwastreatedassomeoneelsersquoshistoryWithregardtothewomenrsquosrightsmovementshesaid
Sowomenrsquos rightsrsquomovements ndash umm ndashmymomwas a pretty hardcore feminist and IrsquovedefinitelyinheritedsomeofthatandIrsquovereallyenjoyedmostlythisyearactuallyndashIlearnedaboutwomenrsquosrightsinUSHistoryandthatrsquosbeenreallyinterestingsortofhowthatrsquosplayedoutAndprobablybecauseofmymotherandotheradultsandotherwomenthatIrsquovegrownupwithIrsquomlikendashveryconsciousofthatthatIamawomanandthatotherwomenhavedonealottogettowhereIamtodayAndtherersquosdefinitelyasenseofprideformeIhavealwaysbeenverysortofconsciousofthatheritage
Here Jesspresents the impactof themovementassomewhat inevitablegivenhermotherrsquosvaluesHowevershealsorefersexplicitlytoherenjoymentandinterestinlearningaboutthistopicatschoolSheexpresseshersenseofconnectiontowomenrsquoshistoryandheractiveprideinitwhilealsoprovidinganexplanationforwhyshefeelsconnectedtoitshowingacapacityforself-reflectionormetacognitionItisworthnotinghoweverthatshedidnotcommentontheprogressivetemplatethatseemedtoundergirdhernarrative
StuartincontrastpresentedhisdiagraminmorefixedtermsWheninvitedtotalkaboutitheproceededtolisteverythingcontainedwithinit
WellfirstofallIputthelandandthefoundersbecausethesearethebasicgroupsandpeoplethatstartedeverythingThepeoplewhostartedMesopotamiaAncientThebesyouknowlikethatPeoplewhowereintheRomanEmpireallthoseVikingsthefamousexplorersChristopherColumbusMagellanetceterahellip
Inthisextracthe iscitingundisputed lsquofactsrsquohedoesnotusemodifying languagebut insteadstates straightforwardlywhat happenedWhen asked how he knew about these aspects ofthepastheresponded lsquoMostofthestuffcamefromschool Iwas justtryingtothinkwhathappenedrsquo Stuart expressed a greatdealof connection to thepast including asmentionedearlierthathefeltpartofanongoinghistoricalprocessWhileJessspokewithprideyetanalyticdetachmentofherconnectiontothewomenrsquosmovementStuartdidnotexhibitthecapacitytotalkinametacognitivewayaboutthecontentorformofhisdiagramndashalthoughthisdoesnotmeanthathewasincapableofdoingso
Inhis interviewStuartalso talkedabout learning fromhisgrandmotherabout thepastincludinglifelessonsshegleanedfromweatheringtheGreatDepressionHereferredtohercorroboratingwhathelearnedatschool
Anditrsquoscoolbecause[myteacher]canteachmeaboutitatthesametimeandthenshecanjusttellmeaboutthestuffItrsquosreallycoolhellipIlikeaskherlsquoDoyourememberthisrsquohelliplsquoDoyourememberbootleggingandstufflikethatrsquoAndshewaslikelsquoyeaIrememberthatrsquowhichiscoolbecauseyouactuallyknowwhathappenedYoucanjusttalktoheraboutit
188 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
It is notable that he does not talk about hearing his grandmotherrsquos perspective about whathappenedratherheviewsherasanauthorityonhistorypresumablybecausehethinksshedirectlyexperiencedwhatisinhistextbook
Melvinrsquosstancetowardhisdiagramwasmoretentativeinnosmallpartbecauseheactuallyproducedtwodiagramsthefirstversionwasabrainstormofinfluencesonhislifewhichhethought conveyed an even spreadof influences on his lifeHowever in the second version(featuredinthispaper)lsquoItriedtomakeitinchronologicalordersotospeakLikewhatwasinheritedthenthingsthataffectedmelateronrsquoFurtherhespokerepeatedlyabouthisparticularlifeexperiencesaffectinghisperspectiveontheworldandonthepast
YouknowIwasnrsquotbroughtupinthesametypeofenvironmentthat[myparents]wereIwasbroughtupinAmericainMassachusettsatthatAndIthoughtthatwassomethingthatreallyaffectsyouanditaffectshowyoulookatliketheinternationalpoliticalsystemandwhatnothellipIthinkbecausemyparentsarefromoverseasitdefinitelyhelpsmelookatthingsonalargerscaleButIdodefinitelythinkincomparisontothemIlookatthingsfromanAmericanperspective
At the same time he assumes some commonality with other people such as people fromhisgenerationwhoaregrowingup inadigitalenvironment InMelvinrsquoscasehisoverarchingnarrativeisabout thewayinwhichhisoutlookandlifeprospectshavebeenaffectedbythepastandexternalforceshoweverheisalsoabletolsquostepoutsidersquothatnarrativetoreflectonthewaysinwhichhisapproachtothetaskhasbeeninfluencedbythoseverylifeexperiencesandfamilyinfluencesLikeStuartheisclosetohisgrandmotherHoweverwhenhereferstotalkingwithherabout thepastandher life inTrinidadhiscomment isaboutherperspective lsquotheobstaclesofyourpastdefinitelyaffectyourpointofviewrsquoInturnhetalksaboutherinfluenceonhimlsquoIthinkthestoriesthatyoursquoretolddefinitelyaffectthewayyouthinkrsquo
OtherstudentsmadecommentsthatindicatedarelationshipbetweentheirawarenessoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgeandthewaysinwhichtheyviewedtheirownrelationshiptothepastThey(1)acknowledgedtheirownsubjectivityandorthelimitationsoftheirperspectiveontheirrelationshiptothepast(2)presentedtheirdiagramsandexplanationsas tentative and subject to alteration andor (3) stepped outside themselves to reflect ontheir reactions to learningabouthistory In factwhile Jesswas theonly studentwhomadecommentsthatcoveredallthreeofthesecategoriesfewstudentsappearedtotakethemorestraightforwardviewofhistoricalknowledgeapparentlyevincedbyStuartThefactthatstudentsinthesamplewereacademicallysuccessfulaged16ndash18andlivinginacitywithahighlyeducatedworkforceandmajoracademicinstitutionsprobablyneedstobetakenintoaccountwithregardtothisfinding
ItisalsoworthreiteratingthattheresearcherwasnotaproverbialflyonthewallwhilecollectingthisdataForexampleStuartpresentedhimselfasagoodstudentwholikedhistoryandrespectedhiselders justpriortotheinterviewtherewasadrugsbustattheschoolbypoliceanditispossiblehewantedtoconveythathewasalsquodecentkidrsquoMelvindiscussedhisrelative good fortune comparedwithother youngblackmen (including implicitly others athisschool)insodoinghewasabletocommunicatethathewasfromahighlyeducatedfamilylivinginadesirablepartoftownJessmeanwhilepositionedherselfasathoughtfulpoliticallyinformedstudentWhiletheseimpressionsarepurelyspeculativetheysuggestthattheschoolcontextandtheperceivedidentityoftheresearcherndashaswellastheframingoftheactivityndashhelpedtoshapewhatstudentschosetoshareHoweverrecognizingthatthereislikelytobesomefluidityintermsofhowindividualsrelatetheirownlivestothepastdoesnotdiminishthefindingthattheyoungpeopleinthisstudyusedavarietyofnarrativestrategiestodosoorthatthewaysinwhichtheytalkedaboutthosestrategiesappearedtodifferaccordingtotheirepistemologicalunderstandings
London Review of Education 189
Implications
InconjunctionwiththeoverallsummaryshowninTable2thesethreecasesprovidesnapshotsofdifferentways inwhichyoungpeopleusednarrativestrategiestoconnecttheirownlivesto the past aswell as differences in theways inwhich they talked about those strategiesWhilethisstudyishighlyexploratorythesecasespointtotheapparentdiversityofways inwhichyoungpeoplethinkaboutthemselvesinrelationtothepastaswellasthesignificanceof epistemological understanding in the construction of individual historical consciousnessOf coursemany questions remain For example was the ability of Jess andMelvin to talkreflectively about their diagrams and their relationship to thepast an indicationof rigoroushistoricalunderstandinginadisciplinarysenseorofmoregenericcriticalorabstractthinkingskills Further howdo teensrsquo broaddevelopmental trajectoriesndash such as thoseoutlinedbyErikson(1968)ndash intersectwiththeirhistoricalunderstanding Itwouldbe interestingtoaskchildrenofdifferentagestocompletethediagramtaskYoungerstudentswouldpresumablyfind it challenging tocreate anarrative about theirown lives in toto as indeed someof thestudentsinthisstudymayhavedoneExaminingthepotentiallinksbetweenthedevelopmentofautobiographicalstory-tellingskillsandhowyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastcouldbeanotherproductivelineofresearch
Methodologicallythestudyopensupsomeinterestingpossibilitiesespeciallyasthediagramactivity invited students to synthesize their thinking about their personal connections to thepastinarelativelyopen-endedmannerThetaskinstructionsandoranalysiscouldbealteredtoinvestigaterelatedphenomenaForexamplehowifatalldostudentsdealwiththeideathataspeopletheyareevolvingandmayhaveashiftingrelationshiptoorperspectiveonthepastTowhatextentdotheyportraythemselvesasactiveagentsintheirownrightratherthanindividualssubjecttoforcesbeyondtheircontrolHowdodifferencesamongtheirvariouslsquometa-historicalrsquounderstandingssuchastheirworkingideasabouthistoricalcausalityrelatetohowtheytalkaboutthemselves inrelation to thepastHowwould theyposition themselvesrelative toperceivednationalnarrativesWhile it is impossible toproveadirectrelationship fromthis singlestudyndashorthereasonsbehindsucharelationshipndashstudentswhodisplayedanunderstandingoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgealsogavetheimpressionofbeingmoreempoweredintermsoftalkingabouttheirfutureandnavigatingtheirownemergingidentities
Withregardtopractice therangeofpersonaldiagramsproducedbystudentsconfirmsthatifteachersarelookingtobuildontheirstudentsrsquoexistingideasandunderstandingsalsquoonesizefitsallrsquoapproach is likely tobemisguidedandnon-inclusiveandthatnationalnarrativesare only one kind of narrative towhich young people feel connected This paper does notadvocatethatyoungpeoplebeinvitedtorelateeverythingtheylearninhistorytothemselvesHoweverofferingopen-endedandpotentiallycreativeopportunitiesforthemtoreflectontheconnectionstheyperceivebetweenthemselvesandthepastislikelytobeengagingparticularlyforolderteensgiventheirbroaderdevelopmentalneedtoestablishindependentidentities
FurthermoresuchopportunitiescanactivelybuildhistoricalunderstandingGiventhesheervarietyofdiagramsthatwillalmostcertainlybeproducedwithinasingleclassroomstudentscan learn a greatdeal by looking at anddiscussing thediagramsof their peers inways thatdeveloptheirunderstandingthatpeoplehavedifferentperspectivesonthepastandthattheseperspectivesareshapedat least inpartbybiographicalorothercontextual factorsLookingatothersrsquodiagramscanopenupdifferentpossibilitiesforyoungpeopleintermsofhowtheythinkabouttheirownrelationshiptothepastandgivethemanewperspectiveontheirownidentityandoutlookIndeedthepowerofthisapproachcanbefurtherenhancedifclassroomsaredigitallyconnectedtoclassroomsinothercountriesengaginginthesameactivityinpartbecauseitallowsprevailingandassumednationalnarrativestobecomevisible
190 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
While somepeoplewouldcertainly resist thenotionof lettingyoungpeopleuse schoolhistoryasavenueforexploringorinterpretingtheirownlivesidentitiesandvaluesthisresearchshedslightonsomeofthevariedwaysinwhichyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastoruseitfororientingpurposesAsJessinparticulardemonstratedasophisticatedunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgecangohandinhandwithaself-awarenessandevenprideinonersquosrelationshiptothepastWearguablyoweittoourstudentstohelpthemthinkaboutwhotheyareandthelivestheyarelivingorwanttoliveinourrapidlychangingandevermorecomplexworldWeneedtosupportthemtointerpretthepastandtodeveloprobusthistoricalunderstandingswealsoneedtosupportthemtointerprettheirownnarratives
Acknowledgements
TheauthorwishestothanktheGermanacosFoundationforsupportingtheresearchdiscussedinthispaperaswellasHowardGardnerHelenHasteandMeiraLevinsonforprovidingguidancewiththeresearchMycolleaguesEdwardClappandShariTishmangavehelpfulfeedbackonearlydrafts
Notes on the contributor
ElizabethDawesDuraisinghisaresearchassociateandprincipalinvestigatoratProjectZeroaresearchcentreat theHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducationwhereshealsoservesasalectureroneducationShewaspreviouslyahighschoolhistoryteacherforeightyearsworkinginbothEnglandandAustralia
References
AhonenS(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessAviableparadigmforhistoryeducationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(6)697ndash707
Almarza DJ (2001) lsquoContexts shaping minority language studentsrsquo perceptions of American historyrsquo Journal of Social Studies Research25(2)4ndash22
AnS(2009)lsquoLearningUShistoryinanageofglobalizationandtransnationalmigrationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)763ndash87
AndrewsM(2007)Shaping History Narratives of political changeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressAngvikMandVonBorriesB(eds)(1997)Youth and History A comparative European survey on historical
consciousness and political attitudes among adolescentsHamburgKoumlrber-StiftungAshbyR(2005)lsquoStudentsrsquoapproachestovalidatinghistoricalclaimsrsquoInAshbyRGordonPandLeeP
(eds)Understanding History Recent research in history educationLondonRoutledge21ndash36AudigierFandFinkN(2010)lsquoPupilsandschoolhistoryinFranceandSwitzerlandrsquo Education 3ndash1338
(3)329ndash39BambergM(2011)lsquoWhoamINarrationanditscontributiontoselfandidentityrsquo Theory and Psychology
21(1)3ndash24BartonKC(2001)lsquolsquolsquoYoursquodbewantingtoknowaboutthepastrdquoSocialcontextsofchildrenrsquoshistorical
understandinginNorthernIrelandandtheUSArsquo Comparative Education37(1)89ndash106BartonKCandLevstikLS(2004)Teaching History for the Common GoodMahwahNJLawrenceErlbaum
AssociatesBartonKCandMcCullyAW(2005)lsquoHistoryidentityandtheschoolcurriculuminNorthernIreland
Anempiricalstudyofsecondarystudentsrsquoideasandperspectivesrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(1)85ndash116
London Review of Education 191
Baynham M (2010) lsquoAlexandra Georgakopoulou Small stories interaction and identitiesrsquo Applied Linguistics31(3)471ndash3
BilligM(1995)Banal NationalismLondonSAGEPublicationsBillmann-Mahecha E and Hausen M (2005) lsquoEmpirical psychological approaches to the historical
consciousnessofchildrenrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks163ndash86
BoixMansillaV(2001)The Pursuit of Understanding A study of exemplary high school studentsrsquo conceptions of knowledge validation in science and history EdDthesisHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducation
BrunerJS(1990)Acts of MeaningCambridgeMAHarvardUniversityPressBrunerJS(2005)lsquoPastandpresentasnarrativeconstructionsrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and
Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks23ndash43DamonWandHartD (1988)Self-Understanding in Childhood and AdolescenceNewYorkCambridge
UniversityPressDantoAC(1965)Analytical Philosophy of HistoryCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressEpsteinT(1998)lsquoDeconstructingdifferencesinAfrican-AmericanandEuropean-Americanadolescentsrsquo
perspectivesonUShistoryrsquo Curriculum Inquiry28(4)397ndash423EriksonEH(1968)Identity Youth and CrisisNewYorkWWNortonFivush R Bohanek JG and ZamanW (2011) lsquoPersonal and intergenerational narratives in relation
to adolescentsrsquowell-beingrsquo InHabermasT (ed)The Development of Autobiographical Reasoning in Adolescence and Beyond (NewDirectionsforChildandAdolescentDevelopment131)45ndash57
GoldbergTPoratDandSchwarzBB(2006)lsquolsquoHerestartedtheriftweseetodayrsquoStudentandtextbooknarrativesbetweenofficialandcountermemoryrsquo Narrative Inquiry16(2)319ndash47
GoldbergTSchwarzBBandPoratD(2008)lsquoLivinganddormantcollectivememoriesascontextsofhistorylearningrsquo Learning and Instruction18(3)223ndash37
GreverMHaydnTandRibbensK(2008)lsquoIdentityandschoolhistoryTheperspectiveofyoungpeoplefromtheNetherlandsandEnglandrsquo British Journal of Educational Studies56(1)76ndash94
HaeberliP(2005) lsquoRelatingtohistoryAnempiricaltypologyrsquo International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research5(1)1ndash10
Hammack PL and Pilecki A (2012) lsquoNarrative as a rootmetaphor for political psychologyrsquo Political Psychology33(1)75ndash103
HarterS(1999)The Construction of the Self A developmental perspectiveNewYorkGuilfordPressHawkey K and Prior J (2011) lsquoHistory memory cultures and meaning in the classroomrsquo Journal of
Curriculum Studies43(2)231ndash47HoferBKandPintrichPR(eds)(2002)Personal Epistemology The psychology of beliefs about knowledge and
knowing MahwahNJLawrenceErlbaumAssociatesKeganR (1982)The Evolving Self Problem and process in human development CambridgeMAHarvard
UniversityPressLee P (2004a) lsquoUnderstanding historyrsquo In Seixas P (ed) Theorizing Historical Consciousness Toronto
UniversityofTorontoPress129ndash64LeeP(2004b)lsquoldquoWalkingbackwardsintotomorrowrdquoHistoricalconsciousnessandunderstandinghistoryrsquo
International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research4(1)1ndash46LeePJ(2005)lsquoPuttingprinciplesintopracticeUnderstandinghistoryrsquoInDonovanMSandBransford
JD (eds)How Students Learn History mathematics and science in the classroomWashingtonDCNationalAcademiesPress31ndash77
LeePandShemiltD(2004)lsquolsquolsquoIjustwishwecouldgobackinthepastandfindoutwhatreallyhappenedrdquoProgressioninunderstandingabouthistoricalaccountsrsquo Teaching History 11725ndash31
LenzC(2011) lsquoGenealogyandarchaeologyAnalyzinggenerationalpositioning inhistoricalnarrativesrsquo Journal of Comparative Family Studies42(3)319ndash27
LeacutetourneauJandMoisanS(2004)lsquoYoungpeoplersquosassimilationofacollectivehistoricalmemoryAcasestudyofQuebeckersofFrench-CanadianheritagersquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress109ndash28
192 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
LowenthalD(1996)Possessed by the Past The heritage crusade and the spoils of historyNewYorkFreePress
McAdamsDP(1993)The Stories We Live By Personal myths and the making of the selfNewYorkGuilfordPress
McLean KC Breen AV and FournierMA (2010) lsquoConstructing the self in earlymiddle and lateadolescentboysNarrativeidentityindividuationandwell-beingrsquo Journal of Research on Adolescence20(1)166ndash87
NakkulaMJandToshalisE(2006)Understanding Youth Adolescent development for educatorsCambridgeMAHarvardEducationPress
NoraP(1996)Realms of Memory Rethinking the French pastTransGoldhammerANewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
PeckCL (2010) lsquolsquolsquoItrsquos not like [Irsquom]Chinese andCanadian I am inbetweenrdquoEthnicity and studentsrsquoconceptionsofhistoricalsignificancersquo Theory and Research in Social Education38(4)574ndash617
PolkinghorneDE(1988)Narrative Knowing and the Human SciencesAlbanyStateUniversityofNewYorkPress
Polkinghorne DE (2005) lsquoNarrative psychology and historical consciousness Relationships andperspectivesrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks3ndash22
RantalaJ(2011)lsquoChildrenasconsumersofhistoricalcultureinFinlandrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies43(4)493ndash506
ReicherSandHopkinsN(2001)Self and Nation Categorization contestation and mobilizationLondonSAGEPublications
RosenzweigRandThelenDP(1998)The Presence of the Past Popular uses of history in American lifeNewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
RuumlsenJ(1993)Studies in MetahistoryPretoriaHumanSciencesResearchCouncilSeixasP(1997)lsquoMappingtheterrainofhistoricalsignificancersquo Social Education61(1)22ndash7SeixasP(2004)lsquoIntroductionrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityof
TorontoPress3ndash20SeixasP(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessTheprogressofknowledgeinapostprogressiveagersquoInStraub
J(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks141ndash62SeixasP(2009)lsquoNationalhistoryandbeyondrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)719ndash22ThorpR(2014)lsquoTowardsanepistemologicaltheoryofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquoHistorical Encounters A
Journal of Historical Consciousness Historical Cultures and History Education1(1)20ndash31TrailleK (2007) lsquolsquolsquoYou should be proud about your history Theymademe feel ashamedrdquoTeaching
historyhurtsrsquo Teaching History 12731ndash7VanSledrightB (2008) lsquoNarrativesofnation-statehistoricalknowledgeandschoolhistoryeducationrsquo
Review of Research in Education32(1)109ndash46WelzerH(2008)lsquoCollateraldamageofhistoryeducationNationalsocialismandtheHolocaustinGerman
familymemoryrsquo Social Research75(1)287ndash314WertschJV(2002)Voices of Collective RememberingCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressWertschJV(2004)lsquoSpecificnarrativesandschematicnarrativetemplatesrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing
Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress49ndash62Wineburg S (2001)Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts Charting the future of teaching the past
PhiladelphiaTempleUniversityPressWineburgSMosborgSPoratDandDuncanA(2007)lsquoCommonbeliefandtheculturalcurriculum
Anintergenerationalstudyofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquo American Educational Research Journal44(1)40ndash76
London Review of Education 193
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
This paperwas published in a special feature called lsquoNegotiating the nation Young peoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo
Thearticlesinthefeatureareasfollows
Angier K (2017) lsquoIn search of historical consciousness An investigation into young South AfricansrsquoknowledgeandunderstandingofldquotheirrdquonationalhistoriesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
DawesDuraisinghE (2017) lsquoMakingnarrativeconnectionsExploringhow late teensrelate theirownnarrativestothehistoricallysignificantpastrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GoldbergT(2017) lsquoTheusefulpast innegotiationAdolescentsrsquouseofhistory innegotiationof inter-groupconflictrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GreverMandVanderVliesT(2017)lsquoWhynationalnarrativesareperpetuatedAliteraturereviewonnewinsightsfromhistorytextbookresearchrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
HolmbergU(2017)lsquoldquoIwasborninthereignhelliprdquoHistoricalorientationinUgandanstudentsrsquonationalnarrativesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
LeacutetourneauJandChapmanA(2017)lsquoEditorialndashNegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
LeacutevesqueS(2017)lsquoHistoryasaldquoGPSrdquoOntheusesofhistoricalnarrativeforFrenchCanadianstudentsrsquolifeorientationandidentityrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
OlofssonHSamuelsson JStolareMandWendell J (2017) lsquoTheSwedesandtheirhistoryrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
SheehanMandDavisonM(2017)lsquoldquoWeneedtoremembertheydiedforusrdquoHowyoungpeopleinNewZealandmakemeaningofwarremembranceandcommemorationoftheFirstWorldWarrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
VanHavereTWilsKDepaepeFVerschaffelLandVanNieuwenhuyseK(2017)lsquoFlemishstudentsrsquohistoricalreferenceknowledgeandnarrativesoftheBelgiannationalpastattheendofsecondaryeducationrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
WertschJV(2017)lsquoForeword ndash NegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
180 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
ThevaguewordingofthetaskinstructionsndashlsquoshowhowthepasthelpsexplainwhoyouareandthelifeyouarelivingrsquondashmeantthatmanystudentslegitimatelychosetofocusontheirownpastaswellasorinsteadofthehistoricallysignificantpastClosetoafifthofstudents(17percent)includedonly eventsthateithertheyorimmediatemembersoftheirfamilyhadpersonallyexperiencedandoraspectsoftheirpresent-daylivesOverathirdofstudents(34percent)includedmostlyoronlysuchitems(lsquomostlyrsquowasdefinedastwo-thirdsormoreofitems)Overatenthofstudents(13percent)includedmostlyoronlyhistoricallysignificantitemsintheirdiagramswhileclosetohalf(47percent)combineddifferenttypesofitemssothatnoonetypedominatedWhilesuchstatisticsarguablyhintattherelativesensitivityofindividualstudentstothepastthesheeramountofhistorythatindividualschosetoincludeintheirdiagramswasnotusefulforindicatingthedegreetowhichorprocessbywhichtheyweremakingconnectionsbetweentheirownlivesandthepast
Thenextroundofanalysisattemptedtodifferentiatebetweenstudentswhotoldstoriesto explain their personal connection to the past and those who approached the questionmore lsquoanalyticallyrsquo as per Brunerrsquos distinction between narrative and paradigmatic thinkingHowevergiventhecentralityofnarrativestohowwemakemeaningofour lives itprovedmore productive to focus on theways inwhich students integrated personal and historicalnarrativesintheirdiagramsBrunercommentingonwrittentextshasstatedthatlsquoitisnotthatnarrativeandparadigmaticmodesofdiscoursefusefortheydonotItisratherthatthelogicalorparadigmaticmodeisbroughttobearonthetaskofexplicatingthebreachinthenarrativersquo(Bruner200594)Thisdistinctionplayedoutinthisstudyasfollowsstudentstypicallydrewadiagramcontainingnarrativethreads(orasinglecoherentnarrative)andthenwroteexplanatoryor logical comments eitherwithinor alongside thediagram Interviewed students retoldorelaboratedonthesenarrativeswhilealsobreakingoutintoanalyticcommentaryonthem
Findings overview Studentsrsquo incorporation of personal and historical narratives into their diagrams
Table2summarizesthewaysinwhichstudentscombinedpersonalandhistoricallysignificantitemsintheirdiagrams iftheydidatallandtheoverallnarrativeeffect ifanyThelabels inboldindicatethepresenceofwhatappearedtobecoherentoverarchingnarrativeswithinthediagramsndashbethatpersonalnarrativeshistoricalnarrativesoronesthatbroughtthesetwokindsofnarrativetogetherPersonalnarrativesrefertostoriesaboutstudentsrsquoownlivesorthoseoftheirimmediatefamilyHistoricalnarrativesinvolvethehistoricallysignificantpastasrecognizedbyarelativelylargegroupofpeopleincludinghistoriansTheycouldbenarrativesaboutparticulareventsorhistoricaldevelopmentssuchasthestruggleforwomenrsquosrightsortheUnitedStatesgainingindependencefromBritainmoreinterpretativesweepsofperiodsofhistorysuchasthetwentiethcenturyorevenaddresshowhistoryitselfunfolds
ItisimportanttonotethatstudentswerenotaskedtoproducecoherentnarrativesoftheirrelationshiptothepastintheirdiagramsanabsenceofacoherentnarrativedoesnotmeanthatindividualstudentswereincapableofandorresistanttoproducingthemjustthattheydidnotdosointhiscontextMoreoversincestudentsweregiventhechallengingtaskofsimultaneouslythinking of items to include and arranging those items diagrammatically some diagrams canbeinterpretedasaninitialjottingdownofideasndashalthoughasTable2indicatessomeofthediagrams that appeared tobe listsor brainstormseffectivelyoperated as narratives if thereweresufficientthematiccoherenceandadequatecontext forthechoiceof itemsHoweverinthecaseofstudentswhowerenotintervieweditisimpossibletoknowiftheyintentionallyselectedordevelopedparticularnarrativestrategiesThemostcompellingdiagrams(a)included
London Review of Education 181
lessthantwo-thirdsofitemsrelatedtopersonalorfamilyexperiencestastesinterestsetcandatleastsomehistoricallysignificantitemsand(b)integratedpersonalandhistoricalnarrativesHoweverTable2shouldbereadasasummaryoffindingsratherthanasanevaluativeschema
Table 2Asummaryofcontenttypeandnarrativestrategyintheoverallsampleofdiagrams(n=168)
A Diagrams onlyincludepersonalorfamilyexperiencestastesinterestsetc(n=31)
LISTBRAINSTORMCurrentinterestsfriendsfamilyvaluesinfluences 20
CHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHTellsstoryofownlifeandorimmediatefamily
Personal narrative
11
B Two-thirdsormoreofincludeditemsarepersonalorfamilyexperiencestastesinterestsetcbutotherkindsofitemsareincluded(n=29)
LISTBRAINSTORMCurrentinterestsfriendsfamilyetcwithhistorycitedasaninterestor eventsorinfluencesincludingitemsofbroadhistoricorcontemporarysignificance
17
CHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHTellsstoryofownlifesomeprecedinghistoryisincludedasbackgroundandor broadercontextualdetailisincludedndashegcontemporaryeventsordevelopments
Personal narrative with links to the historically significant past
12
C Two-thirdsormoreofincludeditemsarehistoricallysignificantevents(n=24)
LISTBRAINSTORMSeeminglyrandomconnectionsorverygeneralrationaleforincludingitemsegthingsthathaveaffectedmethingsIbelieveareimportant
13
LISTBRAINSTORMCoherentthemeitemscollectivelyservetolinkownlifestorytobiggerhistoricalnarrative(s)
Personal narrative linked to historical narrative
7
CHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHChronologicaloverviewofhistorywithselfatendorasapointonatimeline
Historical narrative with self inserted
4
D IntegrateddiagramMixtureofdifferentkindsofitems(n=84)
LISTBRAINSTORMSeeminglyrandomconnectionsorverygeneralrationaleforincludingitemsegthingsthathaveaffectedmethingsIbelieveareimportantorhavelearnedfrom 23
LISTBRAINSTORMCoherentthemeitemscollectivelyservetolinkownlifestorytobiggerhistoricalnarrative(s)
Personal narrative linked to historical narrative
13
VARIEDFORMSSubsumespersonalnarrativewithinthatofagrouptowhichheorshebelongs(egAlgerianMuslimsAshkenaziJewsAmericanshumanrace)
Personal and historical narrative tethered (STUART)
9
BROADCHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHContextualizesownorfamilystorywithinbroaderhistoricalcontextshowshowownstoryorfamilyrsquosstoryhasbeenintertwinedwithhistoricaleventsortrends
Personal narrative contextualized within broader historical narrative (MELVIN)
23
VARIEDFORMSPresentsselfasaproductandorpartofaconfluenceofnarrativesmayinvolvecomplexcausalconnections
Personal narrative seen as product of historical narrative(s) andor at confluence of different narratives (JESS)
16
NumberofdiagramsinsamplefittingthiscategoryDiagramsthatonlyincludedgeneralthemeswereexcludedfromthisanalysis
182 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
Studentsrsquo narrative strategies Melvin Stuart and Jess
While giving a senseof thedistributionof approacheswithin theoverall sampleTable 2 isnecessarilyreductionistandfailstocapturewhatitlookedlikeinpracticeforparticularstudentstomakenarrativeconnectionsbetweentheirownlivesandthepastThispaperturnsnowtothreespecificcasestoprovidemorenuanceddiscussionandtoshowthatstudentsconnectedthemselvestothepast inhighly individualizedwaysMelvinStuartand Jess(allpseudonyms)wereselectedbecausetheycreateddiagramswithmixedcontentbutuseddifferentnarrativestrategies to bring personal and historical narratives together as indicated in SectionD ofTable2Furthermoretherewereinterestingdifferencesinthewaysinwhichtheytalkedabouttheirdiagrams
InwhatfollowsafewimpressionisticdetailsaregivenabouteachstudenttoemphasizetheirindividualityaswellastoconveytheresearcherrsquosperspectivethedetailsarenotnecessarilysignificantThenevidencefromthestudentsrsquodiagramstheirwrittenexplanationsandinterviewsarewoventogether
Melvin Historically contextualizing his own life story exploring the relationship between individuals and bigger historical processes
Melvinwas a soft-spoken affable studentwhowore abaseball capduringhis interviewHereferredtohisCaribbeanheritageandlargefamily(heistheyoungestofeightchildren)aswellashisreligiousfaithHehastravelledextensivelytovisitfamilyintheCaribbeanandEuropeandhaslivedinvariousGreaterBostonneighbourhoods
MelvinrsquosdiagramatfirstglanceisstructuredintheformofaswirlingtimelineHestartswith the Emancipation Proclamation ndash the abolition of slavery at the end of the AmericanCivilWarndashwhichispresentedasanecessaryconditionorbackgroundenablinghispersonalstorylsquomyeducationlevelmyqualityoflifeprobablywhereIlivewouldhavebeencompletelydifferentrsquoHoweverhisdiagramdoesnotfollowastrictchronologydespitethearrowsthatconnectthedifferentitemsTheendofthetimelineisonlylooselystructuredfeaturingaspectsofMelvinrsquoslifecircumstancessuchaswherehelivestheeducationhehasreceivedthetravelhehascompletedandhowtheselifecircumstanceshavehadanimpactonwhoheistodayWhileMelvinincorporatesthehistoricallysignificantpastintohisdiagramhisfocusissomewhattiltedtowardshispersonallifestory
NonethelessMelvindoesmorethanmerelydescribehisownlifehesituatesitwithinabroaderhistoricalcontextHisexplanatorynotescentreonhowhecametohaveexcellentlifeprospectsdespitethechallengesheperceivesofbeingayoungblackmanlivingintheUnitedStatesBeginninghispersonaltimelinewiththeEmancipationProclamationandtheendingoftheJimCrowlawsservestoacknowledgehisrelativegoodfortunecomparedwithpreviousgenerationshealsoconnectshisownstorytoawidercollectivenarrativeofsocialprogressandtechnologicalchangewhichaffectlsquoprettymucheveryoneinmygenerationrsquoByonlyselectinglsquothingsbeyondhiscontrolrsquo forhisdiagramMelvinusesthediagramnarrativetoexploretherelationshipbetweenindividuallivesorfreewillandlargersocietalorhistoricalforcesInhisinterview he also referred to his siblings his parentsrsquo political and religious views and theliberalcontextofMassachusettsasinfluencesbeyondhiscontrolthathavehelpedtoshapehimblurringthedistinctionbetweenpastandpresentinhisbidtoexplorethedegreetowhichweshapeourowndestinies
London Review of Education 183
Fig
ure
1M
elvinrsquosdiagram
184 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
Fig
ure
2Stuartrsquosdiagram
London Review of Education 185
Stuart Situating his own life at the confluence of various historical narratives tethering his own story to the history of humanity
StuartwasaboyofItalianAmericanextractionwithspikedhairwhosefamilyhaslivedinthesamesemi-urbanneighbourhoodofGreaterBostonforseveralgenerationsHejokedaroundwithhispeersinclassbutbecamestrikinglyseriousinthecontextoftheinterviewspeakinginaheartfeltwayabouthisfamilyandhisprideinbeingAmericanHealsostatedthathistorywashisfavouritesubject
Stuartrsquosdiagramwaswide-rangingintermsofboththemeandtimespanHepickedthefollowingthemeslsquowarsandbattlesrsquowhichleduptooratleastprecededlsquomodernterrorismrsquolsquofamouspeoplersquowithJesusChristtheonlynamedpersonlsquoconstructionandfactorizationrsquo[sic]whichtracesbroadtechnologicaldevelopmentsinhumanhistoryandlsquolandandthefoundersrsquowhich broadly relates to the discovery andor establishment of different empires or nationstates The general chronological element to the threads suggests narratives unfolding overtimeanimpressionreinforcedbyacommentmadebyStuartinhisinterview
InterviewerObviously IrsquoveaskedyoutodothisbuthaveyouthoughtaboutthisbigpicturebeforeOrwasitjustmdash
StuartIactuallyhaveIwasjustlikesittingathomeandjustlikethinkinglikewhydideverythingstartandlikehowitactuallypusheditselfintoeachotheranditdevelopedintoeverythingandthenIcamealongandIfeltlikeIwasapartofiteventhoughIwasnrsquotlikephysicallyapartofitLikeIthoughtIwasinvolvedbecauseofallthishappening
Hismetaphoriclanguagewhichconveysasenseofhistoricaleventsslidingorpilingintooneanotherdrawsattentiontohisbeingimmersedinsomebiggerstoryconcerningthewholeofhumanhistory
InhisdiagramStuartsituateshislifeattheconfluenceofdifferentnarrativestrandsunfoldinginhistoryhealsotethershispersonalstorytothatofhumankindwritlargeThatisinbeingasked to show how his own life connects to the past he elects to tell a broader story ofhumanityIfwecompareStuartrsquosdiagramtothatofMelvin it is lessofanexplorationofhisindividualstoryandmoreanexpressionaboutbelongingtoacollectivestory
Jess Exploring how the past is helping shape the ongoing story of her own personal development situating her own life at the confluence of various historical narratives
Jesswasagirlwith longbrownhairanaccomplishedgymnastanddancerShespokeofherJewish ancestry and her familyrsquos involvement in the LGBTmovement as well as her closeattachmenttoherlocalurbancommunitywhereshehaslivedherwholelifeShearticulatedherwordscarefullyoftenpausingasiftoreflectbeforerespondingtoquestions
AtfirstglanceJessrsquosdiagramdoesnotexhibitthekindofflowvisibleintheprevioustwodiagramsHoweverthereisaswirlingdynamicatplaymadeevidentbyherverbalexplanationofherdiagram
SoattheverycentreofmydiagramIhavejustalittlekindofbubblethatsayslsquomersquoAndImadeitabubblebecauseIthinkIrsquomnotallthatsortofwelldefinedbutitrsquosallsortofjustmushandthingsjustkindofflowinandinfluencemeSoIhavesortofacirclearoundmyselfandIhaveabunchofdifferentsortsofmovementsandeventsinhistorythatIthinkhavemostinfluencedmesuchastheenvironmentalmovementsandenvironmentaldegradationThecivilrightsmovementstheGLBTmovementswomenrsquosrightsmovementsJewishhistoryJewishmovementsandwarsaresortofthemaineventsthatinfluencedmeandtheninmoreofaninnercircleIhavemorebroad
186 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
topicssuchaseducationtechnologydancingandmusicthathavendashtheyallhavetheirownsortofhistoryandtheyallhaveapastthatIdonrsquotnecessarilyknowasmuchaboutinaconcretewaybutumndashallofthosethingsinfluencemesotheyrsquoreallflowingintothecentreThatrsquoswhereIam
Figure 3Jessrsquosdiagram
InthiscaseherongoingpersonaldevelopmentarguablyprovidesthenarrativecentrepieceorunifyingfactorThediagramalsoservesasanassertionofheremergingidentityndashintermsofeventsthathaveinfluencedhervaluesandsenseofwhosheisaswellasherpersonaltalentsandinterestsAsbecameevidentinherinterviewhowevershealsosituatesherselfasbeingattheconfluenceofdifferenthistoricalnarrativesForexampleshetalksaboutbeingatacertainmoment in thehistoryof theenvironmentwhichhasbeenshapedbypreviousgenerationsrsquoactionslsquomygenerationwersquoregoingtobereallyreallydealingwiththatrsquoShetalksaboutbeingshapedbyandinheritingthelegacyofthewomenrsquosrightsmovementcivilrightsmovementandJewishhistoryWithregardtothegayrightsmovementinwhichherfamilyhasbeenimmersedshehasasenseofbeingpartofhistoryinthemakinglsquothemovementisnow Youknowtherersquosbeenmovementsinthepastcertainlybutitrsquoslikeahugethingnowrsquo
How students talked about their diagrams The importance of epistemology
Theways inwhich students in the study talked about their diagramswere revealing of thepotentialrelationshipbetweentheirunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgeandtheir individualhistoricalconsciousnessInparticulartherewasacontrastbetweenstudents
London Review of Education 187
who presented their diagrams as contingent subjective interpretations of the relationshipbetweentheirownlivesandthepastandthosewhoappearedtopresenttheirdiagramsasself-evidentstraightforwardrepresentations
Jessforinstancetalkedfromthestartaboutnotbeinglsquoallthatwelldefinedrsquoasreflectedby the blob at the centre of her diagram There is a sense of fluidity ormovement in herdiagramndashasmuchintermsofherowninterpretationofherownplaceinhistoryasineventsordevelopmentsthemselvesShowinganawarenessofthelimitationsofherownknowledgeshestatesthatshedidnotwanttoexcludeitemsfromherdiagramsimplybecauseofherownignorance
MoreoverintalkingaboutthedifferentelementsofherdiagramshespokeinmetacognitivetermsaboutthedifferencesbetweenlearningaboutJewishhistoryatthetemplewhereitwasframedas lsquoourhistoryrsquoandatschoolwhereitwastreatedassomeoneelsersquoshistoryWithregardtothewomenrsquosrightsmovementshesaid
Sowomenrsquos rightsrsquomovements ndash umm ndashmymomwas a pretty hardcore feminist and IrsquovedefinitelyinheritedsomeofthatandIrsquovereallyenjoyedmostlythisyearactuallyndashIlearnedaboutwomenrsquosrightsinUSHistoryandthatrsquosbeenreallyinterestingsortofhowthatrsquosplayedoutAndprobablybecauseofmymotherandotheradultsandotherwomenthatIrsquovegrownupwithIrsquomlikendashveryconsciousofthatthatIamawomanandthatotherwomenhavedonealottogettowhereIamtodayAndtherersquosdefinitelyasenseofprideformeIhavealwaysbeenverysortofconsciousofthatheritage
Here Jesspresents the impactof themovementassomewhat inevitablegivenhermotherrsquosvaluesHowevershealsorefersexplicitlytoherenjoymentandinterestinlearningaboutthistopicatschoolSheexpresseshersenseofconnectiontowomenrsquoshistoryandheractiveprideinitwhilealsoprovidinganexplanationforwhyshefeelsconnectedtoitshowingacapacityforself-reflectionormetacognitionItisworthnotinghoweverthatshedidnotcommentontheprogressivetemplatethatseemedtoundergirdhernarrative
StuartincontrastpresentedhisdiagraminmorefixedtermsWheninvitedtotalkaboutitheproceededtolisteverythingcontainedwithinit
WellfirstofallIputthelandandthefoundersbecausethesearethebasicgroupsandpeoplethatstartedeverythingThepeoplewhostartedMesopotamiaAncientThebesyouknowlikethatPeoplewhowereintheRomanEmpireallthoseVikingsthefamousexplorersChristopherColumbusMagellanetceterahellip
Inthisextracthe iscitingundisputed lsquofactsrsquohedoesnotusemodifying languagebut insteadstates straightforwardlywhat happenedWhen asked how he knew about these aspects ofthepastheresponded lsquoMostofthestuffcamefromschool Iwas justtryingtothinkwhathappenedrsquo Stuart expressed a greatdealof connection to thepast including asmentionedearlierthathefeltpartofanongoinghistoricalprocessWhileJessspokewithprideyetanalyticdetachmentofherconnectiontothewomenrsquosmovementStuartdidnotexhibitthecapacitytotalkinametacognitivewayaboutthecontentorformofhisdiagramndashalthoughthisdoesnotmeanthathewasincapableofdoingso
Inhis interviewStuartalso talkedabout learning fromhisgrandmotherabout thepastincludinglifelessonsshegleanedfromweatheringtheGreatDepressionHereferredtohercorroboratingwhathelearnedatschool
Anditrsquoscoolbecause[myteacher]canteachmeaboutitatthesametimeandthenshecanjusttellmeaboutthestuffItrsquosreallycoolhellipIlikeaskherlsquoDoyourememberthisrsquohelliplsquoDoyourememberbootleggingandstufflikethatrsquoAndshewaslikelsquoyeaIrememberthatrsquowhichiscoolbecauseyouactuallyknowwhathappenedYoucanjusttalktoheraboutit
188 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
It is notable that he does not talk about hearing his grandmotherrsquos perspective about whathappenedratherheviewsherasanauthorityonhistorypresumablybecausehethinksshedirectlyexperiencedwhatisinhistextbook
Melvinrsquosstancetowardhisdiagramwasmoretentativeinnosmallpartbecauseheactuallyproducedtwodiagramsthefirstversionwasabrainstormofinfluencesonhislifewhichhethought conveyed an even spreadof influences on his lifeHowever in the second version(featuredinthispaper)lsquoItriedtomakeitinchronologicalordersotospeakLikewhatwasinheritedthenthingsthataffectedmelateronrsquoFurtherhespokerepeatedlyabouthisparticularlifeexperiencesaffectinghisperspectiveontheworldandonthepast
YouknowIwasnrsquotbroughtupinthesametypeofenvironmentthat[myparents]wereIwasbroughtupinAmericainMassachusettsatthatAndIthoughtthatwassomethingthatreallyaffectsyouanditaffectshowyoulookatliketheinternationalpoliticalsystemandwhatnothellipIthinkbecausemyparentsarefromoverseasitdefinitelyhelpsmelookatthingsonalargerscaleButIdodefinitelythinkincomparisontothemIlookatthingsfromanAmericanperspective
At the same time he assumes some commonality with other people such as people fromhisgenerationwhoaregrowingup inadigitalenvironment InMelvinrsquoscasehisoverarchingnarrativeisabout thewayinwhichhisoutlookandlifeprospectshavebeenaffectedbythepastandexternalforceshoweverheisalsoabletolsquostepoutsidersquothatnarrativetoreflectonthewaysinwhichhisapproachtothetaskhasbeeninfluencedbythoseverylifeexperiencesandfamilyinfluencesLikeStuartheisclosetohisgrandmotherHoweverwhenhereferstotalkingwithherabout thepastandher life inTrinidadhiscomment isaboutherperspective lsquotheobstaclesofyourpastdefinitelyaffectyourpointofviewrsquoInturnhetalksaboutherinfluenceonhimlsquoIthinkthestoriesthatyoursquoretolddefinitelyaffectthewayyouthinkrsquo
OtherstudentsmadecommentsthatindicatedarelationshipbetweentheirawarenessoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgeandthewaysinwhichtheyviewedtheirownrelationshiptothepastThey(1)acknowledgedtheirownsubjectivityandorthelimitationsoftheirperspectiveontheirrelationshiptothepast(2)presentedtheirdiagramsandexplanationsas tentative and subject to alteration andor (3) stepped outside themselves to reflect ontheir reactions to learningabouthistory In factwhile Jesswas theonly studentwhomadecommentsthatcoveredallthreeofthesecategoriesfewstudentsappearedtotakethemorestraightforwardviewofhistoricalknowledgeapparentlyevincedbyStuartThefactthatstudentsinthesamplewereacademicallysuccessfulaged16ndash18andlivinginacitywithahighlyeducatedworkforceandmajoracademicinstitutionsprobablyneedstobetakenintoaccountwithregardtothisfinding
ItisalsoworthreiteratingthattheresearcherwasnotaproverbialflyonthewallwhilecollectingthisdataForexampleStuartpresentedhimselfasagoodstudentwholikedhistoryandrespectedhiselders justpriortotheinterviewtherewasadrugsbustattheschoolbypoliceanditispossiblehewantedtoconveythathewasalsquodecentkidrsquoMelvindiscussedhisrelative good fortune comparedwithother youngblackmen (including implicitly others athisschool)insodoinghewasabletocommunicatethathewasfromahighlyeducatedfamilylivinginadesirablepartoftownJessmeanwhilepositionedherselfasathoughtfulpoliticallyinformedstudentWhiletheseimpressionsarepurelyspeculativetheysuggestthattheschoolcontextandtheperceivedidentityoftheresearcherndashaswellastheframingoftheactivityndashhelpedtoshapewhatstudentschosetoshareHoweverrecognizingthatthereislikelytobesomefluidityintermsofhowindividualsrelatetheirownlivestothepastdoesnotdiminishthefindingthattheyoungpeopleinthisstudyusedavarietyofnarrativestrategiestodosoorthatthewaysinwhichtheytalkedaboutthosestrategiesappearedtodifferaccordingtotheirepistemologicalunderstandings
London Review of Education 189
Implications
InconjunctionwiththeoverallsummaryshowninTable2thesethreecasesprovidesnapshotsofdifferentways inwhichyoungpeopleusednarrativestrategiestoconnecttheirownlivesto the past aswell as differences in theways inwhich they talked about those strategiesWhilethisstudyishighlyexploratorythesecasespointtotheapparentdiversityofways inwhichyoungpeoplethinkaboutthemselvesinrelationtothepastaswellasthesignificanceof epistemological understanding in the construction of individual historical consciousnessOf coursemany questions remain For example was the ability of Jess andMelvin to talkreflectively about their diagrams and their relationship to thepast an indicationof rigoroushistoricalunderstandinginadisciplinarysenseorofmoregenericcriticalorabstractthinkingskills Further howdo teensrsquo broaddevelopmental trajectoriesndash such as thoseoutlinedbyErikson(1968)ndash intersectwiththeirhistoricalunderstanding Itwouldbe interestingtoaskchildrenofdifferentagestocompletethediagramtaskYoungerstudentswouldpresumablyfind it challenging tocreate anarrative about theirown lives in toto as indeed someof thestudentsinthisstudymayhavedoneExaminingthepotentiallinksbetweenthedevelopmentofautobiographicalstory-tellingskillsandhowyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastcouldbeanotherproductivelineofresearch
Methodologicallythestudyopensupsomeinterestingpossibilitiesespeciallyasthediagramactivity invited students to synthesize their thinking about their personal connections to thepastinarelativelyopen-endedmannerThetaskinstructionsandoranalysiscouldbealteredtoinvestigaterelatedphenomenaForexamplehowifatalldostudentsdealwiththeideathataspeopletheyareevolvingandmayhaveashiftingrelationshiptoorperspectiveonthepastTowhatextentdotheyportraythemselvesasactiveagentsintheirownrightratherthanindividualssubjecttoforcesbeyondtheircontrolHowdodifferencesamongtheirvariouslsquometa-historicalrsquounderstandingssuchastheirworkingideasabouthistoricalcausalityrelatetohowtheytalkaboutthemselves inrelation to thepastHowwould theyposition themselvesrelative toperceivednationalnarrativesWhile it is impossible toproveadirectrelationship fromthis singlestudyndashorthereasonsbehindsucharelationshipndashstudentswhodisplayedanunderstandingoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgealsogavetheimpressionofbeingmoreempoweredintermsoftalkingabouttheirfutureandnavigatingtheirownemergingidentities
Withregardtopractice therangeofpersonaldiagramsproducedbystudentsconfirmsthatifteachersarelookingtobuildontheirstudentsrsquoexistingideasandunderstandingsalsquoonesizefitsallrsquoapproach is likely tobemisguidedandnon-inclusiveandthatnationalnarrativesare only one kind of narrative towhich young people feel connected This paper does notadvocatethatyoungpeoplebeinvitedtorelateeverythingtheylearninhistorytothemselvesHoweverofferingopen-endedandpotentiallycreativeopportunitiesforthemtoreflectontheconnectionstheyperceivebetweenthemselvesandthepastislikelytobeengagingparticularlyforolderteensgiventheirbroaderdevelopmentalneedtoestablishindependentidentities
FurthermoresuchopportunitiescanactivelybuildhistoricalunderstandingGiventhesheervarietyofdiagramsthatwillalmostcertainlybeproducedwithinasingleclassroomstudentscan learn a greatdeal by looking at anddiscussing thediagramsof their peers inways thatdeveloptheirunderstandingthatpeoplehavedifferentperspectivesonthepastandthattheseperspectivesareshapedat least inpartbybiographicalorothercontextual factorsLookingatothersrsquodiagramscanopenupdifferentpossibilitiesforyoungpeopleintermsofhowtheythinkabouttheirownrelationshiptothepastandgivethemanewperspectiveontheirownidentityandoutlookIndeedthepowerofthisapproachcanbefurtherenhancedifclassroomsaredigitallyconnectedtoclassroomsinothercountriesengaginginthesameactivityinpartbecauseitallowsprevailingandassumednationalnarrativestobecomevisible
190 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
While somepeoplewouldcertainly resist thenotionof lettingyoungpeopleuse schoolhistoryasavenueforexploringorinterpretingtheirownlivesidentitiesandvaluesthisresearchshedslightonsomeofthevariedwaysinwhichyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastoruseitfororientingpurposesAsJessinparticulardemonstratedasophisticatedunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgecangohandinhandwithaself-awarenessandevenprideinonersquosrelationshiptothepastWearguablyoweittoourstudentstohelpthemthinkaboutwhotheyareandthelivestheyarelivingorwanttoliveinourrapidlychangingandevermorecomplexworldWeneedtosupportthemtointerpretthepastandtodeveloprobusthistoricalunderstandingswealsoneedtosupportthemtointerprettheirownnarratives
Acknowledgements
TheauthorwishestothanktheGermanacosFoundationforsupportingtheresearchdiscussedinthispaperaswellasHowardGardnerHelenHasteandMeiraLevinsonforprovidingguidancewiththeresearchMycolleaguesEdwardClappandShariTishmangavehelpfulfeedbackonearlydrafts
Notes on the contributor
ElizabethDawesDuraisinghisaresearchassociateandprincipalinvestigatoratProjectZeroaresearchcentreat theHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducationwhereshealsoservesasalectureroneducationShewaspreviouslyahighschoolhistoryteacherforeightyearsworkinginbothEnglandandAustralia
References
AhonenS(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessAviableparadigmforhistoryeducationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(6)697ndash707
Almarza DJ (2001) lsquoContexts shaping minority language studentsrsquo perceptions of American historyrsquo Journal of Social Studies Research25(2)4ndash22
AnS(2009)lsquoLearningUShistoryinanageofglobalizationandtransnationalmigrationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)763ndash87
AndrewsM(2007)Shaping History Narratives of political changeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressAngvikMandVonBorriesB(eds)(1997)Youth and History A comparative European survey on historical
consciousness and political attitudes among adolescentsHamburgKoumlrber-StiftungAshbyR(2005)lsquoStudentsrsquoapproachestovalidatinghistoricalclaimsrsquoInAshbyRGordonPandLeeP
(eds)Understanding History Recent research in history educationLondonRoutledge21ndash36AudigierFandFinkN(2010)lsquoPupilsandschoolhistoryinFranceandSwitzerlandrsquo Education 3ndash1338
(3)329ndash39BambergM(2011)lsquoWhoamINarrationanditscontributiontoselfandidentityrsquo Theory and Psychology
21(1)3ndash24BartonKC(2001)lsquolsquolsquoYoursquodbewantingtoknowaboutthepastrdquoSocialcontextsofchildrenrsquoshistorical
understandinginNorthernIrelandandtheUSArsquo Comparative Education37(1)89ndash106BartonKCandLevstikLS(2004)Teaching History for the Common GoodMahwahNJLawrenceErlbaum
AssociatesBartonKCandMcCullyAW(2005)lsquoHistoryidentityandtheschoolcurriculuminNorthernIreland
Anempiricalstudyofsecondarystudentsrsquoideasandperspectivesrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(1)85ndash116
London Review of Education 191
Baynham M (2010) lsquoAlexandra Georgakopoulou Small stories interaction and identitiesrsquo Applied Linguistics31(3)471ndash3
BilligM(1995)Banal NationalismLondonSAGEPublicationsBillmann-Mahecha E and Hausen M (2005) lsquoEmpirical psychological approaches to the historical
consciousnessofchildrenrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks163ndash86
BoixMansillaV(2001)The Pursuit of Understanding A study of exemplary high school studentsrsquo conceptions of knowledge validation in science and history EdDthesisHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducation
BrunerJS(1990)Acts of MeaningCambridgeMAHarvardUniversityPressBrunerJS(2005)lsquoPastandpresentasnarrativeconstructionsrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and
Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks23ndash43DamonWandHartD (1988)Self-Understanding in Childhood and AdolescenceNewYorkCambridge
UniversityPressDantoAC(1965)Analytical Philosophy of HistoryCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressEpsteinT(1998)lsquoDeconstructingdifferencesinAfrican-AmericanandEuropean-Americanadolescentsrsquo
perspectivesonUShistoryrsquo Curriculum Inquiry28(4)397ndash423EriksonEH(1968)Identity Youth and CrisisNewYorkWWNortonFivush R Bohanek JG and ZamanW (2011) lsquoPersonal and intergenerational narratives in relation
to adolescentsrsquowell-beingrsquo InHabermasT (ed)The Development of Autobiographical Reasoning in Adolescence and Beyond (NewDirectionsforChildandAdolescentDevelopment131)45ndash57
GoldbergTPoratDandSchwarzBB(2006)lsquolsquoHerestartedtheriftweseetodayrsquoStudentandtextbooknarrativesbetweenofficialandcountermemoryrsquo Narrative Inquiry16(2)319ndash47
GoldbergTSchwarzBBandPoratD(2008)lsquoLivinganddormantcollectivememoriesascontextsofhistorylearningrsquo Learning and Instruction18(3)223ndash37
GreverMHaydnTandRibbensK(2008)lsquoIdentityandschoolhistoryTheperspectiveofyoungpeoplefromtheNetherlandsandEnglandrsquo British Journal of Educational Studies56(1)76ndash94
HaeberliP(2005) lsquoRelatingtohistoryAnempiricaltypologyrsquo International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research5(1)1ndash10
Hammack PL and Pilecki A (2012) lsquoNarrative as a rootmetaphor for political psychologyrsquo Political Psychology33(1)75ndash103
HarterS(1999)The Construction of the Self A developmental perspectiveNewYorkGuilfordPressHawkey K and Prior J (2011) lsquoHistory memory cultures and meaning in the classroomrsquo Journal of
Curriculum Studies43(2)231ndash47HoferBKandPintrichPR(eds)(2002)Personal Epistemology The psychology of beliefs about knowledge and
knowing MahwahNJLawrenceErlbaumAssociatesKeganR (1982)The Evolving Self Problem and process in human development CambridgeMAHarvard
UniversityPressLee P (2004a) lsquoUnderstanding historyrsquo In Seixas P (ed) Theorizing Historical Consciousness Toronto
UniversityofTorontoPress129ndash64LeeP(2004b)lsquoldquoWalkingbackwardsintotomorrowrdquoHistoricalconsciousnessandunderstandinghistoryrsquo
International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research4(1)1ndash46LeePJ(2005)lsquoPuttingprinciplesintopracticeUnderstandinghistoryrsquoInDonovanMSandBransford
JD (eds)How Students Learn History mathematics and science in the classroomWashingtonDCNationalAcademiesPress31ndash77
LeePandShemiltD(2004)lsquolsquolsquoIjustwishwecouldgobackinthepastandfindoutwhatreallyhappenedrdquoProgressioninunderstandingabouthistoricalaccountsrsquo Teaching History 11725ndash31
LenzC(2011) lsquoGenealogyandarchaeologyAnalyzinggenerationalpositioning inhistoricalnarrativesrsquo Journal of Comparative Family Studies42(3)319ndash27
LeacutetourneauJandMoisanS(2004)lsquoYoungpeoplersquosassimilationofacollectivehistoricalmemoryAcasestudyofQuebeckersofFrench-CanadianheritagersquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress109ndash28
192 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
LowenthalD(1996)Possessed by the Past The heritage crusade and the spoils of historyNewYorkFreePress
McAdamsDP(1993)The Stories We Live By Personal myths and the making of the selfNewYorkGuilfordPress
McLean KC Breen AV and FournierMA (2010) lsquoConstructing the self in earlymiddle and lateadolescentboysNarrativeidentityindividuationandwell-beingrsquo Journal of Research on Adolescence20(1)166ndash87
NakkulaMJandToshalisE(2006)Understanding Youth Adolescent development for educatorsCambridgeMAHarvardEducationPress
NoraP(1996)Realms of Memory Rethinking the French pastTransGoldhammerANewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
PeckCL (2010) lsquolsquolsquoItrsquos not like [Irsquom]Chinese andCanadian I am inbetweenrdquoEthnicity and studentsrsquoconceptionsofhistoricalsignificancersquo Theory and Research in Social Education38(4)574ndash617
PolkinghorneDE(1988)Narrative Knowing and the Human SciencesAlbanyStateUniversityofNewYorkPress
Polkinghorne DE (2005) lsquoNarrative psychology and historical consciousness Relationships andperspectivesrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks3ndash22
RantalaJ(2011)lsquoChildrenasconsumersofhistoricalcultureinFinlandrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies43(4)493ndash506
ReicherSandHopkinsN(2001)Self and Nation Categorization contestation and mobilizationLondonSAGEPublications
RosenzweigRandThelenDP(1998)The Presence of the Past Popular uses of history in American lifeNewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
RuumlsenJ(1993)Studies in MetahistoryPretoriaHumanSciencesResearchCouncilSeixasP(1997)lsquoMappingtheterrainofhistoricalsignificancersquo Social Education61(1)22ndash7SeixasP(2004)lsquoIntroductionrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityof
TorontoPress3ndash20SeixasP(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessTheprogressofknowledgeinapostprogressiveagersquoInStraub
J(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks141ndash62SeixasP(2009)lsquoNationalhistoryandbeyondrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)719ndash22ThorpR(2014)lsquoTowardsanepistemologicaltheoryofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquoHistorical Encounters A
Journal of Historical Consciousness Historical Cultures and History Education1(1)20ndash31TrailleK (2007) lsquolsquolsquoYou should be proud about your history Theymademe feel ashamedrdquoTeaching
historyhurtsrsquo Teaching History 12731ndash7VanSledrightB (2008) lsquoNarrativesofnation-statehistoricalknowledgeandschoolhistoryeducationrsquo
Review of Research in Education32(1)109ndash46WelzerH(2008)lsquoCollateraldamageofhistoryeducationNationalsocialismandtheHolocaustinGerman
familymemoryrsquo Social Research75(1)287ndash314WertschJV(2002)Voices of Collective RememberingCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressWertschJV(2004)lsquoSpecificnarrativesandschematicnarrativetemplatesrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing
Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress49ndash62Wineburg S (2001)Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts Charting the future of teaching the past
PhiladelphiaTempleUniversityPressWineburgSMosborgSPoratDandDuncanA(2007)lsquoCommonbeliefandtheculturalcurriculum
Anintergenerationalstudyofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquo American Educational Research Journal44(1)40ndash76
London Review of Education 193
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
This paperwas published in a special feature called lsquoNegotiating the nation Young peoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo
Thearticlesinthefeatureareasfollows
Angier K (2017) lsquoIn search of historical consciousness An investigation into young South AfricansrsquoknowledgeandunderstandingofldquotheirrdquonationalhistoriesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
DawesDuraisinghE (2017) lsquoMakingnarrativeconnectionsExploringhow late teensrelate theirownnarrativestothehistoricallysignificantpastrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GoldbergT(2017) lsquoTheusefulpast innegotiationAdolescentsrsquouseofhistory innegotiationof inter-groupconflictrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GreverMandVanderVliesT(2017)lsquoWhynationalnarrativesareperpetuatedAliteraturereviewonnewinsightsfromhistorytextbookresearchrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
HolmbergU(2017)lsquoldquoIwasborninthereignhelliprdquoHistoricalorientationinUgandanstudentsrsquonationalnarrativesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
LeacutetourneauJandChapmanA(2017)lsquoEditorialndashNegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
LeacutevesqueS(2017)lsquoHistoryasaldquoGPSrdquoOntheusesofhistoricalnarrativeforFrenchCanadianstudentsrsquolifeorientationandidentityrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
OlofssonHSamuelsson JStolareMandWendell J (2017) lsquoTheSwedesandtheirhistoryrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
SheehanMandDavisonM(2017)lsquoldquoWeneedtoremembertheydiedforusrdquoHowyoungpeopleinNewZealandmakemeaningofwarremembranceandcommemorationoftheFirstWorldWarrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
VanHavereTWilsKDepaepeFVerschaffelLandVanNieuwenhuyseK(2017)lsquoFlemishstudentsrsquohistoricalreferenceknowledgeandnarrativesoftheBelgiannationalpastattheendofsecondaryeducationrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
WertschJV(2017)lsquoForeword ndash NegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
London Review of Education 181
lessthantwo-thirdsofitemsrelatedtopersonalorfamilyexperiencestastesinterestsetcandatleastsomehistoricallysignificantitemsand(b)integratedpersonalandhistoricalnarrativesHoweverTable2shouldbereadasasummaryoffindingsratherthanasanevaluativeschema
Table 2Asummaryofcontenttypeandnarrativestrategyintheoverallsampleofdiagrams(n=168)
A Diagrams onlyincludepersonalorfamilyexperiencestastesinterestsetc(n=31)
LISTBRAINSTORMCurrentinterestsfriendsfamilyvaluesinfluences 20
CHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHTellsstoryofownlifeandorimmediatefamily
Personal narrative
11
B Two-thirdsormoreofincludeditemsarepersonalorfamilyexperiencestastesinterestsetcbutotherkindsofitemsareincluded(n=29)
LISTBRAINSTORMCurrentinterestsfriendsfamilyetcwithhistorycitedasaninterestor eventsorinfluencesincludingitemsofbroadhistoricorcontemporarysignificance
17
CHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHTellsstoryofownlifesomeprecedinghistoryisincludedasbackgroundandor broadercontextualdetailisincludedndashegcontemporaryeventsordevelopments
Personal narrative with links to the historically significant past
12
C Two-thirdsormoreofincludeditemsarehistoricallysignificantevents(n=24)
LISTBRAINSTORMSeeminglyrandomconnectionsorverygeneralrationaleforincludingitemsegthingsthathaveaffectedmethingsIbelieveareimportant
13
LISTBRAINSTORMCoherentthemeitemscollectivelyservetolinkownlifestorytobiggerhistoricalnarrative(s)
Personal narrative linked to historical narrative
7
CHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHChronologicaloverviewofhistorywithselfatendorasapointonatimeline
Historical narrative with self inserted
4
D IntegrateddiagramMixtureofdifferentkindsofitems(n=84)
LISTBRAINSTORMSeeminglyrandomconnectionsorverygeneralrationaleforincludingitemsegthingsthathaveaffectedmethingsIbelieveareimportantorhavelearnedfrom 23
LISTBRAINSTORMCoherentthemeitemscollectivelyservetolinkownlifestorytobiggerhistoricalnarrative(s)
Personal narrative linked to historical narrative
13
VARIEDFORMSSubsumespersonalnarrativewithinthatofagrouptowhichheorshebelongs(egAlgerianMuslimsAshkenaziJewsAmericanshumanrace)
Personal and historical narrative tethered (STUART)
9
BROADCHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHContextualizesownorfamilystorywithinbroaderhistoricalcontextshowshowownstoryorfamilyrsquosstoryhasbeenintertwinedwithhistoricaleventsortrends
Personal narrative contextualized within broader historical narrative (MELVIN)
23
VARIEDFORMSPresentsselfasaproductandorpartofaconfluenceofnarrativesmayinvolvecomplexcausalconnections
Personal narrative seen as product of historical narrative(s) andor at confluence of different narratives (JESS)
16
NumberofdiagramsinsamplefittingthiscategoryDiagramsthatonlyincludedgeneralthemeswereexcludedfromthisanalysis
182 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
Studentsrsquo narrative strategies Melvin Stuart and Jess
While giving a senseof thedistributionof approacheswithin theoverall sampleTable 2 isnecessarilyreductionistandfailstocapturewhatitlookedlikeinpracticeforparticularstudentstomakenarrativeconnectionsbetweentheirownlivesandthepastThispaperturnsnowtothreespecificcasestoprovidemorenuanceddiscussionandtoshowthatstudentsconnectedthemselvestothepast inhighly individualizedwaysMelvinStuartand Jess(allpseudonyms)wereselectedbecausetheycreateddiagramswithmixedcontentbutuseddifferentnarrativestrategies to bring personal and historical narratives together as indicated in SectionD ofTable2Furthermoretherewereinterestingdifferencesinthewaysinwhichtheytalkedabouttheirdiagrams
InwhatfollowsafewimpressionisticdetailsaregivenabouteachstudenttoemphasizetheirindividualityaswellastoconveytheresearcherrsquosperspectivethedetailsarenotnecessarilysignificantThenevidencefromthestudentsrsquodiagramstheirwrittenexplanationsandinterviewsarewoventogether
Melvin Historically contextualizing his own life story exploring the relationship between individuals and bigger historical processes
Melvinwas a soft-spoken affable studentwhowore abaseball capduringhis interviewHereferredtohisCaribbeanheritageandlargefamily(heistheyoungestofeightchildren)aswellashisreligiousfaithHehastravelledextensivelytovisitfamilyintheCaribbeanandEuropeandhaslivedinvariousGreaterBostonneighbourhoods
MelvinrsquosdiagramatfirstglanceisstructuredintheformofaswirlingtimelineHestartswith the Emancipation Proclamation ndash the abolition of slavery at the end of the AmericanCivilWarndashwhichispresentedasanecessaryconditionorbackgroundenablinghispersonalstorylsquomyeducationlevelmyqualityoflifeprobablywhereIlivewouldhavebeencompletelydifferentrsquoHoweverhisdiagramdoesnotfollowastrictchronologydespitethearrowsthatconnectthedifferentitemsTheendofthetimelineisonlylooselystructuredfeaturingaspectsofMelvinrsquoslifecircumstancessuchaswherehelivestheeducationhehasreceivedthetravelhehascompletedandhowtheselifecircumstanceshavehadanimpactonwhoheistodayWhileMelvinincorporatesthehistoricallysignificantpastintohisdiagramhisfocusissomewhattiltedtowardshispersonallifestory
NonethelessMelvindoesmorethanmerelydescribehisownlifehesituatesitwithinabroaderhistoricalcontextHisexplanatorynotescentreonhowhecametohaveexcellentlifeprospectsdespitethechallengesheperceivesofbeingayoungblackmanlivingintheUnitedStatesBeginninghispersonaltimelinewiththeEmancipationProclamationandtheendingoftheJimCrowlawsservestoacknowledgehisrelativegoodfortunecomparedwithpreviousgenerationshealsoconnectshisownstorytoawidercollectivenarrativeofsocialprogressandtechnologicalchangewhichaffectlsquoprettymucheveryoneinmygenerationrsquoByonlyselectinglsquothingsbeyondhiscontrolrsquo forhisdiagramMelvinusesthediagramnarrativetoexploretherelationshipbetweenindividuallivesorfreewillandlargersocietalorhistoricalforcesInhisinterview he also referred to his siblings his parentsrsquo political and religious views and theliberalcontextofMassachusettsasinfluencesbeyondhiscontrolthathavehelpedtoshapehimblurringthedistinctionbetweenpastandpresentinhisbidtoexplorethedegreetowhichweshapeourowndestinies
London Review of Education 183
Fig
ure
1M
elvinrsquosdiagram
184 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
Fig
ure
2Stuartrsquosdiagram
London Review of Education 185
Stuart Situating his own life at the confluence of various historical narratives tethering his own story to the history of humanity
StuartwasaboyofItalianAmericanextractionwithspikedhairwhosefamilyhaslivedinthesamesemi-urbanneighbourhoodofGreaterBostonforseveralgenerationsHejokedaroundwithhispeersinclassbutbecamestrikinglyseriousinthecontextoftheinterviewspeakinginaheartfeltwayabouthisfamilyandhisprideinbeingAmericanHealsostatedthathistorywashisfavouritesubject
Stuartrsquosdiagramwaswide-rangingintermsofboththemeandtimespanHepickedthefollowingthemeslsquowarsandbattlesrsquowhichleduptooratleastprecededlsquomodernterrorismrsquolsquofamouspeoplersquowithJesusChristtheonlynamedpersonlsquoconstructionandfactorizationrsquo[sic]whichtracesbroadtechnologicaldevelopmentsinhumanhistoryandlsquolandandthefoundersrsquowhich broadly relates to the discovery andor establishment of different empires or nationstates The general chronological element to the threads suggests narratives unfolding overtimeanimpressionreinforcedbyacommentmadebyStuartinhisinterview
InterviewerObviously IrsquoveaskedyoutodothisbuthaveyouthoughtaboutthisbigpicturebeforeOrwasitjustmdash
StuartIactuallyhaveIwasjustlikesittingathomeandjustlikethinkinglikewhydideverythingstartandlikehowitactuallypusheditselfintoeachotheranditdevelopedintoeverythingandthenIcamealongandIfeltlikeIwasapartofiteventhoughIwasnrsquotlikephysicallyapartofitLikeIthoughtIwasinvolvedbecauseofallthishappening
Hismetaphoriclanguagewhichconveysasenseofhistoricaleventsslidingorpilingintooneanotherdrawsattentiontohisbeingimmersedinsomebiggerstoryconcerningthewholeofhumanhistory
InhisdiagramStuartsituateshislifeattheconfluenceofdifferentnarrativestrandsunfoldinginhistoryhealsotethershispersonalstorytothatofhumankindwritlargeThatisinbeingasked to show how his own life connects to the past he elects to tell a broader story ofhumanityIfwecompareStuartrsquosdiagramtothatofMelvin it is lessofanexplorationofhisindividualstoryandmoreanexpressionaboutbelongingtoacollectivestory
Jess Exploring how the past is helping shape the ongoing story of her own personal development situating her own life at the confluence of various historical narratives
Jesswasagirlwith longbrownhairanaccomplishedgymnastanddancerShespokeofherJewish ancestry and her familyrsquos involvement in the LGBTmovement as well as her closeattachmenttoherlocalurbancommunitywhereshehaslivedherwholelifeShearticulatedherwordscarefullyoftenpausingasiftoreflectbeforerespondingtoquestions
AtfirstglanceJessrsquosdiagramdoesnotexhibitthekindofflowvisibleintheprevioustwodiagramsHoweverthereisaswirlingdynamicatplaymadeevidentbyherverbalexplanationofherdiagram
SoattheverycentreofmydiagramIhavejustalittlekindofbubblethatsayslsquomersquoAndImadeitabubblebecauseIthinkIrsquomnotallthatsortofwelldefinedbutitrsquosallsortofjustmushandthingsjustkindofflowinandinfluencemeSoIhavesortofacirclearoundmyselfandIhaveabunchofdifferentsortsofmovementsandeventsinhistorythatIthinkhavemostinfluencedmesuchastheenvironmentalmovementsandenvironmentaldegradationThecivilrightsmovementstheGLBTmovementswomenrsquosrightsmovementsJewishhistoryJewishmovementsandwarsaresortofthemaineventsthatinfluencedmeandtheninmoreofaninnercircleIhavemorebroad
186 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
topicssuchaseducationtechnologydancingandmusicthathavendashtheyallhavetheirownsortofhistoryandtheyallhaveapastthatIdonrsquotnecessarilyknowasmuchaboutinaconcretewaybutumndashallofthosethingsinfluencemesotheyrsquoreallflowingintothecentreThatrsquoswhereIam
Figure 3Jessrsquosdiagram
InthiscaseherongoingpersonaldevelopmentarguablyprovidesthenarrativecentrepieceorunifyingfactorThediagramalsoservesasanassertionofheremergingidentityndashintermsofeventsthathaveinfluencedhervaluesandsenseofwhosheisaswellasherpersonaltalentsandinterestsAsbecameevidentinherinterviewhowevershealsosituatesherselfasbeingattheconfluenceofdifferenthistoricalnarrativesForexampleshetalksaboutbeingatacertainmoment in thehistoryof theenvironmentwhichhasbeenshapedbypreviousgenerationsrsquoactionslsquomygenerationwersquoregoingtobereallyreallydealingwiththatrsquoShetalksaboutbeingshapedbyandinheritingthelegacyofthewomenrsquosrightsmovementcivilrightsmovementandJewishhistoryWithregardtothegayrightsmovementinwhichherfamilyhasbeenimmersedshehasasenseofbeingpartofhistoryinthemakinglsquothemovementisnow Youknowtherersquosbeenmovementsinthepastcertainlybutitrsquoslikeahugethingnowrsquo
How students talked about their diagrams The importance of epistemology
Theways inwhich students in the study talked about their diagramswere revealing of thepotentialrelationshipbetweentheirunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgeandtheir individualhistoricalconsciousnessInparticulartherewasacontrastbetweenstudents
London Review of Education 187
who presented their diagrams as contingent subjective interpretations of the relationshipbetweentheirownlivesandthepastandthosewhoappearedtopresenttheirdiagramsasself-evidentstraightforwardrepresentations
Jessforinstancetalkedfromthestartaboutnotbeinglsquoallthatwelldefinedrsquoasreflectedby the blob at the centre of her diagram There is a sense of fluidity ormovement in herdiagramndashasmuchintermsofherowninterpretationofherownplaceinhistoryasineventsordevelopmentsthemselvesShowinganawarenessofthelimitationsofherownknowledgeshestatesthatshedidnotwanttoexcludeitemsfromherdiagramsimplybecauseofherownignorance
MoreoverintalkingaboutthedifferentelementsofherdiagramshespokeinmetacognitivetermsaboutthedifferencesbetweenlearningaboutJewishhistoryatthetemplewhereitwasframedas lsquoourhistoryrsquoandatschoolwhereitwastreatedassomeoneelsersquoshistoryWithregardtothewomenrsquosrightsmovementshesaid
Sowomenrsquos rightsrsquomovements ndash umm ndashmymomwas a pretty hardcore feminist and IrsquovedefinitelyinheritedsomeofthatandIrsquovereallyenjoyedmostlythisyearactuallyndashIlearnedaboutwomenrsquosrightsinUSHistoryandthatrsquosbeenreallyinterestingsortofhowthatrsquosplayedoutAndprobablybecauseofmymotherandotheradultsandotherwomenthatIrsquovegrownupwithIrsquomlikendashveryconsciousofthatthatIamawomanandthatotherwomenhavedonealottogettowhereIamtodayAndtherersquosdefinitelyasenseofprideformeIhavealwaysbeenverysortofconsciousofthatheritage
Here Jesspresents the impactof themovementassomewhat inevitablegivenhermotherrsquosvaluesHowevershealsorefersexplicitlytoherenjoymentandinterestinlearningaboutthistopicatschoolSheexpresseshersenseofconnectiontowomenrsquoshistoryandheractiveprideinitwhilealsoprovidinganexplanationforwhyshefeelsconnectedtoitshowingacapacityforself-reflectionormetacognitionItisworthnotinghoweverthatshedidnotcommentontheprogressivetemplatethatseemedtoundergirdhernarrative
StuartincontrastpresentedhisdiagraminmorefixedtermsWheninvitedtotalkaboutitheproceededtolisteverythingcontainedwithinit
WellfirstofallIputthelandandthefoundersbecausethesearethebasicgroupsandpeoplethatstartedeverythingThepeoplewhostartedMesopotamiaAncientThebesyouknowlikethatPeoplewhowereintheRomanEmpireallthoseVikingsthefamousexplorersChristopherColumbusMagellanetceterahellip
Inthisextracthe iscitingundisputed lsquofactsrsquohedoesnotusemodifying languagebut insteadstates straightforwardlywhat happenedWhen asked how he knew about these aspects ofthepastheresponded lsquoMostofthestuffcamefromschool Iwas justtryingtothinkwhathappenedrsquo Stuart expressed a greatdealof connection to thepast including asmentionedearlierthathefeltpartofanongoinghistoricalprocessWhileJessspokewithprideyetanalyticdetachmentofherconnectiontothewomenrsquosmovementStuartdidnotexhibitthecapacitytotalkinametacognitivewayaboutthecontentorformofhisdiagramndashalthoughthisdoesnotmeanthathewasincapableofdoingso
Inhis interviewStuartalso talkedabout learning fromhisgrandmotherabout thepastincludinglifelessonsshegleanedfromweatheringtheGreatDepressionHereferredtohercorroboratingwhathelearnedatschool
Anditrsquoscoolbecause[myteacher]canteachmeaboutitatthesametimeandthenshecanjusttellmeaboutthestuffItrsquosreallycoolhellipIlikeaskherlsquoDoyourememberthisrsquohelliplsquoDoyourememberbootleggingandstufflikethatrsquoAndshewaslikelsquoyeaIrememberthatrsquowhichiscoolbecauseyouactuallyknowwhathappenedYoucanjusttalktoheraboutit
188 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
It is notable that he does not talk about hearing his grandmotherrsquos perspective about whathappenedratherheviewsherasanauthorityonhistorypresumablybecausehethinksshedirectlyexperiencedwhatisinhistextbook
Melvinrsquosstancetowardhisdiagramwasmoretentativeinnosmallpartbecauseheactuallyproducedtwodiagramsthefirstversionwasabrainstormofinfluencesonhislifewhichhethought conveyed an even spreadof influences on his lifeHowever in the second version(featuredinthispaper)lsquoItriedtomakeitinchronologicalordersotospeakLikewhatwasinheritedthenthingsthataffectedmelateronrsquoFurtherhespokerepeatedlyabouthisparticularlifeexperiencesaffectinghisperspectiveontheworldandonthepast
YouknowIwasnrsquotbroughtupinthesametypeofenvironmentthat[myparents]wereIwasbroughtupinAmericainMassachusettsatthatAndIthoughtthatwassomethingthatreallyaffectsyouanditaffectshowyoulookatliketheinternationalpoliticalsystemandwhatnothellipIthinkbecausemyparentsarefromoverseasitdefinitelyhelpsmelookatthingsonalargerscaleButIdodefinitelythinkincomparisontothemIlookatthingsfromanAmericanperspective
At the same time he assumes some commonality with other people such as people fromhisgenerationwhoaregrowingup inadigitalenvironment InMelvinrsquoscasehisoverarchingnarrativeisabout thewayinwhichhisoutlookandlifeprospectshavebeenaffectedbythepastandexternalforceshoweverheisalsoabletolsquostepoutsidersquothatnarrativetoreflectonthewaysinwhichhisapproachtothetaskhasbeeninfluencedbythoseverylifeexperiencesandfamilyinfluencesLikeStuartheisclosetohisgrandmotherHoweverwhenhereferstotalkingwithherabout thepastandher life inTrinidadhiscomment isaboutherperspective lsquotheobstaclesofyourpastdefinitelyaffectyourpointofviewrsquoInturnhetalksaboutherinfluenceonhimlsquoIthinkthestoriesthatyoursquoretolddefinitelyaffectthewayyouthinkrsquo
OtherstudentsmadecommentsthatindicatedarelationshipbetweentheirawarenessoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgeandthewaysinwhichtheyviewedtheirownrelationshiptothepastThey(1)acknowledgedtheirownsubjectivityandorthelimitationsoftheirperspectiveontheirrelationshiptothepast(2)presentedtheirdiagramsandexplanationsas tentative and subject to alteration andor (3) stepped outside themselves to reflect ontheir reactions to learningabouthistory In factwhile Jesswas theonly studentwhomadecommentsthatcoveredallthreeofthesecategoriesfewstudentsappearedtotakethemorestraightforwardviewofhistoricalknowledgeapparentlyevincedbyStuartThefactthatstudentsinthesamplewereacademicallysuccessfulaged16ndash18andlivinginacitywithahighlyeducatedworkforceandmajoracademicinstitutionsprobablyneedstobetakenintoaccountwithregardtothisfinding
ItisalsoworthreiteratingthattheresearcherwasnotaproverbialflyonthewallwhilecollectingthisdataForexampleStuartpresentedhimselfasagoodstudentwholikedhistoryandrespectedhiselders justpriortotheinterviewtherewasadrugsbustattheschoolbypoliceanditispossiblehewantedtoconveythathewasalsquodecentkidrsquoMelvindiscussedhisrelative good fortune comparedwithother youngblackmen (including implicitly others athisschool)insodoinghewasabletocommunicatethathewasfromahighlyeducatedfamilylivinginadesirablepartoftownJessmeanwhilepositionedherselfasathoughtfulpoliticallyinformedstudentWhiletheseimpressionsarepurelyspeculativetheysuggestthattheschoolcontextandtheperceivedidentityoftheresearcherndashaswellastheframingoftheactivityndashhelpedtoshapewhatstudentschosetoshareHoweverrecognizingthatthereislikelytobesomefluidityintermsofhowindividualsrelatetheirownlivestothepastdoesnotdiminishthefindingthattheyoungpeopleinthisstudyusedavarietyofnarrativestrategiestodosoorthatthewaysinwhichtheytalkedaboutthosestrategiesappearedtodifferaccordingtotheirepistemologicalunderstandings
London Review of Education 189
Implications
InconjunctionwiththeoverallsummaryshowninTable2thesethreecasesprovidesnapshotsofdifferentways inwhichyoungpeopleusednarrativestrategiestoconnecttheirownlivesto the past aswell as differences in theways inwhich they talked about those strategiesWhilethisstudyishighlyexploratorythesecasespointtotheapparentdiversityofways inwhichyoungpeoplethinkaboutthemselvesinrelationtothepastaswellasthesignificanceof epistemological understanding in the construction of individual historical consciousnessOf coursemany questions remain For example was the ability of Jess andMelvin to talkreflectively about their diagrams and their relationship to thepast an indicationof rigoroushistoricalunderstandinginadisciplinarysenseorofmoregenericcriticalorabstractthinkingskills Further howdo teensrsquo broaddevelopmental trajectoriesndash such as thoseoutlinedbyErikson(1968)ndash intersectwiththeirhistoricalunderstanding Itwouldbe interestingtoaskchildrenofdifferentagestocompletethediagramtaskYoungerstudentswouldpresumablyfind it challenging tocreate anarrative about theirown lives in toto as indeed someof thestudentsinthisstudymayhavedoneExaminingthepotentiallinksbetweenthedevelopmentofautobiographicalstory-tellingskillsandhowyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastcouldbeanotherproductivelineofresearch
Methodologicallythestudyopensupsomeinterestingpossibilitiesespeciallyasthediagramactivity invited students to synthesize their thinking about their personal connections to thepastinarelativelyopen-endedmannerThetaskinstructionsandoranalysiscouldbealteredtoinvestigaterelatedphenomenaForexamplehowifatalldostudentsdealwiththeideathataspeopletheyareevolvingandmayhaveashiftingrelationshiptoorperspectiveonthepastTowhatextentdotheyportraythemselvesasactiveagentsintheirownrightratherthanindividualssubjecttoforcesbeyondtheircontrolHowdodifferencesamongtheirvariouslsquometa-historicalrsquounderstandingssuchastheirworkingideasabouthistoricalcausalityrelatetohowtheytalkaboutthemselves inrelation to thepastHowwould theyposition themselvesrelative toperceivednationalnarrativesWhile it is impossible toproveadirectrelationship fromthis singlestudyndashorthereasonsbehindsucharelationshipndashstudentswhodisplayedanunderstandingoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgealsogavetheimpressionofbeingmoreempoweredintermsoftalkingabouttheirfutureandnavigatingtheirownemergingidentities
Withregardtopractice therangeofpersonaldiagramsproducedbystudentsconfirmsthatifteachersarelookingtobuildontheirstudentsrsquoexistingideasandunderstandingsalsquoonesizefitsallrsquoapproach is likely tobemisguidedandnon-inclusiveandthatnationalnarrativesare only one kind of narrative towhich young people feel connected This paper does notadvocatethatyoungpeoplebeinvitedtorelateeverythingtheylearninhistorytothemselvesHoweverofferingopen-endedandpotentiallycreativeopportunitiesforthemtoreflectontheconnectionstheyperceivebetweenthemselvesandthepastislikelytobeengagingparticularlyforolderteensgiventheirbroaderdevelopmentalneedtoestablishindependentidentities
FurthermoresuchopportunitiescanactivelybuildhistoricalunderstandingGiventhesheervarietyofdiagramsthatwillalmostcertainlybeproducedwithinasingleclassroomstudentscan learn a greatdeal by looking at anddiscussing thediagramsof their peers inways thatdeveloptheirunderstandingthatpeoplehavedifferentperspectivesonthepastandthattheseperspectivesareshapedat least inpartbybiographicalorothercontextual factorsLookingatothersrsquodiagramscanopenupdifferentpossibilitiesforyoungpeopleintermsofhowtheythinkabouttheirownrelationshiptothepastandgivethemanewperspectiveontheirownidentityandoutlookIndeedthepowerofthisapproachcanbefurtherenhancedifclassroomsaredigitallyconnectedtoclassroomsinothercountriesengaginginthesameactivityinpartbecauseitallowsprevailingandassumednationalnarrativestobecomevisible
190 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
While somepeoplewouldcertainly resist thenotionof lettingyoungpeopleuse schoolhistoryasavenueforexploringorinterpretingtheirownlivesidentitiesandvaluesthisresearchshedslightonsomeofthevariedwaysinwhichyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastoruseitfororientingpurposesAsJessinparticulardemonstratedasophisticatedunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgecangohandinhandwithaself-awarenessandevenprideinonersquosrelationshiptothepastWearguablyoweittoourstudentstohelpthemthinkaboutwhotheyareandthelivestheyarelivingorwanttoliveinourrapidlychangingandevermorecomplexworldWeneedtosupportthemtointerpretthepastandtodeveloprobusthistoricalunderstandingswealsoneedtosupportthemtointerprettheirownnarratives
Acknowledgements
TheauthorwishestothanktheGermanacosFoundationforsupportingtheresearchdiscussedinthispaperaswellasHowardGardnerHelenHasteandMeiraLevinsonforprovidingguidancewiththeresearchMycolleaguesEdwardClappandShariTishmangavehelpfulfeedbackonearlydrafts
Notes on the contributor
ElizabethDawesDuraisinghisaresearchassociateandprincipalinvestigatoratProjectZeroaresearchcentreat theHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducationwhereshealsoservesasalectureroneducationShewaspreviouslyahighschoolhistoryteacherforeightyearsworkinginbothEnglandandAustralia
References
AhonenS(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessAviableparadigmforhistoryeducationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(6)697ndash707
Almarza DJ (2001) lsquoContexts shaping minority language studentsrsquo perceptions of American historyrsquo Journal of Social Studies Research25(2)4ndash22
AnS(2009)lsquoLearningUShistoryinanageofglobalizationandtransnationalmigrationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)763ndash87
AndrewsM(2007)Shaping History Narratives of political changeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressAngvikMandVonBorriesB(eds)(1997)Youth and History A comparative European survey on historical
consciousness and political attitudes among adolescentsHamburgKoumlrber-StiftungAshbyR(2005)lsquoStudentsrsquoapproachestovalidatinghistoricalclaimsrsquoInAshbyRGordonPandLeeP
(eds)Understanding History Recent research in history educationLondonRoutledge21ndash36AudigierFandFinkN(2010)lsquoPupilsandschoolhistoryinFranceandSwitzerlandrsquo Education 3ndash1338
(3)329ndash39BambergM(2011)lsquoWhoamINarrationanditscontributiontoselfandidentityrsquo Theory and Psychology
21(1)3ndash24BartonKC(2001)lsquolsquolsquoYoursquodbewantingtoknowaboutthepastrdquoSocialcontextsofchildrenrsquoshistorical
understandinginNorthernIrelandandtheUSArsquo Comparative Education37(1)89ndash106BartonKCandLevstikLS(2004)Teaching History for the Common GoodMahwahNJLawrenceErlbaum
AssociatesBartonKCandMcCullyAW(2005)lsquoHistoryidentityandtheschoolcurriculuminNorthernIreland
Anempiricalstudyofsecondarystudentsrsquoideasandperspectivesrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(1)85ndash116
London Review of Education 191
Baynham M (2010) lsquoAlexandra Georgakopoulou Small stories interaction and identitiesrsquo Applied Linguistics31(3)471ndash3
BilligM(1995)Banal NationalismLondonSAGEPublicationsBillmann-Mahecha E and Hausen M (2005) lsquoEmpirical psychological approaches to the historical
consciousnessofchildrenrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks163ndash86
BoixMansillaV(2001)The Pursuit of Understanding A study of exemplary high school studentsrsquo conceptions of knowledge validation in science and history EdDthesisHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducation
BrunerJS(1990)Acts of MeaningCambridgeMAHarvardUniversityPressBrunerJS(2005)lsquoPastandpresentasnarrativeconstructionsrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and
Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks23ndash43DamonWandHartD (1988)Self-Understanding in Childhood and AdolescenceNewYorkCambridge
UniversityPressDantoAC(1965)Analytical Philosophy of HistoryCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressEpsteinT(1998)lsquoDeconstructingdifferencesinAfrican-AmericanandEuropean-Americanadolescentsrsquo
perspectivesonUShistoryrsquo Curriculum Inquiry28(4)397ndash423EriksonEH(1968)Identity Youth and CrisisNewYorkWWNortonFivush R Bohanek JG and ZamanW (2011) lsquoPersonal and intergenerational narratives in relation
to adolescentsrsquowell-beingrsquo InHabermasT (ed)The Development of Autobiographical Reasoning in Adolescence and Beyond (NewDirectionsforChildandAdolescentDevelopment131)45ndash57
GoldbergTPoratDandSchwarzBB(2006)lsquolsquoHerestartedtheriftweseetodayrsquoStudentandtextbooknarrativesbetweenofficialandcountermemoryrsquo Narrative Inquiry16(2)319ndash47
GoldbergTSchwarzBBandPoratD(2008)lsquoLivinganddormantcollectivememoriesascontextsofhistorylearningrsquo Learning and Instruction18(3)223ndash37
GreverMHaydnTandRibbensK(2008)lsquoIdentityandschoolhistoryTheperspectiveofyoungpeoplefromtheNetherlandsandEnglandrsquo British Journal of Educational Studies56(1)76ndash94
HaeberliP(2005) lsquoRelatingtohistoryAnempiricaltypologyrsquo International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research5(1)1ndash10
Hammack PL and Pilecki A (2012) lsquoNarrative as a rootmetaphor for political psychologyrsquo Political Psychology33(1)75ndash103
HarterS(1999)The Construction of the Self A developmental perspectiveNewYorkGuilfordPressHawkey K and Prior J (2011) lsquoHistory memory cultures and meaning in the classroomrsquo Journal of
Curriculum Studies43(2)231ndash47HoferBKandPintrichPR(eds)(2002)Personal Epistemology The psychology of beliefs about knowledge and
knowing MahwahNJLawrenceErlbaumAssociatesKeganR (1982)The Evolving Self Problem and process in human development CambridgeMAHarvard
UniversityPressLee P (2004a) lsquoUnderstanding historyrsquo In Seixas P (ed) Theorizing Historical Consciousness Toronto
UniversityofTorontoPress129ndash64LeeP(2004b)lsquoldquoWalkingbackwardsintotomorrowrdquoHistoricalconsciousnessandunderstandinghistoryrsquo
International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research4(1)1ndash46LeePJ(2005)lsquoPuttingprinciplesintopracticeUnderstandinghistoryrsquoInDonovanMSandBransford
JD (eds)How Students Learn History mathematics and science in the classroomWashingtonDCNationalAcademiesPress31ndash77
LeePandShemiltD(2004)lsquolsquolsquoIjustwishwecouldgobackinthepastandfindoutwhatreallyhappenedrdquoProgressioninunderstandingabouthistoricalaccountsrsquo Teaching History 11725ndash31
LenzC(2011) lsquoGenealogyandarchaeologyAnalyzinggenerationalpositioning inhistoricalnarrativesrsquo Journal of Comparative Family Studies42(3)319ndash27
LeacutetourneauJandMoisanS(2004)lsquoYoungpeoplersquosassimilationofacollectivehistoricalmemoryAcasestudyofQuebeckersofFrench-CanadianheritagersquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress109ndash28
192 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
LowenthalD(1996)Possessed by the Past The heritage crusade and the spoils of historyNewYorkFreePress
McAdamsDP(1993)The Stories We Live By Personal myths and the making of the selfNewYorkGuilfordPress
McLean KC Breen AV and FournierMA (2010) lsquoConstructing the self in earlymiddle and lateadolescentboysNarrativeidentityindividuationandwell-beingrsquo Journal of Research on Adolescence20(1)166ndash87
NakkulaMJandToshalisE(2006)Understanding Youth Adolescent development for educatorsCambridgeMAHarvardEducationPress
NoraP(1996)Realms of Memory Rethinking the French pastTransGoldhammerANewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
PeckCL (2010) lsquolsquolsquoItrsquos not like [Irsquom]Chinese andCanadian I am inbetweenrdquoEthnicity and studentsrsquoconceptionsofhistoricalsignificancersquo Theory and Research in Social Education38(4)574ndash617
PolkinghorneDE(1988)Narrative Knowing and the Human SciencesAlbanyStateUniversityofNewYorkPress
Polkinghorne DE (2005) lsquoNarrative psychology and historical consciousness Relationships andperspectivesrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks3ndash22
RantalaJ(2011)lsquoChildrenasconsumersofhistoricalcultureinFinlandrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies43(4)493ndash506
ReicherSandHopkinsN(2001)Self and Nation Categorization contestation and mobilizationLondonSAGEPublications
RosenzweigRandThelenDP(1998)The Presence of the Past Popular uses of history in American lifeNewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
RuumlsenJ(1993)Studies in MetahistoryPretoriaHumanSciencesResearchCouncilSeixasP(1997)lsquoMappingtheterrainofhistoricalsignificancersquo Social Education61(1)22ndash7SeixasP(2004)lsquoIntroductionrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityof
TorontoPress3ndash20SeixasP(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessTheprogressofknowledgeinapostprogressiveagersquoInStraub
J(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks141ndash62SeixasP(2009)lsquoNationalhistoryandbeyondrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)719ndash22ThorpR(2014)lsquoTowardsanepistemologicaltheoryofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquoHistorical Encounters A
Journal of Historical Consciousness Historical Cultures and History Education1(1)20ndash31TrailleK (2007) lsquolsquolsquoYou should be proud about your history Theymademe feel ashamedrdquoTeaching
historyhurtsrsquo Teaching History 12731ndash7VanSledrightB (2008) lsquoNarrativesofnation-statehistoricalknowledgeandschoolhistoryeducationrsquo
Review of Research in Education32(1)109ndash46WelzerH(2008)lsquoCollateraldamageofhistoryeducationNationalsocialismandtheHolocaustinGerman
familymemoryrsquo Social Research75(1)287ndash314WertschJV(2002)Voices of Collective RememberingCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressWertschJV(2004)lsquoSpecificnarrativesandschematicnarrativetemplatesrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing
Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress49ndash62Wineburg S (2001)Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts Charting the future of teaching the past
PhiladelphiaTempleUniversityPressWineburgSMosborgSPoratDandDuncanA(2007)lsquoCommonbeliefandtheculturalcurriculum
Anintergenerationalstudyofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquo American Educational Research Journal44(1)40ndash76
London Review of Education 193
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
This paperwas published in a special feature called lsquoNegotiating the nation Young peoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo
Thearticlesinthefeatureareasfollows
Angier K (2017) lsquoIn search of historical consciousness An investigation into young South AfricansrsquoknowledgeandunderstandingofldquotheirrdquonationalhistoriesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
DawesDuraisinghE (2017) lsquoMakingnarrativeconnectionsExploringhow late teensrelate theirownnarrativestothehistoricallysignificantpastrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GoldbergT(2017) lsquoTheusefulpast innegotiationAdolescentsrsquouseofhistory innegotiationof inter-groupconflictrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GreverMandVanderVliesT(2017)lsquoWhynationalnarrativesareperpetuatedAliteraturereviewonnewinsightsfromhistorytextbookresearchrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
HolmbergU(2017)lsquoldquoIwasborninthereignhelliprdquoHistoricalorientationinUgandanstudentsrsquonationalnarrativesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
LeacutetourneauJandChapmanA(2017)lsquoEditorialndashNegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
LeacutevesqueS(2017)lsquoHistoryasaldquoGPSrdquoOntheusesofhistoricalnarrativeforFrenchCanadianstudentsrsquolifeorientationandidentityrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
OlofssonHSamuelsson JStolareMandWendell J (2017) lsquoTheSwedesandtheirhistoryrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
SheehanMandDavisonM(2017)lsquoldquoWeneedtoremembertheydiedforusrdquoHowyoungpeopleinNewZealandmakemeaningofwarremembranceandcommemorationoftheFirstWorldWarrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
VanHavereTWilsKDepaepeFVerschaffelLandVanNieuwenhuyseK(2017)lsquoFlemishstudentsrsquohistoricalreferenceknowledgeandnarrativesoftheBelgiannationalpastattheendofsecondaryeducationrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
WertschJV(2017)lsquoForeword ndash NegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
182 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
Studentsrsquo narrative strategies Melvin Stuart and Jess
While giving a senseof thedistributionof approacheswithin theoverall sampleTable 2 isnecessarilyreductionistandfailstocapturewhatitlookedlikeinpracticeforparticularstudentstomakenarrativeconnectionsbetweentheirownlivesandthepastThispaperturnsnowtothreespecificcasestoprovidemorenuanceddiscussionandtoshowthatstudentsconnectedthemselvestothepast inhighly individualizedwaysMelvinStuartand Jess(allpseudonyms)wereselectedbecausetheycreateddiagramswithmixedcontentbutuseddifferentnarrativestrategies to bring personal and historical narratives together as indicated in SectionD ofTable2Furthermoretherewereinterestingdifferencesinthewaysinwhichtheytalkedabouttheirdiagrams
InwhatfollowsafewimpressionisticdetailsaregivenabouteachstudenttoemphasizetheirindividualityaswellastoconveytheresearcherrsquosperspectivethedetailsarenotnecessarilysignificantThenevidencefromthestudentsrsquodiagramstheirwrittenexplanationsandinterviewsarewoventogether
Melvin Historically contextualizing his own life story exploring the relationship between individuals and bigger historical processes
Melvinwas a soft-spoken affable studentwhowore abaseball capduringhis interviewHereferredtohisCaribbeanheritageandlargefamily(heistheyoungestofeightchildren)aswellashisreligiousfaithHehastravelledextensivelytovisitfamilyintheCaribbeanandEuropeandhaslivedinvariousGreaterBostonneighbourhoods
MelvinrsquosdiagramatfirstglanceisstructuredintheformofaswirlingtimelineHestartswith the Emancipation Proclamation ndash the abolition of slavery at the end of the AmericanCivilWarndashwhichispresentedasanecessaryconditionorbackgroundenablinghispersonalstorylsquomyeducationlevelmyqualityoflifeprobablywhereIlivewouldhavebeencompletelydifferentrsquoHoweverhisdiagramdoesnotfollowastrictchronologydespitethearrowsthatconnectthedifferentitemsTheendofthetimelineisonlylooselystructuredfeaturingaspectsofMelvinrsquoslifecircumstancessuchaswherehelivestheeducationhehasreceivedthetravelhehascompletedandhowtheselifecircumstanceshavehadanimpactonwhoheistodayWhileMelvinincorporatesthehistoricallysignificantpastintohisdiagramhisfocusissomewhattiltedtowardshispersonallifestory
NonethelessMelvindoesmorethanmerelydescribehisownlifehesituatesitwithinabroaderhistoricalcontextHisexplanatorynotescentreonhowhecametohaveexcellentlifeprospectsdespitethechallengesheperceivesofbeingayoungblackmanlivingintheUnitedStatesBeginninghispersonaltimelinewiththeEmancipationProclamationandtheendingoftheJimCrowlawsservestoacknowledgehisrelativegoodfortunecomparedwithpreviousgenerationshealsoconnectshisownstorytoawidercollectivenarrativeofsocialprogressandtechnologicalchangewhichaffectlsquoprettymucheveryoneinmygenerationrsquoByonlyselectinglsquothingsbeyondhiscontrolrsquo forhisdiagramMelvinusesthediagramnarrativetoexploretherelationshipbetweenindividuallivesorfreewillandlargersocietalorhistoricalforcesInhisinterview he also referred to his siblings his parentsrsquo political and religious views and theliberalcontextofMassachusettsasinfluencesbeyondhiscontrolthathavehelpedtoshapehimblurringthedistinctionbetweenpastandpresentinhisbidtoexplorethedegreetowhichweshapeourowndestinies
London Review of Education 183
Fig
ure
1M
elvinrsquosdiagram
184 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
Fig
ure
2Stuartrsquosdiagram
London Review of Education 185
Stuart Situating his own life at the confluence of various historical narratives tethering his own story to the history of humanity
StuartwasaboyofItalianAmericanextractionwithspikedhairwhosefamilyhaslivedinthesamesemi-urbanneighbourhoodofGreaterBostonforseveralgenerationsHejokedaroundwithhispeersinclassbutbecamestrikinglyseriousinthecontextoftheinterviewspeakinginaheartfeltwayabouthisfamilyandhisprideinbeingAmericanHealsostatedthathistorywashisfavouritesubject
Stuartrsquosdiagramwaswide-rangingintermsofboththemeandtimespanHepickedthefollowingthemeslsquowarsandbattlesrsquowhichleduptooratleastprecededlsquomodernterrorismrsquolsquofamouspeoplersquowithJesusChristtheonlynamedpersonlsquoconstructionandfactorizationrsquo[sic]whichtracesbroadtechnologicaldevelopmentsinhumanhistoryandlsquolandandthefoundersrsquowhich broadly relates to the discovery andor establishment of different empires or nationstates The general chronological element to the threads suggests narratives unfolding overtimeanimpressionreinforcedbyacommentmadebyStuartinhisinterview
InterviewerObviously IrsquoveaskedyoutodothisbuthaveyouthoughtaboutthisbigpicturebeforeOrwasitjustmdash
StuartIactuallyhaveIwasjustlikesittingathomeandjustlikethinkinglikewhydideverythingstartandlikehowitactuallypusheditselfintoeachotheranditdevelopedintoeverythingandthenIcamealongandIfeltlikeIwasapartofiteventhoughIwasnrsquotlikephysicallyapartofitLikeIthoughtIwasinvolvedbecauseofallthishappening
Hismetaphoriclanguagewhichconveysasenseofhistoricaleventsslidingorpilingintooneanotherdrawsattentiontohisbeingimmersedinsomebiggerstoryconcerningthewholeofhumanhistory
InhisdiagramStuartsituateshislifeattheconfluenceofdifferentnarrativestrandsunfoldinginhistoryhealsotethershispersonalstorytothatofhumankindwritlargeThatisinbeingasked to show how his own life connects to the past he elects to tell a broader story ofhumanityIfwecompareStuartrsquosdiagramtothatofMelvin it is lessofanexplorationofhisindividualstoryandmoreanexpressionaboutbelongingtoacollectivestory
Jess Exploring how the past is helping shape the ongoing story of her own personal development situating her own life at the confluence of various historical narratives
Jesswasagirlwith longbrownhairanaccomplishedgymnastanddancerShespokeofherJewish ancestry and her familyrsquos involvement in the LGBTmovement as well as her closeattachmenttoherlocalurbancommunitywhereshehaslivedherwholelifeShearticulatedherwordscarefullyoftenpausingasiftoreflectbeforerespondingtoquestions
AtfirstglanceJessrsquosdiagramdoesnotexhibitthekindofflowvisibleintheprevioustwodiagramsHoweverthereisaswirlingdynamicatplaymadeevidentbyherverbalexplanationofherdiagram
SoattheverycentreofmydiagramIhavejustalittlekindofbubblethatsayslsquomersquoAndImadeitabubblebecauseIthinkIrsquomnotallthatsortofwelldefinedbutitrsquosallsortofjustmushandthingsjustkindofflowinandinfluencemeSoIhavesortofacirclearoundmyselfandIhaveabunchofdifferentsortsofmovementsandeventsinhistorythatIthinkhavemostinfluencedmesuchastheenvironmentalmovementsandenvironmentaldegradationThecivilrightsmovementstheGLBTmovementswomenrsquosrightsmovementsJewishhistoryJewishmovementsandwarsaresortofthemaineventsthatinfluencedmeandtheninmoreofaninnercircleIhavemorebroad
186 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
topicssuchaseducationtechnologydancingandmusicthathavendashtheyallhavetheirownsortofhistoryandtheyallhaveapastthatIdonrsquotnecessarilyknowasmuchaboutinaconcretewaybutumndashallofthosethingsinfluencemesotheyrsquoreallflowingintothecentreThatrsquoswhereIam
Figure 3Jessrsquosdiagram
InthiscaseherongoingpersonaldevelopmentarguablyprovidesthenarrativecentrepieceorunifyingfactorThediagramalsoservesasanassertionofheremergingidentityndashintermsofeventsthathaveinfluencedhervaluesandsenseofwhosheisaswellasherpersonaltalentsandinterestsAsbecameevidentinherinterviewhowevershealsosituatesherselfasbeingattheconfluenceofdifferenthistoricalnarrativesForexampleshetalksaboutbeingatacertainmoment in thehistoryof theenvironmentwhichhasbeenshapedbypreviousgenerationsrsquoactionslsquomygenerationwersquoregoingtobereallyreallydealingwiththatrsquoShetalksaboutbeingshapedbyandinheritingthelegacyofthewomenrsquosrightsmovementcivilrightsmovementandJewishhistoryWithregardtothegayrightsmovementinwhichherfamilyhasbeenimmersedshehasasenseofbeingpartofhistoryinthemakinglsquothemovementisnow Youknowtherersquosbeenmovementsinthepastcertainlybutitrsquoslikeahugethingnowrsquo
How students talked about their diagrams The importance of epistemology
Theways inwhich students in the study talked about their diagramswere revealing of thepotentialrelationshipbetweentheirunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgeandtheir individualhistoricalconsciousnessInparticulartherewasacontrastbetweenstudents
London Review of Education 187
who presented their diagrams as contingent subjective interpretations of the relationshipbetweentheirownlivesandthepastandthosewhoappearedtopresenttheirdiagramsasself-evidentstraightforwardrepresentations
Jessforinstancetalkedfromthestartaboutnotbeinglsquoallthatwelldefinedrsquoasreflectedby the blob at the centre of her diagram There is a sense of fluidity ormovement in herdiagramndashasmuchintermsofherowninterpretationofherownplaceinhistoryasineventsordevelopmentsthemselvesShowinganawarenessofthelimitationsofherownknowledgeshestatesthatshedidnotwanttoexcludeitemsfromherdiagramsimplybecauseofherownignorance
MoreoverintalkingaboutthedifferentelementsofherdiagramshespokeinmetacognitivetermsaboutthedifferencesbetweenlearningaboutJewishhistoryatthetemplewhereitwasframedas lsquoourhistoryrsquoandatschoolwhereitwastreatedassomeoneelsersquoshistoryWithregardtothewomenrsquosrightsmovementshesaid
Sowomenrsquos rightsrsquomovements ndash umm ndashmymomwas a pretty hardcore feminist and IrsquovedefinitelyinheritedsomeofthatandIrsquovereallyenjoyedmostlythisyearactuallyndashIlearnedaboutwomenrsquosrightsinUSHistoryandthatrsquosbeenreallyinterestingsortofhowthatrsquosplayedoutAndprobablybecauseofmymotherandotheradultsandotherwomenthatIrsquovegrownupwithIrsquomlikendashveryconsciousofthatthatIamawomanandthatotherwomenhavedonealottogettowhereIamtodayAndtherersquosdefinitelyasenseofprideformeIhavealwaysbeenverysortofconsciousofthatheritage
Here Jesspresents the impactof themovementassomewhat inevitablegivenhermotherrsquosvaluesHowevershealsorefersexplicitlytoherenjoymentandinterestinlearningaboutthistopicatschoolSheexpresseshersenseofconnectiontowomenrsquoshistoryandheractiveprideinitwhilealsoprovidinganexplanationforwhyshefeelsconnectedtoitshowingacapacityforself-reflectionormetacognitionItisworthnotinghoweverthatshedidnotcommentontheprogressivetemplatethatseemedtoundergirdhernarrative
StuartincontrastpresentedhisdiagraminmorefixedtermsWheninvitedtotalkaboutitheproceededtolisteverythingcontainedwithinit
WellfirstofallIputthelandandthefoundersbecausethesearethebasicgroupsandpeoplethatstartedeverythingThepeoplewhostartedMesopotamiaAncientThebesyouknowlikethatPeoplewhowereintheRomanEmpireallthoseVikingsthefamousexplorersChristopherColumbusMagellanetceterahellip
Inthisextracthe iscitingundisputed lsquofactsrsquohedoesnotusemodifying languagebut insteadstates straightforwardlywhat happenedWhen asked how he knew about these aspects ofthepastheresponded lsquoMostofthestuffcamefromschool Iwas justtryingtothinkwhathappenedrsquo Stuart expressed a greatdealof connection to thepast including asmentionedearlierthathefeltpartofanongoinghistoricalprocessWhileJessspokewithprideyetanalyticdetachmentofherconnectiontothewomenrsquosmovementStuartdidnotexhibitthecapacitytotalkinametacognitivewayaboutthecontentorformofhisdiagramndashalthoughthisdoesnotmeanthathewasincapableofdoingso
Inhis interviewStuartalso talkedabout learning fromhisgrandmotherabout thepastincludinglifelessonsshegleanedfromweatheringtheGreatDepressionHereferredtohercorroboratingwhathelearnedatschool
Anditrsquoscoolbecause[myteacher]canteachmeaboutitatthesametimeandthenshecanjusttellmeaboutthestuffItrsquosreallycoolhellipIlikeaskherlsquoDoyourememberthisrsquohelliplsquoDoyourememberbootleggingandstufflikethatrsquoAndshewaslikelsquoyeaIrememberthatrsquowhichiscoolbecauseyouactuallyknowwhathappenedYoucanjusttalktoheraboutit
188 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
It is notable that he does not talk about hearing his grandmotherrsquos perspective about whathappenedratherheviewsherasanauthorityonhistorypresumablybecausehethinksshedirectlyexperiencedwhatisinhistextbook
Melvinrsquosstancetowardhisdiagramwasmoretentativeinnosmallpartbecauseheactuallyproducedtwodiagramsthefirstversionwasabrainstormofinfluencesonhislifewhichhethought conveyed an even spreadof influences on his lifeHowever in the second version(featuredinthispaper)lsquoItriedtomakeitinchronologicalordersotospeakLikewhatwasinheritedthenthingsthataffectedmelateronrsquoFurtherhespokerepeatedlyabouthisparticularlifeexperiencesaffectinghisperspectiveontheworldandonthepast
YouknowIwasnrsquotbroughtupinthesametypeofenvironmentthat[myparents]wereIwasbroughtupinAmericainMassachusettsatthatAndIthoughtthatwassomethingthatreallyaffectsyouanditaffectshowyoulookatliketheinternationalpoliticalsystemandwhatnothellipIthinkbecausemyparentsarefromoverseasitdefinitelyhelpsmelookatthingsonalargerscaleButIdodefinitelythinkincomparisontothemIlookatthingsfromanAmericanperspective
At the same time he assumes some commonality with other people such as people fromhisgenerationwhoaregrowingup inadigitalenvironment InMelvinrsquoscasehisoverarchingnarrativeisabout thewayinwhichhisoutlookandlifeprospectshavebeenaffectedbythepastandexternalforceshoweverheisalsoabletolsquostepoutsidersquothatnarrativetoreflectonthewaysinwhichhisapproachtothetaskhasbeeninfluencedbythoseverylifeexperiencesandfamilyinfluencesLikeStuartheisclosetohisgrandmotherHoweverwhenhereferstotalkingwithherabout thepastandher life inTrinidadhiscomment isaboutherperspective lsquotheobstaclesofyourpastdefinitelyaffectyourpointofviewrsquoInturnhetalksaboutherinfluenceonhimlsquoIthinkthestoriesthatyoursquoretolddefinitelyaffectthewayyouthinkrsquo
OtherstudentsmadecommentsthatindicatedarelationshipbetweentheirawarenessoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgeandthewaysinwhichtheyviewedtheirownrelationshiptothepastThey(1)acknowledgedtheirownsubjectivityandorthelimitationsoftheirperspectiveontheirrelationshiptothepast(2)presentedtheirdiagramsandexplanationsas tentative and subject to alteration andor (3) stepped outside themselves to reflect ontheir reactions to learningabouthistory In factwhile Jesswas theonly studentwhomadecommentsthatcoveredallthreeofthesecategoriesfewstudentsappearedtotakethemorestraightforwardviewofhistoricalknowledgeapparentlyevincedbyStuartThefactthatstudentsinthesamplewereacademicallysuccessfulaged16ndash18andlivinginacitywithahighlyeducatedworkforceandmajoracademicinstitutionsprobablyneedstobetakenintoaccountwithregardtothisfinding
ItisalsoworthreiteratingthattheresearcherwasnotaproverbialflyonthewallwhilecollectingthisdataForexampleStuartpresentedhimselfasagoodstudentwholikedhistoryandrespectedhiselders justpriortotheinterviewtherewasadrugsbustattheschoolbypoliceanditispossiblehewantedtoconveythathewasalsquodecentkidrsquoMelvindiscussedhisrelative good fortune comparedwithother youngblackmen (including implicitly others athisschool)insodoinghewasabletocommunicatethathewasfromahighlyeducatedfamilylivinginadesirablepartoftownJessmeanwhilepositionedherselfasathoughtfulpoliticallyinformedstudentWhiletheseimpressionsarepurelyspeculativetheysuggestthattheschoolcontextandtheperceivedidentityoftheresearcherndashaswellastheframingoftheactivityndashhelpedtoshapewhatstudentschosetoshareHoweverrecognizingthatthereislikelytobesomefluidityintermsofhowindividualsrelatetheirownlivestothepastdoesnotdiminishthefindingthattheyoungpeopleinthisstudyusedavarietyofnarrativestrategiestodosoorthatthewaysinwhichtheytalkedaboutthosestrategiesappearedtodifferaccordingtotheirepistemologicalunderstandings
London Review of Education 189
Implications
InconjunctionwiththeoverallsummaryshowninTable2thesethreecasesprovidesnapshotsofdifferentways inwhichyoungpeopleusednarrativestrategiestoconnecttheirownlivesto the past aswell as differences in theways inwhich they talked about those strategiesWhilethisstudyishighlyexploratorythesecasespointtotheapparentdiversityofways inwhichyoungpeoplethinkaboutthemselvesinrelationtothepastaswellasthesignificanceof epistemological understanding in the construction of individual historical consciousnessOf coursemany questions remain For example was the ability of Jess andMelvin to talkreflectively about their diagrams and their relationship to thepast an indicationof rigoroushistoricalunderstandinginadisciplinarysenseorofmoregenericcriticalorabstractthinkingskills Further howdo teensrsquo broaddevelopmental trajectoriesndash such as thoseoutlinedbyErikson(1968)ndash intersectwiththeirhistoricalunderstanding Itwouldbe interestingtoaskchildrenofdifferentagestocompletethediagramtaskYoungerstudentswouldpresumablyfind it challenging tocreate anarrative about theirown lives in toto as indeed someof thestudentsinthisstudymayhavedoneExaminingthepotentiallinksbetweenthedevelopmentofautobiographicalstory-tellingskillsandhowyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastcouldbeanotherproductivelineofresearch
Methodologicallythestudyopensupsomeinterestingpossibilitiesespeciallyasthediagramactivity invited students to synthesize their thinking about their personal connections to thepastinarelativelyopen-endedmannerThetaskinstructionsandoranalysiscouldbealteredtoinvestigaterelatedphenomenaForexamplehowifatalldostudentsdealwiththeideathataspeopletheyareevolvingandmayhaveashiftingrelationshiptoorperspectiveonthepastTowhatextentdotheyportraythemselvesasactiveagentsintheirownrightratherthanindividualssubjecttoforcesbeyondtheircontrolHowdodifferencesamongtheirvariouslsquometa-historicalrsquounderstandingssuchastheirworkingideasabouthistoricalcausalityrelatetohowtheytalkaboutthemselves inrelation to thepastHowwould theyposition themselvesrelative toperceivednationalnarrativesWhile it is impossible toproveadirectrelationship fromthis singlestudyndashorthereasonsbehindsucharelationshipndashstudentswhodisplayedanunderstandingoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgealsogavetheimpressionofbeingmoreempoweredintermsoftalkingabouttheirfutureandnavigatingtheirownemergingidentities
Withregardtopractice therangeofpersonaldiagramsproducedbystudentsconfirmsthatifteachersarelookingtobuildontheirstudentsrsquoexistingideasandunderstandingsalsquoonesizefitsallrsquoapproach is likely tobemisguidedandnon-inclusiveandthatnationalnarrativesare only one kind of narrative towhich young people feel connected This paper does notadvocatethatyoungpeoplebeinvitedtorelateeverythingtheylearninhistorytothemselvesHoweverofferingopen-endedandpotentiallycreativeopportunitiesforthemtoreflectontheconnectionstheyperceivebetweenthemselvesandthepastislikelytobeengagingparticularlyforolderteensgiventheirbroaderdevelopmentalneedtoestablishindependentidentities
FurthermoresuchopportunitiescanactivelybuildhistoricalunderstandingGiventhesheervarietyofdiagramsthatwillalmostcertainlybeproducedwithinasingleclassroomstudentscan learn a greatdeal by looking at anddiscussing thediagramsof their peers inways thatdeveloptheirunderstandingthatpeoplehavedifferentperspectivesonthepastandthattheseperspectivesareshapedat least inpartbybiographicalorothercontextual factorsLookingatothersrsquodiagramscanopenupdifferentpossibilitiesforyoungpeopleintermsofhowtheythinkabouttheirownrelationshiptothepastandgivethemanewperspectiveontheirownidentityandoutlookIndeedthepowerofthisapproachcanbefurtherenhancedifclassroomsaredigitallyconnectedtoclassroomsinothercountriesengaginginthesameactivityinpartbecauseitallowsprevailingandassumednationalnarrativestobecomevisible
190 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
While somepeoplewouldcertainly resist thenotionof lettingyoungpeopleuse schoolhistoryasavenueforexploringorinterpretingtheirownlivesidentitiesandvaluesthisresearchshedslightonsomeofthevariedwaysinwhichyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastoruseitfororientingpurposesAsJessinparticulardemonstratedasophisticatedunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgecangohandinhandwithaself-awarenessandevenprideinonersquosrelationshiptothepastWearguablyoweittoourstudentstohelpthemthinkaboutwhotheyareandthelivestheyarelivingorwanttoliveinourrapidlychangingandevermorecomplexworldWeneedtosupportthemtointerpretthepastandtodeveloprobusthistoricalunderstandingswealsoneedtosupportthemtointerprettheirownnarratives
Acknowledgements
TheauthorwishestothanktheGermanacosFoundationforsupportingtheresearchdiscussedinthispaperaswellasHowardGardnerHelenHasteandMeiraLevinsonforprovidingguidancewiththeresearchMycolleaguesEdwardClappandShariTishmangavehelpfulfeedbackonearlydrafts
Notes on the contributor
ElizabethDawesDuraisinghisaresearchassociateandprincipalinvestigatoratProjectZeroaresearchcentreat theHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducationwhereshealsoservesasalectureroneducationShewaspreviouslyahighschoolhistoryteacherforeightyearsworkinginbothEnglandandAustralia
References
AhonenS(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessAviableparadigmforhistoryeducationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(6)697ndash707
Almarza DJ (2001) lsquoContexts shaping minority language studentsrsquo perceptions of American historyrsquo Journal of Social Studies Research25(2)4ndash22
AnS(2009)lsquoLearningUShistoryinanageofglobalizationandtransnationalmigrationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)763ndash87
AndrewsM(2007)Shaping History Narratives of political changeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressAngvikMandVonBorriesB(eds)(1997)Youth and History A comparative European survey on historical
consciousness and political attitudes among adolescentsHamburgKoumlrber-StiftungAshbyR(2005)lsquoStudentsrsquoapproachestovalidatinghistoricalclaimsrsquoInAshbyRGordonPandLeeP
(eds)Understanding History Recent research in history educationLondonRoutledge21ndash36AudigierFandFinkN(2010)lsquoPupilsandschoolhistoryinFranceandSwitzerlandrsquo Education 3ndash1338
(3)329ndash39BambergM(2011)lsquoWhoamINarrationanditscontributiontoselfandidentityrsquo Theory and Psychology
21(1)3ndash24BartonKC(2001)lsquolsquolsquoYoursquodbewantingtoknowaboutthepastrdquoSocialcontextsofchildrenrsquoshistorical
understandinginNorthernIrelandandtheUSArsquo Comparative Education37(1)89ndash106BartonKCandLevstikLS(2004)Teaching History for the Common GoodMahwahNJLawrenceErlbaum
AssociatesBartonKCandMcCullyAW(2005)lsquoHistoryidentityandtheschoolcurriculuminNorthernIreland
Anempiricalstudyofsecondarystudentsrsquoideasandperspectivesrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(1)85ndash116
London Review of Education 191
Baynham M (2010) lsquoAlexandra Georgakopoulou Small stories interaction and identitiesrsquo Applied Linguistics31(3)471ndash3
BilligM(1995)Banal NationalismLondonSAGEPublicationsBillmann-Mahecha E and Hausen M (2005) lsquoEmpirical psychological approaches to the historical
consciousnessofchildrenrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks163ndash86
BoixMansillaV(2001)The Pursuit of Understanding A study of exemplary high school studentsrsquo conceptions of knowledge validation in science and history EdDthesisHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducation
BrunerJS(1990)Acts of MeaningCambridgeMAHarvardUniversityPressBrunerJS(2005)lsquoPastandpresentasnarrativeconstructionsrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and
Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks23ndash43DamonWandHartD (1988)Self-Understanding in Childhood and AdolescenceNewYorkCambridge
UniversityPressDantoAC(1965)Analytical Philosophy of HistoryCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressEpsteinT(1998)lsquoDeconstructingdifferencesinAfrican-AmericanandEuropean-Americanadolescentsrsquo
perspectivesonUShistoryrsquo Curriculum Inquiry28(4)397ndash423EriksonEH(1968)Identity Youth and CrisisNewYorkWWNortonFivush R Bohanek JG and ZamanW (2011) lsquoPersonal and intergenerational narratives in relation
to adolescentsrsquowell-beingrsquo InHabermasT (ed)The Development of Autobiographical Reasoning in Adolescence and Beyond (NewDirectionsforChildandAdolescentDevelopment131)45ndash57
GoldbergTPoratDandSchwarzBB(2006)lsquolsquoHerestartedtheriftweseetodayrsquoStudentandtextbooknarrativesbetweenofficialandcountermemoryrsquo Narrative Inquiry16(2)319ndash47
GoldbergTSchwarzBBandPoratD(2008)lsquoLivinganddormantcollectivememoriesascontextsofhistorylearningrsquo Learning and Instruction18(3)223ndash37
GreverMHaydnTandRibbensK(2008)lsquoIdentityandschoolhistoryTheperspectiveofyoungpeoplefromtheNetherlandsandEnglandrsquo British Journal of Educational Studies56(1)76ndash94
HaeberliP(2005) lsquoRelatingtohistoryAnempiricaltypologyrsquo International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research5(1)1ndash10
Hammack PL and Pilecki A (2012) lsquoNarrative as a rootmetaphor for political psychologyrsquo Political Psychology33(1)75ndash103
HarterS(1999)The Construction of the Self A developmental perspectiveNewYorkGuilfordPressHawkey K and Prior J (2011) lsquoHistory memory cultures and meaning in the classroomrsquo Journal of
Curriculum Studies43(2)231ndash47HoferBKandPintrichPR(eds)(2002)Personal Epistemology The psychology of beliefs about knowledge and
knowing MahwahNJLawrenceErlbaumAssociatesKeganR (1982)The Evolving Self Problem and process in human development CambridgeMAHarvard
UniversityPressLee P (2004a) lsquoUnderstanding historyrsquo In Seixas P (ed) Theorizing Historical Consciousness Toronto
UniversityofTorontoPress129ndash64LeeP(2004b)lsquoldquoWalkingbackwardsintotomorrowrdquoHistoricalconsciousnessandunderstandinghistoryrsquo
International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research4(1)1ndash46LeePJ(2005)lsquoPuttingprinciplesintopracticeUnderstandinghistoryrsquoInDonovanMSandBransford
JD (eds)How Students Learn History mathematics and science in the classroomWashingtonDCNationalAcademiesPress31ndash77
LeePandShemiltD(2004)lsquolsquolsquoIjustwishwecouldgobackinthepastandfindoutwhatreallyhappenedrdquoProgressioninunderstandingabouthistoricalaccountsrsquo Teaching History 11725ndash31
LenzC(2011) lsquoGenealogyandarchaeologyAnalyzinggenerationalpositioning inhistoricalnarrativesrsquo Journal of Comparative Family Studies42(3)319ndash27
LeacutetourneauJandMoisanS(2004)lsquoYoungpeoplersquosassimilationofacollectivehistoricalmemoryAcasestudyofQuebeckersofFrench-CanadianheritagersquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress109ndash28
192 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
LowenthalD(1996)Possessed by the Past The heritage crusade and the spoils of historyNewYorkFreePress
McAdamsDP(1993)The Stories We Live By Personal myths and the making of the selfNewYorkGuilfordPress
McLean KC Breen AV and FournierMA (2010) lsquoConstructing the self in earlymiddle and lateadolescentboysNarrativeidentityindividuationandwell-beingrsquo Journal of Research on Adolescence20(1)166ndash87
NakkulaMJandToshalisE(2006)Understanding Youth Adolescent development for educatorsCambridgeMAHarvardEducationPress
NoraP(1996)Realms of Memory Rethinking the French pastTransGoldhammerANewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
PeckCL (2010) lsquolsquolsquoItrsquos not like [Irsquom]Chinese andCanadian I am inbetweenrdquoEthnicity and studentsrsquoconceptionsofhistoricalsignificancersquo Theory and Research in Social Education38(4)574ndash617
PolkinghorneDE(1988)Narrative Knowing and the Human SciencesAlbanyStateUniversityofNewYorkPress
Polkinghorne DE (2005) lsquoNarrative psychology and historical consciousness Relationships andperspectivesrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks3ndash22
RantalaJ(2011)lsquoChildrenasconsumersofhistoricalcultureinFinlandrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies43(4)493ndash506
ReicherSandHopkinsN(2001)Self and Nation Categorization contestation and mobilizationLondonSAGEPublications
RosenzweigRandThelenDP(1998)The Presence of the Past Popular uses of history in American lifeNewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
RuumlsenJ(1993)Studies in MetahistoryPretoriaHumanSciencesResearchCouncilSeixasP(1997)lsquoMappingtheterrainofhistoricalsignificancersquo Social Education61(1)22ndash7SeixasP(2004)lsquoIntroductionrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityof
TorontoPress3ndash20SeixasP(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessTheprogressofknowledgeinapostprogressiveagersquoInStraub
J(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks141ndash62SeixasP(2009)lsquoNationalhistoryandbeyondrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)719ndash22ThorpR(2014)lsquoTowardsanepistemologicaltheoryofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquoHistorical Encounters A
Journal of Historical Consciousness Historical Cultures and History Education1(1)20ndash31TrailleK (2007) lsquolsquolsquoYou should be proud about your history Theymademe feel ashamedrdquoTeaching
historyhurtsrsquo Teaching History 12731ndash7VanSledrightB (2008) lsquoNarrativesofnation-statehistoricalknowledgeandschoolhistoryeducationrsquo
Review of Research in Education32(1)109ndash46WelzerH(2008)lsquoCollateraldamageofhistoryeducationNationalsocialismandtheHolocaustinGerman
familymemoryrsquo Social Research75(1)287ndash314WertschJV(2002)Voices of Collective RememberingCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressWertschJV(2004)lsquoSpecificnarrativesandschematicnarrativetemplatesrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing
Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress49ndash62Wineburg S (2001)Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts Charting the future of teaching the past
PhiladelphiaTempleUniversityPressWineburgSMosborgSPoratDandDuncanA(2007)lsquoCommonbeliefandtheculturalcurriculum
Anintergenerationalstudyofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquo American Educational Research Journal44(1)40ndash76
London Review of Education 193
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
This paperwas published in a special feature called lsquoNegotiating the nation Young peoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo
Thearticlesinthefeatureareasfollows
Angier K (2017) lsquoIn search of historical consciousness An investigation into young South AfricansrsquoknowledgeandunderstandingofldquotheirrdquonationalhistoriesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
DawesDuraisinghE (2017) lsquoMakingnarrativeconnectionsExploringhow late teensrelate theirownnarrativestothehistoricallysignificantpastrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GoldbergT(2017) lsquoTheusefulpast innegotiationAdolescentsrsquouseofhistory innegotiationof inter-groupconflictrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GreverMandVanderVliesT(2017)lsquoWhynationalnarrativesareperpetuatedAliteraturereviewonnewinsightsfromhistorytextbookresearchrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
HolmbergU(2017)lsquoldquoIwasborninthereignhelliprdquoHistoricalorientationinUgandanstudentsrsquonationalnarrativesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
LeacutetourneauJandChapmanA(2017)lsquoEditorialndashNegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
LeacutevesqueS(2017)lsquoHistoryasaldquoGPSrdquoOntheusesofhistoricalnarrativeforFrenchCanadianstudentsrsquolifeorientationandidentityrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
OlofssonHSamuelsson JStolareMandWendell J (2017) lsquoTheSwedesandtheirhistoryrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
SheehanMandDavisonM(2017)lsquoldquoWeneedtoremembertheydiedforusrdquoHowyoungpeopleinNewZealandmakemeaningofwarremembranceandcommemorationoftheFirstWorldWarrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
VanHavereTWilsKDepaepeFVerschaffelLandVanNieuwenhuyseK(2017)lsquoFlemishstudentsrsquohistoricalreferenceknowledgeandnarrativesoftheBelgiannationalpastattheendofsecondaryeducationrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
WertschJV(2017)lsquoForeword ndash NegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
London Review of Education 183
Fig
ure
1M
elvinrsquosdiagram
184 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
Fig
ure
2Stuartrsquosdiagram
London Review of Education 185
Stuart Situating his own life at the confluence of various historical narratives tethering his own story to the history of humanity
StuartwasaboyofItalianAmericanextractionwithspikedhairwhosefamilyhaslivedinthesamesemi-urbanneighbourhoodofGreaterBostonforseveralgenerationsHejokedaroundwithhispeersinclassbutbecamestrikinglyseriousinthecontextoftheinterviewspeakinginaheartfeltwayabouthisfamilyandhisprideinbeingAmericanHealsostatedthathistorywashisfavouritesubject
Stuartrsquosdiagramwaswide-rangingintermsofboththemeandtimespanHepickedthefollowingthemeslsquowarsandbattlesrsquowhichleduptooratleastprecededlsquomodernterrorismrsquolsquofamouspeoplersquowithJesusChristtheonlynamedpersonlsquoconstructionandfactorizationrsquo[sic]whichtracesbroadtechnologicaldevelopmentsinhumanhistoryandlsquolandandthefoundersrsquowhich broadly relates to the discovery andor establishment of different empires or nationstates The general chronological element to the threads suggests narratives unfolding overtimeanimpressionreinforcedbyacommentmadebyStuartinhisinterview
InterviewerObviously IrsquoveaskedyoutodothisbuthaveyouthoughtaboutthisbigpicturebeforeOrwasitjustmdash
StuartIactuallyhaveIwasjustlikesittingathomeandjustlikethinkinglikewhydideverythingstartandlikehowitactuallypusheditselfintoeachotheranditdevelopedintoeverythingandthenIcamealongandIfeltlikeIwasapartofiteventhoughIwasnrsquotlikephysicallyapartofitLikeIthoughtIwasinvolvedbecauseofallthishappening
Hismetaphoriclanguagewhichconveysasenseofhistoricaleventsslidingorpilingintooneanotherdrawsattentiontohisbeingimmersedinsomebiggerstoryconcerningthewholeofhumanhistory
InhisdiagramStuartsituateshislifeattheconfluenceofdifferentnarrativestrandsunfoldinginhistoryhealsotethershispersonalstorytothatofhumankindwritlargeThatisinbeingasked to show how his own life connects to the past he elects to tell a broader story ofhumanityIfwecompareStuartrsquosdiagramtothatofMelvin it is lessofanexplorationofhisindividualstoryandmoreanexpressionaboutbelongingtoacollectivestory
Jess Exploring how the past is helping shape the ongoing story of her own personal development situating her own life at the confluence of various historical narratives
Jesswasagirlwith longbrownhairanaccomplishedgymnastanddancerShespokeofherJewish ancestry and her familyrsquos involvement in the LGBTmovement as well as her closeattachmenttoherlocalurbancommunitywhereshehaslivedherwholelifeShearticulatedherwordscarefullyoftenpausingasiftoreflectbeforerespondingtoquestions
AtfirstglanceJessrsquosdiagramdoesnotexhibitthekindofflowvisibleintheprevioustwodiagramsHoweverthereisaswirlingdynamicatplaymadeevidentbyherverbalexplanationofherdiagram
SoattheverycentreofmydiagramIhavejustalittlekindofbubblethatsayslsquomersquoAndImadeitabubblebecauseIthinkIrsquomnotallthatsortofwelldefinedbutitrsquosallsortofjustmushandthingsjustkindofflowinandinfluencemeSoIhavesortofacirclearoundmyselfandIhaveabunchofdifferentsortsofmovementsandeventsinhistorythatIthinkhavemostinfluencedmesuchastheenvironmentalmovementsandenvironmentaldegradationThecivilrightsmovementstheGLBTmovementswomenrsquosrightsmovementsJewishhistoryJewishmovementsandwarsaresortofthemaineventsthatinfluencedmeandtheninmoreofaninnercircleIhavemorebroad
186 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
topicssuchaseducationtechnologydancingandmusicthathavendashtheyallhavetheirownsortofhistoryandtheyallhaveapastthatIdonrsquotnecessarilyknowasmuchaboutinaconcretewaybutumndashallofthosethingsinfluencemesotheyrsquoreallflowingintothecentreThatrsquoswhereIam
Figure 3Jessrsquosdiagram
InthiscaseherongoingpersonaldevelopmentarguablyprovidesthenarrativecentrepieceorunifyingfactorThediagramalsoservesasanassertionofheremergingidentityndashintermsofeventsthathaveinfluencedhervaluesandsenseofwhosheisaswellasherpersonaltalentsandinterestsAsbecameevidentinherinterviewhowevershealsosituatesherselfasbeingattheconfluenceofdifferenthistoricalnarrativesForexampleshetalksaboutbeingatacertainmoment in thehistoryof theenvironmentwhichhasbeenshapedbypreviousgenerationsrsquoactionslsquomygenerationwersquoregoingtobereallyreallydealingwiththatrsquoShetalksaboutbeingshapedbyandinheritingthelegacyofthewomenrsquosrightsmovementcivilrightsmovementandJewishhistoryWithregardtothegayrightsmovementinwhichherfamilyhasbeenimmersedshehasasenseofbeingpartofhistoryinthemakinglsquothemovementisnow Youknowtherersquosbeenmovementsinthepastcertainlybutitrsquoslikeahugethingnowrsquo
How students talked about their diagrams The importance of epistemology
Theways inwhich students in the study talked about their diagramswere revealing of thepotentialrelationshipbetweentheirunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgeandtheir individualhistoricalconsciousnessInparticulartherewasacontrastbetweenstudents
London Review of Education 187
who presented their diagrams as contingent subjective interpretations of the relationshipbetweentheirownlivesandthepastandthosewhoappearedtopresenttheirdiagramsasself-evidentstraightforwardrepresentations
Jessforinstancetalkedfromthestartaboutnotbeinglsquoallthatwelldefinedrsquoasreflectedby the blob at the centre of her diagram There is a sense of fluidity ormovement in herdiagramndashasmuchintermsofherowninterpretationofherownplaceinhistoryasineventsordevelopmentsthemselvesShowinganawarenessofthelimitationsofherownknowledgeshestatesthatshedidnotwanttoexcludeitemsfromherdiagramsimplybecauseofherownignorance
MoreoverintalkingaboutthedifferentelementsofherdiagramshespokeinmetacognitivetermsaboutthedifferencesbetweenlearningaboutJewishhistoryatthetemplewhereitwasframedas lsquoourhistoryrsquoandatschoolwhereitwastreatedassomeoneelsersquoshistoryWithregardtothewomenrsquosrightsmovementshesaid
Sowomenrsquos rightsrsquomovements ndash umm ndashmymomwas a pretty hardcore feminist and IrsquovedefinitelyinheritedsomeofthatandIrsquovereallyenjoyedmostlythisyearactuallyndashIlearnedaboutwomenrsquosrightsinUSHistoryandthatrsquosbeenreallyinterestingsortofhowthatrsquosplayedoutAndprobablybecauseofmymotherandotheradultsandotherwomenthatIrsquovegrownupwithIrsquomlikendashveryconsciousofthatthatIamawomanandthatotherwomenhavedonealottogettowhereIamtodayAndtherersquosdefinitelyasenseofprideformeIhavealwaysbeenverysortofconsciousofthatheritage
Here Jesspresents the impactof themovementassomewhat inevitablegivenhermotherrsquosvaluesHowevershealsorefersexplicitlytoherenjoymentandinterestinlearningaboutthistopicatschoolSheexpresseshersenseofconnectiontowomenrsquoshistoryandheractiveprideinitwhilealsoprovidinganexplanationforwhyshefeelsconnectedtoitshowingacapacityforself-reflectionormetacognitionItisworthnotinghoweverthatshedidnotcommentontheprogressivetemplatethatseemedtoundergirdhernarrative
StuartincontrastpresentedhisdiagraminmorefixedtermsWheninvitedtotalkaboutitheproceededtolisteverythingcontainedwithinit
WellfirstofallIputthelandandthefoundersbecausethesearethebasicgroupsandpeoplethatstartedeverythingThepeoplewhostartedMesopotamiaAncientThebesyouknowlikethatPeoplewhowereintheRomanEmpireallthoseVikingsthefamousexplorersChristopherColumbusMagellanetceterahellip
Inthisextracthe iscitingundisputed lsquofactsrsquohedoesnotusemodifying languagebut insteadstates straightforwardlywhat happenedWhen asked how he knew about these aspects ofthepastheresponded lsquoMostofthestuffcamefromschool Iwas justtryingtothinkwhathappenedrsquo Stuart expressed a greatdealof connection to thepast including asmentionedearlierthathefeltpartofanongoinghistoricalprocessWhileJessspokewithprideyetanalyticdetachmentofherconnectiontothewomenrsquosmovementStuartdidnotexhibitthecapacitytotalkinametacognitivewayaboutthecontentorformofhisdiagramndashalthoughthisdoesnotmeanthathewasincapableofdoingso
Inhis interviewStuartalso talkedabout learning fromhisgrandmotherabout thepastincludinglifelessonsshegleanedfromweatheringtheGreatDepressionHereferredtohercorroboratingwhathelearnedatschool
Anditrsquoscoolbecause[myteacher]canteachmeaboutitatthesametimeandthenshecanjusttellmeaboutthestuffItrsquosreallycoolhellipIlikeaskherlsquoDoyourememberthisrsquohelliplsquoDoyourememberbootleggingandstufflikethatrsquoAndshewaslikelsquoyeaIrememberthatrsquowhichiscoolbecauseyouactuallyknowwhathappenedYoucanjusttalktoheraboutit
188 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
It is notable that he does not talk about hearing his grandmotherrsquos perspective about whathappenedratherheviewsherasanauthorityonhistorypresumablybecausehethinksshedirectlyexperiencedwhatisinhistextbook
Melvinrsquosstancetowardhisdiagramwasmoretentativeinnosmallpartbecauseheactuallyproducedtwodiagramsthefirstversionwasabrainstormofinfluencesonhislifewhichhethought conveyed an even spreadof influences on his lifeHowever in the second version(featuredinthispaper)lsquoItriedtomakeitinchronologicalordersotospeakLikewhatwasinheritedthenthingsthataffectedmelateronrsquoFurtherhespokerepeatedlyabouthisparticularlifeexperiencesaffectinghisperspectiveontheworldandonthepast
YouknowIwasnrsquotbroughtupinthesametypeofenvironmentthat[myparents]wereIwasbroughtupinAmericainMassachusettsatthatAndIthoughtthatwassomethingthatreallyaffectsyouanditaffectshowyoulookatliketheinternationalpoliticalsystemandwhatnothellipIthinkbecausemyparentsarefromoverseasitdefinitelyhelpsmelookatthingsonalargerscaleButIdodefinitelythinkincomparisontothemIlookatthingsfromanAmericanperspective
At the same time he assumes some commonality with other people such as people fromhisgenerationwhoaregrowingup inadigitalenvironment InMelvinrsquoscasehisoverarchingnarrativeisabout thewayinwhichhisoutlookandlifeprospectshavebeenaffectedbythepastandexternalforceshoweverheisalsoabletolsquostepoutsidersquothatnarrativetoreflectonthewaysinwhichhisapproachtothetaskhasbeeninfluencedbythoseverylifeexperiencesandfamilyinfluencesLikeStuartheisclosetohisgrandmotherHoweverwhenhereferstotalkingwithherabout thepastandher life inTrinidadhiscomment isaboutherperspective lsquotheobstaclesofyourpastdefinitelyaffectyourpointofviewrsquoInturnhetalksaboutherinfluenceonhimlsquoIthinkthestoriesthatyoursquoretolddefinitelyaffectthewayyouthinkrsquo
OtherstudentsmadecommentsthatindicatedarelationshipbetweentheirawarenessoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgeandthewaysinwhichtheyviewedtheirownrelationshiptothepastThey(1)acknowledgedtheirownsubjectivityandorthelimitationsoftheirperspectiveontheirrelationshiptothepast(2)presentedtheirdiagramsandexplanationsas tentative and subject to alteration andor (3) stepped outside themselves to reflect ontheir reactions to learningabouthistory In factwhile Jesswas theonly studentwhomadecommentsthatcoveredallthreeofthesecategoriesfewstudentsappearedtotakethemorestraightforwardviewofhistoricalknowledgeapparentlyevincedbyStuartThefactthatstudentsinthesamplewereacademicallysuccessfulaged16ndash18andlivinginacitywithahighlyeducatedworkforceandmajoracademicinstitutionsprobablyneedstobetakenintoaccountwithregardtothisfinding
ItisalsoworthreiteratingthattheresearcherwasnotaproverbialflyonthewallwhilecollectingthisdataForexampleStuartpresentedhimselfasagoodstudentwholikedhistoryandrespectedhiselders justpriortotheinterviewtherewasadrugsbustattheschoolbypoliceanditispossiblehewantedtoconveythathewasalsquodecentkidrsquoMelvindiscussedhisrelative good fortune comparedwithother youngblackmen (including implicitly others athisschool)insodoinghewasabletocommunicatethathewasfromahighlyeducatedfamilylivinginadesirablepartoftownJessmeanwhilepositionedherselfasathoughtfulpoliticallyinformedstudentWhiletheseimpressionsarepurelyspeculativetheysuggestthattheschoolcontextandtheperceivedidentityoftheresearcherndashaswellastheframingoftheactivityndashhelpedtoshapewhatstudentschosetoshareHoweverrecognizingthatthereislikelytobesomefluidityintermsofhowindividualsrelatetheirownlivestothepastdoesnotdiminishthefindingthattheyoungpeopleinthisstudyusedavarietyofnarrativestrategiestodosoorthatthewaysinwhichtheytalkedaboutthosestrategiesappearedtodifferaccordingtotheirepistemologicalunderstandings
London Review of Education 189
Implications
InconjunctionwiththeoverallsummaryshowninTable2thesethreecasesprovidesnapshotsofdifferentways inwhichyoungpeopleusednarrativestrategiestoconnecttheirownlivesto the past aswell as differences in theways inwhich they talked about those strategiesWhilethisstudyishighlyexploratorythesecasespointtotheapparentdiversityofways inwhichyoungpeoplethinkaboutthemselvesinrelationtothepastaswellasthesignificanceof epistemological understanding in the construction of individual historical consciousnessOf coursemany questions remain For example was the ability of Jess andMelvin to talkreflectively about their diagrams and their relationship to thepast an indicationof rigoroushistoricalunderstandinginadisciplinarysenseorofmoregenericcriticalorabstractthinkingskills Further howdo teensrsquo broaddevelopmental trajectoriesndash such as thoseoutlinedbyErikson(1968)ndash intersectwiththeirhistoricalunderstanding Itwouldbe interestingtoaskchildrenofdifferentagestocompletethediagramtaskYoungerstudentswouldpresumablyfind it challenging tocreate anarrative about theirown lives in toto as indeed someof thestudentsinthisstudymayhavedoneExaminingthepotentiallinksbetweenthedevelopmentofautobiographicalstory-tellingskillsandhowyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastcouldbeanotherproductivelineofresearch
Methodologicallythestudyopensupsomeinterestingpossibilitiesespeciallyasthediagramactivity invited students to synthesize their thinking about their personal connections to thepastinarelativelyopen-endedmannerThetaskinstructionsandoranalysiscouldbealteredtoinvestigaterelatedphenomenaForexamplehowifatalldostudentsdealwiththeideathataspeopletheyareevolvingandmayhaveashiftingrelationshiptoorperspectiveonthepastTowhatextentdotheyportraythemselvesasactiveagentsintheirownrightratherthanindividualssubjecttoforcesbeyondtheircontrolHowdodifferencesamongtheirvariouslsquometa-historicalrsquounderstandingssuchastheirworkingideasabouthistoricalcausalityrelatetohowtheytalkaboutthemselves inrelation to thepastHowwould theyposition themselvesrelative toperceivednationalnarrativesWhile it is impossible toproveadirectrelationship fromthis singlestudyndashorthereasonsbehindsucharelationshipndashstudentswhodisplayedanunderstandingoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgealsogavetheimpressionofbeingmoreempoweredintermsoftalkingabouttheirfutureandnavigatingtheirownemergingidentities
Withregardtopractice therangeofpersonaldiagramsproducedbystudentsconfirmsthatifteachersarelookingtobuildontheirstudentsrsquoexistingideasandunderstandingsalsquoonesizefitsallrsquoapproach is likely tobemisguidedandnon-inclusiveandthatnationalnarrativesare only one kind of narrative towhich young people feel connected This paper does notadvocatethatyoungpeoplebeinvitedtorelateeverythingtheylearninhistorytothemselvesHoweverofferingopen-endedandpotentiallycreativeopportunitiesforthemtoreflectontheconnectionstheyperceivebetweenthemselvesandthepastislikelytobeengagingparticularlyforolderteensgiventheirbroaderdevelopmentalneedtoestablishindependentidentities
FurthermoresuchopportunitiescanactivelybuildhistoricalunderstandingGiventhesheervarietyofdiagramsthatwillalmostcertainlybeproducedwithinasingleclassroomstudentscan learn a greatdeal by looking at anddiscussing thediagramsof their peers inways thatdeveloptheirunderstandingthatpeoplehavedifferentperspectivesonthepastandthattheseperspectivesareshapedat least inpartbybiographicalorothercontextual factorsLookingatothersrsquodiagramscanopenupdifferentpossibilitiesforyoungpeopleintermsofhowtheythinkabouttheirownrelationshiptothepastandgivethemanewperspectiveontheirownidentityandoutlookIndeedthepowerofthisapproachcanbefurtherenhancedifclassroomsaredigitallyconnectedtoclassroomsinothercountriesengaginginthesameactivityinpartbecauseitallowsprevailingandassumednationalnarrativestobecomevisible
190 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
While somepeoplewouldcertainly resist thenotionof lettingyoungpeopleuse schoolhistoryasavenueforexploringorinterpretingtheirownlivesidentitiesandvaluesthisresearchshedslightonsomeofthevariedwaysinwhichyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastoruseitfororientingpurposesAsJessinparticulardemonstratedasophisticatedunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgecangohandinhandwithaself-awarenessandevenprideinonersquosrelationshiptothepastWearguablyoweittoourstudentstohelpthemthinkaboutwhotheyareandthelivestheyarelivingorwanttoliveinourrapidlychangingandevermorecomplexworldWeneedtosupportthemtointerpretthepastandtodeveloprobusthistoricalunderstandingswealsoneedtosupportthemtointerprettheirownnarratives
Acknowledgements
TheauthorwishestothanktheGermanacosFoundationforsupportingtheresearchdiscussedinthispaperaswellasHowardGardnerHelenHasteandMeiraLevinsonforprovidingguidancewiththeresearchMycolleaguesEdwardClappandShariTishmangavehelpfulfeedbackonearlydrafts
Notes on the contributor
ElizabethDawesDuraisinghisaresearchassociateandprincipalinvestigatoratProjectZeroaresearchcentreat theHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducationwhereshealsoservesasalectureroneducationShewaspreviouslyahighschoolhistoryteacherforeightyearsworkinginbothEnglandandAustralia
References
AhonenS(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessAviableparadigmforhistoryeducationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(6)697ndash707
Almarza DJ (2001) lsquoContexts shaping minority language studentsrsquo perceptions of American historyrsquo Journal of Social Studies Research25(2)4ndash22
AnS(2009)lsquoLearningUShistoryinanageofglobalizationandtransnationalmigrationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)763ndash87
AndrewsM(2007)Shaping History Narratives of political changeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressAngvikMandVonBorriesB(eds)(1997)Youth and History A comparative European survey on historical
consciousness and political attitudes among adolescentsHamburgKoumlrber-StiftungAshbyR(2005)lsquoStudentsrsquoapproachestovalidatinghistoricalclaimsrsquoInAshbyRGordonPandLeeP
(eds)Understanding History Recent research in history educationLondonRoutledge21ndash36AudigierFandFinkN(2010)lsquoPupilsandschoolhistoryinFranceandSwitzerlandrsquo Education 3ndash1338
(3)329ndash39BambergM(2011)lsquoWhoamINarrationanditscontributiontoselfandidentityrsquo Theory and Psychology
21(1)3ndash24BartonKC(2001)lsquolsquolsquoYoursquodbewantingtoknowaboutthepastrdquoSocialcontextsofchildrenrsquoshistorical
understandinginNorthernIrelandandtheUSArsquo Comparative Education37(1)89ndash106BartonKCandLevstikLS(2004)Teaching History for the Common GoodMahwahNJLawrenceErlbaum
AssociatesBartonKCandMcCullyAW(2005)lsquoHistoryidentityandtheschoolcurriculuminNorthernIreland
Anempiricalstudyofsecondarystudentsrsquoideasandperspectivesrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(1)85ndash116
London Review of Education 191
Baynham M (2010) lsquoAlexandra Georgakopoulou Small stories interaction and identitiesrsquo Applied Linguistics31(3)471ndash3
BilligM(1995)Banal NationalismLondonSAGEPublicationsBillmann-Mahecha E and Hausen M (2005) lsquoEmpirical psychological approaches to the historical
consciousnessofchildrenrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks163ndash86
BoixMansillaV(2001)The Pursuit of Understanding A study of exemplary high school studentsrsquo conceptions of knowledge validation in science and history EdDthesisHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducation
BrunerJS(1990)Acts of MeaningCambridgeMAHarvardUniversityPressBrunerJS(2005)lsquoPastandpresentasnarrativeconstructionsrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and
Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks23ndash43DamonWandHartD (1988)Self-Understanding in Childhood and AdolescenceNewYorkCambridge
UniversityPressDantoAC(1965)Analytical Philosophy of HistoryCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressEpsteinT(1998)lsquoDeconstructingdifferencesinAfrican-AmericanandEuropean-Americanadolescentsrsquo
perspectivesonUShistoryrsquo Curriculum Inquiry28(4)397ndash423EriksonEH(1968)Identity Youth and CrisisNewYorkWWNortonFivush R Bohanek JG and ZamanW (2011) lsquoPersonal and intergenerational narratives in relation
to adolescentsrsquowell-beingrsquo InHabermasT (ed)The Development of Autobiographical Reasoning in Adolescence and Beyond (NewDirectionsforChildandAdolescentDevelopment131)45ndash57
GoldbergTPoratDandSchwarzBB(2006)lsquolsquoHerestartedtheriftweseetodayrsquoStudentandtextbooknarrativesbetweenofficialandcountermemoryrsquo Narrative Inquiry16(2)319ndash47
GoldbergTSchwarzBBandPoratD(2008)lsquoLivinganddormantcollectivememoriesascontextsofhistorylearningrsquo Learning and Instruction18(3)223ndash37
GreverMHaydnTandRibbensK(2008)lsquoIdentityandschoolhistoryTheperspectiveofyoungpeoplefromtheNetherlandsandEnglandrsquo British Journal of Educational Studies56(1)76ndash94
HaeberliP(2005) lsquoRelatingtohistoryAnempiricaltypologyrsquo International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research5(1)1ndash10
Hammack PL and Pilecki A (2012) lsquoNarrative as a rootmetaphor for political psychologyrsquo Political Psychology33(1)75ndash103
HarterS(1999)The Construction of the Self A developmental perspectiveNewYorkGuilfordPressHawkey K and Prior J (2011) lsquoHistory memory cultures and meaning in the classroomrsquo Journal of
Curriculum Studies43(2)231ndash47HoferBKandPintrichPR(eds)(2002)Personal Epistemology The psychology of beliefs about knowledge and
knowing MahwahNJLawrenceErlbaumAssociatesKeganR (1982)The Evolving Self Problem and process in human development CambridgeMAHarvard
UniversityPressLee P (2004a) lsquoUnderstanding historyrsquo In Seixas P (ed) Theorizing Historical Consciousness Toronto
UniversityofTorontoPress129ndash64LeeP(2004b)lsquoldquoWalkingbackwardsintotomorrowrdquoHistoricalconsciousnessandunderstandinghistoryrsquo
International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research4(1)1ndash46LeePJ(2005)lsquoPuttingprinciplesintopracticeUnderstandinghistoryrsquoInDonovanMSandBransford
JD (eds)How Students Learn History mathematics and science in the classroomWashingtonDCNationalAcademiesPress31ndash77
LeePandShemiltD(2004)lsquolsquolsquoIjustwishwecouldgobackinthepastandfindoutwhatreallyhappenedrdquoProgressioninunderstandingabouthistoricalaccountsrsquo Teaching History 11725ndash31
LenzC(2011) lsquoGenealogyandarchaeologyAnalyzinggenerationalpositioning inhistoricalnarrativesrsquo Journal of Comparative Family Studies42(3)319ndash27
LeacutetourneauJandMoisanS(2004)lsquoYoungpeoplersquosassimilationofacollectivehistoricalmemoryAcasestudyofQuebeckersofFrench-CanadianheritagersquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress109ndash28
192 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
LowenthalD(1996)Possessed by the Past The heritage crusade and the spoils of historyNewYorkFreePress
McAdamsDP(1993)The Stories We Live By Personal myths and the making of the selfNewYorkGuilfordPress
McLean KC Breen AV and FournierMA (2010) lsquoConstructing the self in earlymiddle and lateadolescentboysNarrativeidentityindividuationandwell-beingrsquo Journal of Research on Adolescence20(1)166ndash87
NakkulaMJandToshalisE(2006)Understanding Youth Adolescent development for educatorsCambridgeMAHarvardEducationPress
NoraP(1996)Realms of Memory Rethinking the French pastTransGoldhammerANewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
PeckCL (2010) lsquolsquolsquoItrsquos not like [Irsquom]Chinese andCanadian I am inbetweenrdquoEthnicity and studentsrsquoconceptionsofhistoricalsignificancersquo Theory and Research in Social Education38(4)574ndash617
PolkinghorneDE(1988)Narrative Knowing and the Human SciencesAlbanyStateUniversityofNewYorkPress
Polkinghorne DE (2005) lsquoNarrative psychology and historical consciousness Relationships andperspectivesrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks3ndash22
RantalaJ(2011)lsquoChildrenasconsumersofhistoricalcultureinFinlandrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies43(4)493ndash506
ReicherSandHopkinsN(2001)Self and Nation Categorization contestation and mobilizationLondonSAGEPublications
RosenzweigRandThelenDP(1998)The Presence of the Past Popular uses of history in American lifeNewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
RuumlsenJ(1993)Studies in MetahistoryPretoriaHumanSciencesResearchCouncilSeixasP(1997)lsquoMappingtheterrainofhistoricalsignificancersquo Social Education61(1)22ndash7SeixasP(2004)lsquoIntroductionrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityof
TorontoPress3ndash20SeixasP(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessTheprogressofknowledgeinapostprogressiveagersquoInStraub
J(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks141ndash62SeixasP(2009)lsquoNationalhistoryandbeyondrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)719ndash22ThorpR(2014)lsquoTowardsanepistemologicaltheoryofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquoHistorical Encounters A
Journal of Historical Consciousness Historical Cultures and History Education1(1)20ndash31TrailleK (2007) lsquolsquolsquoYou should be proud about your history Theymademe feel ashamedrdquoTeaching
historyhurtsrsquo Teaching History 12731ndash7VanSledrightB (2008) lsquoNarrativesofnation-statehistoricalknowledgeandschoolhistoryeducationrsquo
Review of Research in Education32(1)109ndash46WelzerH(2008)lsquoCollateraldamageofhistoryeducationNationalsocialismandtheHolocaustinGerman
familymemoryrsquo Social Research75(1)287ndash314WertschJV(2002)Voices of Collective RememberingCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressWertschJV(2004)lsquoSpecificnarrativesandschematicnarrativetemplatesrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing
Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress49ndash62Wineburg S (2001)Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts Charting the future of teaching the past
PhiladelphiaTempleUniversityPressWineburgSMosborgSPoratDandDuncanA(2007)lsquoCommonbeliefandtheculturalcurriculum
Anintergenerationalstudyofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquo American Educational Research Journal44(1)40ndash76
London Review of Education 193
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
This paperwas published in a special feature called lsquoNegotiating the nation Young peoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo
Thearticlesinthefeatureareasfollows
Angier K (2017) lsquoIn search of historical consciousness An investigation into young South AfricansrsquoknowledgeandunderstandingofldquotheirrdquonationalhistoriesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
DawesDuraisinghE (2017) lsquoMakingnarrativeconnectionsExploringhow late teensrelate theirownnarrativestothehistoricallysignificantpastrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GoldbergT(2017) lsquoTheusefulpast innegotiationAdolescentsrsquouseofhistory innegotiationof inter-groupconflictrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GreverMandVanderVliesT(2017)lsquoWhynationalnarrativesareperpetuatedAliteraturereviewonnewinsightsfromhistorytextbookresearchrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
HolmbergU(2017)lsquoldquoIwasborninthereignhelliprdquoHistoricalorientationinUgandanstudentsrsquonationalnarrativesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
LeacutetourneauJandChapmanA(2017)lsquoEditorialndashNegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
LeacutevesqueS(2017)lsquoHistoryasaldquoGPSrdquoOntheusesofhistoricalnarrativeforFrenchCanadianstudentsrsquolifeorientationandidentityrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
OlofssonHSamuelsson JStolareMandWendell J (2017) lsquoTheSwedesandtheirhistoryrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
SheehanMandDavisonM(2017)lsquoldquoWeneedtoremembertheydiedforusrdquoHowyoungpeopleinNewZealandmakemeaningofwarremembranceandcommemorationoftheFirstWorldWarrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
VanHavereTWilsKDepaepeFVerschaffelLandVanNieuwenhuyseK(2017)lsquoFlemishstudentsrsquohistoricalreferenceknowledgeandnarrativesoftheBelgiannationalpastattheendofsecondaryeducationrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
WertschJV(2017)lsquoForeword ndash NegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
184 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
Fig
ure
2Stuartrsquosdiagram
London Review of Education 185
Stuart Situating his own life at the confluence of various historical narratives tethering his own story to the history of humanity
StuartwasaboyofItalianAmericanextractionwithspikedhairwhosefamilyhaslivedinthesamesemi-urbanneighbourhoodofGreaterBostonforseveralgenerationsHejokedaroundwithhispeersinclassbutbecamestrikinglyseriousinthecontextoftheinterviewspeakinginaheartfeltwayabouthisfamilyandhisprideinbeingAmericanHealsostatedthathistorywashisfavouritesubject
Stuartrsquosdiagramwaswide-rangingintermsofboththemeandtimespanHepickedthefollowingthemeslsquowarsandbattlesrsquowhichleduptooratleastprecededlsquomodernterrorismrsquolsquofamouspeoplersquowithJesusChristtheonlynamedpersonlsquoconstructionandfactorizationrsquo[sic]whichtracesbroadtechnologicaldevelopmentsinhumanhistoryandlsquolandandthefoundersrsquowhich broadly relates to the discovery andor establishment of different empires or nationstates The general chronological element to the threads suggests narratives unfolding overtimeanimpressionreinforcedbyacommentmadebyStuartinhisinterview
InterviewerObviously IrsquoveaskedyoutodothisbuthaveyouthoughtaboutthisbigpicturebeforeOrwasitjustmdash
StuartIactuallyhaveIwasjustlikesittingathomeandjustlikethinkinglikewhydideverythingstartandlikehowitactuallypusheditselfintoeachotheranditdevelopedintoeverythingandthenIcamealongandIfeltlikeIwasapartofiteventhoughIwasnrsquotlikephysicallyapartofitLikeIthoughtIwasinvolvedbecauseofallthishappening
Hismetaphoriclanguagewhichconveysasenseofhistoricaleventsslidingorpilingintooneanotherdrawsattentiontohisbeingimmersedinsomebiggerstoryconcerningthewholeofhumanhistory
InhisdiagramStuartsituateshislifeattheconfluenceofdifferentnarrativestrandsunfoldinginhistoryhealsotethershispersonalstorytothatofhumankindwritlargeThatisinbeingasked to show how his own life connects to the past he elects to tell a broader story ofhumanityIfwecompareStuartrsquosdiagramtothatofMelvin it is lessofanexplorationofhisindividualstoryandmoreanexpressionaboutbelongingtoacollectivestory
Jess Exploring how the past is helping shape the ongoing story of her own personal development situating her own life at the confluence of various historical narratives
Jesswasagirlwith longbrownhairanaccomplishedgymnastanddancerShespokeofherJewish ancestry and her familyrsquos involvement in the LGBTmovement as well as her closeattachmenttoherlocalurbancommunitywhereshehaslivedherwholelifeShearticulatedherwordscarefullyoftenpausingasiftoreflectbeforerespondingtoquestions
AtfirstglanceJessrsquosdiagramdoesnotexhibitthekindofflowvisibleintheprevioustwodiagramsHoweverthereisaswirlingdynamicatplaymadeevidentbyherverbalexplanationofherdiagram
SoattheverycentreofmydiagramIhavejustalittlekindofbubblethatsayslsquomersquoAndImadeitabubblebecauseIthinkIrsquomnotallthatsortofwelldefinedbutitrsquosallsortofjustmushandthingsjustkindofflowinandinfluencemeSoIhavesortofacirclearoundmyselfandIhaveabunchofdifferentsortsofmovementsandeventsinhistorythatIthinkhavemostinfluencedmesuchastheenvironmentalmovementsandenvironmentaldegradationThecivilrightsmovementstheGLBTmovementswomenrsquosrightsmovementsJewishhistoryJewishmovementsandwarsaresortofthemaineventsthatinfluencedmeandtheninmoreofaninnercircleIhavemorebroad
186 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
topicssuchaseducationtechnologydancingandmusicthathavendashtheyallhavetheirownsortofhistoryandtheyallhaveapastthatIdonrsquotnecessarilyknowasmuchaboutinaconcretewaybutumndashallofthosethingsinfluencemesotheyrsquoreallflowingintothecentreThatrsquoswhereIam
Figure 3Jessrsquosdiagram
InthiscaseherongoingpersonaldevelopmentarguablyprovidesthenarrativecentrepieceorunifyingfactorThediagramalsoservesasanassertionofheremergingidentityndashintermsofeventsthathaveinfluencedhervaluesandsenseofwhosheisaswellasherpersonaltalentsandinterestsAsbecameevidentinherinterviewhowevershealsosituatesherselfasbeingattheconfluenceofdifferenthistoricalnarrativesForexampleshetalksaboutbeingatacertainmoment in thehistoryof theenvironmentwhichhasbeenshapedbypreviousgenerationsrsquoactionslsquomygenerationwersquoregoingtobereallyreallydealingwiththatrsquoShetalksaboutbeingshapedbyandinheritingthelegacyofthewomenrsquosrightsmovementcivilrightsmovementandJewishhistoryWithregardtothegayrightsmovementinwhichherfamilyhasbeenimmersedshehasasenseofbeingpartofhistoryinthemakinglsquothemovementisnow Youknowtherersquosbeenmovementsinthepastcertainlybutitrsquoslikeahugethingnowrsquo
How students talked about their diagrams The importance of epistemology
Theways inwhich students in the study talked about their diagramswere revealing of thepotentialrelationshipbetweentheirunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgeandtheir individualhistoricalconsciousnessInparticulartherewasacontrastbetweenstudents
London Review of Education 187
who presented their diagrams as contingent subjective interpretations of the relationshipbetweentheirownlivesandthepastandthosewhoappearedtopresenttheirdiagramsasself-evidentstraightforwardrepresentations
Jessforinstancetalkedfromthestartaboutnotbeinglsquoallthatwelldefinedrsquoasreflectedby the blob at the centre of her diagram There is a sense of fluidity ormovement in herdiagramndashasmuchintermsofherowninterpretationofherownplaceinhistoryasineventsordevelopmentsthemselvesShowinganawarenessofthelimitationsofherownknowledgeshestatesthatshedidnotwanttoexcludeitemsfromherdiagramsimplybecauseofherownignorance
MoreoverintalkingaboutthedifferentelementsofherdiagramshespokeinmetacognitivetermsaboutthedifferencesbetweenlearningaboutJewishhistoryatthetemplewhereitwasframedas lsquoourhistoryrsquoandatschoolwhereitwastreatedassomeoneelsersquoshistoryWithregardtothewomenrsquosrightsmovementshesaid
Sowomenrsquos rightsrsquomovements ndash umm ndashmymomwas a pretty hardcore feminist and IrsquovedefinitelyinheritedsomeofthatandIrsquovereallyenjoyedmostlythisyearactuallyndashIlearnedaboutwomenrsquosrightsinUSHistoryandthatrsquosbeenreallyinterestingsortofhowthatrsquosplayedoutAndprobablybecauseofmymotherandotheradultsandotherwomenthatIrsquovegrownupwithIrsquomlikendashveryconsciousofthatthatIamawomanandthatotherwomenhavedonealottogettowhereIamtodayAndtherersquosdefinitelyasenseofprideformeIhavealwaysbeenverysortofconsciousofthatheritage
Here Jesspresents the impactof themovementassomewhat inevitablegivenhermotherrsquosvaluesHowevershealsorefersexplicitlytoherenjoymentandinterestinlearningaboutthistopicatschoolSheexpresseshersenseofconnectiontowomenrsquoshistoryandheractiveprideinitwhilealsoprovidinganexplanationforwhyshefeelsconnectedtoitshowingacapacityforself-reflectionormetacognitionItisworthnotinghoweverthatshedidnotcommentontheprogressivetemplatethatseemedtoundergirdhernarrative
StuartincontrastpresentedhisdiagraminmorefixedtermsWheninvitedtotalkaboutitheproceededtolisteverythingcontainedwithinit
WellfirstofallIputthelandandthefoundersbecausethesearethebasicgroupsandpeoplethatstartedeverythingThepeoplewhostartedMesopotamiaAncientThebesyouknowlikethatPeoplewhowereintheRomanEmpireallthoseVikingsthefamousexplorersChristopherColumbusMagellanetceterahellip
Inthisextracthe iscitingundisputed lsquofactsrsquohedoesnotusemodifying languagebut insteadstates straightforwardlywhat happenedWhen asked how he knew about these aspects ofthepastheresponded lsquoMostofthestuffcamefromschool Iwas justtryingtothinkwhathappenedrsquo Stuart expressed a greatdealof connection to thepast including asmentionedearlierthathefeltpartofanongoinghistoricalprocessWhileJessspokewithprideyetanalyticdetachmentofherconnectiontothewomenrsquosmovementStuartdidnotexhibitthecapacitytotalkinametacognitivewayaboutthecontentorformofhisdiagramndashalthoughthisdoesnotmeanthathewasincapableofdoingso
Inhis interviewStuartalso talkedabout learning fromhisgrandmotherabout thepastincludinglifelessonsshegleanedfromweatheringtheGreatDepressionHereferredtohercorroboratingwhathelearnedatschool
Anditrsquoscoolbecause[myteacher]canteachmeaboutitatthesametimeandthenshecanjusttellmeaboutthestuffItrsquosreallycoolhellipIlikeaskherlsquoDoyourememberthisrsquohelliplsquoDoyourememberbootleggingandstufflikethatrsquoAndshewaslikelsquoyeaIrememberthatrsquowhichiscoolbecauseyouactuallyknowwhathappenedYoucanjusttalktoheraboutit
188 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
It is notable that he does not talk about hearing his grandmotherrsquos perspective about whathappenedratherheviewsherasanauthorityonhistorypresumablybecausehethinksshedirectlyexperiencedwhatisinhistextbook
Melvinrsquosstancetowardhisdiagramwasmoretentativeinnosmallpartbecauseheactuallyproducedtwodiagramsthefirstversionwasabrainstormofinfluencesonhislifewhichhethought conveyed an even spreadof influences on his lifeHowever in the second version(featuredinthispaper)lsquoItriedtomakeitinchronologicalordersotospeakLikewhatwasinheritedthenthingsthataffectedmelateronrsquoFurtherhespokerepeatedlyabouthisparticularlifeexperiencesaffectinghisperspectiveontheworldandonthepast
YouknowIwasnrsquotbroughtupinthesametypeofenvironmentthat[myparents]wereIwasbroughtupinAmericainMassachusettsatthatAndIthoughtthatwassomethingthatreallyaffectsyouanditaffectshowyoulookatliketheinternationalpoliticalsystemandwhatnothellipIthinkbecausemyparentsarefromoverseasitdefinitelyhelpsmelookatthingsonalargerscaleButIdodefinitelythinkincomparisontothemIlookatthingsfromanAmericanperspective
At the same time he assumes some commonality with other people such as people fromhisgenerationwhoaregrowingup inadigitalenvironment InMelvinrsquoscasehisoverarchingnarrativeisabout thewayinwhichhisoutlookandlifeprospectshavebeenaffectedbythepastandexternalforceshoweverheisalsoabletolsquostepoutsidersquothatnarrativetoreflectonthewaysinwhichhisapproachtothetaskhasbeeninfluencedbythoseverylifeexperiencesandfamilyinfluencesLikeStuartheisclosetohisgrandmotherHoweverwhenhereferstotalkingwithherabout thepastandher life inTrinidadhiscomment isaboutherperspective lsquotheobstaclesofyourpastdefinitelyaffectyourpointofviewrsquoInturnhetalksaboutherinfluenceonhimlsquoIthinkthestoriesthatyoursquoretolddefinitelyaffectthewayyouthinkrsquo
OtherstudentsmadecommentsthatindicatedarelationshipbetweentheirawarenessoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgeandthewaysinwhichtheyviewedtheirownrelationshiptothepastThey(1)acknowledgedtheirownsubjectivityandorthelimitationsoftheirperspectiveontheirrelationshiptothepast(2)presentedtheirdiagramsandexplanationsas tentative and subject to alteration andor (3) stepped outside themselves to reflect ontheir reactions to learningabouthistory In factwhile Jesswas theonly studentwhomadecommentsthatcoveredallthreeofthesecategoriesfewstudentsappearedtotakethemorestraightforwardviewofhistoricalknowledgeapparentlyevincedbyStuartThefactthatstudentsinthesamplewereacademicallysuccessfulaged16ndash18andlivinginacitywithahighlyeducatedworkforceandmajoracademicinstitutionsprobablyneedstobetakenintoaccountwithregardtothisfinding
ItisalsoworthreiteratingthattheresearcherwasnotaproverbialflyonthewallwhilecollectingthisdataForexampleStuartpresentedhimselfasagoodstudentwholikedhistoryandrespectedhiselders justpriortotheinterviewtherewasadrugsbustattheschoolbypoliceanditispossiblehewantedtoconveythathewasalsquodecentkidrsquoMelvindiscussedhisrelative good fortune comparedwithother youngblackmen (including implicitly others athisschool)insodoinghewasabletocommunicatethathewasfromahighlyeducatedfamilylivinginadesirablepartoftownJessmeanwhilepositionedherselfasathoughtfulpoliticallyinformedstudentWhiletheseimpressionsarepurelyspeculativetheysuggestthattheschoolcontextandtheperceivedidentityoftheresearcherndashaswellastheframingoftheactivityndashhelpedtoshapewhatstudentschosetoshareHoweverrecognizingthatthereislikelytobesomefluidityintermsofhowindividualsrelatetheirownlivestothepastdoesnotdiminishthefindingthattheyoungpeopleinthisstudyusedavarietyofnarrativestrategiestodosoorthatthewaysinwhichtheytalkedaboutthosestrategiesappearedtodifferaccordingtotheirepistemologicalunderstandings
London Review of Education 189
Implications
InconjunctionwiththeoverallsummaryshowninTable2thesethreecasesprovidesnapshotsofdifferentways inwhichyoungpeopleusednarrativestrategiestoconnecttheirownlivesto the past aswell as differences in theways inwhich they talked about those strategiesWhilethisstudyishighlyexploratorythesecasespointtotheapparentdiversityofways inwhichyoungpeoplethinkaboutthemselvesinrelationtothepastaswellasthesignificanceof epistemological understanding in the construction of individual historical consciousnessOf coursemany questions remain For example was the ability of Jess andMelvin to talkreflectively about their diagrams and their relationship to thepast an indicationof rigoroushistoricalunderstandinginadisciplinarysenseorofmoregenericcriticalorabstractthinkingskills Further howdo teensrsquo broaddevelopmental trajectoriesndash such as thoseoutlinedbyErikson(1968)ndash intersectwiththeirhistoricalunderstanding Itwouldbe interestingtoaskchildrenofdifferentagestocompletethediagramtaskYoungerstudentswouldpresumablyfind it challenging tocreate anarrative about theirown lives in toto as indeed someof thestudentsinthisstudymayhavedoneExaminingthepotentiallinksbetweenthedevelopmentofautobiographicalstory-tellingskillsandhowyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastcouldbeanotherproductivelineofresearch
Methodologicallythestudyopensupsomeinterestingpossibilitiesespeciallyasthediagramactivity invited students to synthesize their thinking about their personal connections to thepastinarelativelyopen-endedmannerThetaskinstructionsandoranalysiscouldbealteredtoinvestigaterelatedphenomenaForexamplehowifatalldostudentsdealwiththeideathataspeopletheyareevolvingandmayhaveashiftingrelationshiptoorperspectiveonthepastTowhatextentdotheyportraythemselvesasactiveagentsintheirownrightratherthanindividualssubjecttoforcesbeyondtheircontrolHowdodifferencesamongtheirvariouslsquometa-historicalrsquounderstandingssuchastheirworkingideasabouthistoricalcausalityrelatetohowtheytalkaboutthemselves inrelation to thepastHowwould theyposition themselvesrelative toperceivednationalnarrativesWhile it is impossible toproveadirectrelationship fromthis singlestudyndashorthereasonsbehindsucharelationshipndashstudentswhodisplayedanunderstandingoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgealsogavetheimpressionofbeingmoreempoweredintermsoftalkingabouttheirfutureandnavigatingtheirownemergingidentities
Withregardtopractice therangeofpersonaldiagramsproducedbystudentsconfirmsthatifteachersarelookingtobuildontheirstudentsrsquoexistingideasandunderstandingsalsquoonesizefitsallrsquoapproach is likely tobemisguidedandnon-inclusiveandthatnationalnarrativesare only one kind of narrative towhich young people feel connected This paper does notadvocatethatyoungpeoplebeinvitedtorelateeverythingtheylearninhistorytothemselvesHoweverofferingopen-endedandpotentiallycreativeopportunitiesforthemtoreflectontheconnectionstheyperceivebetweenthemselvesandthepastislikelytobeengagingparticularlyforolderteensgiventheirbroaderdevelopmentalneedtoestablishindependentidentities
FurthermoresuchopportunitiescanactivelybuildhistoricalunderstandingGiventhesheervarietyofdiagramsthatwillalmostcertainlybeproducedwithinasingleclassroomstudentscan learn a greatdeal by looking at anddiscussing thediagramsof their peers inways thatdeveloptheirunderstandingthatpeoplehavedifferentperspectivesonthepastandthattheseperspectivesareshapedat least inpartbybiographicalorothercontextual factorsLookingatothersrsquodiagramscanopenupdifferentpossibilitiesforyoungpeopleintermsofhowtheythinkabouttheirownrelationshiptothepastandgivethemanewperspectiveontheirownidentityandoutlookIndeedthepowerofthisapproachcanbefurtherenhancedifclassroomsaredigitallyconnectedtoclassroomsinothercountriesengaginginthesameactivityinpartbecauseitallowsprevailingandassumednationalnarrativestobecomevisible
190 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
While somepeoplewouldcertainly resist thenotionof lettingyoungpeopleuse schoolhistoryasavenueforexploringorinterpretingtheirownlivesidentitiesandvaluesthisresearchshedslightonsomeofthevariedwaysinwhichyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastoruseitfororientingpurposesAsJessinparticulardemonstratedasophisticatedunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgecangohandinhandwithaself-awarenessandevenprideinonersquosrelationshiptothepastWearguablyoweittoourstudentstohelpthemthinkaboutwhotheyareandthelivestheyarelivingorwanttoliveinourrapidlychangingandevermorecomplexworldWeneedtosupportthemtointerpretthepastandtodeveloprobusthistoricalunderstandingswealsoneedtosupportthemtointerprettheirownnarratives
Acknowledgements
TheauthorwishestothanktheGermanacosFoundationforsupportingtheresearchdiscussedinthispaperaswellasHowardGardnerHelenHasteandMeiraLevinsonforprovidingguidancewiththeresearchMycolleaguesEdwardClappandShariTishmangavehelpfulfeedbackonearlydrafts
Notes on the contributor
ElizabethDawesDuraisinghisaresearchassociateandprincipalinvestigatoratProjectZeroaresearchcentreat theHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducationwhereshealsoservesasalectureroneducationShewaspreviouslyahighschoolhistoryteacherforeightyearsworkinginbothEnglandandAustralia
References
AhonenS(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessAviableparadigmforhistoryeducationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(6)697ndash707
Almarza DJ (2001) lsquoContexts shaping minority language studentsrsquo perceptions of American historyrsquo Journal of Social Studies Research25(2)4ndash22
AnS(2009)lsquoLearningUShistoryinanageofglobalizationandtransnationalmigrationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)763ndash87
AndrewsM(2007)Shaping History Narratives of political changeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressAngvikMandVonBorriesB(eds)(1997)Youth and History A comparative European survey on historical
consciousness and political attitudes among adolescentsHamburgKoumlrber-StiftungAshbyR(2005)lsquoStudentsrsquoapproachestovalidatinghistoricalclaimsrsquoInAshbyRGordonPandLeeP
(eds)Understanding History Recent research in history educationLondonRoutledge21ndash36AudigierFandFinkN(2010)lsquoPupilsandschoolhistoryinFranceandSwitzerlandrsquo Education 3ndash1338
(3)329ndash39BambergM(2011)lsquoWhoamINarrationanditscontributiontoselfandidentityrsquo Theory and Psychology
21(1)3ndash24BartonKC(2001)lsquolsquolsquoYoursquodbewantingtoknowaboutthepastrdquoSocialcontextsofchildrenrsquoshistorical
understandinginNorthernIrelandandtheUSArsquo Comparative Education37(1)89ndash106BartonKCandLevstikLS(2004)Teaching History for the Common GoodMahwahNJLawrenceErlbaum
AssociatesBartonKCandMcCullyAW(2005)lsquoHistoryidentityandtheschoolcurriculuminNorthernIreland
Anempiricalstudyofsecondarystudentsrsquoideasandperspectivesrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(1)85ndash116
London Review of Education 191
Baynham M (2010) lsquoAlexandra Georgakopoulou Small stories interaction and identitiesrsquo Applied Linguistics31(3)471ndash3
BilligM(1995)Banal NationalismLondonSAGEPublicationsBillmann-Mahecha E and Hausen M (2005) lsquoEmpirical psychological approaches to the historical
consciousnessofchildrenrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks163ndash86
BoixMansillaV(2001)The Pursuit of Understanding A study of exemplary high school studentsrsquo conceptions of knowledge validation in science and history EdDthesisHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducation
BrunerJS(1990)Acts of MeaningCambridgeMAHarvardUniversityPressBrunerJS(2005)lsquoPastandpresentasnarrativeconstructionsrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and
Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks23ndash43DamonWandHartD (1988)Self-Understanding in Childhood and AdolescenceNewYorkCambridge
UniversityPressDantoAC(1965)Analytical Philosophy of HistoryCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressEpsteinT(1998)lsquoDeconstructingdifferencesinAfrican-AmericanandEuropean-Americanadolescentsrsquo
perspectivesonUShistoryrsquo Curriculum Inquiry28(4)397ndash423EriksonEH(1968)Identity Youth and CrisisNewYorkWWNortonFivush R Bohanek JG and ZamanW (2011) lsquoPersonal and intergenerational narratives in relation
to adolescentsrsquowell-beingrsquo InHabermasT (ed)The Development of Autobiographical Reasoning in Adolescence and Beyond (NewDirectionsforChildandAdolescentDevelopment131)45ndash57
GoldbergTPoratDandSchwarzBB(2006)lsquolsquoHerestartedtheriftweseetodayrsquoStudentandtextbooknarrativesbetweenofficialandcountermemoryrsquo Narrative Inquiry16(2)319ndash47
GoldbergTSchwarzBBandPoratD(2008)lsquoLivinganddormantcollectivememoriesascontextsofhistorylearningrsquo Learning and Instruction18(3)223ndash37
GreverMHaydnTandRibbensK(2008)lsquoIdentityandschoolhistoryTheperspectiveofyoungpeoplefromtheNetherlandsandEnglandrsquo British Journal of Educational Studies56(1)76ndash94
HaeberliP(2005) lsquoRelatingtohistoryAnempiricaltypologyrsquo International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research5(1)1ndash10
Hammack PL and Pilecki A (2012) lsquoNarrative as a rootmetaphor for political psychologyrsquo Political Psychology33(1)75ndash103
HarterS(1999)The Construction of the Self A developmental perspectiveNewYorkGuilfordPressHawkey K and Prior J (2011) lsquoHistory memory cultures and meaning in the classroomrsquo Journal of
Curriculum Studies43(2)231ndash47HoferBKandPintrichPR(eds)(2002)Personal Epistemology The psychology of beliefs about knowledge and
knowing MahwahNJLawrenceErlbaumAssociatesKeganR (1982)The Evolving Self Problem and process in human development CambridgeMAHarvard
UniversityPressLee P (2004a) lsquoUnderstanding historyrsquo In Seixas P (ed) Theorizing Historical Consciousness Toronto
UniversityofTorontoPress129ndash64LeeP(2004b)lsquoldquoWalkingbackwardsintotomorrowrdquoHistoricalconsciousnessandunderstandinghistoryrsquo
International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research4(1)1ndash46LeePJ(2005)lsquoPuttingprinciplesintopracticeUnderstandinghistoryrsquoInDonovanMSandBransford
JD (eds)How Students Learn History mathematics and science in the classroomWashingtonDCNationalAcademiesPress31ndash77
LeePandShemiltD(2004)lsquolsquolsquoIjustwishwecouldgobackinthepastandfindoutwhatreallyhappenedrdquoProgressioninunderstandingabouthistoricalaccountsrsquo Teaching History 11725ndash31
LenzC(2011) lsquoGenealogyandarchaeologyAnalyzinggenerationalpositioning inhistoricalnarrativesrsquo Journal of Comparative Family Studies42(3)319ndash27
LeacutetourneauJandMoisanS(2004)lsquoYoungpeoplersquosassimilationofacollectivehistoricalmemoryAcasestudyofQuebeckersofFrench-CanadianheritagersquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress109ndash28
192 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
LowenthalD(1996)Possessed by the Past The heritage crusade and the spoils of historyNewYorkFreePress
McAdamsDP(1993)The Stories We Live By Personal myths and the making of the selfNewYorkGuilfordPress
McLean KC Breen AV and FournierMA (2010) lsquoConstructing the self in earlymiddle and lateadolescentboysNarrativeidentityindividuationandwell-beingrsquo Journal of Research on Adolescence20(1)166ndash87
NakkulaMJandToshalisE(2006)Understanding Youth Adolescent development for educatorsCambridgeMAHarvardEducationPress
NoraP(1996)Realms of Memory Rethinking the French pastTransGoldhammerANewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
PeckCL (2010) lsquolsquolsquoItrsquos not like [Irsquom]Chinese andCanadian I am inbetweenrdquoEthnicity and studentsrsquoconceptionsofhistoricalsignificancersquo Theory and Research in Social Education38(4)574ndash617
PolkinghorneDE(1988)Narrative Knowing and the Human SciencesAlbanyStateUniversityofNewYorkPress
Polkinghorne DE (2005) lsquoNarrative psychology and historical consciousness Relationships andperspectivesrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks3ndash22
RantalaJ(2011)lsquoChildrenasconsumersofhistoricalcultureinFinlandrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies43(4)493ndash506
ReicherSandHopkinsN(2001)Self and Nation Categorization contestation and mobilizationLondonSAGEPublications
RosenzweigRandThelenDP(1998)The Presence of the Past Popular uses of history in American lifeNewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
RuumlsenJ(1993)Studies in MetahistoryPretoriaHumanSciencesResearchCouncilSeixasP(1997)lsquoMappingtheterrainofhistoricalsignificancersquo Social Education61(1)22ndash7SeixasP(2004)lsquoIntroductionrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityof
TorontoPress3ndash20SeixasP(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessTheprogressofknowledgeinapostprogressiveagersquoInStraub
J(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks141ndash62SeixasP(2009)lsquoNationalhistoryandbeyondrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)719ndash22ThorpR(2014)lsquoTowardsanepistemologicaltheoryofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquoHistorical Encounters A
Journal of Historical Consciousness Historical Cultures and History Education1(1)20ndash31TrailleK (2007) lsquolsquolsquoYou should be proud about your history Theymademe feel ashamedrdquoTeaching
historyhurtsrsquo Teaching History 12731ndash7VanSledrightB (2008) lsquoNarrativesofnation-statehistoricalknowledgeandschoolhistoryeducationrsquo
Review of Research in Education32(1)109ndash46WelzerH(2008)lsquoCollateraldamageofhistoryeducationNationalsocialismandtheHolocaustinGerman
familymemoryrsquo Social Research75(1)287ndash314WertschJV(2002)Voices of Collective RememberingCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressWertschJV(2004)lsquoSpecificnarrativesandschematicnarrativetemplatesrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing
Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress49ndash62Wineburg S (2001)Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts Charting the future of teaching the past
PhiladelphiaTempleUniversityPressWineburgSMosborgSPoratDandDuncanA(2007)lsquoCommonbeliefandtheculturalcurriculum
Anintergenerationalstudyofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquo American Educational Research Journal44(1)40ndash76
London Review of Education 193
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
This paperwas published in a special feature called lsquoNegotiating the nation Young peoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo
Thearticlesinthefeatureareasfollows
Angier K (2017) lsquoIn search of historical consciousness An investigation into young South AfricansrsquoknowledgeandunderstandingofldquotheirrdquonationalhistoriesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
DawesDuraisinghE (2017) lsquoMakingnarrativeconnectionsExploringhow late teensrelate theirownnarrativestothehistoricallysignificantpastrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GoldbergT(2017) lsquoTheusefulpast innegotiationAdolescentsrsquouseofhistory innegotiationof inter-groupconflictrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GreverMandVanderVliesT(2017)lsquoWhynationalnarrativesareperpetuatedAliteraturereviewonnewinsightsfromhistorytextbookresearchrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
HolmbergU(2017)lsquoldquoIwasborninthereignhelliprdquoHistoricalorientationinUgandanstudentsrsquonationalnarrativesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
LeacutetourneauJandChapmanA(2017)lsquoEditorialndashNegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
LeacutevesqueS(2017)lsquoHistoryasaldquoGPSrdquoOntheusesofhistoricalnarrativeforFrenchCanadianstudentsrsquolifeorientationandidentityrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
OlofssonHSamuelsson JStolareMandWendell J (2017) lsquoTheSwedesandtheirhistoryrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
SheehanMandDavisonM(2017)lsquoldquoWeneedtoremembertheydiedforusrdquoHowyoungpeopleinNewZealandmakemeaningofwarremembranceandcommemorationoftheFirstWorldWarrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
VanHavereTWilsKDepaepeFVerschaffelLandVanNieuwenhuyseK(2017)lsquoFlemishstudentsrsquohistoricalreferenceknowledgeandnarrativesoftheBelgiannationalpastattheendofsecondaryeducationrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
WertschJV(2017)lsquoForeword ndash NegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
London Review of Education 185
Stuart Situating his own life at the confluence of various historical narratives tethering his own story to the history of humanity
StuartwasaboyofItalianAmericanextractionwithspikedhairwhosefamilyhaslivedinthesamesemi-urbanneighbourhoodofGreaterBostonforseveralgenerationsHejokedaroundwithhispeersinclassbutbecamestrikinglyseriousinthecontextoftheinterviewspeakinginaheartfeltwayabouthisfamilyandhisprideinbeingAmericanHealsostatedthathistorywashisfavouritesubject
Stuartrsquosdiagramwaswide-rangingintermsofboththemeandtimespanHepickedthefollowingthemeslsquowarsandbattlesrsquowhichleduptooratleastprecededlsquomodernterrorismrsquolsquofamouspeoplersquowithJesusChristtheonlynamedpersonlsquoconstructionandfactorizationrsquo[sic]whichtracesbroadtechnologicaldevelopmentsinhumanhistoryandlsquolandandthefoundersrsquowhich broadly relates to the discovery andor establishment of different empires or nationstates The general chronological element to the threads suggests narratives unfolding overtimeanimpressionreinforcedbyacommentmadebyStuartinhisinterview
InterviewerObviously IrsquoveaskedyoutodothisbuthaveyouthoughtaboutthisbigpicturebeforeOrwasitjustmdash
StuartIactuallyhaveIwasjustlikesittingathomeandjustlikethinkinglikewhydideverythingstartandlikehowitactuallypusheditselfintoeachotheranditdevelopedintoeverythingandthenIcamealongandIfeltlikeIwasapartofiteventhoughIwasnrsquotlikephysicallyapartofitLikeIthoughtIwasinvolvedbecauseofallthishappening
Hismetaphoriclanguagewhichconveysasenseofhistoricaleventsslidingorpilingintooneanotherdrawsattentiontohisbeingimmersedinsomebiggerstoryconcerningthewholeofhumanhistory
InhisdiagramStuartsituateshislifeattheconfluenceofdifferentnarrativestrandsunfoldinginhistoryhealsotethershispersonalstorytothatofhumankindwritlargeThatisinbeingasked to show how his own life connects to the past he elects to tell a broader story ofhumanityIfwecompareStuartrsquosdiagramtothatofMelvin it is lessofanexplorationofhisindividualstoryandmoreanexpressionaboutbelongingtoacollectivestory
Jess Exploring how the past is helping shape the ongoing story of her own personal development situating her own life at the confluence of various historical narratives
Jesswasagirlwith longbrownhairanaccomplishedgymnastanddancerShespokeofherJewish ancestry and her familyrsquos involvement in the LGBTmovement as well as her closeattachmenttoherlocalurbancommunitywhereshehaslivedherwholelifeShearticulatedherwordscarefullyoftenpausingasiftoreflectbeforerespondingtoquestions
AtfirstglanceJessrsquosdiagramdoesnotexhibitthekindofflowvisibleintheprevioustwodiagramsHoweverthereisaswirlingdynamicatplaymadeevidentbyherverbalexplanationofherdiagram
SoattheverycentreofmydiagramIhavejustalittlekindofbubblethatsayslsquomersquoAndImadeitabubblebecauseIthinkIrsquomnotallthatsortofwelldefinedbutitrsquosallsortofjustmushandthingsjustkindofflowinandinfluencemeSoIhavesortofacirclearoundmyselfandIhaveabunchofdifferentsortsofmovementsandeventsinhistorythatIthinkhavemostinfluencedmesuchastheenvironmentalmovementsandenvironmentaldegradationThecivilrightsmovementstheGLBTmovementswomenrsquosrightsmovementsJewishhistoryJewishmovementsandwarsaresortofthemaineventsthatinfluencedmeandtheninmoreofaninnercircleIhavemorebroad
186 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
topicssuchaseducationtechnologydancingandmusicthathavendashtheyallhavetheirownsortofhistoryandtheyallhaveapastthatIdonrsquotnecessarilyknowasmuchaboutinaconcretewaybutumndashallofthosethingsinfluencemesotheyrsquoreallflowingintothecentreThatrsquoswhereIam
Figure 3Jessrsquosdiagram
InthiscaseherongoingpersonaldevelopmentarguablyprovidesthenarrativecentrepieceorunifyingfactorThediagramalsoservesasanassertionofheremergingidentityndashintermsofeventsthathaveinfluencedhervaluesandsenseofwhosheisaswellasherpersonaltalentsandinterestsAsbecameevidentinherinterviewhowevershealsosituatesherselfasbeingattheconfluenceofdifferenthistoricalnarrativesForexampleshetalksaboutbeingatacertainmoment in thehistoryof theenvironmentwhichhasbeenshapedbypreviousgenerationsrsquoactionslsquomygenerationwersquoregoingtobereallyreallydealingwiththatrsquoShetalksaboutbeingshapedbyandinheritingthelegacyofthewomenrsquosrightsmovementcivilrightsmovementandJewishhistoryWithregardtothegayrightsmovementinwhichherfamilyhasbeenimmersedshehasasenseofbeingpartofhistoryinthemakinglsquothemovementisnow Youknowtherersquosbeenmovementsinthepastcertainlybutitrsquoslikeahugethingnowrsquo
How students talked about their diagrams The importance of epistemology
Theways inwhich students in the study talked about their diagramswere revealing of thepotentialrelationshipbetweentheirunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgeandtheir individualhistoricalconsciousnessInparticulartherewasacontrastbetweenstudents
London Review of Education 187
who presented their diagrams as contingent subjective interpretations of the relationshipbetweentheirownlivesandthepastandthosewhoappearedtopresenttheirdiagramsasself-evidentstraightforwardrepresentations
Jessforinstancetalkedfromthestartaboutnotbeinglsquoallthatwelldefinedrsquoasreflectedby the blob at the centre of her diagram There is a sense of fluidity ormovement in herdiagramndashasmuchintermsofherowninterpretationofherownplaceinhistoryasineventsordevelopmentsthemselvesShowinganawarenessofthelimitationsofherownknowledgeshestatesthatshedidnotwanttoexcludeitemsfromherdiagramsimplybecauseofherownignorance
MoreoverintalkingaboutthedifferentelementsofherdiagramshespokeinmetacognitivetermsaboutthedifferencesbetweenlearningaboutJewishhistoryatthetemplewhereitwasframedas lsquoourhistoryrsquoandatschoolwhereitwastreatedassomeoneelsersquoshistoryWithregardtothewomenrsquosrightsmovementshesaid
Sowomenrsquos rightsrsquomovements ndash umm ndashmymomwas a pretty hardcore feminist and IrsquovedefinitelyinheritedsomeofthatandIrsquovereallyenjoyedmostlythisyearactuallyndashIlearnedaboutwomenrsquosrightsinUSHistoryandthatrsquosbeenreallyinterestingsortofhowthatrsquosplayedoutAndprobablybecauseofmymotherandotheradultsandotherwomenthatIrsquovegrownupwithIrsquomlikendashveryconsciousofthatthatIamawomanandthatotherwomenhavedonealottogettowhereIamtodayAndtherersquosdefinitelyasenseofprideformeIhavealwaysbeenverysortofconsciousofthatheritage
Here Jesspresents the impactof themovementassomewhat inevitablegivenhermotherrsquosvaluesHowevershealsorefersexplicitlytoherenjoymentandinterestinlearningaboutthistopicatschoolSheexpresseshersenseofconnectiontowomenrsquoshistoryandheractiveprideinitwhilealsoprovidinganexplanationforwhyshefeelsconnectedtoitshowingacapacityforself-reflectionormetacognitionItisworthnotinghoweverthatshedidnotcommentontheprogressivetemplatethatseemedtoundergirdhernarrative
StuartincontrastpresentedhisdiagraminmorefixedtermsWheninvitedtotalkaboutitheproceededtolisteverythingcontainedwithinit
WellfirstofallIputthelandandthefoundersbecausethesearethebasicgroupsandpeoplethatstartedeverythingThepeoplewhostartedMesopotamiaAncientThebesyouknowlikethatPeoplewhowereintheRomanEmpireallthoseVikingsthefamousexplorersChristopherColumbusMagellanetceterahellip
Inthisextracthe iscitingundisputed lsquofactsrsquohedoesnotusemodifying languagebut insteadstates straightforwardlywhat happenedWhen asked how he knew about these aspects ofthepastheresponded lsquoMostofthestuffcamefromschool Iwas justtryingtothinkwhathappenedrsquo Stuart expressed a greatdealof connection to thepast including asmentionedearlierthathefeltpartofanongoinghistoricalprocessWhileJessspokewithprideyetanalyticdetachmentofherconnectiontothewomenrsquosmovementStuartdidnotexhibitthecapacitytotalkinametacognitivewayaboutthecontentorformofhisdiagramndashalthoughthisdoesnotmeanthathewasincapableofdoingso
Inhis interviewStuartalso talkedabout learning fromhisgrandmotherabout thepastincludinglifelessonsshegleanedfromweatheringtheGreatDepressionHereferredtohercorroboratingwhathelearnedatschool
Anditrsquoscoolbecause[myteacher]canteachmeaboutitatthesametimeandthenshecanjusttellmeaboutthestuffItrsquosreallycoolhellipIlikeaskherlsquoDoyourememberthisrsquohelliplsquoDoyourememberbootleggingandstufflikethatrsquoAndshewaslikelsquoyeaIrememberthatrsquowhichiscoolbecauseyouactuallyknowwhathappenedYoucanjusttalktoheraboutit
188 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
It is notable that he does not talk about hearing his grandmotherrsquos perspective about whathappenedratherheviewsherasanauthorityonhistorypresumablybecausehethinksshedirectlyexperiencedwhatisinhistextbook
Melvinrsquosstancetowardhisdiagramwasmoretentativeinnosmallpartbecauseheactuallyproducedtwodiagramsthefirstversionwasabrainstormofinfluencesonhislifewhichhethought conveyed an even spreadof influences on his lifeHowever in the second version(featuredinthispaper)lsquoItriedtomakeitinchronologicalordersotospeakLikewhatwasinheritedthenthingsthataffectedmelateronrsquoFurtherhespokerepeatedlyabouthisparticularlifeexperiencesaffectinghisperspectiveontheworldandonthepast
YouknowIwasnrsquotbroughtupinthesametypeofenvironmentthat[myparents]wereIwasbroughtupinAmericainMassachusettsatthatAndIthoughtthatwassomethingthatreallyaffectsyouanditaffectshowyoulookatliketheinternationalpoliticalsystemandwhatnothellipIthinkbecausemyparentsarefromoverseasitdefinitelyhelpsmelookatthingsonalargerscaleButIdodefinitelythinkincomparisontothemIlookatthingsfromanAmericanperspective
At the same time he assumes some commonality with other people such as people fromhisgenerationwhoaregrowingup inadigitalenvironment InMelvinrsquoscasehisoverarchingnarrativeisabout thewayinwhichhisoutlookandlifeprospectshavebeenaffectedbythepastandexternalforceshoweverheisalsoabletolsquostepoutsidersquothatnarrativetoreflectonthewaysinwhichhisapproachtothetaskhasbeeninfluencedbythoseverylifeexperiencesandfamilyinfluencesLikeStuartheisclosetohisgrandmotherHoweverwhenhereferstotalkingwithherabout thepastandher life inTrinidadhiscomment isaboutherperspective lsquotheobstaclesofyourpastdefinitelyaffectyourpointofviewrsquoInturnhetalksaboutherinfluenceonhimlsquoIthinkthestoriesthatyoursquoretolddefinitelyaffectthewayyouthinkrsquo
OtherstudentsmadecommentsthatindicatedarelationshipbetweentheirawarenessoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgeandthewaysinwhichtheyviewedtheirownrelationshiptothepastThey(1)acknowledgedtheirownsubjectivityandorthelimitationsoftheirperspectiveontheirrelationshiptothepast(2)presentedtheirdiagramsandexplanationsas tentative and subject to alteration andor (3) stepped outside themselves to reflect ontheir reactions to learningabouthistory In factwhile Jesswas theonly studentwhomadecommentsthatcoveredallthreeofthesecategoriesfewstudentsappearedtotakethemorestraightforwardviewofhistoricalknowledgeapparentlyevincedbyStuartThefactthatstudentsinthesamplewereacademicallysuccessfulaged16ndash18andlivinginacitywithahighlyeducatedworkforceandmajoracademicinstitutionsprobablyneedstobetakenintoaccountwithregardtothisfinding
ItisalsoworthreiteratingthattheresearcherwasnotaproverbialflyonthewallwhilecollectingthisdataForexampleStuartpresentedhimselfasagoodstudentwholikedhistoryandrespectedhiselders justpriortotheinterviewtherewasadrugsbustattheschoolbypoliceanditispossiblehewantedtoconveythathewasalsquodecentkidrsquoMelvindiscussedhisrelative good fortune comparedwithother youngblackmen (including implicitly others athisschool)insodoinghewasabletocommunicatethathewasfromahighlyeducatedfamilylivinginadesirablepartoftownJessmeanwhilepositionedherselfasathoughtfulpoliticallyinformedstudentWhiletheseimpressionsarepurelyspeculativetheysuggestthattheschoolcontextandtheperceivedidentityoftheresearcherndashaswellastheframingoftheactivityndashhelpedtoshapewhatstudentschosetoshareHoweverrecognizingthatthereislikelytobesomefluidityintermsofhowindividualsrelatetheirownlivestothepastdoesnotdiminishthefindingthattheyoungpeopleinthisstudyusedavarietyofnarrativestrategiestodosoorthatthewaysinwhichtheytalkedaboutthosestrategiesappearedtodifferaccordingtotheirepistemologicalunderstandings
London Review of Education 189
Implications
InconjunctionwiththeoverallsummaryshowninTable2thesethreecasesprovidesnapshotsofdifferentways inwhichyoungpeopleusednarrativestrategiestoconnecttheirownlivesto the past aswell as differences in theways inwhich they talked about those strategiesWhilethisstudyishighlyexploratorythesecasespointtotheapparentdiversityofways inwhichyoungpeoplethinkaboutthemselvesinrelationtothepastaswellasthesignificanceof epistemological understanding in the construction of individual historical consciousnessOf coursemany questions remain For example was the ability of Jess andMelvin to talkreflectively about their diagrams and their relationship to thepast an indicationof rigoroushistoricalunderstandinginadisciplinarysenseorofmoregenericcriticalorabstractthinkingskills Further howdo teensrsquo broaddevelopmental trajectoriesndash such as thoseoutlinedbyErikson(1968)ndash intersectwiththeirhistoricalunderstanding Itwouldbe interestingtoaskchildrenofdifferentagestocompletethediagramtaskYoungerstudentswouldpresumablyfind it challenging tocreate anarrative about theirown lives in toto as indeed someof thestudentsinthisstudymayhavedoneExaminingthepotentiallinksbetweenthedevelopmentofautobiographicalstory-tellingskillsandhowyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastcouldbeanotherproductivelineofresearch
Methodologicallythestudyopensupsomeinterestingpossibilitiesespeciallyasthediagramactivity invited students to synthesize their thinking about their personal connections to thepastinarelativelyopen-endedmannerThetaskinstructionsandoranalysiscouldbealteredtoinvestigaterelatedphenomenaForexamplehowifatalldostudentsdealwiththeideathataspeopletheyareevolvingandmayhaveashiftingrelationshiptoorperspectiveonthepastTowhatextentdotheyportraythemselvesasactiveagentsintheirownrightratherthanindividualssubjecttoforcesbeyondtheircontrolHowdodifferencesamongtheirvariouslsquometa-historicalrsquounderstandingssuchastheirworkingideasabouthistoricalcausalityrelatetohowtheytalkaboutthemselves inrelation to thepastHowwould theyposition themselvesrelative toperceivednationalnarrativesWhile it is impossible toproveadirectrelationship fromthis singlestudyndashorthereasonsbehindsucharelationshipndashstudentswhodisplayedanunderstandingoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgealsogavetheimpressionofbeingmoreempoweredintermsoftalkingabouttheirfutureandnavigatingtheirownemergingidentities
Withregardtopractice therangeofpersonaldiagramsproducedbystudentsconfirmsthatifteachersarelookingtobuildontheirstudentsrsquoexistingideasandunderstandingsalsquoonesizefitsallrsquoapproach is likely tobemisguidedandnon-inclusiveandthatnationalnarrativesare only one kind of narrative towhich young people feel connected This paper does notadvocatethatyoungpeoplebeinvitedtorelateeverythingtheylearninhistorytothemselvesHoweverofferingopen-endedandpotentiallycreativeopportunitiesforthemtoreflectontheconnectionstheyperceivebetweenthemselvesandthepastislikelytobeengagingparticularlyforolderteensgiventheirbroaderdevelopmentalneedtoestablishindependentidentities
FurthermoresuchopportunitiescanactivelybuildhistoricalunderstandingGiventhesheervarietyofdiagramsthatwillalmostcertainlybeproducedwithinasingleclassroomstudentscan learn a greatdeal by looking at anddiscussing thediagramsof their peers inways thatdeveloptheirunderstandingthatpeoplehavedifferentperspectivesonthepastandthattheseperspectivesareshapedat least inpartbybiographicalorothercontextual factorsLookingatothersrsquodiagramscanopenupdifferentpossibilitiesforyoungpeopleintermsofhowtheythinkabouttheirownrelationshiptothepastandgivethemanewperspectiveontheirownidentityandoutlookIndeedthepowerofthisapproachcanbefurtherenhancedifclassroomsaredigitallyconnectedtoclassroomsinothercountriesengaginginthesameactivityinpartbecauseitallowsprevailingandassumednationalnarrativestobecomevisible
190 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
While somepeoplewouldcertainly resist thenotionof lettingyoungpeopleuse schoolhistoryasavenueforexploringorinterpretingtheirownlivesidentitiesandvaluesthisresearchshedslightonsomeofthevariedwaysinwhichyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastoruseitfororientingpurposesAsJessinparticulardemonstratedasophisticatedunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgecangohandinhandwithaself-awarenessandevenprideinonersquosrelationshiptothepastWearguablyoweittoourstudentstohelpthemthinkaboutwhotheyareandthelivestheyarelivingorwanttoliveinourrapidlychangingandevermorecomplexworldWeneedtosupportthemtointerpretthepastandtodeveloprobusthistoricalunderstandingswealsoneedtosupportthemtointerprettheirownnarratives
Acknowledgements
TheauthorwishestothanktheGermanacosFoundationforsupportingtheresearchdiscussedinthispaperaswellasHowardGardnerHelenHasteandMeiraLevinsonforprovidingguidancewiththeresearchMycolleaguesEdwardClappandShariTishmangavehelpfulfeedbackonearlydrafts
Notes on the contributor
ElizabethDawesDuraisinghisaresearchassociateandprincipalinvestigatoratProjectZeroaresearchcentreat theHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducationwhereshealsoservesasalectureroneducationShewaspreviouslyahighschoolhistoryteacherforeightyearsworkinginbothEnglandandAustralia
References
AhonenS(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessAviableparadigmforhistoryeducationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(6)697ndash707
Almarza DJ (2001) lsquoContexts shaping minority language studentsrsquo perceptions of American historyrsquo Journal of Social Studies Research25(2)4ndash22
AnS(2009)lsquoLearningUShistoryinanageofglobalizationandtransnationalmigrationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)763ndash87
AndrewsM(2007)Shaping History Narratives of political changeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressAngvikMandVonBorriesB(eds)(1997)Youth and History A comparative European survey on historical
consciousness and political attitudes among adolescentsHamburgKoumlrber-StiftungAshbyR(2005)lsquoStudentsrsquoapproachestovalidatinghistoricalclaimsrsquoInAshbyRGordonPandLeeP
(eds)Understanding History Recent research in history educationLondonRoutledge21ndash36AudigierFandFinkN(2010)lsquoPupilsandschoolhistoryinFranceandSwitzerlandrsquo Education 3ndash1338
(3)329ndash39BambergM(2011)lsquoWhoamINarrationanditscontributiontoselfandidentityrsquo Theory and Psychology
21(1)3ndash24BartonKC(2001)lsquolsquolsquoYoursquodbewantingtoknowaboutthepastrdquoSocialcontextsofchildrenrsquoshistorical
understandinginNorthernIrelandandtheUSArsquo Comparative Education37(1)89ndash106BartonKCandLevstikLS(2004)Teaching History for the Common GoodMahwahNJLawrenceErlbaum
AssociatesBartonKCandMcCullyAW(2005)lsquoHistoryidentityandtheschoolcurriculuminNorthernIreland
Anempiricalstudyofsecondarystudentsrsquoideasandperspectivesrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(1)85ndash116
London Review of Education 191
Baynham M (2010) lsquoAlexandra Georgakopoulou Small stories interaction and identitiesrsquo Applied Linguistics31(3)471ndash3
BilligM(1995)Banal NationalismLondonSAGEPublicationsBillmann-Mahecha E and Hausen M (2005) lsquoEmpirical psychological approaches to the historical
consciousnessofchildrenrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks163ndash86
BoixMansillaV(2001)The Pursuit of Understanding A study of exemplary high school studentsrsquo conceptions of knowledge validation in science and history EdDthesisHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducation
BrunerJS(1990)Acts of MeaningCambridgeMAHarvardUniversityPressBrunerJS(2005)lsquoPastandpresentasnarrativeconstructionsrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and
Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks23ndash43DamonWandHartD (1988)Self-Understanding in Childhood and AdolescenceNewYorkCambridge
UniversityPressDantoAC(1965)Analytical Philosophy of HistoryCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressEpsteinT(1998)lsquoDeconstructingdifferencesinAfrican-AmericanandEuropean-Americanadolescentsrsquo
perspectivesonUShistoryrsquo Curriculum Inquiry28(4)397ndash423EriksonEH(1968)Identity Youth and CrisisNewYorkWWNortonFivush R Bohanek JG and ZamanW (2011) lsquoPersonal and intergenerational narratives in relation
to adolescentsrsquowell-beingrsquo InHabermasT (ed)The Development of Autobiographical Reasoning in Adolescence and Beyond (NewDirectionsforChildandAdolescentDevelopment131)45ndash57
GoldbergTPoratDandSchwarzBB(2006)lsquolsquoHerestartedtheriftweseetodayrsquoStudentandtextbooknarrativesbetweenofficialandcountermemoryrsquo Narrative Inquiry16(2)319ndash47
GoldbergTSchwarzBBandPoratD(2008)lsquoLivinganddormantcollectivememoriesascontextsofhistorylearningrsquo Learning and Instruction18(3)223ndash37
GreverMHaydnTandRibbensK(2008)lsquoIdentityandschoolhistoryTheperspectiveofyoungpeoplefromtheNetherlandsandEnglandrsquo British Journal of Educational Studies56(1)76ndash94
HaeberliP(2005) lsquoRelatingtohistoryAnempiricaltypologyrsquo International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research5(1)1ndash10
Hammack PL and Pilecki A (2012) lsquoNarrative as a rootmetaphor for political psychologyrsquo Political Psychology33(1)75ndash103
HarterS(1999)The Construction of the Self A developmental perspectiveNewYorkGuilfordPressHawkey K and Prior J (2011) lsquoHistory memory cultures and meaning in the classroomrsquo Journal of
Curriculum Studies43(2)231ndash47HoferBKandPintrichPR(eds)(2002)Personal Epistemology The psychology of beliefs about knowledge and
knowing MahwahNJLawrenceErlbaumAssociatesKeganR (1982)The Evolving Self Problem and process in human development CambridgeMAHarvard
UniversityPressLee P (2004a) lsquoUnderstanding historyrsquo In Seixas P (ed) Theorizing Historical Consciousness Toronto
UniversityofTorontoPress129ndash64LeeP(2004b)lsquoldquoWalkingbackwardsintotomorrowrdquoHistoricalconsciousnessandunderstandinghistoryrsquo
International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research4(1)1ndash46LeePJ(2005)lsquoPuttingprinciplesintopracticeUnderstandinghistoryrsquoInDonovanMSandBransford
JD (eds)How Students Learn History mathematics and science in the classroomWashingtonDCNationalAcademiesPress31ndash77
LeePandShemiltD(2004)lsquolsquolsquoIjustwishwecouldgobackinthepastandfindoutwhatreallyhappenedrdquoProgressioninunderstandingabouthistoricalaccountsrsquo Teaching History 11725ndash31
LenzC(2011) lsquoGenealogyandarchaeologyAnalyzinggenerationalpositioning inhistoricalnarrativesrsquo Journal of Comparative Family Studies42(3)319ndash27
LeacutetourneauJandMoisanS(2004)lsquoYoungpeoplersquosassimilationofacollectivehistoricalmemoryAcasestudyofQuebeckersofFrench-CanadianheritagersquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress109ndash28
192 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
LowenthalD(1996)Possessed by the Past The heritage crusade and the spoils of historyNewYorkFreePress
McAdamsDP(1993)The Stories We Live By Personal myths and the making of the selfNewYorkGuilfordPress
McLean KC Breen AV and FournierMA (2010) lsquoConstructing the self in earlymiddle and lateadolescentboysNarrativeidentityindividuationandwell-beingrsquo Journal of Research on Adolescence20(1)166ndash87
NakkulaMJandToshalisE(2006)Understanding Youth Adolescent development for educatorsCambridgeMAHarvardEducationPress
NoraP(1996)Realms of Memory Rethinking the French pastTransGoldhammerANewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
PeckCL (2010) lsquolsquolsquoItrsquos not like [Irsquom]Chinese andCanadian I am inbetweenrdquoEthnicity and studentsrsquoconceptionsofhistoricalsignificancersquo Theory and Research in Social Education38(4)574ndash617
PolkinghorneDE(1988)Narrative Knowing and the Human SciencesAlbanyStateUniversityofNewYorkPress
Polkinghorne DE (2005) lsquoNarrative psychology and historical consciousness Relationships andperspectivesrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks3ndash22
RantalaJ(2011)lsquoChildrenasconsumersofhistoricalcultureinFinlandrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies43(4)493ndash506
ReicherSandHopkinsN(2001)Self and Nation Categorization contestation and mobilizationLondonSAGEPublications
RosenzweigRandThelenDP(1998)The Presence of the Past Popular uses of history in American lifeNewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
RuumlsenJ(1993)Studies in MetahistoryPretoriaHumanSciencesResearchCouncilSeixasP(1997)lsquoMappingtheterrainofhistoricalsignificancersquo Social Education61(1)22ndash7SeixasP(2004)lsquoIntroductionrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityof
TorontoPress3ndash20SeixasP(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessTheprogressofknowledgeinapostprogressiveagersquoInStraub
J(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks141ndash62SeixasP(2009)lsquoNationalhistoryandbeyondrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)719ndash22ThorpR(2014)lsquoTowardsanepistemologicaltheoryofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquoHistorical Encounters A
Journal of Historical Consciousness Historical Cultures and History Education1(1)20ndash31TrailleK (2007) lsquolsquolsquoYou should be proud about your history Theymademe feel ashamedrdquoTeaching
historyhurtsrsquo Teaching History 12731ndash7VanSledrightB (2008) lsquoNarrativesofnation-statehistoricalknowledgeandschoolhistoryeducationrsquo
Review of Research in Education32(1)109ndash46WelzerH(2008)lsquoCollateraldamageofhistoryeducationNationalsocialismandtheHolocaustinGerman
familymemoryrsquo Social Research75(1)287ndash314WertschJV(2002)Voices of Collective RememberingCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressWertschJV(2004)lsquoSpecificnarrativesandschematicnarrativetemplatesrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing
Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress49ndash62Wineburg S (2001)Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts Charting the future of teaching the past
PhiladelphiaTempleUniversityPressWineburgSMosborgSPoratDandDuncanA(2007)lsquoCommonbeliefandtheculturalcurriculum
Anintergenerationalstudyofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquo American Educational Research Journal44(1)40ndash76
London Review of Education 193
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
This paperwas published in a special feature called lsquoNegotiating the nation Young peoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo
Thearticlesinthefeatureareasfollows
Angier K (2017) lsquoIn search of historical consciousness An investigation into young South AfricansrsquoknowledgeandunderstandingofldquotheirrdquonationalhistoriesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
DawesDuraisinghE (2017) lsquoMakingnarrativeconnectionsExploringhow late teensrelate theirownnarrativestothehistoricallysignificantpastrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GoldbergT(2017) lsquoTheusefulpast innegotiationAdolescentsrsquouseofhistory innegotiationof inter-groupconflictrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GreverMandVanderVliesT(2017)lsquoWhynationalnarrativesareperpetuatedAliteraturereviewonnewinsightsfromhistorytextbookresearchrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
HolmbergU(2017)lsquoldquoIwasborninthereignhelliprdquoHistoricalorientationinUgandanstudentsrsquonationalnarrativesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
LeacutetourneauJandChapmanA(2017)lsquoEditorialndashNegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
LeacutevesqueS(2017)lsquoHistoryasaldquoGPSrdquoOntheusesofhistoricalnarrativeforFrenchCanadianstudentsrsquolifeorientationandidentityrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
OlofssonHSamuelsson JStolareMandWendell J (2017) lsquoTheSwedesandtheirhistoryrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
SheehanMandDavisonM(2017)lsquoldquoWeneedtoremembertheydiedforusrdquoHowyoungpeopleinNewZealandmakemeaningofwarremembranceandcommemorationoftheFirstWorldWarrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
VanHavereTWilsKDepaepeFVerschaffelLandVanNieuwenhuyseK(2017)lsquoFlemishstudentsrsquohistoricalreferenceknowledgeandnarrativesoftheBelgiannationalpastattheendofsecondaryeducationrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
WertschJV(2017)lsquoForeword ndash NegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
186 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
topicssuchaseducationtechnologydancingandmusicthathavendashtheyallhavetheirownsortofhistoryandtheyallhaveapastthatIdonrsquotnecessarilyknowasmuchaboutinaconcretewaybutumndashallofthosethingsinfluencemesotheyrsquoreallflowingintothecentreThatrsquoswhereIam
Figure 3Jessrsquosdiagram
InthiscaseherongoingpersonaldevelopmentarguablyprovidesthenarrativecentrepieceorunifyingfactorThediagramalsoservesasanassertionofheremergingidentityndashintermsofeventsthathaveinfluencedhervaluesandsenseofwhosheisaswellasherpersonaltalentsandinterestsAsbecameevidentinherinterviewhowevershealsosituatesherselfasbeingattheconfluenceofdifferenthistoricalnarrativesForexampleshetalksaboutbeingatacertainmoment in thehistoryof theenvironmentwhichhasbeenshapedbypreviousgenerationsrsquoactionslsquomygenerationwersquoregoingtobereallyreallydealingwiththatrsquoShetalksaboutbeingshapedbyandinheritingthelegacyofthewomenrsquosrightsmovementcivilrightsmovementandJewishhistoryWithregardtothegayrightsmovementinwhichherfamilyhasbeenimmersedshehasasenseofbeingpartofhistoryinthemakinglsquothemovementisnow Youknowtherersquosbeenmovementsinthepastcertainlybutitrsquoslikeahugethingnowrsquo
How students talked about their diagrams The importance of epistemology
Theways inwhich students in the study talked about their diagramswere revealing of thepotentialrelationshipbetweentheirunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgeandtheir individualhistoricalconsciousnessInparticulartherewasacontrastbetweenstudents
London Review of Education 187
who presented their diagrams as contingent subjective interpretations of the relationshipbetweentheirownlivesandthepastandthosewhoappearedtopresenttheirdiagramsasself-evidentstraightforwardrepresentations
Jessforinstancetalkedfromthestartaboutnotbeinglsquoallthatwelldefinedrsquoasreflectedby the blob at the centre of her diagram There is a sense of fluidity ormovement in herdiagramndashasmuchintermsofherowninterpretationofherownplaceinhistoryasineventsordevelopmentsthemselvesShowinganawarenessofthelimitationsofherownknowledgeshestatesthatshedidnotwanttoexcludeitemsfromherdiagramsimplybecauseofherownignorance
MoreoverintalkingaboutthedifferentelementsofherdiagramshespokeinmetacognitivetermsaboutthedifferencesbetweenlearningaboutJewishhistoryatthetemplewhereitwasframedas lsquoourhistoryrsquoandatschoolwhereitwastreatedassomeoneelsersquoshistoryWithregardtothewomenrsquosrightsmovementshesaid
Sowomenrsquos rightsrsquomovements ndash umm ndashmymomwas a pretty hardcore feminist and IrsquovedefinitelyinheritedsomeofthatandIrsquovereallyenjoyedmostlythisyearactuallyndashIlearnedaboutwomenrsquosrightsinUSHistoryandthatrsquosbeenreallyinterestingsortofhowthatrsquosplayedoutAndprobablybecauseofmymotherandotheradultsandotherwomenthatIrsquovegrownupwithIrsquomlikendashveryconsciousofthatthatIamawomanandthatotherwomenhavedonealottogettowhereIamtodayAndtherersquosdefinitelyasenseofprideformeIhavealwaysbeenverysortofconsciousofthatheritage
Here Jesspresents the impactof themovementassomewhat inevitablegivenhermotherrsquosvaluesHowevershealsorefersexplicitlytoherenjoymentandinterestinlearningaboutthistopicatschoolSheexpresseshersenseofconnectiontowomenrsquoshistoryandheractiveprideinitwhilealsoprovidinganexplanationforwhyshefeelsconnectedtoitshowingacapacityforself-reflectionormetacognitionItisworthnotinghoweverthatshedidnotcommentontheprogressivetemplatethatseemedtoundergirdhernarrative
StuartincontrastpresentedhisdiagraminmorefixedtermsWheninvitedtotalkaboutitheproceededtolisteverythingcontainedwithinit
WellfirstofallIputthelandandthefoundersbecausethesearethebasicgroupsandpeoplethatstartedeverythingThepeoplewhostartedMesopotamiaAncientThebesyouknowlikethatPeoplewhowereintheRomanEmpireallthoseVikingsthefamousexplorersChristopherColumbusMagellanetceterahellip
Inthisextracthe iscitingundisputed lsquofactsrsquohedoesnotusemodifying languagebut insteadstates straightforwardlywhat happenedWhen asked how he knew about these aspects ofthepastheresponded lsquoMostofthestuffcamefromschool Iwas justtryingtothinkwhathappenedrsquo Stuart expressed a greatdealof connection to thepast including asmentionedearlierthathefeltpartofanongoinghistoricalprocessWhileJessspokewithprideyetanalyticdetachmentofherconnectiontothewomenrsquosmovementStuartdidnotexhibitthecapacitytotalkinametacognitivewayaboutthecontentorformofhisdiagramndashalthoughthisdoesnotmeanthathewasincapableofdoingso
Inhis interviewStuartalso talkedabout learning fromhisgrandmotherabout thepastincludinglifelessonsshegleanedfromweatheringtheGreatDepressionHereferredtohercorroboratingwhathelearnedatschool
Anditrsquoscoolbecause[myteacher]canteachmeaboutitatthesametimeandthenshecanjusttellmeaboutthestuffItrsquosreallycoolhellipIlikeaskherlsquoDoyourememberthisrsquohelliplsquoDoyourememberbootleggingandstufflikethatrsquoAndshewaslikelsquoyeaIrememberthatrsquowhichiscoolbecauseyouactuallyknowwhathappenedYoucanjusttalktoheraboutit
188 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
It is notable that he does not talk about hearing his grandmotherrsquos perspective about whathappenedratherheviewsherasanauthorityonhistorypresumablybecausehethinksshedirectlyexperiencedwhatisinhistextbook
Melvinrsquosstancetowardhisdiagramwasmoretentativeinnosmallpartbecauseheactuallyproducedtwodiagramsthefirstversionwasabrainstormofinfluencesonhislifewhichhethought conveyed an even spreadof influences on his lifeHowever in the second version(featuredinthispaper)lsquoItriedtomakeitinchronologicalordersotospeakLikewhatwasinheritedthenthingsthataffectedmelateronrsquoFurtherhespokerepeatedlyabouthisparticularlifeexperiencesaffectinghisperspectiveontheworldandonthepast
YouknowIwasnrsquotbroughtupinthesametypeofenvironmentthat[myparents]wereIwasbroughtupinAmericainMassachusettsatthatAndIthoughtthatwassomethingthatreallyaffectsyouanditaffectshowyoulookatliketheinternationalpoliticalsystemandwhatnothellipIthinkbecausemyparentsarefromoverseasitdefinitelyhelpsmelookatthingsonalargerscaleButIdodefinitelythinkincomparisontothemIlookatthingsfromanAmericanperspective
At the same time he assumes some commonality with other people such as people fromhisgenerationwhoaregrowingup inadigitalenvironment InMelvinrsquoscasehisoverarchingnarrativeisabout thewayinwhichhisoutlookandlifeprospectshavebeenaffectedbythepastandexternalforceshoweverheisalsoabletolsquostepoutsidersquothatnarrativetoreflectonthewaysinwhichhisapproachtothetaskhasbeeninfluencedbythoseverylifeexperiencesandfamilyinfluencesLikeStuartheisclosetohisgrandmotherHoweverwhenhereferstotalkingwithherabout thepastandher life inTrinidadhiscomment isaboutherperspective lsquotheobstaclesofyourpastdefinitelyaffectyourpointofviewrsquoInturnhetalksaboutherinfluenceonhimlsquoIthinkthestoriesthatyoursquoretolddefinitelyaffectthewayyouthinkrsquo
OtherstudentsmadecommentsthatindicatedarelationshipbetweentheirawarenessoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgeandthewaysinwhichtheyviewedtheirownrelationshiptothepastThey(1)acknowledgedtheirownsubjectivityandorthelimitationsoftheirperspectiveontheirrelationshiptothepast(2)presentedtheirdiagramsandexplanationsas tentative and subject to alteration andor (3) stepped outside themselves to reflect ontheir reactions to learningabouthistory In factwhile Jesswas theonly studentwhomadecommentsthatcoveredallthreeofthesecategoriesfewstudentsappearedtotakethemorestraightforwardviewofhistoricalknowledgeapparentlyevincedbyStuartThefactthatstudentsinthesamplewereacademicallysuccessfulaged16ndash18andlivinginacitywithahighlyeducatedworkforceandmajoracademicinstitutionsprobablyneedstobetakenintoaccountwithregardtothisfinding
ItisalsoworthreiteratingthattheresearcherwasnotaproverbialflyonthewallwhilecollectingthisdataForexampleStuartpresentedhimselfasagoodstudentwholikedhistoryandrespectedhiselders justpriortotheinterviewtherewasadrugsbustattheschoolbypoliceanditispossiblehewantedtoconveythathewasalsquodecentkidrsquoMelvindiscussedhisrelative good fortune comparedwithother youngblackmen (including implicitly others athisschool)insodoinghewasabletocommunicatethathewasfromahighlyeducatedfamilylivinginadesirablepartoftownJessmeanwhilepositionedherselfasathoughtfulpoliticallyinformedstudentWhiletheseimpressionsarepurelyspeculativetheysuggestthattheschoolcontextandtheperceivedidentityoftheresearcherndashaswellastheframingoftheactivityndashhelpedtoshapewhatstudentschosetoshareHoweverrecognizingthatthereislikelytobesomefluidityintermsofhowindividualsrelatetheirownlivestothepastdoesnotdiminishthefindingthattheyoungpeopleinthisstudyusedavarietyofnarrativestrategiestodosoorthatthewaysinwhichtheytalkedaboutthosestrategiesappearedtodifferaccordingtotheirepistemologicalunderstandings
London Review of Education 189
Implications
InconjunctionwiththeoverallsummaryshowninTable2thesethreecasesprovidesnapshotsofdifferentways inwhichyoungpeopleusednarrativestrategiestoconnecttheirownlivesto the past aswell as differences in theways inwhich they talked about those strategiesWhilethisstudyishighlyexploratorythesecasespointtotheapparentdiversityofways inwhichyoungpeoplethinkaboutthemselvesinrelationtothepastaswellasthesignificanceof epistemological understanding in the construction of individual historical consciousnessOf coursemany questions remain For example was the ability of Jess andMelvin to talkreflectively about their diagrams and their relationship to thepast an indicationof rigoroushistoricalunderstandinginadisciplinarysenseorofmoregenericcriticalorabstractthinkingskills Further howdo teensrsquo broaddevelopmental trajectoriesndash such as thoseoutlinedbyErikson(1968)ndash intersectwiththeirhistoricalunderstanding Itwouldbe interestingtoaskchildrenofdifferentagestocompletethediagramtaskYoungerstudentswouldpresumablyfind it challenging tocreate anarrative about theirown lives in toto as indeed someof thestudentsinthisstudymayhavedoneExaminingthepotentiallinksbetweenthedevelopmentofautobiographicalstory-tellingskillsandhowyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastcouldbeanotherproductivelineofresearch
Methodologicallythestudyopensupsomeinterestingpossibilitiesespeciallyasthediagramactivity invited students to synthesize their thinking about their personal connections to thepastinarelativelyopen-endedmannerThetaskinstructionsandoranalysiscouldbealteredtoinvestigaterelatedphenomenaForexamplehowifatalldostudentsdealwiththeideathataspeopletheyareevolvingandmayhaveashiftingrelationshiptoorperspectiveonthepastTowhatextentdotheyportraythemselvesasactiveagentsintheirownrightratherthanindividualssubjecttoforcesbeyondtheircontrolHowdodifferencesamongtheirvariouslsquometa-historicalrsquounderstandingssuchastheirworkingideasabouthistoricalcausalityrelatetohowtheytalkaboutthemselves inrelation to thepastHowwould theyposition themselvesrelative toperceivednationalnarrativesWhile it is impossible toproveadirectrelationship fromthis singlestudyndashorthereasonsbehindsucharelationshipndashstudentswhodisplayedanunderstandingoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgealsogavetheimpressionofbeingmoreempoweredintermsoftalkingabouttheirfutureandnavigatingtheirownemergingidentities
Withregardtopractice therangeofpersonaldiagramsproducedbystudentsconfirmsthatifteachersarelookingtobuildontheirstudentsrsquoexistingideasandunderstandingsalsquoonesizefitsallrsquoapproach is likely tobemisguidedandnon-inclusiveandthatnationalnarrativesare only one kind of narrative towhich young people feel connected This paper does notadvocatethatyoungpeoplebeinvitedtorelateeverythingtheylearninhistorytothemselvesHoweverofferingopen-endedandpotentiallycreativeopportunitiesforthemtoreflectontheconnectionstheyperceivebetweenthemselvesandthepastislikelytobeengagingparticularlyforolderteensgiventheirbroaderdevelopmentalneedtoestablishindependentidentities
FurthermoresuchopportunitiescanactivelybuildhistoricalunderstandingGiventhesheervarietyofdiagramsthatwillalmostcertainlybeproducedwithinasingleclassroomstudentscan learn a greatdeal by looking at anddiscussing thediagramsof their peers inways thatdeveloptheirunderstandingthatpeoplehavedifferentperspectivesonthepastandthattheseperspectivesareshapedat least inpartbybiographicalorothercontextual factorsLookingatothersrsquodiagramscanopenupdifferentpossibilitiesforyoungpeopleintermsofhowtheythinkabouttheirownrelationshiptothepastandgivethemanewperspectiveontheirownidentityandoutlookIndeedthepowerofthisapproachcanbefurtherenhancedifclassroomsaredigitallyconnectedtoclassroomsinothercountriesengaginginthesameactivityinpartbecauseitallowsprevailingandassumednationalnarrativestobecomevisible
190 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
While somepeoplewouldcertainly resist thenotionof lettingyoungpeopleuse schoolhistoryasavenueforexploringorinterpretingtheirownlivesidentitiesandvaluesthisresearchshedslightonsomeofthevariedwaysinwhichyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastoruseitfororientingpurposesAsJessinparticulardemonstratedasophisticatedunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgecangohandinhandwithaself-awarenessandevenprideinonersquosrelationshiptothepastWearguablyoweittoourstudentstohelpthemthinkaboutwhotheyareandthelivestheyarelivingorwanttoliveinourrapidlychangingandevermorecomplexworldWeneedtosupportthemtointerpretthepastandtodeveloprobusthistoricalunderstandingswealsoneedtosupportthemtointerprettheirownnarratives
Acknowledgements
TheauthorwishestothanktheGermanacosFoundationforsupportingtheresearchdiscussedinthispaperaswellasHowardGardnerHelenHasteandMeiraLevinsonforprovidingguidancewiththeresearchMycolleaguesEdwardClappandShariTishmangavehelpfulfeedbackonearlydrafts
Notes on the contributor
ElizabethDawesDuraisinghisaresearchassociateandprincipalinvestigatoratProjectZeroaresearchcentreat theHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducationwhereshealsoservesasalectureroneducationShewaspreviouslyahighschoolhistoryteacherforeightyearsworkinginbothEnglandandAustralia
References
AhonenS(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessAviableparadigmforhistoryeducationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(6)697ndash707
Almarza DJ (2001) lsquoContexts shaping minority language studentsrsquo perceptions of American historyrsquo Journal of Social Studies Research25(2)4ndash22
AnS(2009)lsquoLearningUShistoryinanageofglobalizationandtransnationalmigrationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)763ndash87
AndrewsM(2007)Shaping History Narratives of political changeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressAngvikMandVonBorriesB(eds)(1997)Youth and History A comparative European survey on historical
consciousness and political attitudes among adolescentsHamburgKoumlrber-StiftungAshbyR(2005)lsquoStudentsrsquoapproachestovalidatinghistoricalclaimsrsquoInAshbyRGordonPandLeeP
(eds)Understanding History Recent research in history educationLondonRoutledge21ndash36AudigierFandFinkN(2010)lsquoPupilsandschoolhistoryinFranceandSwitzerlandrsquo Education 3ndash1338
(3)329ndash39BambergM(2011)lsquoWhoamINarrationanditscontributiontoselfandidentityrsquo Theory and Psychology
21(1)3ndash24BartonKC(2001)lsquolsquolsquoYoursquodbewantingtoknowaboutthepastrdquoSocialcontextsofchildrenrsquoshistorical
understandinginNorthernIrelandandtheUSArsquo Comparative Education37(1)89ndash106BartonKCandLevstikLS(2004)Teaching History for the Common GoodMahwahNJLawrenceErlbaum
AssociatesBartonKCandMcCullyAW(2005)lsquoHistoryidentityandtheschoolcurriculuminNorthernIreland
Anempiricalstudyofsecondarystudentsrsquoideasandperspectivesrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(1)85ndash116
London Review of Education 191
Baynham M (2010) lsquoAlexandra Georgakopoulou Small stories interaction and identitiesrsquo Applied Linguistics31(3)471ndash3
BilligM(1995)Banal NationalismLondonSAGEPublicationsBillmann-Mahecha E and Hausen M (2005) lsquoEmpirical psychological approaches to the historical
consciousnessofchildrenrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks163ndash86
BoixMansillaV(2001)The Pursuit of Understanding A study of exemplary high school studentsrsquo conceptions of knowledge validation in science and history EdDthesisHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducation
BrunerJS(1990)Acts of MeaningCambridgeMAHarvardUniversityPressBrunerJS(2005)lsquoPastandpresentasnarrativeconstructionsrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and
Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks23ndash43DamonWandHartD (1988)Self-Understanding in Childhood and AdolescenceNewYorkCambridge
UniversityPressDantoAC(1965)Analytical Philosophy of HistoryCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressEpsteinT(1998)lsquoDeconstructingdifferencesinAfrican-AmericanandEuropean-Americanadolescentsrsquo
perspectivesonUShistoryrsquo Curriculum Inquiry28(4)397ndash423EriksonEH(1968)Identity Youth and CrisisNewYorkWWNortonFivush R Bohanek JG and ZamanW (2011) lsquoPersonal and intergenerational narratives in relation
to adolescentsrsquowell-beingrsquo InHabermasT (ed)The Development of Autobiographical Reasoning in Adolescence and Beyond (NewDirectionsforChildandAdolescentDevelopment131)45ndash57
GoldbergTPoratDandSchwarzBB(2006)lsquolsquoHerestartedtheriftweseetodayrsquoStudentandtextbooknarrativesbetweenofficialandcountermemoryrsquo Narrative Inquiry16(2)319ndash47
GoldbergTSchwarzBBandPoratD(2008)lsquoLivinganddormantcollectivememoriesascontextsofhistorylearningrsquo Learning and Instruction18(3)223ndash37
GreverMHaydnTandRibbensK(2008)lsquoIdentityandschoolhistoryTheperspectiveofyoungpeoplefromtheNetherlandsandEnglandrsquo British Journal of Educational Studies56(1)76ndash94
HaeberliP(2005) lsquoRelatingtohistoryAnempiricaltypologyrsquo International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research5(1)1ndash10
Hammack PL and Pilecki A (2012) lsquoNarrative as a rootmetaphor for political psychologyrsquo Political Psychology33(1)75ndash103
HarterS(1999)The Construction of the Self A developmental perspectiveNewYorkGuilfordPressHawkey K and Prior J (2011) lsquoHistory memory cultures and meaning in the classroomrsquo Journal of
Curriculum Studies43(2)231ndash47HoferBKandPintrichPR(eds)(2002)Personal Epistemology The psychology of beliefs about knowledge and
knowing MahwahNJLawrenceErlbaumAssociatesKeganR (1982)The Evolving Self Problem and process in human development CambridgeMAHarvard
UniversityPressLee P (2004a) lsquoUnderstanding historyrsquo In Seixas P (ed) Theorizing Historical Consciousness Toronto
UniversityofTorontoPress129ndash64LeeP(2004b)lsquoldquoWalkingbackwardsintotomorrowrdquoHistoricalconsciousnessandunderstandinghistoryrsquo
International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research4(1)1ndash46LeePJ(2005)lsquoPuttingprinciplesintopracticeUnderstandinghistoryrsquoInDonovanMSandBransford
JD (eds)How Students Learn History mathematics and science in the classroomWashingtonDCNationalAcademiesPress31ndash77
LeePandShemiltD(2004)lsquolsquolsquoIjustwishwecouldgobackinthepastandfindoutwhatreallyhappenedrdquoProgressioninunderstandingabouthistoricalaccountsrsquo Teaching History 11725ndash31
LenzC(2011) lsquoGenealogyandarchaeologyAnalyzinggenerationalpositioning inhistoricalnarrativesrsquo Journal of Comparative Family Studies42(3)319ndash27
LeacutetourneauJandMoisanS(2004)lsquoYoungpeoplersquosassimilationofacollectivehistoricalmemoryAcasestudyofQuebeckersofFrench-CanadianheritagersquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress109ndash28
192 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
LowenthalD(1996)Possessed by the Past The heritage crusade and the spoils of historyNewYorkFreePress
McAdamsDP(1993)The Stories We Live By Personal myths and the making of the selfNewYorkGuilfordPress
McLean KC Breen AV and FournierMA (2010) lsquoConstructing the self in earlymiddle and lateadolescentboysNarrativeidentityindividuationandwell-beingrsquo Journal of Research on Adolescence20(1)166ndash87
NakkulaMJandToshalisE(2006)Understanding Youth Adolescent development for educatorsCambridgeMAHarvardEducationPress
NoraP(1996)Realms of Memory Rethinking the French pastTransGoldhammerANewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
PeckCL (2010) lsquolsquolsquoItrsquos not like [Irsquom]Chinese andCanadian I am inbetweenrdquoEthnicity and studentsrsquoconceptionsofhistoricalsignificancersquo Theory and Research in Social Education38(4)574ndash617
PolkinghorneDE(1988)Narrative Knowing and the Human SciencesAlbanyStateUniversityofNewYorkPress
Polkinghorne DE (2005) lsquoNarrative psychology and historical consciousness Relationships andperspectivesrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks3ndash22
RantalaJ(2011)lsquoChildrenasconsumersofhistoricalcultureinFinlandrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies43(4)493ndash506
ReicherSandHopkinsN(2001)Self and Nation Categorization contestation and mobilizationLondonSAGEPublications
RosenzweigRandThelenDP(1998)The Presence of the Past Popular uses of history in American lifeNewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
RuumlsenJ(1993)Studies in MetahistoryPretoriaHumanSciencesResearchCouncilSeixasP(1997)lsquoMappingtheterrainofhistoricalsignificancersquo Social Education61(1)22ndash7SeixasP(2004)lsquoIntroductionrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityof
TorontoPress3ndash20SeixasP(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessTheprogressofknowledgeinapostprogressiveagersquoInStraub
J(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks141ndash62SeixasP(2009)lsquoNationalhistoryandbeyondrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)719ndash22ThorpR(2014)lsquoTowardsanepistemologicaltheoryofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquoHistorical Encounters A
Journal of Historical Consciousness Historical Cultures and History Education1(1)20ndash31TrailleK (2007) lsquolsquolsquoYou should be proud about your history Theymademe feel ashamedrdquoTeaching
historyhurtsrsquo Teaching History 12731ndash7VanSledrightB (2008) lsquoNarrativesofnation-statehistoricalknowledgeandschoolhistoryeducationrsquo
Review of Research in Education32(1)109ndash46WelzerH(2008)lsquoCollateraldamageofhistoryeducationNationalsocialismandtheHolocaustinGerman
familymemoryrsquo Social Research75(1)287ndash314WertschJV(2002)Voices of Collective RememberingCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressWertschJV(2004)lsquoSpecificnarrativesandschematicnarrativetemplatesrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing
Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress49ndash62Wineburg S (2001)Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts Charting the future of teaching the past
PhiladelphiaTempleUniversityPressWineburgSMosborgSPoratDandDuncanA(2007)lsquoCommonbeliefandtheculturalcurriculum
Anintergenerationalstudyofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquo American Educational Research Journal44(1)40ndash76
London Review of Education 193
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
This paperwas published in a special feature called lsquoNegotiating the nation Young peoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo
Thearticlesinthefeatureareasfollows
Angier K (2017) lsquoIn search of historical consciousness An investigation into young South AfricansrsquoknowledgeandunderstandingofldquotheirrdquonationalhistoriesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
DawesDuraisinghE (2017) lsquoMakingnarrativeconnectionsExploringhow late teensrelate theirownnarrativestothehistoricallysignificantpastrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GoldbergT(2017) lsquoTheusefulpast innegotiationAdolescentsrsquouseofhistory innegotiationof inter-groupconflictrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GreverMandVanderVliesT(2017)lsquoWhynationalnarrativesareperpetuatedAliteraturereviewonnewinsightsfromhistorytextbookresearchrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
HolmbergU(2017)lsquoldquoIwasborninthereignhelliprdquoHistoricalorientationinUgandanstudentsrsquonationalnarrativesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
LeacutetourneauJandChapmanA(2017)lsquoEditorialndashNegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
LeacutevesqueS(2017)lsquoHistoryasaldquoGPSrdquoOntheusesofhistoricalnarrativeforFrenchCanadianstudentsrsquolifeorientationandidentityrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
OlofssonHSamuelsson JStolareMandWendell J (2017) lsquoTheSwedesandtheirhistoryrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
SheehanMandDavisonM(2017)lsquoldquoWeneedtoremembertheydiedforusrdquoHowyoungpeopleinNewZealandmakemeaningofwarremembranceandcommemorationoftheFirstWorldWarrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
VanHavereTWilsKDepaepeFVerschaffelLandVanNieuwenhuyseK(2017)lsquoFlemishstudentsrsquohistoricalreferenceknowledgeandnarrativesoftheBelgiannationalpastattheendofsecondaryeducationrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
WertschJV(2017)lsquoForeword ndash NegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
London Review of Education 187
who presented their diagrams as contingent subjective interpretations of the relationshipbetweentheirownlivesandthepastandthosewhoappearedtopresenttheirdiagramsasself-evidentstraightforwardrepresentations
Jessforinstancetalkedfromthestartaboutnotbeinglsquoallthatwelldefinedrsquoasreflectedby the blob at the centre of her diagram There is a sense of fluidity ormovement in herdiagramndashasmuchintermsofherowninterpretationofherownplaceinhistoryasineventsordevelopmentsthemselvesShowinganawarenessofthelimitationsofherownknowledgeshestatesthatshedidnotwanttoexcludeitemsfromherdiagramsimplybecauseofherownignorance
MoreoverintalkingaboutthedifferentelementsofherdiagramshespokeinmetacognitivetermsaboutthedifferencesbetweenlearningaboutJewishhistoryatthetemplewhereitwasframedas lsquoourhistoryrsquoandatschoolwhereitwastreatedassomeoneelsersquoshistoryWithregardtothewomenrsquosrightsmovementshesaid
Sowomenrsquos rightsrsquomovements ndash umm ndashmymomwas a pretty hardcore feminist and IrsquovedefinitelyinheritedsomeofthatandIrsquovereallyenjoyedmostlythisyearactuallyndashIlearnedaboutwomenrsquosrightsinUSHistoryandthatrsquosbeenreallyinterestingsortofhowthatrsquosplayedoutAndprobablybecauseofmymotherandotheradultsandotherwomenthatIrsquovegrownupwithIrsquomlikendashveryconsciousofthatthatIamawomanandthatotherwomenhavedonealottogettowhereIamtodayAndtherersquosdefinitelyasenseofprideformeIhavealwaysbeenverysortofconsciousofthatheritage
Here Jesspresents the impactof themovementassomewhat inevitablegivenhermotherrsquosvaluesHowevershealsorefersexplicitlytoherenjoymentandinterestinlearningaboutthistopicatschoolSheexpresseshersenseofconnectiontowomenrsquoshistoryandheractiveprideinitwhilealsoprovidinganexplanationforwhyshefeelsconnectedtoitshowingacapacityforself-reflectionormetacognitionItisworthnotinghoweverthatshedidnotcommentontheprogressivetemplatethatseemedtoundergirdhernarrative
StuartincontrastpresentedhisdiagraminmorefixedtermsWheninvitedtotalkaboutitheproceededtolisteverythingcontainedwithinit
WellfirstofallIputthelandandthefoundersbecausethesearethebasicgroupsandpeoplethatstartedeverythingThepeoplewhostartedMesopotamiaAncientThebesyouknowlikethatPeoplewhowereintheRomanEmpireallthoseVikingsthefamousexplorersChristopherColumbusMagellanetceterahellip
Inthisextracthe iscitingundisputed lsquofactsrsquohedoesnotusemodifying languagebut insteadstates straightforwardlywhat happenedWhen asked how he knew about these aspects ofthepastheresponded lsquoMostofthestuffcamefromschool Iwas justtryingtothinkwhathappenedrsquo Stuart expressed a greatdealof connection to thepast including asmentionedearlierthathefeltpartofanongoinghistoricalprocessWhileJessspokewithprideyetanalyticdetachmentofherconnectiontothewomenrsquosmovementStuartdidnotexhibitthecapacitytotalkinametacognitivewayaboutthecontentorformofhisdiagramndashalthoughthisdoesnotmeanthathewasincapableofdoingso
Inhis interviewStuartalso talkedabout learning fromhisgrandmotherabout thepastincludinglifelessonsshegleanedfromweatheringtheGreatDepressionHereferredtohercorroboratingwhathelearnedatschool
Anditrsquoscoolbecause[myteacher]canteachmeaboutitatthesametimeandthenshecanjusttellmeaboutthestuffItrsquosreallycoolhellipIlikeaskherlsquoDoyourememberthisrsquohelliplsquoDoyourememberbootleggingandstufflikethatrsquoAndshewaslikelsquoyeaIrememberthatrsquowhichiscoolbecauseyouactuallyknowwhathappenedYoucanjusttalktoheraboutit
188 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
It is notable that he does not talk about hearing his grandmotherrsquos perspective about whathappenedratherheviewsherasanauthorityonhistorypresumablybecausehethinksshedirectlyexperiencedwhatisinhistextbook
Melvinrsquosstancetowardhisdiagramwasmoretentativeinnosmallpartbecauseheactuallyproducedtwodiagramsthefirstversionwasabrainstormofinfluencesonhislifewhichhethought conveyed an even spreadof influences on his lifeHowever in the second version(featuredinthispaper)lsquoItriedtomakeitinchronologicalordersotospeakLikewhatwasinheritedthenthingsthataffectedmelateronrsquoFurtherhespokerepeatedlyabouthisparticularlifeexperiencesaffectinghisperspectiveontheworldandonthepast
YouknowIwasnrsquotbroughtupinthesametypeofenvironmentthat[myparents]wereIwasbroughtupinAmericainMassachusettsatthatAndIthoughtthatwassomethingthatreallyaffectsyouanditaffectshowyoulookatliketheinternationalpoliticalsystemandwhatnothellipIthinkbecausemyparentsarefromoverseasitdefinitelyhelpsmelookatthingsonalargerscaleButIdodefinitelythinkincomparisontothemIlookatthingsfromanAmericanperspective
At the same time he assumes some commonality with other people such as people fromhisgenerationwhoaregrowingup inadigitalenvironment InMelvinrsquoscasehisoverarchingnarrativeisabout thewayinwhichhisoutlookandlifeprospectshavebeenaffectedbythepastandexternalforceshoweverheisalsoabletolsquostepoutsidersquothatnarrativetoreflectonthewaysinwhichhisapproachtothetaskhasbeeninfluencedbythoseverylifeexperiencesandfamilyinfluencesLikeStuartheisclosetohisgrandmotherHoweverwhenhereferstotalkingwithherabout thepastandher life inTrinidadhiscomment isaboutherperspective lsquotheobstaclesofyourpastdefinitelyaffectyourpointofviewrsquoInturnhetalksaboutherinfluenceonhimlsquoIthinkthestoriesthatyoursquoretolddefinitelyaffectthewayyouthinkrsquo
OtherstudentsmadecommentsthatindicatedarelationshipbetweentheirawarenessoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgeandthewaysinwhichtheyviewedtheirownrelationshiptothepastThey(1)acknowledgedtheirownsubjectivityandorthelimitationsoftheirperspectiveontheirrelationshiptothepast(2)presentedtheirdiagramsandexplanationsas tentative and subject to alteration andor (3) stepped outside themselves to reflect ontheir reactions to learningabouthistory In factwhile Jesswas theonly studentwhomadecommentsthatcoveredallthreeofthesecategoriesfewstudentsappearedtotakethemorestraightforwardviewofhistoricalknowledgeapparentlyevincedbyStuartThefactthatstudentsinthesamplewereacademicallysuccessfulaged16ndash18andlivinginacitywithahighlyeducatedworkforceandmajoracademicinstitutionsprobablyneedstobetakenintoaccountwithregardtothisfinding
ItisalsoworthreiteratingthattheresearcherwasnotaproverbialflyonthewallwhilecollectingthisdataForexampleStuartpresentedhimselfasagoodstudentwholikedhistoryandrespectedhiselders justpriortotheinterviewtherewasadrugsbustattheschoolbypoliceanditispossiblehewantedtoconveythathewasalsquodecentkidrsquoMelvindiscussedhisrelative good fortune comparedwithother youngblackmen (including implicitly others athisschool)insodoinghewasabletocommunicatethathewasfromahighlyeducatedfamilylivinginadesirablepartoftownJessmeanwhilepositionedherselfasathoughtfulpoliticallyinformedstudentWhiletheseimpressionsarepurelyspeculativetheysuggestthattheschoolcontextandtheperceivedidentityoftheresearcherndashaswellastheframingoftheactivityndashhelpedtoshapewhatstudentschosetoshareHoweverrecognizingthatthereislikelytobesomefluidityintermsofhowindividualsrelatetheirownlivestothepastdoesnotdiminishthefindingthattheyoungpeopleinthisstudyusedavarietyofnarrativestrategiestodosoorthatthewaysinwhichtheytalkedaboutthosestrategiesappearedtodifferaccordingtotheirepistemologicalunderstandings
London Review of Education 189
Implications
InconjunctionwiththeoverallsummaryshowninTable2thesethreecasesprovidesnapshotsofdifferentways inwhichyoungpeopleusednarrativestrategiestoconnecttheirownlivesto the past aswell as differences in theways inwhich they talked about those strategiesWhilethisstudyishighlyexploratorythesecasespointtotheapparentdiversityofways inwhichyoungpeoplethinkaboutthemselvesinrelationtothepastaswellasthesignificanceof epistemological understanding in the construction of individual historical consciousnessOf coursemany questions remain For example was the ability of Jess andMelvin to talkreflectively about their diagrams and their relationship to thepast an indicationof rigoroushistoricalunderstandinginadisciplinarysenseorofmoregenericcriticalorabstractthinkingskills Further howdo teensrsquo broaddevelopmental trajectoriesndash such as thoseoutlinedbyErikson(1968)ndash intersectwiththeirhistoricalunderstanding Itwouldbe interestingtoaskchildrenofdifferentagestocompletethediagramtaskYoungerstudentswouldpresumablyfind it challenging tocreate anarrative about theirown lives in toto as indeed someof thestudentsinthisstudymayhavedoneExaminingthepotentiallinksbetweenthedevelopmentofautobiographicalstory-tellingskillsandhowyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastcouldbeanotherproductivelineofresearch
Methodologicallythestudyopensupsomeinterestingpossibilitiesespeciallyasthediagramactivity invited students to synthesize their thinking about their personal connections to thepastinarelativelyopen-endedmannerThetaskinstructionsandoranalysiscouldbealteredtoinvestigaterelatedphenomenaForexamplehowifatalldostudentsdealwiththeideathataspeopletheyareevolvingandmayhaveashiftingrelationshiptoorperspectiveonthepastTowhatextentdotheyportraythemselvesasactiveagentsintheirownrightratherthanindividualssubjecttoforcesbeyondtheircontrolHowdodifferencesamongtheirvariouslsquometa-historicalrsquounderstandingssuchastheirworkingideasabouthistoricalcausalityrelatetohowtheytalkaboutthemselves inrelation to thepastHowwould theyposition themselvesrelative toperceivednationalnarrativesWhile it is impossible toproveadirectrelationship fromthis singlestudyndashorthereasonsbehindsucharelationshipndashstudentswhodisplayedanunderstandingoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgealsogavetheimpressionofbeingmoreempoweredintermsoftalkingabouttheirfutureandnavigatingtheirownemergingidentities
Withregardtopractice therangeofpersonaldiagramsproducedbystudentsconfirmsthatifteachersarelookingtobuildontheirstudentsrsquoexistingideasandunderstandingsalsquoonesizefitsallrsquoapproach is likely tobemisguidedandnon-inclusiveandthatnationalnarrativesare only one kind of narrative towhich young people feel connected This paper does notadvocatethatyoungpeoplebeinvitedtorelateeverythingtheylearninhistorytothemselvesHoweverofferingopen-endedandpotentiallycreativeopportunitiesforthemtoreflectontheconnectionstheyperceivebetweenthemselvesandthepastislikelytobeengagingparticularlyforolderteensgiventheirbroaderdevelopmentalneedtoestablishindependentidentities
FurthermoresuchopportunitiescanactivelybuildhistoricalunderstandingGiventhesheervarietyofdiagramsthatwillalmostcertainlybeproducedwithinasingleclassroomstudentscan learn a greatdeal by looking at anddiscussing thediagramsof their peers inways thatdeveloptheirunderstandingthatpeoplehavedifferentperspectivesonthepastandthattheseperspectivesareshapedat least inpartbybiographicalorothercontextual factorsLookingatothersrsquodiagramscanopenupdifferentpossibilitiesforyoungpeopleintermsofhowtheythinkabouttheirownrelationshiptothepastandgivethemanewperspectiveontheirownidentityandoutlookIndeedthepowerofthisapproachcanbefurtherenhancedifclassroomsaredigitallyconnectedtoclassroomsinothercountriesengaginginthesameactivityinpartbecauseitallowsprevailingandassumednationalnarrativestobecomevisible
190 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
While somepeoplewouldcertainly resist thenotionof lettingyoungpeopleuse schoolhistoryasavenueforexploringorinterpretingtheirownlivesidentitiesandvaluesthisresearchshedslightonsomeofthevariedwaysinwhichyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastoruseitfororientingpurposesAsJessinparticulardemonstratedasophisticatedunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgecangohandinhandwithaself-awarenessandevenprideinonersquosrelationshiptothepastWearguablyoweittoourstudentstohelpthemthinkaboutwhotheyareandthelivestheyarelivingorwanttoliveinourrapidlychangingandevermorecomplexworldWeneedtosupportthemtointerpretthepastandtodeveloprobusthistoricalunderstandingswealsoneedtosupportthemtointerprettheirownnarratives
Acknowledgements
TheauthorwishestothanktheGermanacosFoundationforsupportingtheresearchdiscussedinthispaperaswellasHowardGardnerHelenHasteandMeiraLevinsonforprovidingguidancewiththeresearchMycolleaguesEdwardClappandShariTishmangavehelpfulfeedbackonearlydrafts
Notes on the contributor
ElizabethDawesDuraisinghisaresearchassociateandprincipalinvestigatoratProjectZeroaresearchcentreat theHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducationwhereshealsoservesasalectureroneducationShewaspreviouslyahighschoolhistoryteacherforeightyearsworkinginbothEnglandandAustralia
References
AhonenS(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessAviableparadigmforhistoryeducationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(6)697ndash707
Almarza DJ (2001) lsquoContexts shaping minority language studentsrsquo perceptions of American historyrsquo Journal of Social Studies Research25(2)4ndash22
AnS(2009)lsquoLearningUShistoryinanageofglobalizationandtransnationalmigrationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)763ndash87
AndrewsM(2007)Shaping History Narratives of political changeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressAngvikMandVonBorriesB(eds)(1997)Youth and History A comparative European survey on historical
consciousness and political attitudes among adolescentsHamburgKoumlrber-StiftungAshbyR(2005)lsquoStudentsrsquoapproachestovalidatinghistoricalclaimsrsquoInAshbyRGordonPandLeeP
(eds)Understanding History Recent research in history educationLondonRoutledge21ndash36AudigierFandFinkN(2010)lsquoPupilsandschoolhistoryinFranceandSwitzerlandrsquo Education 3ndash1338
(3)329ndash39BambergM(2011)lsquoWhoamINarrationanditscontributiontoselfandidentityrsquo Theory and Psychology
21(1)3ndash24BartonKC(2001)lsquolsquolsquoYoursquodbewantingtoknowaboutthepastrdquoSocialcontextsofchildrenrsquoshistorical
understandinginNorthernIrelandandtheUSArsquo Comparative Education37(1)89ndash106BartonKCandLevstikLS(2004)Teaching History for the Common GoodMahwahNJLawrenceErlbaum
AssociatesBartonKCandMcCullyAW(2005)lsquoHistoryidentityandtheschoolcurriculuminNorthernIreland
Anempiricalstudyofsecondarystudentsrsquoideasandperspectivesrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(1)85ndash116
London Review of Education 191
Baynham M (2010) lsquoAlexandra Georgakopoulou Small stories interaction and identitiesrsquo Applied Linguistics31(3)471ndash3
BilligM(1995)Banal NationalismLondonSAGEPublicationsBillmann-Mahecha E and Hausen M (2005) lsquoEmpirical psychological approaches to the historical
consciousnessofchildrenrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks163ndash86
BoixMansillaV(2001)The Pursuit of Understanding A study of exemplary high school studentsrsquo conceptions of knowledge validation in science and history EdDthesisHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducation
BrunerJS(1990)Acts of MeaningCambridgeMAHarvardUniversityPressBrunerJS(2005)lsquoPastandpresentasnarrativeconstructionsrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and
Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks23ndash43DamonWandHartD (1988)Self-Understanding in Childhood and AdolescenceNewYorkCambridge
UniversityPressDantoAC(1965)Analytical Philosophy of HistoryCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressEpsteinT(1998)lsquoDeconstructingdifferencesinAfrican-AmericanandEuropean-Americanadolescentsrsquo
perspectivesonUShistoryrsquo Curriculum Inquiry28(4)397ndash423EriksonEH(1968)Identity Youth and CrisisNewYorkWWNortonFivush R Bohanek JG and ZamanW (2011) lsquoPersonal and intergenerational narratives in relation
to adolescentsrsquowell-beingrsquo InHabermasT (ed)The Development of Autobiographical Reasoning in Adolescence and Beyond (NewDirectionsforChildandAdolescentDevelopment131)45ndash57
GoldbergTPoratDandSchwarzBB(2006)lsquolsquoHerestartedtheriftweseetodayrsquoStudentandtextbooknarrativesbetweenofficialandcountermemoryrsquo Narrative Inquiry16(2)319ndash47
GoldbergTSchwarzBBandPoratD(2008)lsquoLivinganddormantcollectivememoriesascontextsofhistorylearningrsquo Learning and Instruction18(3)223ndash37
GreverMHaydnTandRibbensK(2008)lsquoIdentityandschoolhistoryTheperspectiveofyoungpeoplefromtheNetherlandsandEnglandrsquo British Journal of Educational Studies56(1)76ndash94
HaeberliP(2005) lsquoRelatingtohistoryAnempiricaltypologyrsquo International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research5(1)1ndash10
Hammack PL and Pilecki A (2012) lsquoNarrative as a rootmetaphor for political psychologyrsquo Political Psychology33(1)75ndash103
HarterS(1999)The Construction of the Self A developmental perspectiveNewYorkGuilfordPressHawkey K and Prior J (2011) lsquoHistory memory cultures and meaning in the classroomrsquo Journal of
Curriculum Studies43(2)231ndash47HoferBKandPintrichPR(eds)(2002)Personal Epistemology The psychology of beliefs about knowledge and
knowing MahwahNJLawrenceErlbaumAssociatesKeganR (1982)The Evolving Self Problem and process in human development CambridgeMAHarvard
UniversityPressLee P (2004a) lsquoUnderstanding historyrsquo In Seixas P (ed) Theorizing Historical Consciousness Toronto
UniversityofTorontoPress129ndash64LeeP(2004b)lsquoldquoWalkingbackwardsintotomorrowrdquoHistoricalconsciousnessandunderstandinghistoryrsquo
International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research4(1)1ndash46LeePJ(2005)lsquoPuttingprinciplesintopracticeUnderstandinghistoryrsquoInDonovanMSandBransford
JD (eds)How Students Learn History mathematics and science in the classroomWashingtonDCNationalAcademiesPress31ndash77
LeePandShemiltD(2004)lsquolsquolsquoIjustwishwecouldgobackinthepastandfindoutwhatreallyhappenedrdquoProgressioninunderstandingabouthistoricalaccountsrsquo Teaching History 11725ndash31
LenzC(2011) lsquoGenealogyandarchaeologyAnalyzinggenerationalpositioning inhistoricalnarrativesrsquo Journal of Comparative Family Studies42(3)319ndash27
LeacutetourneauJandMoisanS(2004)lsquoYoungpeoplersquosassimilationofacollectivehistoricalmemoryAcasestudyofQuebeckersofFrench-CanadianheritagersquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress109ndash28
192 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
LowenthalD(1996)Possessed by the Past The heritage crusade and the spoils of historyNewYorkFreePress
McAdamsDP(1993)The Stories We Live By Personal myths and the making of the selfNewYorkGuilfordPress
McLean KC Breen AV and FournierMA (2010) lsquoConstructing the self in earlymiddle and lateadolescentboysNarrativeidentityindividuationandwell-beingrsquo Journal of Research on Adolescence20(1)166ndash87
NakkulaMJandToshalisE(2006)Understanding Youth Adolescent development for educatorsCambridgeMAHarvardEducationPress
NoraP(1996)Realms of Memory Rethinking the French pastTransGoldhammerANewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
PeckCL (2010) lsquolsquolsquoItrsquos not like [Irsquom]Chinese andCanadian I am inbetweenrdquoEthnicity and studentsrsquoconceptionsofhistoricalsignificancersquo Theory and Research in Social Education38(4)574ndash617
PolkinghorneDE(1988)Narrative Knowing and the Human SciencesAlbanyStateUniversityofNewYorkPress
Polkinghorne DE (2005) lsquoNarrative psychology and historical consciousness Relationships andperspectivesrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks3ndash22
RantalaJ(2011)lsquoChildrenasconsumersofhistoricalcultureinFinlandrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies43(4)493ndash506
ReicherSandHopkinsN(2001)Self and Nation Categorization contestation and mobilizationLondonSAGEPublications
RosenzweigRandThelenDP(1998)The Presence of the Past Popular uses of history in American lifeNewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
RuumlsenJ(1993)Studies in MetahistoryPretoriaHumanSciencesResearchCouncilSeixasP(1997)lsquoMappingtheterrainofhistoricalsignificancersquo Social Education61(1)22ndash7SeixasP(2004)lsquoIntroductionrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityof
TorontoPress3ndash20SeixasP(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessTheprogressofknowledgeinapostprogressiveagersquoInStraub
J(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks141ndash62SeixasP(2009)lsquoNationalhistoryandbeyondrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)719ndash22ThorpR(2014)lsquoTowardsanepistemologicaltheoryofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquoHistorical Encounters A
Journal of Historical Consciousness Historical Cultures and History Education1(1)20ndash31TrailleK (2007) lsquolsquolsquoYou should be proud about your history Theymademe feel ashamedrdquoTeaching
historyhurtsrsquo Teaching History 12731ndash7VanSledrightB (2008) lsquoNarrativesofnation-statehistoricalknowledgeandschoolhistoryeducationrsquo
Review of Research in Education32(1)109ndash46WelzerH(2008)lsquoCollateraldamageofhistoryeducationNationalsocialismandtheHolocaustinGerman
familymemoryrsquo Social Research75(1)287ndash314WertschJV(2002)Voices of Collective RememberingCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressWertschJV(2004)lsquoSpecificnarrativesandschematicnarrativetemplatesrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing
Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress49ndash62Wineburg S (2001)Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts Charting the future of teaching the past
PhiladelphiaTempleUniversityPressWineburgSMosborgSPoratDandDuncanA(2007)lsquoCommonbeliefandtheculturalcurriculum
Anintergenerationalstudyofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquo American Educational Research Journal44(1)40ndash76
London Review of Education 193
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
This paperwas published in a special feature called lsquoNegotiating the nation Young peoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo
Thearticlesinthefeatureareasfollows
Angier K (2017) lsquoIn search of historical consciousness An investigation into young South AfricansrsquoknowledgeandunderstandingofldquotheirrdquonationalhistoriesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
DawesDuraisinghE (2017) lsquoMakingnarrativeconnectionsExploringhow late teensrelate theirownnarrativestothehistoricallysignificantpastrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GoldbergT(2017) lsquoTheusefulpast innegotiationAdolescentsrsquouseofhistory innegotiationof inter-groupconflictrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GreverMandVanderVliesT(2017)lsquoWhynationalnarrativesareperpetuatedAliteraturereviewonnewinsightsfromhistorytextbookresearchrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
HolmbergU(2017)lsquoldquoIwasborninthereignhelliprdquoHistoricalorientationinUgandanstudentsrsquonationalnarrativesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
LeacutetourneauJandChapmanA(2017)lsquoEditorialndashNegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
LeacutevesqueS(2017)lsquoHistoryasaldquoGPSrdquoOntheusesofhistoricalnarrativeforFrenchCanadianstudentsrsquolifeorientationandidentityrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
OlofssonHSamuelsson JStolareMandWendell J (2017) lsquoTheSwedesandtheirhistoryrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
SheehanMandDavisonM(2017)lsquoldquoWeneedtoremembertheydiedforusrdquoHowyoungpeopleinNewZealandmakemeaningofwarremembranceandcommemorationoftheFirstWorldWarrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
VanHavereTWilsKDepaepeFVerschaffelLandVanNieuwenhuyseK(2017)lsquoFlemishstudentsrsquohistoricalreferenceknowledgeandnarrativesoftheBelgiannationalpastattheendofsecondaryeducationrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
WertschJV(2017)lsquoForeword ndash NegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
188 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
It is notable that he does not talk about hearing his grandmotherrsquos perspective about whathappenedratherheviewsherasanauthorityonhistorypresumablybecausehethinksshedirectlyexperiencedwhatisinhistextbook
Melvinrsquosstancetowardhisdiagramwasmoretentativeinnosmallpartbecauseheactuallyproducedtwodiagramsthefirstversionwasabrainstormofinfluencesonhislifewhichhethought conveyed an even spreadof influences on his lifeHowever in the second version(featuredinthispaper)lsquoItriedtomakeitinchronologicalordersotospeakLikewhatwasinheritedthenthingsthataffectedmelateronrsquoFurtherhespokerepeatedlyabouthisparticularlifeexperiencesaffectinghisperspectiveontheworldandonthepast
YouknowIwasnrsquotbroughtupinthesametypeofenvironmentthat[myparents]wereIwasbroughtupinAmericainMassachusettsatthatAndIthoughtthatwassomethingthatreallyaffectsyouanditaffectshowyoulookatliketheinternationalpoliticalsystemandwhatnothellipIthinkbecausemyparentsarefromoverseasitdefinitelyhelpsmelookatthingsonalargerscaleButIdodefinitelythinkincomparisontothemIlookatthingsfromanAmericanperspective
At the same time he assumes some commonality with other people such as people fromhisgenerationwhoaregrowingup inadigitalenvironment InMelvinrsquoscasehisoverarchingnarrativeisabout thewayinwhichhisoutlookandlifeprospectshavebeenaffectedbythepastandexternalforceshoweverheisalsoabletolsquostepoutsidersquothatnarrativetoreflectonthewaysinwhichhisapproachtothetaskhasbeeninfluencedbythoseverylifeexperiencesandfamilyinfluencesLikeStuartheisclosetohisgrandmotherHoweverwhenhereferstotalkingwithherabout thepastandher life inTrinidadhiscomment isaboutherperspective lsquotheobstaclesofyourpastdefinitelyaffectyourpointofviewrsquoInturnhetalksaboutherinfluenceonhimlsquoIthinkthestoriesthatyoursquoretolddefinitelyaffectthewayyouthinkrsquo
OtherstudentsmadecommentsthatindicatedarelationshipbetweentheirawarenessoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgeandthewaysinwhichtheyviewedtheirownrelationshiptothepastThey(1)acknowledgedtheirownsubjectivityandorthelimitationsoftheirperspectiveontheirrelationshiptothepast(2)presentedtheirdiagramsandexplanationsas tentative and subject to alteration andor (3) stepped outside themselves to reflect ontheir reactions to learningabouthistory In factwhile Jesswas theonly studentwhomadecommentsthatcoveredallthreeofthesecategoriesfewstudentsappearedtotakethemorestraightforwardviewofhistoricalknowledgeapparentlyevincedbyStuartThefactthatstudentsinthesamplewereacademicallysuccessfulaged16ndash18andlivinginacitywithahighlyeducatedworkforceandmajoracademicinstitutionsprobablyneedstobetakenintoaccountwithregardtothisfinding
ItisalsoworthreiteratingthattheresearcherwasnotaproverbialflyonthewallwhilecollectingthisdataForexampleStuartpresentedhimselfasagoodstudentwholikedhistoryandrespectedhiselders justpriortotheinterviewtherewasadrugsbustattheschoolbypoliceanditispossiblehewantedtoconveythathewasalsquodecentkidrsquoMelvindiscussedhisrelative good fortune comparedwithother youngblackmen (including implicitly others athisschool)insodoinghewasabletocommunicatethathewasfromahighlyeducatedfamilylivinginadesirablepartoftownJessmeanwhilepositionedherselfasathoughtfulpoliticallyinformedstudentWhiletheseimpressionsarepurelyspeculativetheysuggestthattheschoolcontextandtheperceivedidentityoftheresearcherndashaswellastheframingoftheactivityndashhelpedtoshapewhatstudentschosetoshareHoweverrecognizingthatthereislikelytobesomefluidityintermsofhowindividualsrelatetheirownlivestothepastdoesnotdiminishthefindingthattheyoungpeopleinthisstudyusedavarietyofnarrativestrategiestodosoorthatthewaysinwhichtheytalkedaboutthosestrategiesappearedtodifferaccordingtotheirepistemologicalunderstandings
London Review of Education 189
Implications
InconjunctionwiththeoverallsummaryshowninTable2thesethreecasesprovidesnapshotsofdifferentways inwhichyoungpeopleusednarrativestrategiestoconnecttheirownlivesto the past aswell as differences in theways inwhich they talked about those strategiesWhilethisstudyishighlyexploratorythesecasespointtotheapparentdiversityofways inwhichyoungpeoplethinkaboutthemselvesinrelationtothepastaswellasthesignificanceof epistemological understanding in the construction of individual historical consciousnessOf coursemany questions remain For example was the ability of Jess andMelvin to talkreflectively about their diagrams and their relationship to thepast an indicationof rigoroushistoricalunderstandinginadisciplinarysenseorofmoregenericcriticalorabstractthinkingskills Further howdo teensrsquo broaddevelopmental trajectoriesndash such as thoseoutlinedbyErikson(1968)ndash intersectwiththeirhistoricalunderstanding Itwouldbe interestingtoaskchildrenofdifferentagestocompletethediagramtaskYoungerstudentswouldpresumablyfind it challenging tocreate anarrative about theirown lives in toto as indeed someof thestudentsinthisstudymayhavedoneExaminingthepotentiallinksbetweenthedevelopmentofautobiographicalstory-tellingskillsandhowyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastcouldbeanotherproductivelineofresearch
Methodologicallythestudyopensupsomeinterestingpossibilitiesespeciallyasthediagramactivity invited students to synthesize their thinking about their personal connections to thepastinarelativelyopen-endedmannerThetaskinstructionsandoranalysiscouldbealteredtoinvestigaterelatedphenomenaForexamplehowifatalldostudentsdealwiththeideathataspeopletheyareevolvingandmayhaveashiftingrelationshiptoorperspectiveonthepastTowhatextentdotheyportraythemselvesasactiveagentsintheirownrightratherthanindividualssubjecttoforcesbeyondtheircontrolHowdodifferencesamongtheirvariouslsquometa-historicalrsquounderstandingssuchastheirworkingideasabouthistoricalcausalityrelatetohowtheytalkaboutthemselves inrelation to thepastHowwould theyposition themselvesrelative toperceivednationalnarrativesWhile it is impossible toproveadirectrelationship fromthis singlestudyndashorthereasonsbehindsucharelationshipndashstudentswhodisplayedanunderstandingoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgealsogavetheimpressionofbeingmoreempoweredintermsoftalkingabouttheirfutureandnavigatingtheirownemergingidentities
Withregardtopractice therangeofpersonaldiagramsproducedbystudentsconfirmsthatifteachersarelookingtobuildontheirstudentsrsquoexistingideasandunderstandingsalsquoonesizefitsallrsquoapproach is likely tobemisguidedandnon-inclusiveandthatnationalnarrativesare only one kind of narrative towhich young people feel connected This paper does notadvocatethatyoungpeoplebeinvitedtorelateeverythingtheylearninhistorytothemselvesHoweverofferingopen-endedandpotentiallycreativeopportunitiesforthemtoreflectontheconnectionstheyperceivebetweenthemselvesandthepastislikelytobeengagingparticularlyforolderteensgiventheirbroaderdevelopmentalneedtoestablishindependentidentities
FurthermoresuchopportunitiescanactivelybuildhistoricalunderstandingGiventhesheervarietyofdiagramsthatwillalmostcertainlybeproducedwithinasingleclassroomstudentscan learn a greatdeal by looking at anddiscussing thediagramsof their peers inways thatdeveloptheirunderstandingthatpeoplehavedifferentperspectivesonthepastandthattheseperspectivesareshapedat least inpartbybiographicalorothercontextual factorsLookingatothersrsquodiagramscanopenupdifferentpossibilitiesforyoungpeopleintermsofhowtheythinkabouttheirownrelationshiptothepastandgivethemanewperspectiveontheirownidentityandoutlookIndeedthepowerofthisapproachcanbefurtherenhancedifclassroomsaredigitallyconnectedtoclassroomsinothercountriesengaginginthesameactivityinpartbecauseitallowsprevailingandassumednationalnarrativestobecomevisible
190 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
While somepeoplewouldcertainly resist thenotionof lettingyoungpeopleuse schoolhistoryasavenueforexploringorinterpretingtheirownlivesidentitiesandvaluesthisresearchshedslightonsomeofthevariedwaysinwhichyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastoruseitfororientingpurposesAsJessinparticulardemonstratedasophisticatedunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgecangohandinhandwithaself-awarenessandevenprideinonersquosrelationshiptothepastWearguablyoweittoourstudentstohelpthemthinkaboutwhotheyareandthelivestheyarelivingorwanttoliveinourrapidlychangingandevermorecomplexworldWeneedtosupportthemtointerpretthepastandtodeveloprobusthistoricalunderstandingswealsoneedtosupportthemtointerprettheirownnarratives
Acknowledgements
TheauthorwishestothanktheGermanacosFoundationforsupportingtheresearchdiscussedinthispaperaswellasHowardGardnerHelenHasteandMeiraLevinsonforprovidingguidancewiththeresearchMycolleaguesEdwardClappandShariTishmangavehelpfulfeedbackonearlydrafts
Notes on the contributor
ElizabethDawesDuraisinghisaresearchassociateandprincipalinvestigatoratProjectZeroaresearchcentreat theHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducationwhereshealsoservesasalectureroneducationShewaspreviouslyahighschoolhistoryteacherforeightyearsworkinginbothEnglandandAustralia
References
AhonenS(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessAviableparadigmforhistoryeducationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(6)697ndash707
Almarza DJ (2001) lsquoContexts shaping minority language studentsrsquo perceptions of American historyrsquo Journal of Social Studies Research25(2)4ndash22
AnS(2009)lsquoLearningUShistoryinanageofglobalizationandtransnationalmigrationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)763ndash87
AndrewsM(2007)Shaping History Narratives of political changeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressAngvikMandVonBorriesB(eds)(1997)Youth and History A comparative European survey on historical
consciousness and political attitudes among adolescentsHamburgKoumlrber-StiftungAshbyR(2005)lsquoStudentsrsquoapproachestovalidatinghistoricalclaimsrsquoInAshbyRGordonPandLeeP
(eds)Understanding History Recent research in history educationLondonRoutledge21ndash36AudigierFandFinkN(2010)lsquoPupilsandschoolhistoryinFranceandSwitzerlandrsquo Education 3ndash1338
(3)329ndash39BambergM(2011)lsquoWhoamINarrationanditscontributiontoselfandidentityrsquo Theory and Psychology
21(1)3ndash24BartonKC(2001)lsquolsquolsquoYoursquodbewantingtoknowaboutthepastrdquoSocialcontextsofchildrenrsquoshistorical
understandinginNorthernIrelandandtheUSArsquo Comparative Education37(1)89ndash106BartonKCandLevstikLS(2004)Teaching History for the Common GoodMahwahNJLawrenceErlbaum
AssociatesBartonKCandMcCullyAW(2005)lsquoHistoryidentityandtheschoolcurriculuminNorthernIreland
Anempiricalstudyofsecondarystudentsrsquoideasandperspectivesrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(1)85ndash116
London Review of Education 191
Baynham M (2010) lsquoAlexandra Georgakopoulou Small stories interaction and identitiesrsquo Applied Linguistics31(3)471ndash3
BilligM(1995)Banal NationalismLondonSAGEPublicationsBillmann-Mahecha E and Hausen M (2005) lsquoEmpirical psychological approaches to the historical
consciousnessofchildrenrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks163ndash86
BoixMansillaV(2001)The Pursuit of Understanding A study of exemplary high school studentsrsquo conceptions of knowledge validation in science and history EdDthesisHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducation
BrunerJS(1990)Acts of MeaningCambridgeMAHarvardUniversityPressBrunerJS(2005)lsquoPastandpresentasnarrativeconstructionsrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and
Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks23ndash43DamonWandHartD (1988)Self-Understanding in Childhood and AdolescenceNewYorkCambridge
UniversityPressDantoAC(1965)Analytical Philosophy of HistoryCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressEpsteinT(1998)lsquoDeconstructingdifferencesinAfrican-AmericanandEuropean-Americanadolescentsrsquo
perspectivesonUShistoryrsquo Curriculum Inquiry28(4)397ndash423EriksonEH(1968)Identity Youth and CrisisNewYorkWWNortonFivush R Bohanek JG and ZamanW (2011) lsquoPersonal and intergenerational narratives in relation
to adolescentsrsquowell-beingrsquo InHabermasT (ed)The Development of Autobiographical Reasoning in Adolescence and Beyond (NewDirectionsforChildandAdolescentDevelopment131)45ndash57
GoldbergTPoratDandSchwarzBB(2006)lsquolsquoHerestartedtheriftweseetodayrsquoStudentandtextbooknarrativesbetweenofficialandcountermemoryrsquo Narrative Inquiry16(2)319ndash47
GoldbergTSchwarzBBandPoratD(2008)lsquoLivinganddormantcollectivememoriesascontextsofhistorylearningrsquo Learning and Instruction18(3)223ndash37
GreverMHaydnTandRibbensK(2008)lsquoIdentityandschoolhistoryTheperspectiveofyoungpeoplefromtheNetherlandsandEnglandrsquo British Journal of Educational Studies56(1)76ndash94
HaeberliP(2005) lsquoRelatingtohistoryAnempiricaltypologyrsquo International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research5(1)1ndash10
Hammack PL and Pilecki A (2012) lsquoNarrative as a rootmetaphor for political psychologyrsquo Political Psychology33(1)75ndash103
HarterS(1999)The Construction of the Self A developmental perspectiveNewYorkGuilfordPressHawkey K and Prior J (2011) lsquoHistory memory cultures and meaning in the classroomrsquo Journal of
Curriculum Studies43(2)231ndash47HoferBKandPintrichPR(eds)(2002)Personal Epistemology The psychology of beliefs about knowledge and
knowing MahwahNJLawrenceErlbaumAssociatesKeganR (1982)The Evolving Self Problem and process in human development CambridgeMAHarvard
UniversityPressLee P (2004a) lsquoUnderstanding historyrsquo In Seixas P (ed) Theorizing Historical Consciousness Toronto
UniversityofTorontoPress129ndash64LeeP(2004b)lsquoldquoWalkingbackwardsintotomorrowrdquoHistoricalconsciousnessandunderstandinghistoryrsquo
International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research4(1)1ndash46LeePJ(2005)lsquoPuttingprinciplesintopracticeUnderstandinghistoryrsquoInDonovanMSandBransford
JD (eds)How Students Learn History mathematics and science in the classroomWashingtonDCNationalAcademiesPress31ndash77
LeePandShemiltD(2004)lsquolsquolsquoIjustwishwecouldgobackinthepastandfindoutwhatreallyhappenedrdquoProgressioninunderstandingabouthistoricalaccountsrsquo Teaching History 11725ndash31
LenzC(2011) lsquoGenealogyandarchaeologyAnalyzinggenerationalpositioning inhistoricalnarrativesrsquo Journal of Comparative Family Studies42(3)319ndash27
LeacutetourneauJandMoisanS(2004)lsquoYoungpeoplersquosassimilationofacollectivehistoricalmemoryAcasestudyofQuebeckersofFrench-CanadianheritagersquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress109ndash28
192 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
LowenthalD(1996)Possessed by the Past The heritage crusade and the spoils of historyNewYorkFreePress
McAdamsDP(1993)The Stories We Live By Personal myths and the making of the selfNewYorkGuilfordPress
McLean KC Breen AV and FournierMA (2010) lsquoConstructing the self in earlymiddle and lateadolescentboysNarrativeidentityindividuationandwell-beingrsquo Journal of Research on Adolescence20(1)166ndash87
NakkulaMJandToshalisE(2006)Understanding Youth Adolescent development for educatorsCambridgeMAHarvardEducationPress
NoraP(1996)Realms of Memory Rethinking the French pastTransGoldhammerANewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
PeckCL (2010) lsquolsquolsquoItrsquos not like [Irsquom]Chinese andCanadian I am inbetweenrdquoEthnicity and studentsrsquoconceptionsofhistoricalsignificancersquo Theory and Research in Social Education38(4)574ndash617
PolkinghorneDE(1988)Narrative Knowing and the Human SciencesAlbanyStateUniversityofNewYorkPress
Polkinghorne DE (2005) lsquoNarrative psychology and historical consciousness Relationships andperspectivesrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks3ndash22
RantalaJ(2011)lsquoChildrenasconsumersofhistoricalcultureinFinlandrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies43(4)493ndash506
ReicherSandHopkinsN(2001)Self and Nation Categorization contestation and mobilizationLondonSAGEPublications
RosenzweigRandThelenDP(1998)The Presence of the Past Popular uses of history in American lifeNewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
RuumlsenJ(1993)Studies in MetahistoryPretoriaHumanSciencesResearchCouncilSeixasP(1997)lsquoMappingtheterrainofhistoricalsignificancersquo Social Education61(1)22ndash7SeixasP(2004)lsquoIntroductionrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityof
TorontoPress3ndash20SeixasP(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessTheprogressofknowledgeinapostprogressiveagersquoInStraub
J(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks141ndash62SeixasP(2009)lsquoNationalhistoryandbeyondrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)719ndash22ThorpR(2014)lsquoTowardsanepistemologicaltheoryofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquoHistorical Encounters A
Journal of Historical Consciousness Historical Cultures and History Education1(1)20ndash31TrailleK (2007) lsquolsquolsquoYou should be proud about your history Theymademe feel ashamedrdquoTeaching
historyhurtsrsquo Teaching History 12731ndash7VanSledrightB (2008) lsquoNarrativesofnation-statehistoricalknowledgeandschoolhistoryeducationrsquo
Review of Research in Education32(1)109ndash46WelzerH(2008)lsquoCollateraldamageofhistoryeducationNationalsocialismandtheHolocaustinGerman
familymemoryrsquo Social Research75(1)287ndash314WertschJV(2002)Voices of Collective RememberingCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressWertschJV(2004)lsquoSpecificnarrativesandschematicnarrativetemplatesrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing
Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress49ndash62Wineburg S (2001)Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts Charting the future of teaching the past
PhiladelphiaTempleUniversityPressWineburgSMosborgSPoratDandDuncanA(2007)lsquoCommonbeliefandtheculturalcurriculum
Anintergenerationalstudyofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquo American Educational Research Journal44(1)40ndash76
London Review of Education 193
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
This paperwas published in a special feature called lsquoNegotiating the nation Young peoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo
Thearticlesinthefeatureareasfollows
Angier K (2017) lsquoIn search of historical consciousness An investigation into young South AfricansrsquoknowledgeandunderstandingofldquotheirrdquonationalhistoriesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
DawesDuraisinghE (2017) lsquoMakingnarrativeconnectionsExploringhow late teensrelate theirownnarrativestothehistoricallysignificantpastrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GoldbergT(2017) lsquoTheusefulpast innegotiationAdolescentsrsquouseofhistory innegotiationof inter-groupconflictrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GreverMandVanderVliesT(2017)lsquoWhynationalnarrativesareperpetuatedAliteraturereviewonnewinsightsfromhistorytextbookresearchrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
HolmbergU(2017)lsquoldquoIwasborninthereignhelliprdquoHistoricalorientationinUgandanstudentsrsquonationalnarrativesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
LeacutetourneauJandChapmanA(2017)lsquoEditorialndashNegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
LeacutevesqueS(2017)lsquoHistoryasaldquoGPSrdquoOntheusesofhistoricalnarrativeforFrenchCanadianstudentsrsquolifeorientationandidentityrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
OlofssonHSamuelsson JStolareMandWendell J (2017) lsquoTheSwedesandtheirhistoryrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
SheehanMandDavisonM(2017)lsquoldquoWeneedtoremembertheydiedforusrdquoHowyoungpeopleinNewZealandmakemeaningofwarremembranceandcommemorationoftheFirstWorldWarrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
VanHavereTWilsKDepaepeFVerschaffelLandVanNieuwenhuyseK(2017)lsquoFlemishstudentsrsquohistoricalreferenceknowledgeandnarrativesoftheBelgiannationalpastattheendofsecondaryeducationrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
WertschJV(2017)lsquoForeword ndash NegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
London Review of Education 189
Implications
InconjunctionwiththeoverallsummaryshowninTable2thesethreecasesprovidesnapshotsofdifferentways inwhichyoungpeopleusednarrativestrategiestoconnecttheirownlivesto the past aswell as differences in theways inwhich they talked about those strategiesWhilethisstudyishighlyexploratorythesecasespointtotheapparentdiversityofways inwhichyoungpeoplethinkaboutthemselvesinrelationtothepastaswellasthesignificanceof epistemological understanding in the construction of individual historical consciousnessOf coursemany questions remain For example was the ability of Jess andMelvin to talkreflectively about their diagrams and their relationship to thepast an indicationof rigoroushistoricalunderstandinginadisciplinarysenseorofmoregenericcriticalorabstractthinkingskills Further howdo teensrsquo broaddevelopmental trajectoriesndash such as thoseoutlinedbyErikson(1968)ndash intersectwiththeirhistoricalunderstanding Itwouldbe interestingtoaskchildrenofdifferentagestocompletethediagramtaskYoungerstudentswouldpresumablyfind it challenging tocreate anarrative about theirown lives in toto as indeed someof thestudentsinthisstudymayhavedoneExaminingthepotentiallinksbetweenthedevelopmentofautobiographicalstory-tellingskillsandhowyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastcouldbeanotherproductivelineofresearch
Methodologicallythestudyopensupsomeinterestingpossibilitiesespeciallyasthediagramactivity invited students to synthesize their thinking about their personal connections to thepastinarelativelyopen-endedmannerThetaskinstructionsandoranalysiscouldbealteredtoinvestigaterelatedphenomenaForexamplehowifatalldostudentsdealwiththeideathataspeopletheyareevolvingandmayhaveashiftingrelationshiptoorperspectiveonthepastTowhatextentdotheyportraythemselvesasactiveagentsintheirownrightratherthanindividualssubjecttoforcesbeyondtheircontrolHowdodifferencesamongtheirvariouslsquometa-historicalrsquounderstandingssuchastheirworkingideasabouthistoricalcausalityrelatetohowtheytalkaboutthemselves inrelation to thepastHowwould theyposition themselvesrelative toperceivednationalnarrativesWhile it is impossible toproveadirectrelationship fromthis singlestudyndashorthereasonsbehindsucharelationshipndashstudentswhodisplayedanunderstandingoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgealsogavetheimpressionofbeingmoreempoweredintermsoftalkingabouttheirfutureandnavigatingtheirownemergingidentities
Withregardtopractice therangeofpersonaldiagramsproducedbystudentsconfirmsthatifteachersarelookingtobuildontheirstudentsrsquoexistingideasandunderstandingsalsquoonesizefitsallrsquoapproach is likely tobemisguidedandnon-inclusiveandthatnationalnarrativesare only one kind of narrative towhich young people feel connected This paper does notadvocatethatyoungpeoplebeinvitedtorelateeverythingtheylearninhistorytothemselvesHoweverofferingopen-endedandpotentiallycreativeopportunitiesforthemtoreflectontheconnectionstheyperceivebetweenthemselvesandthepastislikelytobeengagingparticularlyforolderteensgiventheirbroaderdevelopmentalneedtoestablishindependentidentities
FurthermoresuchopportunitiescanactivelybuildhistoricalunderstandingGiventhesheervarietyofdiagramsthatwillalmostcertainlybeproducedwithinasingleclassroomstudentscan learn a greatdeal by looking at anddiscussing thediagramsof their peers inways thatdeveloptheirunderstandingthatpeoplehavedifferentperspectivesonthepastandthattheseperspectivesareshapedat least inpartbybiographicalorothercontextual factorsLookingatothersrsquodiagramscanopenupdifferentpossibilitiesforyoungpeopleintermsofhowtheythinkabouttheirownrelationshiptothepastandgivethemanewperspectiveontheirownidentityandoutlookIndeedthepowerofthisapproachcanbefurtherenhancedifclassroomsaredigitallyconnectedtoclassroomsinothercountriesengaginginthesameactivityinpartbecauseitallowsprevailingandassumednationalnarrativestobecomevisible
190 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
While somepeoplewouldcertainly resist thenotionof lettingyoungpeopleuse schoolhistoryasavenueforexploringorinterpretingtheirownlivesidentitiesandvaluesthisresearchshedslightonsomeofthevariedwaysinwhichyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastoruseitfororientingpurposesAsJessinparticulardemonstratedasophisticatedunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgecangohandinhandwithaself-awarenessandevenprideinonersquosrelationshiptothepastWearguablyoweittoourstudentstohelpthemthinkaboutwhotheyareandthelivestheyarelivingorwanttoliveinourrapidlychangingandevermorecomplexworldWeneedtosupportthemtointerpretthepastandtodeveloprobusthistoricalunderstandingswealsoneedtosupportthemtointerprettheirownnarratives
Acknowledgements
TheauthorwishestothanktheGermanacosFoundationforsupportingtheresearchdiscussedinthispaperaswellasHowardGardnerHelenHasteandMeiraLevinsonforprovidingguidancewiththeresearchMycolleaguesEdwardClappandShariTishmangavehelpfulfeedbackonearlydrafts
Notes on the contributor
ElizabethDawesDuraisinghisaresearchassociateandprincipalinvestigatoratProjectZeroaresearchcentreat theHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducationwhereshealsoservesasalectureroneducationShewaspreviouslyahighschoolhistoryteacherforeightyearsworkinginbothEnglandandAustralia
References
AhonenS(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessAviableparadigmforhistoryeducationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(6)697ndash707
Almarza DJ (2001) lsquoContexts shaping minority language studentsrsquo perceptions of American historyrsquo Journal of Social Studies Research25(2)4ndash22
AnS(2009)lsquoLearningUShistoryinanageofglobalizationandtransnationalmigrationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)763ndash87
AndrewsM(2007)Shaping History Narratives of political changeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressAngvikMandVonBorriesB(eds)(1997)Youth and History A comparative European survey on historical
consciousness and political attitudes among adolescentsHamburgKoumlrber-StiftungAshbyR(2005)lsquoStudentsrsquoapproachestovalidatinghistoricalclaimsrsquoInAshbyRGordonPandLeeP
(eds)Understanding History Recent research in history educationLondonRoutledge21ndash36AudigierFandFinkN(2010)lsquoPupilsandschoolhistoryinFranceandSwitzerlandrsquo Education 3ndash1338
(3)329ndash39BambergM(2011)lsquoWhoamINarrationanditscontributiontoselfandidentityrsquo Theory and Psychology
21(1)3ndash24BartonKC(2001)lsquolsquolsquoYoursquodbewantingtoknowaboutthepastrdquoSocialcontextsofchildrenrsquoshistorical
understandinginNorthernIrelandandtheUSArsquo Comparative Education37(1)89ndash106BartonKCandLevstikLS(2004)Teaching History for the Common GoodMahwahNJLawrenceErlbaum
AssociatesBartonKCandMcCullyAW(2005)lsquoHistoryidentityandtheschoolcurriculuminNorthernIreland
Anempiricalstudyofsecondarystudentsrsquoideasandperspectivesrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(1)85ndash116
London Review of Education 191
Baynham M (2010) lsquoAlexandra Georgakopoulou Small stories interaction and identitiesrsquo Applied Linguistics31(3)471ndash3
BilligM(1995)Banal NationalismLondonSAGEPublicationsBillmann-Mahecha E and Hausen M (2005) lsquoEmpirical psychological approaches to the historical
consciousnessofchildrenrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks163ndash86
BoixMansillaV(2001)The Pursuit of Understanding A study of exemplary high school studentsrsquo conceptions of knowledge validation in science and history EdDthesisHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducation
BrunerJS(1990)Acts of MeaningCambridgeMAHarvardUniversityPressBrunerJS(2005)lsquoPastandpresentasnarrativeconstructionsrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and
Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks23ndash43DamonWandHartD (1988)Self-Understanding in Childhood and AdolescenceNewYorkCambridge
UniversityPressDantoAC(1965)Analytical Philosophy of HistoryCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressEpsteinT(1998)lsquoDeconstructingdifferencesinAfrican-AmericanandEuropean-Americanadolescentsrsquo
perspectivesonUShistoryrsquo Curriculum Inquiry28(4)397ndash423EriksonEH(1968)Identity Youth and CrisisNewYorkWWNortonFivush R Bohanek JG and ZamanW (2011) lsquoPersonal and intergenerational narratives in relation
to adolescentsrsquowell-beingrsquo InHabermasT (ed)The Development of Autobiographical Reasoning in Adolescence and Beyond (NewDirectionsforChildandAdolescentDevelopment131)45ndash57
GoldbergTPoratDandSchwarzBB(2006)lsquolsquoHerestartedtheriftweseetodayrsquoStudentandtextbooknarrativesbetweenofficialandcountermemoryrsquo Narrative Inquiry16(2)319ndash47
GoldbergTSchwarzBBandPoratD(2008)lsquoLivinganddormantcollectivememoriesascontextsofhistorylearningrsquo Learning and Instruction18(3)223ndash37
GreverMHaydnTandRibbensK(2008)lsquoIdentityandschoolhistoryTheperspectiveofyoungpeoplefromtheNetherlandsandEnglandrsquo British Journal of Educational Studies56(1)76ndash94
HaeberliP(2005) lsquoRelatingtohistoryAnempiricaltypologyrsquo International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research5(1)1ndash10
Hammack PL and Pilecki A (2012) lsquoNarrative as a rootmetaphor for political psychologyrsquo Political Psychology33(1)75ndash103
HarterS(1999)The Construction of the Self A developmental perspectiveNewYorkGuilfordPressHawkey K and Prior J (2011) lsquoHistory memory cultures and meaning in the classroomrsquo Journal of
Curriculum Studies43(2)231ndash47HoferBKandPintrichPR(eds)(2002)Personal Epistemology The psychology of beliefs about knowledge and
knowing MahwahNJLawrenceErlbaumAssociatesKeganR (1982)The Evolving Self Problem and process in human development CambridgeMAHarvard
UniversityPressLee P (2004a) lsquoUnderstanding historyrsquo In Seixas P (ed) Theorizing Historical Consciousness Toronto
UniversityofTorontoPress129ndash64LeeP(2004b)lsquoldquoWalkingbackwardsintotomorrowrdquoHistoricalconsciousnessandunderstandinghistoryrsquo
International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research4(1)1ndash46LeePJ(2005)lsquoPuttingprinciplesintopracticeUnderstandinghistoryrsquoInDonovanMSandBransford
JD (eds)How Students Learn History mathematics and science in the classroomWashingtonDCNationalAcademiesPress31ndash77
LeePandShemiltD(2004)lsquolsquolsquoIjustwishwecouldgobackinthepastandfindoutwhatreallyhappenedrdquoProgressioninunderstandingabouthistoricalaccountsrsquo Teaching History 11725ndash31
LenzC(2011) lsquoGenealogyandarchaeologyAnalyzinggenerationalpositioning inhistoricalnarrativesrsquo Journal of Comparative Family Studies42(3)319ndash27
LeacutetourneauJandMoisanS(2004)lsquoYoungpeoplersquosassimilationofacollectivehistoricalmemoryAcasestudyofQuebeckersofFrench-CanadianheritagersquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress109ndash28
192 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
LowenthalD(1996)Possessed by the Past The heritage crusade and the spoils of historyNewYorkFreePress
McAdamsDP(1993)The Stories We Live By Personal myths and the making of the selfNewYorkGuilfordPress
McLean KC Breen AV and FournierMA (2010) lsquoConstructing the self in earlymiddle and lateadolescentboysNarrativeidentityindividuationandwell-beingrsquo Journal of Research on Adolescence20(1)166ndash87
NakkulaMJandToshalisE(2006)Understanding Youth Adolescent development for educatorsCambridgeMAHarvardEducationPress
NoraP(1996)Realms of Memory Rethinking the French pastTransGoldhammerANewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
PeckCL (2010) lsquolsquolsquoItrsquos not like [Irsquom]Chinese andCanadian I am inbetweenrdquoEthnicity and studentsrsquoconceptionsofhistoricalsignificancersquo Theory and Research in Social Education38(4)574ndash617
PolkinghorneDE(1988)Narrative Knowing and the Human SciencesAlbanyStateUniversityofNewYorkPress
Polkinghorne DE (2005) lsquoNarrative psychology and historical consciousness Relationships andperspectivesrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks3ndash22
RantalaJ(2011)lsquoChildrenasconsumersofhistoricalcultureinFinlandrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies43(4)493ndash506
ReicherSandHopkinsN(2001)Self and Nation Categorization contestation and mobilizationLondonSAGEPublications
RosenzweigRandThelenDP(1998)The Presence of the Past Popular uses of history in American lifeNewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
RuumlsenJ(1993)Studies in MetahistoryPretoriaHumanSciencesResearchCouncilSeixasP(1997)lsquoMappingtheterrainofhistoricalsignificancersquo Social Education61(1)22ndash7SeixasP(2004)lsquoIntroductionrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityof
TorontoPress3ndash20SeixasP(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessTheprogressofknowledgeinapostprogressiveagersquoInStraub
J(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks141ndash62SeixasP(2009)lsquoNationalhistoryandbeyondrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)719ndash22ThorpR(2014)lsquoTowardsanepistemologicaltheoryofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquoHistorical Encounters A
Journal of Historical Consciousness Historical Cultures and History Education1(1)20ndash31TrailleK (2007) lsquolsquolsquoYou should be proud about your history Theymademe feel ashamedrdquoTeaching
historyhurtsrsquo Teaching History 12731ndash7VanSledrightB (2008) lsquoNarrativesofnation-statehistoricalknowledgeandschoolhistoryeducationrsquo
Review of Research in Education32(1)109ndash46WelzerH(2008)lsquoCollateraldamageofhistoryeducationNationalsocialismandtheHolocaustinGerman
familymemoryrsquo Social Research75(1)287ndash314WertschJV(2002)Voices of Collective RememberingCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressWertschJV(2004)lsquoSpecificnarrativesandschematicnarrativetemplatesrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing
Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress49ndash62Wineburg S (2001)Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts Charting the future of teaching the past
PhiladelphiaTempleUniversityPressWineburgSMosborgSPoratDandDuncanA(2007)lsquoCommonbeliefandtheculturalcurriculum
Anintergenerationalstudyofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquo American Educational Research Journal44(1)40ndash76
London Review of Education 193
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
This paperwas published in a special feature called lsquoNegotiating the nation Young peoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo
Thearticlesinthefeatureareasfollows
Angier K (2017) lsquoIn search of historical consciousness An investigation into young South AfricansrsquoknowledgeandunderstandingofldquotheirrdquonationalhistoriesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
DawesDuraisinghE (2017) lsquoMakingnarrativeconnectionsExploringhow late teensrelate theirownnarrativestothehistoricallysignificantpastrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GoldbergT(2017) lsquoTheusefulpast innegotiationAdolescentsrsquouseofhistory innegotiationof inter-groupconflictrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GreverMandVanderVliesT(2017)lsquoWhynationalnarrativesareperpetuatedAliteraturereviewonnewinsightsfromhistorytextbookresearchrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
HolmbergU(2017)lsquoldquoIwasborninthereignhelliprdquoHistoricalorientationinUgandanstudentsrsquonationalnarrativesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
LeacutetourneauJandChapmanA(2017)lsquoEditorialndashNegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
LeacutevesqueS(2017)lsquoHistoryasaldquoGPSrdquoOntheusesofhistoricalnarrativeforFrenchCanadianstudentsrsquolifeorientationandidentityrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
OlofssonHSamuelsson JStolareMandWendell J (2017) lsquoTheSwedesandtheirhistoryrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
SheehanMandDavisonM(2017)lsquoldquoWeneedtoremembertheydiedforusrdquoHowyoungpeopleinNewZealandmakemeaningofwarremembranceandcommemorationoftheFirstWorldWarrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
VanHavereTWilsKDepaepeFVerschaffelLandVanNieuwenhuyseK(2017)lsquoFlemishstudentsrsquohistoricalreferenceknowledgeandnarrativesoftheBelgiannationalpastattheendofsecondaryeducationrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
WertschJV(2017)lsquoForeword ndash NegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
190 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
While somepeoplewouldcertainly resist thenotionof lettingyoungpeopleuse schoolhistoryasavenueforexploringorinterpretingtheirownlivesidentitiesandvaluesthisresearchshedslightonsomeofthevariedwaysinwhichyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastoruseitfororientingpurposesAsJessinparticulardemonstratedasophisticatedunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgecangohandinhandwithaself-awarenessandevenprideinonersquosrelationshiptothepastWearguablyoweittoourstudentstohelpthemthinkaboutwhotheyareandthelivestheyarelivingorwanttoliveinourrapidlychangingandevermorecomplexworldWeneedtosupportthemtointerpretthepastandtodeveloprobusthistoricalunderstandingswealsoneedtosupportthemtointerprettheirownnarratives
Acknowledgements
TheauthorwishestothanktheGermanacosFoundationforsupportingtheresearchdiscussedinthispaperaswellasHowardGardnerHelenHasteandMeiraLevinsonforprovidingguidancewiththeresearchMycolleaguesEdwardClappandShariTishmangavehelpfulfeedbackonearlydrafts
Notes on the contributor
ElizabethDawesDuraisinghisaresearchassociateandprincipalinvestigatoratProjectZeroaresearchcentreat theHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducationwhereshealsoservesasalectureroneducationShewaspreviouslyahighschoolhistoryteacherforeightyearsworkinginbothEnglandandAustralia
References
AhonenS(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessAviableparadigmforhistoryeducationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(6)697ndash707
Almarza DJ (2001) lsquoContexts shaping minority language studentsrsquo perceptions of American historyrsquo Journal of Social Studies Research25(2)4ndash22
AnS(2009)lsquoLearningUShistoryinanageofglobalizationandtransnationalmigrationrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)763ndash87
AndrewsM(2007)Shaping History Narratives of political changeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressAngvikMandVonBorriesB(eds)(1997)Youth and History A comparative European survey on historical
consciousness and political attitudes among adolescentsHamburgKoumlrber-StiftungAshbyR(2005)lsquoStudentsrsquoapproachestovalidatinghistoricalclaimsrsquoInAshbyRGordonPandLeeP
(eds)Understanding History Recent research in history educationLondonRoutledge21ndash36AudigierFandFinkN(2010)lsquoPupilsandschoolhistoryinFranceandSwitzerlandrsquo Education 3ndash1338
(3)329ndash39BambergM(2011)lsquoWhoamINarrationanditscontributiontoselfandidentityrsquo Theory and Psychology
21(1)3ndash24BartonKC(2001)lsquolsquolsquoYoursquodbewantingtoknowaboutthepastrdquoSocialcontextsofchildrenrsquoshistorical
understandinginNorthernIrelandandtheUSArsquo Comparative Education37(1)89ndash106BartonKCandLevstikLS(2004)Teaching History for the Common GoodMahwahNJLawrenceErlbaum
AssociatesBartonKCandMcCullyAW(2005)lsquoHistoryidentityandtheschoolcurriculuminNorthernIreland
Anempiricalstudyofsecondarystudentsrsquoideasandperspectivesrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(1)85ndash116
London Review of Education 191
Baynham M (2010) lsquoAlexandra Georgakopoulou Small stories interaction and identitiesrsquo Applied Linguistics31(3)471ndash3
BilligM(1995)Banal NationalismLondonSAGEPublicationsBillmann-Mahecha E and Hausen M (2005) lsquoEmpirical psychological approaches to the historical
consciousnessofchildrenrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks163ndash86
BoixMansillaV(2001)The Pursuit of Understanding A study of exemplary high school studentsrsquo conceptions of knowledge validation in science and history EdDthesisHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducation
BrunerJS(1990)Acts of MeaningCambridgeMAHarvardUniversityPressBrunerJS(2005)lsquoPastandpresentasnarrativeconstructionsrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and
Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks23ndash43DamonWandHartD (1988)Self-Understanding in Childhood and AdolescenceNewYorkCambridge
UniversityPressDantoAC(1965)Analytical Philosophy of HistoryCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressEpsteinT(1998)lsquoDeconstructingdifferencesinAfrican-AmericanandEuropean-Americanadolescentsrsquo
perspectivesonUShistoryrsquo Curriculum Inquiry28(4)397ndash423EriksonEH(1968)Identity Youth and CrisisNewYorkWWNortonFivush R Bohanek JG and ZamanW (2011) lsquoPersonal and intergenerational narratives in relation
to adolescentsrsquowell-beingrsquo InHabermasT (ed)The Development of Autobiographical Reasoning in Adolescence and Beyond (NewDirectionsforChildandAdolescentDevelopment131)45ndash57
GoldbergTPoratDandSchwarzBB(2006)lsquolsquoHerestartedtheriftweseetodayrsquoStudentandtextbooknarrativesbetweenofficialandcountermemoryrsquo Narrative Inquiry16(2)319ndash47
GoldbergTSchwarzBBandPoratD(2008)lsquoLivinganddormantcollectivememoriesascontextsofhistorylearningrsquo Learning and Instruction18(3)223ndash37
GreverMHaydnTandRibbensK(2008)lsquoIdentityandschoolhistoryTheperspectiveofyoungpeoplefromtheNetherlandsandEnglandrsquo British Journal of Educational Studies56(1)76ndash94
HaeberliP(2005) lsquoRelatingtohistoryAnempiricaltypologyrsquo International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research5(1)1ndash10
Hammack PL and Pilecki A (2012) lsquoNarrative as a rootmetaphor for political psychologyrsquo Political Psychology33(1)75ndash103
HarterS(1999)The Construction of the Self A developmental perspectiveNewYorkGuilfordPressHawkey K and Prior J (2011) lsquoHistory memory cultures and meaning in the classroomrsquo Journal of
Curriculum Studies43(2)231ndash47HoferBKandPintrichPR(eds)(2002)Personal Epistemology The psychology of beliefs about knowledge and
knowing MahwahNJLawrenceErlbaumAssociatesKeganR (1982)The Evolving Self Problem and process in human development CambridgeMAHarvard
UniversityPressLee P (2004a) lsquoUnderstanding historyrsquo In Seixas P (ed) Theorizing Historical Consciousness Toronto
UniversityofTorontoPress129ndash64LeeP(2004b)lsquoldquoWalkingbackwardsintotomorrowrdquoHistoricalconsciousnessandunderstandinghistoryrsquo
International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research4(1)1ndash46LeePJ(2005)lsquoPuttingprinciplesintopracticeUnderstandinghistoryrsquoInDonovanMSandBransford
JD (eds)How Students Learn History mathematics and science in the classroomWashingtonDCNationalAcademiesPress31ndash77
LeePandShemiltD(2004)lsquolsquolsquoIjustwishwecouldgobackinthepastandfindoutwhatreallyhappenedrdquoProgressioninunderstandingabouthistoricalaccountsrsquo Teaching History 11725ndash31
LenzC(2011) lsquoGenealogyandarchaeologyAnalyzinggenerationalpositioning inhistoricalnarrativesrsquo Journal of Comparative Family Studies42(3)319ndash27
LeacutetourneauJandMoisanS(2004)lsquoYoungpeoplersquosassimilationofacollectivehistoricalmemoryAcasestudyofQuebeckersofFrench-CanadianheritagersquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress109ndash28
192 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
LowenthalD(1996)Possessed by the Past The heritage crusade and the spoils of historyNewYorkFreePress
McAdamsDP(1993)The Stories We Live By Personal myths and the making of the selfNewYorkGuilfordPress
McLean KC Breen AV and FournierMA (2010) lsquoConstructing the self in earlymiddle and lateadolescentboysNarrativeidentityindividuationandwell-beingrsquo Journal of Research on Adolescence20(1)166ndash87
NakkulaMJandToshalisE(2006)Understanding Youth Adolescent development for educatorsCambridgeMAHarvardEducationPress
NoraP(1996)Realms of Memory Rethinking the French pastTransGoldhammerANewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
PeckCL (2010) lsquolsquolsquoItrsquos not like [Irsquom]Chinese andCanadian I am inbetweenrdquoEthnicity and studentsrsquoconceptionsofhistoricalsignificancersquo Theory and Research in Social Education38(4)574ndash617
PolkinghorneDE(1988)Narrative Knowing and the Human SciencesAlbanyStateUniversityofNewYorkPress
Polkinghorne DE (2005) lsquoNarrative psychology and historical consciousness Relationships andperspectivesrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks3ndash22
RantalaJ(2011)lsquoChildrenasconsumersofhistoricalcultureinFinlandrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies43(4)493ndash506
ReicherSandHopkinsN(2001)Self and Nation Categorization contestation and mobilizationLondonSAGEPublications
RosenzweigRandThelenDP(1998)The Presence of the Past Popular uses of history in American lifeNewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
RuumlsenJ(1993)Studies in MetahistoryPretoriaHumanSciencesResearchCouncilSeixasP(1997)lsquoMappingtheterrainofhistoricalsignificancersquo Social Education61(1)22ndash7SeixasP(2004)lsquoIntroductionrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityof
TorontoPress3ndash20SeixasP(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessTheprogressofknowledgeinapostprogressiveagersquoInStraub
J(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks141ndash62SeixasP(2009)lsquoNationalhistoryandbeyondrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)719ndash22ThorpR(2014)lsquoTowardsanepistemologicaltheoryofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquoHistorical Encounters A
Journal of Historical Consciousness Historical Cultures and History Education1(1)20ndash31TrailleK (2007) lsquolsquolsquoYou should be proud about your history Theymademe feel ashamedrdquoTeaching
historyhurtsrsquo Teaching History 12731ndash7VanSledrightB (2008) lsquoNarrativesofnation-statehistoricalknowledgeandschoolhistoryeducationrsquo
Review of Research in Education32(1)109ndash46WelzerH(2008)lsquoCollateraldamageofhistoryeducationNationalsocialismandtheHolocaustinGerman
familymemoryrsquo Social Research75(1)287ndash314WertschJV(2002)Voices of Collective RememberingCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressWertschJV(2004)lsquoSpecificnarrativesandschematicnarrativetemplatesrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing
Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress49ndash62Wineburg S (2001)Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts Charting the future of teaching the past
PhiladelphiaTempleUniversityPressWineburgSMosborgSPoratDandDuncanA(2007)lsquoCommonbeliefandtheculturalcurriculum
Anintergenerationalstudyofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquo American Educational Research Journal44(1)40ndash76
London Review of Education 193
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
This paperwas published in a special feature called lsquoNegotiating the nation Young peoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo
Thearticlesinthefeatureareasfollows
Angier K (2017) lsquoIn search of historical consciousness An investigation into young South AfricansrsquoknowledgeandunderstandingofldquotheirrdquonationalhistoriesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
DawesDuraisinghE (2017) lsquoMakingnarrativeconnectionsExploringhow late teensrelate theirownnarrativestothehistoricallysignificantpastrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GoldbergT(2017) lsquoTheusefulpast innegotiationAdolescentsrsquouseofhistory innegotiationof inter-groupconflictrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GreverMandVanderVliesT(2017)lsquoWhynationalnarrativesareperpetuatedAliteraturereviewonnewinsightsfromhistorytextbookresearchrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
HolmbergU(2017)lsquoldquoIwasborninthereignhelliprdquoHistoricalorientationinUgandanstudentsrsquonationalnarrativesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
LeacutetourneauJandChapmanA(2017)lsquoEditorialndashNegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
LeacutevesqueS(2017)lsquoHistoryasaldquoGPSrdquoOntheusesofhistoricalnarrativeforFrenchCanadianstudentsrsquolifeorientationandidentityrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
OlofssonHSamuelsson JStolareMandWendell J (2017) lsquoTheSwedesandtheirhistoryrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
SheehanMandDavisonM(2017)lsquoldquoWeneedtoremembertheydiedforusrdquoHowyoungpeopleinNewZealandmakemeaningofwarremembranceandcommemorationoftheFirstWorldWarrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
VanHavereTWilsKDepaepeFVerschaffelLandVanNieuwenhuyseK(2017)lsquoFlemishstudentsrsquohistoricalreferenceknowledgeandnarrativesoftheBelgiannationalpastattheendofsecondaryeducationrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
WertschJV(2017)lsquoForeword ndash NegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
London Review of Education 191
Baynham M (2010) lsquoAlexandra Georgakopoulou Small stories interaction and identitiesrsquo Applied Linguistics31(3)471ndash3
BilligM(1995)Banal NationalismLondonSAGEPublicationsBillmann-Mahecha E and Hausen M (2005) lsquoEmpirical psychological approaches to the historical
consciousnessofchildrenrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks163ndash86
BoixMansillaV(2001)The Pursuit of Understanding A study of exemplary high school studentsrsquo conceptions of knowledge validation in science and history EdDthesisHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducation
BrunerJS(1990)Acts of MeaningCambridgeMAHarvardUniversityPressBrunerJS(2005)lsquoPastandpresentasnarrativeconstructionsrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and
Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks23ndash43DamonWandHartD (1988)Self-Understanding in Childhood and AdolescenceNewYorkCambridge
UniversityPressDantoAC(1965)Analytical Philosophy of HistoryCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressEpsteinT(1998)lsquoDeconstructingdifferencesinAfrican-AmericanandEuropean-Americanadolescentsrsquo
perspectivesonUShistoryrsquo Curriculum Inquiry28(4)397ndash423EriksonEH(1968)Identity Youth and CrisisNewYorkWWNortonFivush R Bohanek JG and ZamanW (2011) lsquoPersonal and intergenerational narratives in relation
to adolescentsrsquowell-beingrsquo InHabermasT (ed)The Development of Autobiographical Reasoning in Adolescence and Beyond (NewDirectionsforChildandAdolescentDevelopment131)45ndash57
GoldbergTPoratDandSchwarzBB(2006)lsquolsquoHerestartedtheriftweseetodayrsquoStudentandtextbooknarrativesbetweenofficialandcountermemoryrsquo Narrative Inquiry16(2)319ndash47
GoldbergTSchwarzBBandPoratD(2008)lsquoLivinganddormantcollectivememoriesascontextsofhistorylearningrsquo Learning and Instruction18(3)223ndash37
GreverMHaydnTandRibbensK(2008)lsquoIdentityandschoolhistoryTheperspectiveofyoungpeoplefromtheNetherlandsandEnglandrsquo British Journal of Educational Studies56(1)76ndash94
HaeberliP(2005) lsquoRelatingtohistoryAnempiricaltypologyrsquo International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research5(1)1ndash10
Hammack PL and Pilecki A (2012) lsquoNarrative as a rootmetaphor for political psychologyrsquo Political Psychology33(1)75ndash103
HarterS(1999)The Construction of the Self A developmental perspectiveNewYorkGuilfordPressHawkey K and Prior J (2011) lsquoHistory memory cultures and meaning in the classroomrsquo Journal of
Curriculum Studies43(2)231ndash47HoferBKandPintrichPR(eds)(2002)Personal Epistemology The psychology of beliefs about knowledge and
knowing MahwahNJLawrenceErlbaumAssociatesKeganR (1982)The Evolving Self Problem and process in human development CambridgeMAHarvard
UniversityPressLee P (2004a) lsquoUnderstanding historyrsquo In Seixas P (ed) Theorizing Historical Consciousness Toronto
UniversityofTorontoPress129ndash64LeeP(2004b)lsquoldquoWalkingbackwardsintotomorrowrdquoHistoricalconsciousnessandunderstandinghistoryrsquo
International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research4(1)1ndash46LeePJ(2005)lsquoPuttingprinciplesintopracticeUnderstandinghistoryrsquoInDonovanMSandBransford
JD (eds)How Students Learn History mathematics and science in the classroomWashingtonDCNationalAcademiesPress31ndash77
LeePandShemiltD(2004)lsquolsquolsquoIjustwishwecouldgobackinthepastandfindoutwhatreallyhappenedrdquoProgressioninunderstandingabouthistoricalaccountsrsquo Teaching History 11725ndash31
LenzC(2011) lsquoGenealogyandarchaeologyAnalyzinggenerationalpositioning inhistoricalnarrativesrsquo Journal of Comparative Family Studies42(3)319ndash27
LeacutetourneauJandMoisanS(2004)lsquoYoungpeoplersquosassimilationofacollectivehistoricalmemoryAcasestudyofQuebeckersofFrench-CanadianheritagersquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress109ndash28
192 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
LowenthalD(1996)Possessed by the Past The heritage crusade and the spoils of historyNewYorkFreePress
McAdamsDP(1993)The Stories We Live By Personal myths and the making of the selfNewYorkGuilfordPress
McLean KC Breen AV and FournierMA (2010) lsquoConstructing the self in earlymiddle and lateadolescentboysNarrativeidentityindividuationandwell-beingrsquo Journal of Research on Adolescence20(1)166ndash87
NakkulaMJandToshalisE(2006)Understanding Youth Adolescent development for educatorsCambridgeMAHarvardEducationPress
NoraP(1996)Realms of Memory Rethinking the French pastTransGoldhammerANewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
PeckCL (2010) lsquolsquolsquoItrsquos not like [Irsquom]Chinese andCanadian I am inbetweenrdquoEthnicity and studentsrsquoconceptionsofhistoricalsignificancersquo Theory and Research in Social Education38(4)574ndash617
PolkinghorneDE(1988)Narrative Knowing and the Human SciencesAlbanyStateUniversityofNewYorkPress
Polkinghorne DE (2005) lsquoNarrative psychology and historical consciousness Relationships andperspectivesrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks3ndash22
RantalaJ(2011)lsquoChildrenasconsumersofhistoricalcultureinFinlandrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies43(4)493ndash506
ReicherSandHopkinsN(2001)Self and Nation Categorization contestation and mobilizationLondonSAGEPublications
RosenzweigRandThelenDP(1998)The Presence of the Past Popular uses of history in American lifeNewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
RuumlsenJ(1993)Studies in MetahistoryPretoriaHumanSciencesResearchCouncilSeixasP(1997)lsquoMappingtheterrainofhistoricalsignificancersquo Social Education61(1)22ndash7SeixasP(2004)lsquoIntroductionrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityof
TorontoPress3ndash20SeixasP(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessTheprogressofknowledgeinapostprogressiveagersquoInStraub
J(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks141ndash62SeixasP(2009)lsquoNationalhistoryandbeyondrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)719ndash22ThorpR(2014)lsquoTowardsanepistemologicaltheoryofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquoHistorical Encounters A
Journal of Historical Consciousness Historical Cultures and History Education1(1)20ndash31TrailleK (2007) lsquolsquolsquoYou should be proud about your history Theymademe feel ashamedrdquoTeaching
historyhurtsrsquo Teaching History 12731ndash7VanSledrightB (2008) lsquoNarrativesofnation-statehistoricalknowledgeandschoolhistoryeducationrsquo
Review of Research in Education32(1)109ndash46WelzerH(2008)lsquoCollateraldamageofhistoryeducationNationalsocialismandtheHolocaustinGerman
familymemoryrsquo Social Research75(1)287ndash314WertschJV(2002)Voices of Collective RememberingCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressWertschJV(2004)lsquoSpecificnarrativesandschematicnarrativetemplatesrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing
Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress49ndash62Wineburg S (2001)Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts Charting the future of teaching the past
PhiladelphiaTempleUniversityPressWineburgSMosborgSPoratDandDuncanA(2007)lsquoCommonbeliefandtheculturalcurriculum
Anintergenerationalstudyofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquo American Educational Research Journal44(1)40ndash76
London Review of Education 193
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
This paperwas published in a special feature called lsquoNegotiating the nation Young peoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo
Thearticlesinthefeatureareasfollows
Angier K (2017) lsquoIn search of historical consciousness An investigation into young South AfricansrsquoknowledgeandunderstandingofldquotheirrdquonationalhistoriesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
DawesDuraisinghE (2017) lsquoMakingnarrativeconnectionsExploringhow late teensrelate theirownnarrativestothehistoricallysignificantpastrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GoldbergT(2017) lsquoTheusefulpast innegotiationAdolescentsrsquouseofhistory innegotiationof inter-groupconflictrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GreverMandVanderVliesT(2017)lsquoWhynationalnarrativesareperpetuatedAliteraturereviewonnewinsightsfromhistorytextbookresearchrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
HolmbergU(2017)lsquoldquoIwasborninthereignhelliprdquoHistoricalorientationinUgandanstudentsrsquonationalnarrativesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
LeacutetourneauJandChapmanA(2017)lsquoEditorialndashNegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
LeacutevesqueS(2017)lsquoHistoryasaldquoGPSrdquoOntheusesofhistoricalnarrativeforFrenchCanadianstudentsrsquolifeorientationandidentityrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
OlofssonHSamuelsson JStolareMandWendell J (2017) lsquoTheSwedesandtheirhistoryrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
SheehanMandDavisonM(2017)lsquoldquoWeneedtoremembertheydiedforusrdquoHowyoungpeopleinNewZealandmakemeaningofwarremembranceandcommemorationoftheFirstWorldWarrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
VanHavereTWilsKDepaepeFVerschaffelLandVanNieuwenhuyseK(2017)lsquoFlemishstudentsrsquohistoricalreferenceknowledgeandnarrativesoftheBelgiannationalpastattheendofsecondaryeducationrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
WertschJV(2017)lsquoForeword ndash NegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
192 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh
LowenthalD(1996)Possessed by the Past The heritage crusade and the spoils of historyNewYorkFreePress
McAdamsDP(1993)The Stories We Live By Personal myths and the making of the selfNewYorkGuilfordPress
McLean KC Breen AV and FournierMA (2010) lsquoConstructing the self in earlymiddle and lateadolescentboysNarrativeidentityindividuationandwell-beingrsquo Journal of Research on Adolescence20(1)166ndash87
NakkulaMJandToshalisE(2006)Understanding Youth Adolescent development for educatorsCambridgeMAHarvardEducationPress
NoraP(1996)Realms of Memory Rethinking the French pastTransGoldhammerANewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
PeckCL (2010) lsquolsquolsquoItrsquos not like [Irsquom]Chinese andCanadian I am inbetweenrdquoEthnicity and studentsrsquoconceptionsofhistoricalsignificancersquo Theory and Research in Social Education38(4)574ndash617
PolkinghorneDE(1988)Narrative Knowing and the Human SciencesAlbanyStateUniversityofNewYorkPress
Polkinghorne DE (2005) lsquoNarrative psychology and historical consciousness Relationships andperspectivesrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks3ndash22
RantalaJ(2011)lsquoChildrenasconsumersofhistoricalcultureinFinlandrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies43(4)493ndash506
ReicherSandHopkinsN(2001)Self and Nation Categorization contestation and mobilizationLondonSAGEPublications
RosenzweigRandThelenDP(1998)The Presence of the Past Popular uses of history in American lifeNewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress
RuumlsenJ(1993)Studies in MetahistoryPretoriaHumanSciencesResearchCouncilSeixasP(1997)lsquoMappingtheterrainofhistoricalsignificancersquo Social Education61(1)22ndash7SeixasP(2004)lsquoIntroductionrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityof
TorontoPress3ndash20SeixasP(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessTheprogressofknowledgeinapostprogressiveagersquoInStraub
J(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks141ndash62SeixasP(2009)lsquoNationalhistoryandbeyondrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)719ndash22ThorpR(2014)lsquoTowardsanepistemologicaltheoryofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquoHistorical Encounters A
Journal of Historical Consciousness Historical Cultures and History Education1(1)20ndash31TrailleK (2007) lsquolsquolsquoYou should be proud about your history Theymademe feel ashamedrdquoTeaching
historyhurtsrsquo Teaching History 12731ndash7VanSledrightB (2008) lsquoNarrativesofnation-statehistoricalknowledgeandschoolhistoryeducationrsquo
Review of Research in Education32(1)109ndash46WelzerH(2008)lsquoCollateraldamageofhistoryeducationNationalsocialismandtheHolocaustinGerman
familymemoryrsquo Social Research75(1)287ndash314WertschJV(2002)Voices of Collective RememberingCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressWertschJV(2004)lsquoSpecificnarrativesandschematicnarrativetemplatesrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing
Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress49ndash62Wineburg S (2001)Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts Charting the future of teaching the past
PhiladelphiaTempleUniversityPressWineburgSMosborgSPoratDandDuncanA(2007)lsquoCommonbeliefandtheculturalcurriculum
Anintergenerationalstudyofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquo American Educational Research Journal44(1)40ndash76
London Review of Education 193
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
This paperwas published in a special feature called lsquoNegotiating the nation Young peoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo
Thearticlesinthefeatureareasfollows
Angier K (2017) lsquoIn search of historical consciousness An investigation into young South AfricansrsquoknowledgeandunderstandingofldquotheirrdquonationalhistoriesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
DawesDuraisinghE (2017) lsquoMakingnarrativeconnectionsExploringhow late teensrelate theirownnarrativestothehistoricallysignificantpastrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GoldbergT(2017) lsquoTheusefulpast innegotiationAdolescentsrsquouseofhistory innegotiationof inter-groupconflictrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GreverMandVanderVliesT(2017)lsquoWhynationalnarrativesareperpetuatedAliteraturereviewonnewinsightsfromhistorytextbookresearchrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
HolmbergU(2017)lsquoldquoIwasborninthereignhelliprdquoHistoricalorientationinUgandanstudentsrsquonationalnarrativesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
LeacutetourneauJandChapmanA(2017)lsquoEditorialndashNegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
LeacutevesqueS(2017)lsquoHistoryasaldquoGPSrdquoOntheusesofhistoricalnarrativeforFrenchCanadianstudentsrsquolifeorientationandidentityrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
OlofssonHSamuelsson JStolareMandWendell J (2017) lsquoTheSwedesandtheirhistoryrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
SheehanMandDavisonM(2017)lsquoldquoWeneedtoremembertheydiedforusrdquoHowyoungpeopleinNewZealandmakemeaningofwarremembranceandcommemorationoftheFirstWorldWarrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
VanHavereTWilsKDepaepeFVerschaffelLandVanNieuwenhuyseK(2017)lsquoFlemishstudentsrsquohistoricalreferenceknowledgeandnarrativesoftheBelgiannationalpastattheendofsecondaryeducationrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
WertschJV(2017)lsquoForeword ndash NegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
London Review of Education 193
Related articles published in the London Review of Education
This paperwas published in a special feature called lsquoNegotiating the nation Young peoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo
Thearticlesinthefeatureareasfollows
Angier K (2017) lsquoIn search of historical consciousness An investigation into young South AfricansrsquoknowledgeandunderstandingofldquotheirrdquonationalhistoriesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
DawesDuraisinghE (2017) lsquoMakingnarrativeconnectionsExploringhow late teensrelate theirownnarrativestothehistoricallysignificantpastrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GoldbergT(2017) lsquoTheusefulpast innegotiationAdolescentsrsquouseofhistory innegotiationof inter-groupconflictrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
GreverMandVanderVliesT(2017)lsquoWhynationalnarrativesareperpetuatedAliteraturereviewonnewinsightsfromhistorytextbookresearchrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
HolmbergU(2017)lsquoldquoIwasborninthereignhelliprdquoHistoricalorientationinUgandanstudentsrsquonationalnarrativesrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
LeacutetourneauJandChapmanA(2017)lsquoEditorialndashNegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)
LeacutevesqueS(2017)lsquoHistoryasaldquoGPSrdquoOntheusesofhistoricalnarrativeforFrenchCanadianstudentsrsquolifeorientationandidentityrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
OlofssonHSamuelsson JStolareMandWendell J (2017) lsquoTheSwedesandtheirhistoryrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
SheehanMandDavisonM(2017)lsquoldquoWeneedtoremembertheydiedforusrdquoHowyoungpeopleinNewZealandmakemeaningofwarremembranceandcommemorationoftheFirstWorldWarrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
VanHavereTWilsKDepaepeFVerschaffelLandVanNieuwenhuyseK(2017)lsquoFlemishstudentsrsquohistoricalreferenceknowledgeandnarrativesoftheBelgiannationalpastattheendofsecondaryeducationrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)
WertschJV(2017)lsquoForeword ndash NegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)