Making Markets Empower the Poor: Programme perspectives on using markets to empower women and men...

8/3/2019 Making Markets Empower the Poor: Programme perspectives on using markets to empower women and men livin

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www.oxfam.org.uk

OxfamDiscussion Paper

Making markets empower the poor

Programme perspectives on using markets toempower women and men living in poverty

Erinch Sahan (Oxfam GB) andJulia Fischer-Mackey (Oxfam America)

7 November 2011

Market-based development programmes can help people living in povertybenefit from markets and lift themselves out of poverty. However, manysuch approaches do not pay attention to power imbalances that perpetuatemarginalisation and poverty. To reach their fullest potential, market-based

programmes should actively strengthen the power of marginalised

smallholders and women. Major events in the market system, induced bychanges in policy, regulation, social movements or business models can

provide opportunities to intervene and rebalance power. Market-basedprogrammes should also be complemented by non-market interventions thataddress poverty and sustainability issues in household and environmentalsystems. Through its work, Oxfam has encountered some of the challengesand limitations of market-based approaches. This paper is intended to raisethese challenges with the broader community of development practitionersemploying market-based approaches and share approaches Oxfam has takento addressing them. The most conspicuous of these challenges is a need to

address power imbalances between smallholders and larger businesses, aswell as between women and men.

Oxfam Discussion Papers

OxfamDiscussionPapersarewrittentocontributetopublicdebateandtoinvite

feedbackondevelopmentandhumanitarianpolicyissues.Theyareworkin

progressdocuments,anddonotnecessarilyconstitutefinalpublicationsorreflect

Oxfampolicypositions.Theviewsandrecommendationsexpressedmaybethoseof

theauthorandnotnecessarilythoseofOxfam.

Formoreinformation,ortocommentonthisdocument,email

[email protected]


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MakingMarketsEmpowerthePoor,OxfamDiscussionPaper,November2011 2

Summary

Marketbaseddevelopmentprogrammesareincreasinglyattractingmoresupportfrom

donors.However,itisimportantthattheydonotlimitthemselvestomarketreadyindividuals,butreachmoremarginalisedgroupsthatarenotreadytoengagemeaningfully

inmarkets.Thispaperisintendedtoraisechallengesaroundpowerdisparitiesinmarkets,

whichcanpreventmarketbasedprogrammesfromreachingthosewhoarenotmarket

ready.ItalsosharesapproachesOxfamhastakentoaddressthesechallenges.

Peoplearepoorbecausetheyarepowerless.1Totacklepoverty,everydevelopment

programme,includingmarketbaseddevelopmentprogrammes,shouldfocusonincreasing

thepowerofmarginalisedwomenandmen.

Where to intervene: not only in the market system

Marketbasedapproaches,whichnaturallyoperatewithinthemarketsystem,willnot

addressallpovertyissues.Itisimportantthattheyareaccompaniedbycomplementary

interventionsinhouseholdandenvironmentalsystems.Forexample,itmaybenecessaryto

addressgenderbasedviolence,buildcapacitytosustainablymanagenaturalresources,or

providewaterinfrastructuretocommunities.Interventionsinthemarketsystemmustalso

ensurethattheydonotdestroythenaturalenvironment,onwhichthesurvivalofthemarket

systemdepends.

When to intervene: leverage catalytic events that disrupt markets

Eventssuchassignificantgovernmentpolicychanges,largescalesocialmovements,

migration, regulatoryreform,changesinpowerfulfirmsbusinessmodels,technological

changeordisasterscanopenupthepossibilityforinterventionstorebalancepower.

Programmescanbuilduponthesedisruptionsandintervenetosupportmarginalisedproducersintakingadvantageofnewopportunitiesandacquiregreaterpower.Inthe

absenceofsuchcatalyticevents,interventionscanthemselvesdisruptmarketstorebalance

power.However,theycanhavegreaterimpactwhentheybuilduponacatalyticeventthatis

alreadyoccurring.

Why to intervene: to disrupt the market and rebalance power

Therearethreeunderlyingapproachesthatdrivethedebateonmarketbaseddevelopment.

Theydifferintheextenttowhichtheyfocusonrebalancingpower.Theyalsoprovide

differentlevelsofflexibilityinallowingorpreventinginterventionstoshakeupthemarket

systemandrebalancepower:

1. Avoidinterveningdirectlytoassistthoseinpoverty,butratherplayafacilitativerole

inconnectingthosepeople,firms,orinstitutionsalreadyinthemarketsystem;

2. Playaserviceprovisionroleinmarketsdirectlytofillgapsinthemarketsystem;and

3. Intervenetemporarilybutdirectlyinmarkets,informedbyanunderstandingof

marketincentives,soastodisruptmarketsandrebalancepower.

Acrosstheseapproaches,underlyingbeliefsaboutmarketswillshapeinterventions.Beliefs

centredonfreemarketswillmakeaprogrammereluctanttointervenemoreactivelyinthe

marketsystem.Thiswillleadtoreachingonlythemarketready.

How to intervene: Oxfams experience

Unlessmarketsaredisruptedandpowerrebalanced,programmeswillonlyreachsuch

marketreadysmallholders.Manymarginalisedpeopleliveinremoteareas,orare


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surroundedbyundevelopedmarketsystems.Theseareplaceswherethecostsandrisksof

doingbusinessinhibitcommercialinvestment,leadingtoproducersbeingdeniedaccessto

keyservicessuchasfinance.Additionally,someofthemostmarginalisedpeople,especially

women,faceculturalexclusionfrommarkets.Suchpeoplecanbeexcludedfromnotonly

marketsbut

also

from

broader

society,

through

exclusion

from

rights,

resources

and

relationships.2Toassistmarginalisedpeople,aprogrammeshouldactivelyaddressthe

barriersthatkeepthesepeoplefromusingmarketstoliftthemselvesoutofpoverty.Inorder

toreachmoreremoteandmarginalisedsmallholders,Oxfamtriestodisruptmarketsand

rebalancepowerviafourinterventions:

1. Supportingproducerorganisations(POs):EffectivePOs(suchascooperativesand

collectives)canempowersmallscaleproducersthrougheconomiesofscale,

increasedinfluenceinoutputandinputmarkets,andstrengthinnumbers.Oxfam

assistsPOstobuildthemarketpowerofproducers,andencouragesthemtotake

progressivemeasurestoensureequalparticipationandbenefitsforwomen

producers.

2. Supportingnewbusinessmodels:Enterprisessuchasspecialisedintermediaries

andserviceprovidersoftenfillanimportantgapinmarketsforsmallholders.They

allowapoorlyorganisedproducerbase(smallholders)toconnecttosophisticated

andmoderninputandoutputmarkets.Theyalsoprovidesupportinproductquality

control,processing,andaccesstoinputs.WhilethisrolecanbeperformedbyPOs

themselves,whichoperateattheprimarytier,itisoftenmoreeffectiveforittobe

performedbyaseparateenterpriseoperatingatasecondlevel(i.e.servingmultiple

POs).Thesehighertierenterprisescanthemselvesbeownedbyagrouporunionof

POs.Tobesuccessful,enterprisesmustadapttobecommerciallyefficient,butalso

empowersmallholders,includingwomen,byhelpingthembecomemore

competitiveand

able

to

access

more

lucrative

formal

markets.

It

is

also

important

for

developmentprogrammestoworkwithexistingfirmstogetthemtodealmorefairly

andtransparentlywithsmallholders.

3. Makingprecommercialinvestments:Manymarginalisedpeoplelacktheassetsand

skillsnecessarytousemarketstoliftthemselvesoutofpoverty.Providingpre

commercialinvestmentstosuchindividualsandgroupsisoftennecessarytoallow

themtoparticipatemeaningfullyinmarkets.Providingassetsandtrainingfor

womenisacorepartofOxfamswork.

4. Givingmarginalisedgroupsavoiceingovernanceandinvestment:Where

regulationsandpublicinvestmentaddresstheneedsofsmallscaleandfemale

producers,

this

can

bring

new

producers

into

the

market

and

level

the

playing

field

forwomen.Oxfamsupportsmarginalisedgroupsindealingswithgovernments,

helpingthemtoaccesspublicprecommercialinvestmentintechnologiessuchas

irrigation.Italsoworkstoinfluencepoliciesthathaveanimpactonwomen,suchas

thosecoveringlandrights.

Itisimportantthatinterventionsopenupnewopportunitiesformarginalisedproducers

withoutexposingthemtoexcessiverisk.Promotingaccesstolocalmarketsandthe

diversificationofcropsiscriticalforprogrammestoprotectsmallholdersfromsuchrisk.This

couldalsoincludesupporttodiversifysourcesofincomebypromotingaccesstoofffarm

income.Itisalsocriticalthatprogrammesavoidfacilitatingcontractualrelationshipsthatlock

smallholdersintosinglevaluechainsanddependentbusinessrelationships.


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Glossary of terms

Businessmodels:Abusinessmodeldescribeshowanindividualfirmorganisesitselfandits

relationshipsinordertocreateandcapturevalue.Itexplainshowthebuildingblocksofproduction,marketing,costsandrevenuescometogethertoprovideavaluepropositioninthe

marketplacethatdifferentiatesthefirmfromitscompetitors.Thebusinessmodelconceptis

linkedtobusinessstrategy(theprocessofbusinessmodeldesign)andbusinessoperations(the

implementationofacompanysbusinessmodelintoorganisationalstructuresandsystems).

Crowdingin:Makingmarketsworkforthepoorprogrammesaimtostimulateprivateand

publicsectoractorstotakeonnew(oradapted)functionstocrowdinwhileavoiding

becomingactivemarketplayersthemselves.

Facilitativeapproach:Theapproachoffacilitatingexistingmarketactorstoperformrequired

roles,asusedbythemakingmarketsworkforthepoorapproach.

Formalmarkets:

Aregulatedsystemwithinwhichtheexchangeofgoodsandservicestakes

place.

Makingmarketsworkforthepoor(M4P):Anapproachthatgrewoutofthemarket

developmentworkoftheUKDepartmentforInternationalDevelopment(DFID)andothers.It

focusesonunderstandingwheremarketsystemsarefailingtoservetheneedsofpoorpeople,

andactstocorrectthosefailings.M4Pdividesthemarketsystemintothreeparts:thecore

(whereprovidersandconsumersexchangegoodsandservices);therules(formalorinformal

ruleswhichshapebehaviour);andthesupportingfunctions(suchasinformation,logistics,

marketing).InM4Pinterventions,donorsorNGOsplayafacilitativeroleratherthananactive

partinthemarketsystem,i.e.theycatalyseothers.Interventionsmaybesmallthemselves,but

theystrive

to

leverage

market

forces

to

create

sustainable

impact

at

alarge

scale.

3

Marketactors(akamarketsystemactors):Someonewhoisactivelyparticipatinginthe

exchangeofgoodsorservices.

Precommercialinvestment:Upfrontgrantorassettransfertoeithera)enablenewmarket

actorsorenterprises(whichmaylackassets,skills,orknowledge)toaccessamarket,orb)

ensurethatthenecessarymarketsysteminfrastructure(e.g.transportationservicesorrural

marketprovision)isoperational,toenablemarketactors,orenterprisestoinitiateanew

businessmodelorvaluechainwithinthemarketsystem.

Producerorganisations(POs):ForOxfam,therearethreedefiningfeaturesofaPO:

1. Itisabusiness(alsocalledanenterprise).Itmustgenerateenoughprofittoprovide

tangiblebenefitstoitsmembersandcoveritsowncosts.

2. Itisownedandcontrolledbyitsmembers:smallscaleproducers.

3. Itcollectivelymarketsorsupportsjointmarketingofcommoditiesproducedbyits

members.

Valuechain:Thefullrangeofactivitiesthatarerequiredtobringaproduct(oraservice)from

conception,throughthedifferentphasesofproduction,todeliverytofinalconsumersand

disposalafteruse.Oxfamtakesabroadunderstandingofvaluechains,andlooksatthe

complexrangeofactivitiesimplementedbyallactors(primaryproducers,processors,traders,

serviceproviders,etc.)tobringarawmaterialtotheretailofthefinalproduct.Thebroadvalue

chainstarts

from

the

production

system

of

the

raw

materials

and

will

move

along

the

linkages

withotherenterprisesengagedintrading,assembling,processingandotheractivities.


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1. Introduction

Inrecentdecades,manydevelopmenteconomistsandpractitionershavenoticedthat,

whileeconomicgrowthsometimescontributestopovertyreduction,thetypeofgrowthandthewaysthatmarketsworkoftendeterminehowmanypeoplelivinginpoverty

benefitfromeconomicgrowthandtrade.4Thequestforpovertyreducinggrowthand

marketactivityhasledtoanarrayofnewapproachesthataimtoalterthewaymarkets

work.Thereisconsiderableexcitementaroundthesenewapproaches,partlyduetothe

disappointingresultsofmoretraditionalcharitybasedlivelihoodsprogrammes.

Oxfamusesmarketbasedapproachestoenhancethelivelihoodsopportunitiesofwomen

andmenlivinginpoverty.However,itisimportanttorecognisethatmarketsarebiased

systems,withtherulesofthegamebeingshapedbythosewitheconomicorpolitical

power.Thechallengehasbeenapplyingtheseapproachesinremoteandthinmarkets,

andensuringtheyservetheinterestsofwomenorothermarginalisedgroups.

Thispaper(andOxfamslivelihoodsworkgenerally)focusesonagricultureandrural

marketsbecause70percentoftheworlds1.4billionextremelypoorpeopleliveinrural

areas.5Forthem,agricultureisoftenthebestopportunitytoworkandtradetheirway

outofpoverty.Also,studiesshowthatgrowthgeneratedfromagricultureisfourtimes

moreeffectiveinreducingpovertythangrowthinothersectors.6However,urban

marketbasedapproacheswillbeincreasinglyimportantasurbanisationindeveloping

andmiddleincomecountriescontinues,andfurtherworkinthisareawillbeessential.7

Marketsprovidedifferentbenefitsforwomenandmen,smallholdersandlargescale

producers,andremoteruralandurbanpopulations.Thegrowthofmarketscaneasily

entrenchbiasesandpowerdisparitiesbetweenthesegroups.The2012WorldDevelopment

Reportarguesthatmarketshaveadifferentimpactonmenandwomenbecauseof

significantdifferencesintimeuse,accesstoassetsandcredit,andtreatmentbymarkets

andformalinstitutions.8Generatingeconomicgrowthisoftennotenoughtoempower

women.Norisitnecessarilyenoughtogettheworldspoorestpeopleoutofpoverty.Over

the20yearsto2001,only1.5percentofglobaleconomicgrowthbenefitedpeopleonless

than$1perday(whichwasonethirdoftheworldpopulationatthetime).9Itisthequality,

notquantity,ofeconomicgrowthonwhichprogrammesshouldbefocused.

Marketbasedapproachescanfailtoreachthemostmarginalisedpopulations,whooften

facesocialexclusionbeyondmereexclusionfrommarkets.Forexample,socialsafetynets

andlabourrightsprotectionswillstillbecriticalinmanycontexts.Forthisreason,the

approachesoutlined

in

this

discussion

paper

cannot

replace

interventions

in

other

areas.

Oxfammaintainsitsnonmarketbasedlivelihoodswork,andcautionsagainstviewing

marketbasedapproachesasapanacea.

Throughitswork,Oxfamhasencounteredsomeofthechallengesandlimitationsof

marketbasedapproaches,andthispaperisintendedtoraisesomeofthesechallengeswith

thebroadercommunityofdevelopmentpractitionersemployingmarketbasedapproaches.

Themostconspicuousofthesechallengesisaneedtoaddresspowerimbalancesbetween

smallholdersandlargerbusinesses,aswellasbetweenwomenandmen.

Toaddresstheseissues,programmesthatoperateinthemarketsystemneedtotakea

flexibleapproachandincorporateanuancedunderstandingofhouseholdand

environmental

systems,

which

inter

relate

with

market

systems.

Complementary

programmesthatdirectlyaddresspovertyissuesinhouseholdandenvironmental

systemsarealsoneeded.


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2. Background to market-based approaches andbeliefs

Themajorityofmarketbasedapproachescanbebrokendownintothreegroups,basedon

theunittheyanalyseandseektoinfluence:anindividualenterprise,thevaluechain,orthe

marketsystem.

1. Enterprises

Theindividualenterprisehasbeenthefocusofnumerouspovertyreductionefforts.

Thereiswidespreadsupportforenterprisedevelopment,particularlyforsmalland

mediumsizedbusinesses(SMEs),whichmayincludecooperativeenterprisesformedby

smallscaleproducers.Supportincludes:

financialsupport,intheformofmicrofinance;missingmiddlefinance,which

fillsthegapbetweenmicrofinanceandcommercialfinance;firstlosscapital;patient/longtermcapital;orventurecapital;

technicalassistance,forexample,mentorshiporpeernetworksetc.;and

capacitybuilding,forexampleinfinancialliteracyandbookkeeping.10

Socialentrepreneurs,whousesustainableandscalableforprofitbusinessmodelsto

createsocialandeconomicvalue,attractcapitalfromfoundationsandsocially

responsibleinvestors.AclassicexampleistheAravindEyeCareHospitalsinIndia,

whichusepaymentsfromaffluentpatientstoprovideeyesurgeryforimpoverishedand

marginalisedindividuals.

11A

wide

range

of

inclusive

businesses

have

sprung

up,

which

areoftenlargerbusinessesthatareintendedtoserveoremploypeoplelivinginpoverty.

Investinginsocialentrepreneursandinclusivebusinessesissometimesknownasimpact

investing,whichmeansinvestingforsocialandeconomicreturns.

2. Value chains

In1985,MichaelPorterpopularisedthevaluechainsconcept,whichproposedthat

valuechainsencompassthefullrangeofactivitiesandservicesrequiredtobringa

productorservicefromitsconceptiontosaleinitsfinalmarkets,andthattheproduct

gainedvalueasitmovedalongthevaluechain.12Thevaluechainapproachto

developmentandpovertyalleviationinvolveslookingateachlinkinthischain,

consideringhow

each

one

relates

to

those

before

and

after

it,

and

how

much

value

(or

profit)eachlinkcreatesorcaptures.Forexample,usingPortersconcept,NGOscanhelp

producersnearthebeginningofthevaluechaincapturemorevalue(andprofit)by

processingorrefiningaproductbeforetheytradeittothenextmemberofthevalue

chain.

Valuechainprojectsfocusonbusinesstobusinessrelationships,andtheyencompassa

rangeofactivitiesintendedtomakevaluechainsmoreeffectiveandinclusive,including

changingandstrengtheningrelationshipsbetweenlinks,andimprovingtheflowof

information,resources,andgoodsalongthechain.13


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3. Market systems

Theenterpriseandvaluechainapproachesarelimitedintheirfocustooneorafewmarket

actorsandproducts.Amorerecentsystemicapproachtounderstandingmarketshasbecome

influential.Systemsthinking,aconceptwhichwasadaptedbyPeterSengeandothersfrom

itsscientificusetoanalyseorganisationsandbusinesses,definesasystemasasetofvariablesthatinfluenceoneanother.Systemsthinkingemphasisesthatcauseandeffectmay

notbeclosetooneanotherintimeorspace,thatfeedbackloopscanamplifyornullify

actions,andthatsmallchangescancreatebigresults.Asystemsthinkingapproachto

marketsunderstandstheircomplexityanddynamism.Itemphasisestheimportanceof

understandingallelementsinasystem,includinggovernment,infrastructure,andhidden

forcessuchasculturalbeliefsandpractices,whichareoftenignoredinmorelimitedmarket

basedapproaches.Becausechangestoasystemmayproduceunexpectedresults,itis

importanttomonitormarketinterventionscloselytodetectunintendedconsequences,and

addressthosethatarenegative.

Oxfamembracesamarketsystemsapproachbecauseitrecognisesthecomplexityofmarkets

andtheroleofnonmarketactors, suchasgovernments,andtheimportanceofrelated

factors,suchasinfrastructure,ondevelopmentandlivelihoods.

MakingMarketsWorkforthePoor(M4P)isanapproachthattargetskeyweaknesseswithin

marketsystems.Itdoesnotfocusonasinglevaluechain,insteadlookingatallelementsof

themarketsystemthatsurroundpoorercommunities.Itfostersunderstandingofthe

functionsandactorswithinthesesystemsandaimstostrengthenthem,sotheycanbetter

servetheneedsofpoorercommunities.M4Padvocatesafacilitativeapproach,whichmeans

thatNGOsanddonorsseektocatalyseexistingmarketactorstocreatesustainableand

scalablechanges,ratherthanprovidingmarketfunctionsthemselves.14Inotherwords,under

M4P,NGOsanddonorsavoidplayingaserviceprovisionrole,andinsteadfocusongetting

existingmarket

actors

to

provide

these

services.

The

facilitative

approach

is

time

bound,

and

generallydoesnotinvolveactiveparticipationinthemarketorcostlyinterventions.

However,theM4Papproachgenerallydoesnotconsiderhiddenforcessuchascultureand

gender,whichOxfambelievesinfluencethewaysthatmarketsworkandthedistributionof

theirbenefits.

Different beliefs about markets lead to different solutions

Marketbasedapproachesarefoundedonabeliefthatmarketscanleadtopovertyreduction.

However,thedegreetowhichmarketsmustbechangedtoachievethisresultisdebated.

Organisationshavefundamentaldifferencesinthewaytheyconceiveofkeyissues,including

therelationshipsbetweenmarkets,power,andgender;incentives;andsustainability.These

differencesinbeliefsleadtodifferenttypesofinterventions.

Oxfambelievesthatpovertyisaboutpower.TheWorldBanksVoicesofthePoorstudy,whichtalkedto64,000peoplelivinginpovertyacrosstheworld,concludedthatthecommontheme

underlyingpoorpeoplesexperiencesisoneofpowerlessness.15Povertyreductionmust

addressthis.Itisnotagiventhatmarketbasedapproacheswillreduceunequalpower

relations;infact,interventionsmayexacerbatedisparitiesiftheyarenotcarefullyconceived

andimplementedwithsufficientparticipationbytheaffectedcommunities.16Sometimes,

developmentinterventionsneedtoshakeupexistingpowerstructures.Thismayinvolve

fundingorsubsidisingparticularservices,buildingcapacityandinstitutions,investing

financialresources,orbrokeringfairerdealsbetweenmarketactorswithunequalpower.

Incentivesare

another

area

of

disagreement

between

organisations.

Many

who

have

great

faithinmarketsbelievethat,ifaneedexists,amarketactorwillnaturallyfillit.However,


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Oxfamoftenfindsthat,inremoteruralareas,theincentivestomeettheneedsofsmallscale

farmersareinsufficient,andsubsidiesorotherincentivesmayberequired.Evenifone

supplierdoesarrivetofillaneed,itdoesnotnecessarilymeanthatothersupplierswill

crowdintothemarket,assomeM4Padvocatesassume.Thismaybebecause,evenifthe

businessmodel

works,

the

returns

from

athin

market

do

not

justify

further

entrants.

The

suppliermaythereforebeinapositiontoexploititscustomersand,topreventthis,other

interventionsmayberequired.

Anotherdifferenceinworldviewaffectinghoworganisationsinterveneistheconceptof

sustainability. M4Pusesthetermtomeaneconomicsustainability,i.e.thattheactivitieswill

continuetobeeconomicallyviableafterthedevelopmentprogrammesintervention.Asa

resultofthisunderstandingofsustainability,facilitativeapproachesmayinsistthatexisting

marketactorsperformallkeymarketfunctions.ForNGOsandgovernmentstoperformkey

functionsmaybeseenasunsustainable.

Oxfamdisputesthisunderstandingofeconomicsustainability.Privatesectormarketactors

abruptlyexit

markets

all

the

time

just

because

they

are

providing

afunction

in

amarket

todaydoesnotmeantheywillbethereindefinitely.Atthesametime,governmentbodies

andNGOsoftenperformmarketfunctionsforlongperiodsoftime.Theymayalsoneedto

performafunctioninthemarketforalimitedtimebeforeamarketactorcantakeontherole.

Oxfamsbroaderunderstandingofsustainabilityprovidesitselfandothernonmarketactors

(includinggovernments)withgreaterflexibilitytoperformcriticalroles.

Inadditiontothisdifferenceinbeliefabouteconomicsustainability,Oxfamunderstands

sustainabilityasatrioofissues:economicsustainability,socialsustainability,and

environmentalsustainability.Theimportanceofsocialandenvironmentalsustainabilityis

oftenunderappreciatedbyproponentsofmarketbasedapproaches.

In

summary,

an

organisations

underlying

beliefs

about

markets

will

determine

the

kinds

of

interventionsitconducts.Threedifferentconclusionscanfollowfromdifferencesinbeliefs:

1. Programmesshouldavoidinterveningdirectlytoassistthoseinpoverty,butshould

playafacilitativeroleinconnectingexistingmarketactors;

2. Programmesshouldplayaserviceprovisionroleinmarketsdirectlytofillgapsin

themarketsystem;or

3. Programmesshouldintervenetemporarilybutdirectlyinmarkets,informedbyan

understandingofmarketincentives,sothattheycandisruptmarketstorebalance

power.

Whileallthreeapproachesrecognisetheneedtoincreasesmallholdersproductivityinorder

tomakethemcompetitive,theyallowfordifferenttypesofintervention.Thispaperargues

thatpowerdisparitiesinmarkets,betweenwomenandmen,smallholdersandlargescale

producers,andremoteruralandurbanpopulations,mustbebetterincorporatedintomarket

basedapproachesandthatinterventionsmustbedesignedtoactivelyrebalancepower.In

addition,interventionstargetingmarketsystemsshouldalsobeaccompaniedby

complementaryprogrammesthataddresspovertyissuesinhouseholdandenvironmental

systems.


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Figure 1: The three systems: market, household, and environmental/farm17

Beliefs about gender and its implications for markets work

Oxfambelievesthatgenderinequalityandthedenialofwomensbasichumanrightsare

amongthegreatestbarrierstopovertyeradication.Societalbeliefsaboutgenderrolesextend

tothewaysinwhichmarketswork,limitingtheabilityofwomentoengagein,andbenefit

from,marketactivities.Unequalpay,conditions,andpromotionopportunitiesinlabour

marketsareperhapsthebestknownexamplesofgenderdiscriminationinmarkets.Ithas

beenwidelydocumentedthatwomenworldwideareregularlypaidlessthanmenfor

performingthesamework.

Inpoorruralcommunities,womenareoftenexcludedfromparticipatinginmarkets.Thisis

causedbydiscriminationinlandtitlingandassetownership,culturalnormsthatprohibit

themfromengaginginmanylucrativeactivities,andmorelimitedaccesstofinancialservices,

technology,andgovernmentextensionservices.18Marketdevelopmentthatbenefits

householdsmaynotbenefitwomen.Atworst,interventionsthatimprovemensincomeand

skillsmayreinforceunequalpoweroverwomeninhouseholds.Conversely,assetsand

incomeinwomenshandsislinkedtolowermalnutrition19aswellasincreasesinagricultural

productivitybybetween2.5percentand4percent.20

Oxfams focus on womens economic leadership

Oxfamputswomensrightsattheheartofallitsactivitiesandprogrammes.Initsmarketsystemswork,itusesagenderedmarketmappingexercisetoidentifywhichmarketsare

mostlikelytooffersignificantopportunitiestoempowerwomen,andthenusesthis

informationtodecidewheretointervene.Whenconsideringwhatmarketsystems

interventionsOxfamwillsupport,italsoconsidersissuessuchastimeconstraintsandother

responsibilities thatwomenhaveinordertochooseeconomicactivitiesthatreduce,rather

thanaddto,theburdensandconstraintstheyface.OxfamsresearchinoneareaofTanzania,

forexample,indicatedthatthepoultry,chickpea,andricesubsectorsofferedgreater

potentialforwomenthanthejatrophaorcottonsubsectors.21

AnalysingthepotentialofmarketstoempowerwomenhasonmanyoccasionsledtoOxfam

changing

the

focus

of

its

programmes.

For

example,

in

the

Philippines,

as

a

result

of

research

policygovernanceattitudes/beliefsgender


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andanalysisongender,Oxfamchangedaprogrammesfocusfrombiofuelstoprocessed

moringaleaves,whichofferedmoreopportunitiesforwomen.

Communitybasedresearchandanalysiscanhelptomakevisiblewomens contributionsto

agricultureandtheeconomy,andallowforcommonunderstandingtodeveloparoundthe

(oftenunequal)accessenjoyedbywomenandmentokeyservices,assets,roles,andbenefits

inagriculturalactivities.Thiscommonunderstandingcanbethebasisforchangingbeliefs

andpracticesrelatedtogender.

Oxfamhasdevelopedagenderedenterpriseandmarketstoolkitthatpromoteswomens

economicleadership.22Thisisusedtounderstandhowmarketinstitutionsandservices

reinforcegenderinequalitiesandingrainedbeliefsabouttheappropriaterolesforwomen

andmen,alongsideconsiderationsofpowerinequalitiesbetweenlargeandsmallmarket

actors.Oxfamsapproachidentifiespracticalstepstoimprovewomensmarketpowerand

roles,makingeffective,relevantchangeinaparticularcontext,andprovidingwomenwith

leadershipopportunities.23

SelectingmarketsbasedontheirpotentialforbuildinggenderequalityisessentialinidentifyingopportunitiesforWEL.ItisalsoimportantthatstrategiestodevelopWELare

integratedintowiderstrategiesinmarketandenterprisedevelopment,sothatallsmall

producers(orthecommunityasawhole)benefit.Thus,abusinessopportunitybecomesan

incentivetoencouragenewpracticesforpositiveoutcomesforwomen.

Ingrainedattitudesandbeliefsinlocalcommunitiesaroundgenderrolescanseverelyinhibit

anyprogrammesabilitytochangegenderedpowerdynamics.Therefore,thereisaneedto

promoteideasofgenderequityinthesecommunitieswhereverpossible.Thiscaninvolve

makingthebusinesscasetoprivatesectordecisionmakersthatempoweringwomenwill

increasetheirprofits.InColombia,whereOxfamhaspartneredwithaprivatelyownedlocal

company,

Alpina,

to

improve

livelihoods

for

small

scale

dairy

farmers,

the

programme

has

researchedanddisseminatedinformationabouttheextensive,butlargelyunrecognised,role

thatwomenplayinmilkproduction.AfterworkingwithAlpinatounderstandthe

productivitygainsfromprovidingwomenwithgreateropportunities,womennowhavea

moreformalroleinqualitycontrolinthesupplychain.24Thisincludesa40percentincrease

inthenumberofwomenwhosupplytoAlpina.25

InMali,Oxfamistryingtogetalocalbanktolendmoremoneytowomenbysettingupa

fundthatprovidesthebankwithaguaranteeonsuchloans.Thishasledtoadoublingofthe

averagenumberofwomeninthecooperativesthataccesstheseloans.26Intheseways,

Oxfamseekstoinfluenceinstitutionssothatwomencanbenefitmorefrommarket

development.27

Oxfamhasseenthatchangesingenderdynamicsinmarketsystemscanresultinchangesin

genderrelationsinbroadersociety.Womenwhobecomemorepowerfulwithinamarket

systemmaybecomemorepowerfulinotherrealmsaswell.Meanwhile,ifmarketsystem

interventionsignoregenderinequalities,marketchangesandeconomicgrowthcan

exacerbatedisparitiesandincreasewomensmarginalisation.


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3. Power in the market system

Powerdisparitiesinthemarketkeeppeoplepoor.28Ifalivelihoodsprogrammedoesnot

identifyandlookforopportunitiestoaddressthesedisparities,itspovertyreductionimpactwillbelimited.Powerisimportantbecausesomevulnerablepopulationsaresopowerlessthat

theyarealmostcompletelyexcludedfrommarkets(e.g.thosewithdisabilitiesorrestricted

mobility).Othersparticipateinmarketsonpoorterms(e.g.theylacknegotiatingpoweror

optionsbecauseofgeographicalisolation,theyarepricetakers,orareengagedinmonopolistic

markets).Toreachmoremarginalisedpopulations,programmesneedtoaddresspower

imbalancespreventingmarginalisedpopulationsfrombenefitingfrommarketdevelopment.

Certaineventscanbecatalyticindisruptingamarketsystemsstatusquo.Examplesofsuch

eventsaremajorpolicychanges,socialmovements,technologicalchanges,newcompanies

enteringthemarket,existingcompanieschangingtheirbusinessmodel,disasters,orsocialand

demographicshifts.Theseeventsprovideopportunitiesforinterventionstorebalancepower

andbuildonthedisruptiontothemarketthroughvariousinterventionpoints.

BelowaredescribedfourinterventionpointsthatOxfamhasusedtorebalancepowerwithin

marketstobenefitmoremarginalisedandisolatedgroups.Thesedonotcoverthewhole

breadthofOxfamsmarketbasedinterventions,butinsteadprovideinsightsintohowcertain

approachescanbeusedandstrengthened.

i) Empowerment through producer organisations

Producerorganisations(POs)includecooperativeenterprises,associations,privatelimited

companies,andinformalnetworksofproducers.ThemajorityofPOsareagricultural,which

isthefocushere,buttheydoexistinothercontexts(e.g.POsofartisansinurbanareas).When

theyoperateeffectively,POsallowsmallholderstosharerisksandcosts,negotiate,and

bargaincollectively.Asaresult,throughPOs,producerscanbetteraccess,competein,and

influencemarkets,givingthemgreateraccess,competitiveness,andpower.29

However,POscanbeinefficientandsimplyaddunnecessarycosts,sothereisaneedto

developinnovativePObusinessmodelstoavoidinefficienciesanddependencies.Thereis

alsostrongevidencethatwomenareoftenexcludedfromdecisionmakingwithinPOs,and

concertedeffortsarerequiredtoprovideleadershipopportunitiesforwomen.

Access, competitiveness, and power

POsprovidetheirmemberswithmanyoftheadvantagesthatlargerproducersenjoy.

POsoften

aggregate

their

members

produce

and,

with

higher

volumes,

they

may

be

morepowerfulandlessdispensableassuppliers.Theymayalsobeabletoaccessbuyers

inhighervaluemarketsthatpayhigherprices.POscanalsodevelopinternalproduct

gradingprocessesandinvestinqualityimprovementsforproduce.ThiscanallowPOsto

meetthestrictqualityandhealthstandardsofhighervalueornichemarkets,whichis

oftentoocostlyanddifficultforindividualproducers.POsoftencarrygreatercredibility

andlegalstandingthanindividualproducers,sotheycanmoreeasilysecurecreditfor

improvingtheirbusinesses.OnemoreimportantroleforPOsistopromoteachangein

producersattitudes,empoweringthemtobemoreproactiveandstimulatingan

entrepreneurialmindset.

Forexample,intheOccupiedPalestinianTerritory,OxfamhassupportedaPOofherders

andveterinaryprofessionalstoprovidenewservicestomembers.Manyofthemembershadbecomeaccustomedtoreceivinghandoutsoffodderandbeingprovidedwithfreeveterinary


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servicesbypreviousdevelopmentprojects.FollowingOxfamsintervention,thePOnow

providesmemberswithimprovedaccesstoinputsthroughbulkinputprocurement.Italso

providesitsmemberswithinformationonflockmanagementandproductivity,aswellasa

mobileveterinaryserviceofferingartificialinseminationservices.Asresultofthisimproved

accessto

inputs

and

services,

members

of

the

PO

now

actively

operate

as

entrepreneurs,

and

donotwaitfortheprovisionoffreeservicesorthedistributionoffodderandotherinputs.30

POscanmakebulkpurchasesofagriculturalinputs(suchasseedsorfertiliser),insurance,

logisticsservices,andwarehousing,resultinginlowercostsperproducer.Economiesofscale

canalsomakeiteasierforaPOtoinvestinprocessing,storage,ortransportfacilitiesthatcan

givememberstheabilitytochoosewhenandwheretoselltheirproducts.

Whilesmallproducersmayhavetroubleaccessinginformationaboutmarketrequirements

andprices,POsareabletoinvestmoretimeandresourcesingatheringandanalysingmarket

information.Theymaybeabletoextractmoreinformationfrombuyersondemandtrends

andmarketconditions.

InVietNam,residentsofTraVinhhadattemptedclamfarminginthepast,buthadabandoneditbecausetheirclamswerebeingstolenfromtheopencoastalwatersinwhich

theywerefarmed.In2003,OxfamhelpedformthreePOs,knownasClamClubs,which

solvedthisproblembyusingpooledfundstopayguardsforthefarms.31Thestructureofthe

POsallowedmemberstoinvest(andprofit)atdifferentlevelsaccordingtotheirmeans.

Oxfamsetuparevolvingfundsothatpoorermemberscouldborrowmoneytoinvestin

babyclams,andthenpaybacktheirloansoncetheyweresold.Theprofitsweredistributed.

Theloanswererepaidwithinterest,sothatmorepoorresidentscouldjointhePOovertime,

makingthePOnotonlyequitableandinclusive,butsustainableandgrowthoriented.

(Dis)empowering women in POs

Thereis

general

recognition

that

women

experience

major

challenges

in

participating

in,

and

benefitingfrom,POs.32Theyareoftenunderrepresentedandsometimesface

discrimination.33ManyPOsrequirememberstoownland,whichinmanycontextslimitsthe

numberofwomenwhoareeligible.34Otherbarriersincludetheirlackofvoiceintheir

communities,andthetimerequiredtoactivelyparticipate.Culturalbarrierscanalsolimit

womensparticipationinPOs.Forinstance,insomecultures,womenarenotallowedtoleave

theirhomeswithouttheirhusbandspermission.Additionally,largerandmoreformalPOs,

aswellascoalitionsofcooperatives,oftenlimitmembershiptoheadsofhouseholdoreven

maleheadsofhousehold.35

Evenininstanceswherewomenarenotinaminority,menmaysimplybenefitmorefrom

collectiveaction.Forexample,evenwherewomenandmeninvestthesameresourcesand

timeinaPO,menmayhavegreateraccesstocredit,information,andcontactwithservice

providersandmarkets.36Changinggenderbiasescanbeverydifficult.A2002evaluationofOxfamssupporttoa

coffeePOinHaitifoundthateffortshadbeenmadetoincreasewomensparticipationin

assembliesandelections.However,thisdidnotleadtochangesingenderrolesinproduction,

orwomensrepresentationamongpaidemployeesorleadershipanddecisionmaking

positionsinthePO.37

Therehavebeensomesuccessstories,though,ineffortstoincreasewomensparticipationin

POs.38IntheAmhararegionofEthiopia,anOxfamprogrammeconductedadvocacythatled

totheintroductionofanewlawwherebycooperativescouldonlyberegisterediftheir

leadershipincludedatleastonewoman.ItalsoledtobylawspermittingdualmembershipfromonefamilyinallthecooperativesandunionswithwhichOxfamworkswithaviewto


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scalingthisupinthenextphase.Thusfar,suchactionshaveledtowomensmembershipin

honeycooperativesincreasingfromzeroto22percent,andfromzeroto10percentincoffee

cooperatives(2,800women).39

Other challenges of POs

POscandiscriminateagainstmorevulnerableproducersandthosewithfewerassets.Thisis

because,inordertoparticipate,producersusuallymustbeabletoproduceasurpluscropor

productthatmeetsthedemandsofthetargetmarketandsatisfiesotherconditionsof

membership.POmembershipmayalsoimposecoststhataretoohighformanysmall

producers.Developmentprogrammesmayprovideassetsandcapacitybuildingsothat

poorerproducers,andwomenwhofaceagenderbias,areabletoparticipateinPOs.

CollectivedecisionmakingcanbedifficultforPOs,ascantheproblemsoffreeridersand

dishonestmembers.40POscanalsobeformedorcapturedbylocaleliteswhoseekto

maintaincontroloflocalmarketactivities.41SomePOsfailbecausecertainmembersfigureouthowtoextractmorebenefitsorincomeforthemselves,causingmemberstolosetrustin

thegroupandabandonit.Forthisreason,itisveryimportanttobuildtrustandrobustprocessesinordertopreventindividualsfromexploitingopportunitiestobenefitthemselves

attheexpenseofothermembers.

ItoftentakesanumberofyearsforaPOtobreakevenandbeabletopayitsmembersprices

thatarehigherthanthoseofferedbyothertraders.Untilitreachesthispoint,membersmay

havetomakeinvestmentsinthePOwithoutreceivinganybenefits,whichprevents

participationbypoorerproducerswhocannotmakesuchsacrifices.Additionally,inmany

POs,thereisadelaybetweenproducebeingcollectedandpaymentsbeingmade,whichmay

alsopreventpoorerproducersfromparticipating.

Thus,addressingpowerdisparitiesbypromotingPOscomeswithmanychallenges.

Therefore,new

PO

models

must

be

developed,

and

much

more

must

be

learned

about

how

toaddressmarginalisationbasedongenderorassetownershipinPOs.

ii) New business models: specialised intermediaries, serviceproviders, and innovative partnerships

Smallproducersoftenfacesignificantbarriersthathindertheirabilitytoparticipatein

lucrativemarkets.Oneofthesebarriersisalackofspecialisedintermediaries,whichare

businessesthatbothfindnewmarketsandhelpsmallholdersaccessthesemarketsfairly.A

secondbarrierisalackofserviceproviderswhocanofferaffordableservicesappropriatefor

smallholders.Whereanexistingmarketactorisabletoperformeitheroftheseroles,Oxfam

aimsto

support

them.

However,

often

such

enterprises

and

intermediaries

do

not

exist

in

the

market,orcannotservesmallholders,mainlybecausethebusinesscaseforplayingthisrole

canbeweak.Smallholderscanbeseenasunreliableandascarryingbusinessuncertainty,

whichisabarrierforpotentialinvestorswhorequiregreaterstabilityandcertainty.Where

theseenterprisesdoexist,theymaynotbetailoringtheirservicessufficientlyfor

smallholders.POsmaybetheonlyenterpriseswillingtoinvestinnewactivitiesinremote

areas,soOxfammayoffergrants,loans,andtrainingtohelpestablishsuchenterprises.

SpecialisedintermediariesoftenservemultipleprimaryPOs.

Newbusinessmodelsareemergingoutsideofthecooperativestructurescommonlyfound

indevelopingcountries.Theseincludeprivatelimitedintermediariesthatarefullyownedby

smallholdercooperatives.TheseincludesuppliersofequipmentthatallowPOstoundertake

processing,andenterprisesthatspecialiseinsourcinghighergradeproducefrom


14/28


smallholders.ThediscussionbelowreflectssomeofOxfamsexperienceinsettingupand

supportingtheseenterprises.

Specialised intermediaries

Intermediaries

often

need

to

link

smallholders

to

modern

markets.

Smallholders

need

specialisedservicesto:

ensureproductqualityandconsistency;

havediversifiedproductionandmarkets;

accessnewtechnologies,financialservicesandcosteffectiveinputs;and

processproduce.

Theseareallservicesthatcanbeperformedorenabledbyenterprisesthatspecialisein

workingwithsmallholders.ThisrolecansometimesbeperformedbyaPO,butitoftenneeds

aseparateenterpriseinordertofocusandbuildexpertise.Thiscanbeperformedbyaprivate

enterprisewith

asocial

vision

or

aproducer

owned

enterprise.

Theseintermediarieswilloftenensuresmallholderscanaccesstherightservicessotheycan

meettheprice,qualityandvolumerequirementsoftheirtargetmarkets.Anexampleisthatofa

sugarbeetfactoryinAzerbaijan,whichopenedbankaccountsforsmallholderstoensurethey

havecredittobuyqualityinputsatthestartoftheplantingseason.42Theycanalsobulk

purchaseinputs,andloantheseagainstfutureorders.Overall,suchintermediariescansupply

servicesorenableaccesstoservicesnecessaryforsmallholderstoaccessmodernmarkets.

OxfamsEnterpriseDevelopmentProgramme(EDP)issupportingandinvestingin17

specialisedintermediariesorserviceproviders.43Thisprovidesanopportunitytomeasurethe

successoffocusingonthesekeymarketactors.In2010,forexample,therevenuesofthe

smallholderswithin

the

primary

POs

increased

by

an

average

of

39

per

cent,

while

the

number

offarmermemberssupplyingthemhasincreasedby28percentsinceOxfamsintervention

began.

TheAmhararegioninEthiopiaprovidesaninterestingexampleofhowOxfamhas

supportedanenterpriseinperformingthespecialisedfunctionofanintermediary.Ambrosia,

aprivatelimitedprocessorthattradesininternationalmarkets,hasbuiltatrainingcentrethat

offersproducersinaremotefoodinsecureareaofEthiopiaqualityassuranceandbeekeeping

techniques,sharinginitialtrainingcostswithOxfam.Farmerswhopreviouslyproduced

smallquantitiesoflowqualityhoneyhavesincequadrupledtheiroutputandarenow

producinghoneyforexporttotheFrenchmarket.Anotherexampleofaspecialised

intermediaryisdescribedinCaseStudy1,below.

Case Study 1: Diversifying crops for cotton producers in India44

In South India, Oxfam helped cotton farmers convert to organic and Fairtrade-certifiedcotton, which reduced input costs and improved farm health and labour conditions. The initialincome gains were roughly 20 per cent, relative to conventional farms. Subsequently, Oorvi,a specialised intermediary that facilitates deals between farmers and buyers, developed arelationship with an Indian company that wanted organic sesame. After four years ofdiversifying into sesame, ochre, and other products, producers trading with Oorvi hadincreased their incomes by 112 per cent, while local cotton farmers not trading with Oorvihad increased their incomes by only 23 per cent in the same period. This experience andothers like it have led Oxfam to shift focus away from single value chains, to instead look atlarger market systems that encompass multiple sectors.


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Innovative product and service providers

Creatingnewservicescanbringpreviouslymarginalisedproducersintothemarket.

However,itisoftenmoreeffectivefortheseservicestobeprovidedbyaseparateenterprise

totheintermediary.Thiscanbeaspinofffromtheintermediarydescribedabove,ora

completelyindependententerprise.However,inthissituation,theintermediarywouldcontinuetolinksmallholderstooutputmarketswhileprovidingotherspecialisedservices.

AnexampleofthiscomesfromEthiopia,whereOxfamissupportingaproducerowned

enterprise,Zembaba,tosetupabeehivemanufacturingenterprise.Thisisseparatefromits

roleasaspecialisedintermediary,whichisfocusedonfindingnewmarketsforhoney

producers.Priortothisintervention,hivesproducedbylocalcarpenterswerethewrong

dimensions,meaningabeecolonywouldnotsettleinthem.Oxfamprovidedamixofgrants

andloansforequipment,salaries,andworkingcapitaltoZembaba.Thesehivesdoubled

productivity,whileenablingwomentobecomebeekeepersbyovercomingtheneedtoclimb

treestoharvestwildhoney,whichisbothdangerousandculturallyinappropriatefor

women.45

Anotherexampleofanenterprisethatgivesmarginalisedgroupsaccesstocriticalbusiness

servicesisoutlinedinCaseStudy2,below.

Case Study 2: Transforming savings into enterprises and electricityin Bougara, Mali46

Saving for Change (SfC) is a savings group programme supported by Oxfam and Freedomfrom Hunger. SfC began in Mali in 2005, and now reaches over 300,000 women in thatcountry. It has also expanded to Cambodia, Senegal, El Salvador, and Guatemala. SfCanimators work in villages to organise women into savings groups of 2025 members. Thewomen meet weekly and pool their savings, which can be different amounts, based on theirincomes. Once this money has formed a large enough pool, the women lend it to each otherto expand or start businesses, or to meet other needs. The loans are repaid with interest,

and at the end of the year the fund is divided, and each woman gets her savings back withthe accumulated interest.

After saving for one year, members of Benkadi, an SfC group in Bougara, Mali, took an85,000 CFA (West African Franc) collective loan from their fund to construct a work stationfor a grinding mill. Group members collectively reimburse their fund on a monthly basis fromprofits received through the use of the mill.

Recently, the group has taken out another loan to purchase an electrical generator, fiveploughs, and a motor pump. Benkadi plans to pay back the loan by renting out the ploughsduring the rainy season. Members are in the process of constructing an electricity station fortheir generator, which they plan to make available for a small fee to everyone in thevillage. Once they have repaid these two loans, the group plans to purchase two bulls to rentout with the ploughs. This is an example of how a womens savings group can develop

collective enterprises that improve the livelihoods of its members and also benefit the largercommunity.

Innovative partnerships and business models that empower smallholders

Inmanyruralareas,smallholdersareunabletoaccesscriticalfinancialservicesbecause

financialmarketsdonotexist.AninnovativecollaborationbetweenOxfam,theglobalre

insurancecompanySwissRe,thegovernmentofEthiopia,theRockefellerFoundation,the

WorldFoodProgramme,andothershasdevelopedanewbusinessmodelandprogrammeto

meettheneedsofruralfarmers,describedinCaseStudy3.


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Case Study 3: Risk management andweather insurance for rural farmersin Tigray, Ethiopia47

Oxfams Rural Resilience Initiative (R4 for short), first piloted in Tigray, Ethiopia in 2009 andnow expanding globally, includes four key components: reduction of the risks that

accompany climate change (i.e. the increased frequency and intensity of droughts or floods)by improving the management of local resources; weather insurance designed to cover avariety of crops, guaranteeing farmers a pay-out if bad weather ruins their harvests; betteraccess to credit, which allows farmers to make smart investments in items such as seedsand fertilisers; and savings that can serve as a buffer against hard times. During the 2011agricultural season, the programme expanded to 43 villages, reaching more than 13,000households in Ethiopia, up from 1,300 households in 2010.

R4 is linked to Ethiopias Productive Safely Net Programme, a food security programme thatcovers 8 million chronically food-insecure households. This enables marginalised farmers topay their insurance premiums with labour by working on community projects. The insuranceis offered by local insurance companies, leading to the development of a local agriculturalinsurance market.

R4 ensures that women and female-headed households are involved in programme designso that programmes meet their needs. It also incorporates key considerations ofenvironmental sustainability, making it an example of how a market-based programme canaddress power, genderequity, and eco-sustainability.

InnovationsinbusinessmodelsandprogrammingsuchasR4areneededtocombatthe

manifoldchallengesfacingruralproducers,includingclimatechange,volatilemarkets,and

theabsenceoffinancialservicesthatmeettheirneeds.R4isahybridapproachwhichchanges

amarketsystembutwhichalsoincludesacriticalsocialsafetynetcomponenttoensurethat

themostmarginalisedarenotexcluded.

Making new business models work for women

Thereneedstobeanactiveefforttoprovidewomenwithdecisionmakingrolesinnew

enterprises.ThesamebarriersthatwomenfaceingainingavoiceinPOsexistin

producerownedenterprises.Infact,thesebarrierscanbeworseinsuchenterprises,as

theyarehigherupthevaluechain,wherewomentendtohaveanevensmallerpresence.

However,theestablishmentofsuchenterprisescanbeanopportunitytobreakdown

existingpowerdynamicsandshakeupthemarketsystem.Anexampleofthekindof

opportunitythattheseenterprisescanpresentforwomenisdescribedinCaseStudy4,

aboutaspecialistintermediaryinEthiopia.

Case Study 4: Promoting womens role in processing and trading in theAssosa enterprise in Ethiopia48

In Ethiopia, Oxfams Enterprise Development Programme is supporting Assosa, an oil-producing enterprise that is starting to process its own seeds and capture higher returns. Theprogramme is financing the purchase of a processing machine, providing working capital,and contributing to specific salaries.

Assosa operates in a context of high gender inequality, which is deeply rooted in local cultureand social norms. Oxfam is supporting women in gaining a greater role in processing,trading, and distribution. This includes support for womens leadership in the distribution ofsesame oil, which was agreed as an additional activity to promote womens economicempowerment. It also promotes more equal gender relations through workshops,communication, and campaigns, while facilitating access to services such as finance,research, and agricultural extension for women. Since 2009, womens membership in thePOs that comprise Assosa has risen from 2 per cent to 21 per cent.


17/28


Principles of new business models

WorkingwithSustainableFoodLab,Oxfamhasidentifiedfiveprinciplesfordevelopingnew

businessmodels,describedintheBriefingforBusinesspaperThinkBig,GoSmall.49Thesefiveprinciplesunderpinsustainabletradingrelationshipswithsmallholdersandshouldbe

turnedintoagreedcomponentsofanyformalorinformalcontract:

Valuechainwidecollaborationandinnovationtoaddressissuesrelatedtodoing

businesswithsmallholders;

Marketlinkagesthroughspecialisedintermediaries;

Fairandtransparentgovernancethroughthesupplychain(includingclarityfrom

theoutsetontermsoftrade,qualitystandardsandpricingstructure);

Equitablesharingofcostsandrisks(e.g.microinsurance,supplychainrisk

managementfunds,andsharedinvestmentstoimprovethefunctioningofthe

chain);and

Equitableaccesstoservices(includingtechnicalexpertise,businesstraining,

agriculturalinputsandappropriatefinancing).

AnexampleofapartnershipthatpromotessomeoftheseprinciplesisthatbetweenOxfam,

theglobalreinsurancecompanySwissRe,theRockefellerFoundation,theWorldFood

Programme,andothers.ThispartnershiphasresultedinsmallholdersinEthiopiagaining

accesstoinsurancethatprotectstheirlivelihoodsintheeventofdroughtorflooding.50

Similarly,inIndia,OxfamfacilitatedapartnershipbetweenalocalNGOandaninsurance

companytoextendmicroinsurancetosmallholderfarmers.Suchinnovativebusinessmodels

areneededtocombatthechallengesfacingruralproducersresultingfromclimatechange,

volatilemarkets,andtheabsenceoffinancialservicesthatmeettheirneeds.

iii)Precommercialinvestment:transferringassetsandbuilding

capacity

Marginalisedgroupsoftenlacktheassetstoparticipatemeaningfullyinmarkets.Theseassets

canincludelandtitles,cashtobuyinputs,knowledgeofhowtogrowanewcrop,basic

irrigationequipment,orsimpletools.AstheexampleinFigure2shows,nearlyhalfofthose

workinginmaizeineastandsouthernAfricatradedintolocalmarkets,butwereunableto

sellintomodernmarkets.Precommercialinvestments,whetherintheformofcash,inputs,

ormachinery,maybeneededtoassistthesepeople.Astrictlyfacilitativeapproachmayhelp

onlythosewhoaremarketready,butOxfambelievesthatthisisnotsufficient.Whileopportunitiescanbecreatedthroughenterprisedevelopment(suchasthenewbeehive

enterprisedescribedabove),thiswouldnotreachmostofthe4050percentofpeopleshown

inFigure2whoareconsideredsubsistencefarmers.Itcanalsopotentiallymissthe2030per

centwhoonlyoccasionallyconnecttomarkets.


18/28


Figure 2: Can market-based livelihoods programmes go deeper and helpthe more marginalised and vulnerable?51

Forexample,peopledisplacedbyconflictmayrequiredirectassistancetobeableto

participateinmarkets.InnorthSriLanka,anOxfamprogrammehelpedcommunitiesto

acquiretheassetsandskillsneededtoengageinthedairyvaluechain.Throughthepilot

project,peoplereturninghomeaftertheconflictweregivenacow,undertheconditionthat

thecowsfirstcalfwouldgobackintoarevolvingfundandwouldthenbeprovidedtoother

community

members

under

the

same

condition.

The

programme

also

provided

and

facilitatedcapacitybuildingforvillagecooperativestoimprovebreedingpractices,fodder

production,marketing,andgenerallivestockmanagement.

Whilemanyproponentsofmarketbasedapproachescriticiseassettransferprogrammesas

unsustainableduetotheircost,asthiscasedemonstrates,aninitialgrantofthefirstcowswas

critical.Thedesignoftheprogrammewassustainable,becauseitallowedpeopletoaccess

loanstobuyadditionalcowsandliftthemselvesoutoftheassetlessandpowerlesssituation

thatresultedfromconflict.Sofar,thishasresultedinanadditional1,700farmersparticipating

inalocalproducerowneddairyenterprise.52Aseparateexampleofassetprovision,one

specificallytargetingwomen,ishighlightedinCaseStudy5.

Case Study 5: Providing water tanks to women in Chawa, Rajasthan,India53

In Chawa, an arid village in Rajasthan, women from lower castes had to walk for two hourseach day to collect water from a pond 5km away, because the only closer source, a well,was reserved for upper caste families.

The programme supported by Oxfam gave lower-caste women prominent roles in procuringthe materials to construct and repair rainwater harvesting tanks. The tanks, which were thefirst asset that many of the women had owned, provided them convenient access to water fortheir households and livestock, as well as agricultural use. It also saved them hours eachday.

As women travelled to procure supplies and supervised the construction of the tanks, theygained mobility and status within their households and community. Women were also trained

in masonry and agricultural techniques, giving them access to work that is normally done bymen, and which has the potential to earn them cash incomes.

Trends and Transformation in East andSouthern African Staple Markets,

Michigan State University


19/28


As this asset transfer programme demonstrates, the donation of materials and training toconstruct an asset can vastly improve peoples lives and contribute to their productivity andlivelihood opportunities. Also, it can empower marginalised groups facing caste and genderbarriers, and expand the opportunities for mobility and decision-making within householdsand communities by promoting different gender behaviour and freeing womens time.

Anothercommonchallengewithassettransferprogrammesisdifficultyinensuringthat

assetswillbeusedtogeneraterevenue.Acommonquestionis,Ifwegiveafamilyadairy

cow,howdoweknowtheywontslaughterandeatit?Oxfamrecognisesthisdilemma,and

seekstofacilitateassettransfersfromwithinexistingmarketsystems,wherepossible.

However,thishasprovedchallenging,aspeoplewholackassetsdonotpresentanenticing

businessopportunityforprivatesectoractors.Whereafacilitativeapproachcannotprovide

theseassets,Oxfamandotherorganisationscontinuetoprovideassetstohelpthosewhoare

unabletoproducesurplusesfortradeormeetthedemandsofthetargetmarket.However,

theprovisionofsuchassetsisaccompaniedbyanexitstrategy,soasnottocreatea

relationshipofdependence.

Asset transfers to women

Womenindevelopingcountriesareoftenmarginalisedandassetpoor.Thecasefor

empoweringthemthroughassettransfersiscompelling,asexistingsocialstructuresdonot

allowthemtoacquiretheassetsnecessarytobecomeempoweredthroughmarkets.

Providingwomenwithphysicalassetsandaccesstocommunityassetsiscritical;thiscould

beintheformoftheirfirstcow,accesstolandorwater,orprocessingmachinery.Asset

transferscanalsofreeuptheirtime,sothattheycanparticipatemoreformallyinfarmor

enterprisedevelopment.Intangibleassets,suchaseducationandskills,arealsocritical.As

womeninmarginalisedcommunitiesarefrequentlydeniedaccesstoeducationandskills

training,programmesneedtofocusonprovidingthis.Finally,alackofsocialcapitalor

influenceover

others

can

necessitate

confidence

building

to

help

women

to

speak

out

and

voicetheirconcernsthrough,forexample,theestablishmentofwomenonlyorganisations.

iv) Giving producers a voice in governance and investment:changing the rules of the game

Thereisanimportantroleforgovernmentsinchallengingthestatusquoofmarketspower

dynamics.Publicinvestmentcanbuildthecapacityofrelativelypowerlessfarmers,increase

theirmarketprofile,ortransferassetstothem.Governmentscanalsobuildroadsand

businessinfrastructurethatprovidemoremarketoptionsforproducers.Lastly,the

governmenthasacriticalroleinregulatingmarketsandmaintainingafairlegalsystem.This

can

include

ensuring

that

market

power

is

not

abused

by

powerful

companies,

labour

rights

arerespected,contractsarehonoured,andproductsafetyrequirementsaremet.

Thereisaneedforplatformsforproducerstopromotetheirinterestsandinfluencepolicies

withlocal,regional,national,andeveninternationalpublicbodies.Throughtheseplatforms,

smallholderorganisationscaninfluencegovernmentdecisionmakingaroundpoliciesand

practicesthatcaneitherenableorinhibittheactivitiesoftheirmembers.POscanalso

mobiliseproducerstodosomethingaboutotherproblemsthataffectthewidercommunity,

suchastheprovisionofessentialgovernmentservices.

TherearetworeasonswhyOxfammightactivelysupportsmallholderstoinfluencetheir

enablingenvironment.Firstly,effectivelobbyingandadvocacyworkrequiressignificant

skillsandresources.Secondly,theplatformsthatbringpolicymakersandsmallholders

togetheroftendonotexist.ItisoftennecessaryfordonorsandNGOstoprovidetrainingto

smallholderrepresentativesandtosupporttheestablishmentofappropriateplatforms.


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AnexamplecomesfromBogot,Colombia,whereOxfamfacilitatedmeetingsbetween

representativesoflocalPOsandthecitysgovernment.Oxfamalsoconductedresearchthat

supportedtheadvocacyeffortsofthePOsandaddeditsvoicetothedebate.Theresultwasthat

Bogotsmayorandgovernmentagreedtoincorporatetheprincipleofafairpriceintothe

citysfood

supply

plan.

The

mayor

also

agreed

to

increase

investment

to

boost

production

in

neighbouringruralmunicipalities,togetherwithinvestinginlinkingsmallholderstomarkets,

inparticularthroughinfrastructuresuchasstallsforfarmersmarketsinthecity.54Another

exampleofcollectiveactionresultinginchangesingovernmentpolicyisprovidedinCase

Study6.

Case Study 6: Fishing communities in India assert their traditional rightsover livelihoods resources55

Villagers in the Tikamgarh and Chattarpur districts of Madhya Pradesh traditionally had theright to fish the regions ponds, but had lost control of these valuable resources to landlordsand contractors. Despite encountering violent opposition, the fishers began organising toreclaim control of the ponds. With Oxfams support, they established village co-operatives

and formed a federation that gave a strong voice to the regions fishing communities. By2008, fisher co-operatives controlled 151 ponds, with nine run by womens groups. In 2008,their campaign persuaded the state government to revise its fisheries policy. This resulted ina new law that protects the rights of traditional fishing communities, and contains provisionsthat should help to improve livelihoods in the drought-hit region.

Womens voices in changing the rules of the game

Asdiscussedabove,supportingwomentohaveagreatervoiceindecisionmakingwithin

POsisextremelychallenging.Thesamebarriersthatinhibitwomenfromhavingasayinthe

daytodayoperationsofPOsalsoapplytotheadvocacyroleofPOsandotherinstitutions

representingsmallholders.Theplatformsthatbringmultipleactorstogetherpresentsimilar

problemsforwomen.Wheretheyaretraditionallydisempoweredandnotallowedto

performdecisionmakingroles,theyareoftenunabletovoicetheirviewsorrepresentthe

concernsoftheircommunities.

Itisimportantthattheuniquebarriersthatwomenfaceareaddressedbyadvocacyefforts.

Theseincludealackofaccessto,andrightsover,land.Theyalsoincludesafetyissueson

availabletransportandalackoflightingandwomenstoiletsinpublicmarkets.Womenalso

traditionallyhavelessaccesstopublicservices,suchaseducation(asevidencedbylower

literacyratesthroughoutthedevelopingworld)andagriculturalextensionservices.Allthis

requiresconcertedlobbyingandadvocacybygroupsthatrepresentsmallholdersindealings

withgovernmentofficials.

Programmesneedtofocusongivingwomenavoicesothattheycangetpublicinstitutionsto

startaddressingtheirconcerns.Thiscanstartwiththepromotionofwomenonlygroups,whichallowwomentodeveloptheirleadershipskillssothattheycanparticipatemore

effectivelyinmixedgendergroups.


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4. The need for complementary interventionsoutside the market system

Themarketsystemdoesnotaffectthelivesofmarginalisedpeopleinisolation

householdandenvironmentalsystemsalsoshapetheirlivesandinteractwithmarket

systems.Inordertoachievegreaterimpact,marketbasedprogrammesmaybe

complementedbyinterventionsintheseothersystems.

Householdsystems56

Householdsarecomplexsystemsthatareinfluencedbyseveralfactors:assets,income

andsubsistenceactivities,intergenerationalandculturalfactors,andgendernorms,

amongothers.Problemsinahouseholdsystemnotonlyaffectitsmembers,butalsotheir

abilitytoreachtheirmaximumpotentialwithinthemarketsystem.Forexample,social

problems,suchasgenderbasedviolence(GBV),whicharecriticaldevelopmentissuesin

theirownright,mayalsoreducetheabilityofthoseaffectedtoengageproductivelyin

thelabourmarket.57WhileGBVoftentakesplacewithinahouseholdsystem,italsohasa

significantbearingonthemarketsystem.Forexample,inElSalvador,Oxfamworkswith

activists,partnerorganisations,mediaorganisations,andpolicymakerstoeducate

peopleabouttheproblemofGBVandtochangethewaysthatlawmakersandthejustice

systemasawholehandlegenderbasedcrimes.58Suchprogrammesmayleadtogreater

productivityinmarketsystems,eventhoughthisisnottheirprimarygoal.

Householdsystemsmayalsobenefitfromassettransferprogrammes.Interventionsatthe

householdlevelcanbenefithouseholdmemberswhetherthereisamarketimpactornot.

Theyarealsolikelytohavepositiveknockoneffectsonmarketsystems.Forexample,

programmesthat

provide

fuel

efficient

stoves

can

reduce

illnesses

related

to

indoor

air

pollutionandthetimespentgatheringfuel,leavinghouseholdmembershealthierandwith

moretimetoengageinincomegeneratingactivities.

InNepal,alongsideeffortstocreatePOs,Oxfamhassupportedthecreationof

ParticipatoryLearningCentres(PLCs)forwomen.Thesearespacesforcollectiveanalysis

andsolidaritythatoftenleadtohighermotivation,socialmobilisation,andthe

developmentofwomensleadership.Thedevelopmentofleadershipskillsamong

womencanhaveanimpactontheirparticipationanddecisionmakingwithin

households,andmaytranslateintopowerwithinmarketsystems.59

Environmentalsystems

Environmentalsystemsarecriticaltopeopleswellbeing,andprogrammesaddressing

naturalresourcemanagementandotherenvironmentalissuescanbeimportantin

helpingcommunitiesmeettheirlivelihoodandhealthneeds.Forexample,inEthiopia,

Oxfamworkswithlocalcommunitiestoimproveaccesstowaterforirrigation,livestock

watering,anddrinkingindroughtpronestates,suchasTigray,AmharaandOromiya.60

Thehealthandsustainabilityofenvironmentalsystemsisalsoimportantbecausemany

marketbasedlivelihoodsdependonnaturalresources.Thoselivelihoodswillonlybe

sustainableifmarketactivitydoesnoterodesuchnaturalresources.

Itisimportanttoinvestigatethepossibleimpactsofclimatechangeonenvironmental

systemsbeforemarketbasedagriculturalprogrammesareimplemented.InLatin

America,OxfamisworkingwiththeSustainableFoodLabandtheInternationalCenter

forTropicalAgriculture(CIAT)todeterminewhichcropswillbesuitableintheregion


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underdifferentclimatechangescenarios.Oxfamanditspartnersthensharetheir

findingswiththeproducersinvolvedintheirmarketbasedlivelihoodsprogrammesso

thattheycanmakeinformeddecisionsaboutthecropsinwhichtheywanttoinvest.This

isagoodexampleofhowamarketbasedprogrammecanintegrateanappreciationof

ecosystemsto

create

asustainable

solution

for

both

livelihood

needs

and

climate

change.61

Marketsystemsbenefitfromnonmarketbasedinterventions

Interventionsthatarenotmarketbasedmayimprovethefunctioningofmarketsystems

formarginalisedgroups.Forexample,manywomenincoffeeproductioninEthiopiaare

unabletobecomebusinessorfarmmanagersbecauseoflimitedliteracyandnumeracy.

Witharegionalagriculturalministry,Oxfamdevelopedanagronomictrainingmodule,

whichalsofocusedondevelopingliteracyandnumeracyamongwomen.Aftertwo

hoursaweekoftrainingoverasevenmonthperiod,thewomenhaddevelopedbasic

literacyandnumeracy,andthetrainingcontributedtothedoublingand,insomecases,

triplingof

farm

income.

62

Interventionsintheareaoflabourrightsarealsocriticaltoreachingmanymarginalised

workers.Workersonsmallholderfarmsareoftenthepoorestandmostmarginalisedpeople

inruralcommunities.Marketbasedprogrammescanincorporatemechanismsthatpromote

goodlabourpractices,andpartnerwithprogrammesthatspecificallyaimtoimprove

workingconditionsonfarmsandotherworkplaces,suchasfactories.

Marketbasedprogrammesmustworkwith,andbecomplementedby,programmesthat

addresshouseholdandenvironmentalsystems,inordertobesociallyecologically

sustainable,respectively.Longtermdevelopmentwillbestrongandsustainableonlywhen

allthreesystemsarefunctioningwell.


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5. Challenges and recommendationsWhilemarketbasedapproachescannotaddressallpovertyrelatedissues,theycanplaya

criticalroleinrebalancingpower.Thiscanresultinwomenandmarginalisedsmallholders

accumulatinggreater

power.

In

order

to

do

so,

they

need

to

evolve

and

become

more

effectiveatseekingoutinterventionopportunitiesthatshakeupexistingpowerdynamics.

Thiswillrequirebothinnovationandflexibilityinhowprogrammesaredesignedand

implemented,sothattheycanaddressthreekeychallenges:

Empoweringwomenthroughmoreeffective,sustainable,andcatalyticinterventions;

Connectingsmallholderswithmorelucrativemarkets(frequentlymoredomestic

thaninternational)withoutcreatingdependentbusinessrelationships;and

Promotingsustainableagriculturewhileconnectingsmallholderstomorelucrative

markets.

Recommendations

1. Go beyond the market system

Marketsystemstouchthelivesofallpoorwomenandmen,butthesearenottheonly

systemswithwhichtheyinteract.Manypovertyissuescannotbeaddressedthrough

interventionsinthemarketsystemalone.Marketbasedinterventionsshouldalsoconsider

howtheyinterrelatewithothersystems.Importantly,thepossibilityofcomplementary

interventionsthatarenotmarketbasedinthehouseholdandenvironmentalsystemsshould

beconsidered.

2. Build on catalytic events

Majorshiftsincompetitiondynamics,technology,environment,migration,market

regulation,governmentpolicy,andsocialdynamicsareexamplesofopportunitiesto

interveneandrebalancepower.Wherethereisamajordisruption,lookforanopportunityto

supportmarginalisedproducerstoacquiremorepowerinthemarketsystem.

3. Intervene directly to disrupt the market, when simply facilitating a solution isnot an option

Insistingonafacilitativeapproachmaymeanthatonlymarketreadyactorsaresupported.Thisisbecausemanyexistingactorsinthemarketsystemdonothavetheincentiveto

connectwithmarginalisedproducers.Equally,programmesshouldnotplayapermanent

roleinlinkingsmallholderstomarketsorprovidingthemwithaservice,asthisisnot

sustainable.Opportunities

should

be

sought

for

temporary

market

interventions

that

will

disruptthemarketandallowmarginalisedgroups(especiallywomen)toaccumulateenough

powertoparticipatemoreequitablyinmarkets.

4. Use intervention points that rebalance power

Marketsarebiased,andcanfavourmenoverwomen,andlargerbusinessesover

smallholders.OpportunitiestosupportandestablishPOsandspecialisedsmallholder

focusedenterprisesthatallowmarginalisedproducersandwomen toconnecttomore

lucrativemarketsshouldbesought.So,too,shouldopportunitiesformarginalised

smallholders(particularlywomen)tovoicetheirneedsforfavourablegovernanceand

investment(e.g.bysupportingplatformsthatconnectthemwithpublicofficials).Lastly,

thosewhohavetoofewassets(particularlywomen)shouldbesupportedtoparticipate

effectivelyinmarketswiththeassetstheyneed.Thisisnotaconclusivelist,soinnovateand

lookforotheropportunitiestorebalancepower.


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Notes

1 R.D. Chambers, D. Narayan, M.K. Shah, and P. Petesch (2000) Voices of the Poor:Crying Out for Change, Oxford: Oxford University Press for World Bank.

2 J. Kinsella and E. Brehony (2009) Are current aid strategies marginalising

the already marginalised? Cases from Tanzania, Development in Practice, 19:1, 51-60,http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09614520802576377 (last accessed 29 October 2011)

3http://www.m4phub.org/what-is-m4p/introduction.aspx (last accessed 29 October 2011)

4 C. Melamed, R. Hartwig, and U. Gran (2011) Jobs, Growth and Poverty: What do weknow, what dont we know, what should we know?, Overseas Development InstituteBackground Note, May 2011, http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/download/5752.pdf (lastaccessed 21 October 2011)

5 IFAD (2011) IFAD Rural Poverty Report 2011,http://www.ifad.org/rpr2011/report/e/rpr2011.pdf (last accessed 21 October 2011)

6 IFAD (2011) The Future of World Food and Nutrition Security, http://www.ifad.org/hfs/(last accessed 21 October 2011)

7 S. Meikle, T. Chambers, A. Frediani, and T. Goodfellow (2011) Global Urban Market-Based Livelihoods in Oxfam GB: Lessons and Experiences from Kenya, Bangladesh,Guatemala, Colombia, Haiti, and Russia, unpublished document

8 World Bank (2011) World Development Report 2012: Gender equality anddevelopment, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2012/Resources/7778105-1299699968583/7786210-1315936222006/Complete-Report.pdf (last accessed 27October 2011)

9 D. Green (2008) From Poverty to Power: How active citizens and effective states canchange the world, Oxford: Oxfam International, http://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/publications/from-poverty-to-power-how-active-citizens-and-effective-states-can-change-the-w-115393 (last accessed 1 November 2011)

10 For further reading, see: http://www.rootcapital.org; http://www.acumenfund.org ;http://www.aspeninstitute.org/policy-work/aspen-network-development-entrepreneurs ;http://omidyar.net/

11http://www.aravind.org/(last accessed 1 November 2011)

12 M. Porter (1998) Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining SuperiorPerformance, New York: Free Press.

13 J. Humphrey and L. Navas-Alemn (2010) Value Chains, Donor Interventions andPoverty Reduction: A Review of Donor Practice, Institute of Development StudiesResearch Report 63, Brighton: UK. http://www.ids.ac.uk/files/dmfile/rr63.pdf (lastaccessed 21 October 2011)

14 Springfield Centre (2010) Alliances Case study 43,http://www.springfieldcentre.com/publications/sp1101.pdf (last accessed 21 October2011)

15 R.D. Chambers et al (2000), op. cit.

16 S. Baden (1998) Gender issues in agricultural liberalisation BRIDGE Development-Gender Report 41,http://www.bridge.ids.ac.uk/reports/re41c.pdf (last accessed 27October 2011)

17 Diagram provided by Sustainable Food Lab (www.sustainablefoodlab.org)


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18 UN Food and Agriculture Organization (2011) The State of Food and Agriculture 20102011: Women in Agriculture: Closing the Gender Gap for Development, FAO Home,http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i2050e/i2050e00.htm (accessed 1 November 2011)

19 Women lacking ownership and control over productive resources and family assets islinked to malnutrition and hunger: countries where women lack any right to own land orlack any access to credit have on average 60% and 85% more malnourished children,respectively. See OECD (2010) Gender Inequality and the MDGs: What are the MissingDimensions?, http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/11/56/45987065.pdf (last accessed 1November 2011)

20 UN Food and Agriculture Organization (2011), op. cit.

21 Correspondence with Oxfam staff

22 Unpublished internal documentation

23 Oxfam (2011) Womens Economic Leadership, http://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/our-work/food-livelihoods/womens-economic-leadership (last accessed 1 November 2011)

24 http://growsellthrive.org/page/dairy-colombia (last accessed 1 November 2011)

25 Enterprise Development Programme (2011) Annual Review, Oxford: Oxfam GB,http://www.oxfam.org.uk/edp(last accessed 1 November 2011)

26 Programme Insights (2011) Effective Cooperation: A new role for cotton producer co-ops in Mali, http://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/publications/effective-cooperation-a-new-role-for-cotton-producer-co-ops-in-mali-133381 (last accessed 1 November 2011)

27Ibid.

28 R.D. Chambers et al(2000), op. cit.

29 C. Penrose-Buckley (2007) Producer Organisations: A Guide to Developing Collective

Rural Enterprises, Oxford: Oxfam GB,http://www.oxfam.org.uk/resources/downloads/produorgs_book.pdf (last accessed 1November 2011)


31 C. Penrose-Buckley (2007), op. cit.

32 L. Pandolfelli, R. Meinzen-Dick, and S. Dohrn (2007) Gender and Collective Action: AConceptual Framework for Analysis, CAPRi Working Paper No. 64, pp.6-41, WashingtonDC: International Food Policy Research Institute,http://www.capri.cgiar.org/pdf/capriwp64.pdf (last accessed 1 November 2011)

33 P. Develtere, I. Pollett, and F. Wanyama (eds) (2008) Cooperating Out of Poverty The Renaissance of the African Co-operative Movement, Geneva: International Labour

Office (ILO), http://www.ica.coop/outofpoverty/regions.html (last accessed 1 November2011)

34 DFID (2004) The Use of Civil Society Organisations to Raise the Voice of the Poor inAgricultural Policy, Working Paper, September 2004, London: Department forInternational Development, pp.22-23.

35 C.D. Deere and M. Leon (2001) Institutional reform of agriculture under neo-liberalism:The impact of womens and indigenous movements, Latin American Research Review,36(2), pp.31-64.

36 E. Gotschi, J. Njuki, and R. Delve (2008) Gender equity and social capital insmallholder farmer groups in central Mozambique, Development in Practice, 18:4,pp.650-657.


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37 Institut de Recherches et dApplication des Mthodes de Dveloppement (2002)External evaluation of the Programme of Oxfam Haiti: Support to the Coffee Eco-system Appui lcosystme Cafier, December 2002

38 Oxfam is currently implementing the Researching Women's Collective Action project,which is ongoing until September 2012, to gather evidence on effective ways oforganising for women smallholders to enhance their incomes, asset ownership andempowerment. The project also identifies and promotes innovations and effectivestrategies of support to women's collective action. For more details, see:www.womenscollectiveaction.com .

39S. Anand and G. Sisay (2011) Engaging Smallholders in Value Chains: Creating newopportunities for beekeepers in Ethiopia, http://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/publications/engaging-smallholders-in-value-chains-creating-new-opportunities-for-beekeepers-133380 (last accessed 1 November 2011)

40 R.K. Ram and M. Lundy (2010) Smallholder Farmer Organizations: Developments andTrends Since the 1980s, unpublished report by CIAT for Oxfam.

41 C. Penrose-Buckley (2007), op. cit.


43 Enterprise Development Programme (2011) op. cit.

44 J. Korenblum (2009) Evaluation of Stories of Change: Cotton Textile Supply ChainProject in India, Evaluation Reports, Oxford: Oxfam GB, http://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/publications/evaluation-of-stories-of-change-cotton-textile-supply-chain-project-in-india-119472 (last accessed 1 November 2011)

45 S. Anand and G. Sisay (2011) op. cit.

46 http://www.oxfamamerica.org/issues/community-finance/background (last accessed 1

November 2011)47 Oxfam America (2011) Insurance and rural resilience,http://www.oxfamamerica.org/issues/insurance (last accessed 1 November 2011)

48 Grow Sell Thrive (2010) Sesame Seed Value-Chain Ethiopia,www.growsellthrive.org/page/sesame-ethiopia (last accessed 1 November 2011)

49 D. Bright and D. Seville (2010) Think Big Go Small: Adapting business models toincorporate smallholders into supply chains, Briefings for Business, Oxford: Oxfam,http://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/publications/think-big-go-small-adapting-business-models-to-incorporate-smallholders-into-su-114051 (last accessed 1 November 2011)

50 Oxfam America (2011) op. cit.

51 Diagram provided by Sustainable Food Lab (www.sustainablefoodlab.org)

52 Enterprise Development Programme (2011) op. cit.

53 Oxfam (unpub.) Making a Difference A Story from Rajasthans Thar Desert, internalcase study report

54 A. Pesquera (2011) Leading by Example: How cities came to link rural producers withurban food markets in Colombia, Programme Insights, Oxford: Oxfam, http://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/publications/leading-by-example-how-cities-came-to-link-rural-producers-with-urban-food-mark-133410 (last accessed 1 November 2011)

55 M.F. Beg (2011) Strength in Numbers: Fishing communities in India assert theirtraditional rights over livelihoods resources, Programme Insights, Oxford: Oxfam,http://policy-practice.oxfam.org.uk/publications/strength-in-numbers-fishing-communities-in-india-assert-their-traditional-right-136134 (last accessed 1 November 2011)


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56 C. Charles (2011) Oxfam Gendered Market System Approach to Value ChainDevelopment, internal paper written for Oxfam GB

57 G. Terry and J. Hoare (eds.) (2007) Gender-Based Violence, Oxford: Oxfam GB,

http://www.oxfam.org.uk/resources/downloads/WIGAD-GBV_book.pdf (last accessed 1November 2011)


59 K. Amatya (2010) Goat rearing in Nepal - the story of Shanta Minal ,http://www.oxfam.org.uk/applications/blogs/pressoffice/2010/06/03/goat-rearing-in-nepal-the-story-of-shanta-minal/ (last accessed 1 November 2011)


61 J. Gordon (2011) Impacts of climate change on supply chains in Guatemala, Bogotaand Jamaica, CIAT Blogs, http://dapa.ciat.cgiar.org/impacts-of-climate-change-on-supply-chains-in-guatemala-bogota-and-jamaica/ (last accessed 1 November 2011)



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Oxfam GB November 2011

Oxfam GB is a member of Oxfam International. Registered charity no. 202918.

This paper was written by Erinch Sahan and Julia Fischer-Mackey with contributions from DavidBright. Oxfam GB also acknowledges the assistance of Chris Jochnick, Sally King, Chika

Charles, Sally Baden, Duncan Green, Joel Rodriguez, Jodie Thorpe, Mara Bolis, RobertoBerbieri, Frank Michielsen, Monique Mickhail, Caroline Green, Don Seville, Stephanie Daniels,Hugo Sintes, Colin McQuistan, Vanita Suneja, and Tom Fuller in its production.

The text may be used free of charge for the purposes of advocacy, campaigning, education, andresearch, provided that the source is acknowledged in full. The copyright holder requests that allsuch use be registered with them for impact assessment purposes. For copying in any othercircumstances, or for re-use in other publications, or for translation or adaptation, permissionmust be secured and a fee may be charged. E-mail [email protected]

For further information on the issues raised in this paper please [email protected] or go to www.oxfam.org.uk.

The information in this publication is correct at the time of going to press.

Published by Oxfam GB under ISBN 978-1-78077-015-4 in November 2011. Oxfam GB, Oxfam

House, John Smith Drive, Cowley, Oxford, OX4 2JY, UK.

Oxfam is a registered charity in England and Wales (no 202918) and Scotland (SC039042).

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