M152, New 9/93/5M, $3 - courses.missouristate.edu

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M152, New 9/93/5M, $3.00

Forage ManagementWritten by:Craig Roberts, assistant professor, agronomyRichard Joost, assistant professor, agronomyHal Wheaton, professor emeritus, agronomyWilliam G. Hires, associate professor, agricultural engineeringWilliam Henning, former extension agronomy specialist

Published by University Extension, University of Missouri-Columbia

Produced by the Office of Extension and Agricultural Information

For information on how to order additional publications in the BeefCow/Calf series, see MU publication M147, University Extension andYour Beef Cow/Calf Operation, or contact your local extension center.

On the cover: Through good forage management, a beef cow herd canbe maintained on pasture for most of the year. However, hay must beprovided at least a month or so during winter. These cows at the MUForage Systems Research Center are fed hay on the pasture where thehay was cut. This returns the nutrients back to the soil.

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Table of Contents

Renovation Killing the old sod, Using companion crops, No-till renovating

Management during the critical first season 8

Grazing management Stocking rates, Rotational grazing vs. management intensive, Fencing for pasture subdivision,

Management intensity affects animal performance

Hay production Timing is the key to putting up quality hay, Losses from outside storage of large round bales varies

Fescue toxicosis The endophyte problem, Renovate, Rotate, Dilute, Supplement, Fertilize properly

Graze properly, Ammoniate fescue hay, Beware of magic cures

.3

..5

.7, 9

.6

12

16

18

Tables

Table I. Summary of common Missouri forages Table 2. Characteristics, adaptation, fertility needs and seeding information for many Missouri forages.

Table 3. Top varieties by location in Missouti Table 4. Common seeding mixtures for pasture and hay Table 5. Relative cost of fence types based on prevailing retail ptices Table 6. Calf gains (lbs.) by forage management system and year Table 7. Hay loss from a 5~' x 5~' round bale stored outside , Table 8. Grazing days, beef gain/acre, average daily gain and gain/animal of steers grazing

A. Coenophialum-infected and noninfected tall fescue pastures Table 9. Alfalfa management calendar

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Topic Page

Complexities 0£ selecting a £orage system 1

Forage management strategy Choosing a £orage What forage system improvements can you afford this year? How much attention do you

devote to managing forages? Which forage species are suitable for your land? Which forage

is suited tour livestock? Basic establishment principles, Other production factors

Interseeding £orage Steps for interseeding

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Fescue pastures are the mostcommon forage on Missouri beeffarms. With proper grazing orclipping and supplements, thesepastures can produce low- costgains.

Complexities of

selecting a forage

system

Erage management is a complex agricultural practice. First, thereare many types of forages to choose from: legumes, grasses and otherplants. They can be annuals, perennials and biennials. In addition, theycan be grown as hay or for various grazing systems. And the manage-ment of the forage depends on whether it will be fed to beef cattle, dairycows. sheep or horses.

This chapter will address the strategies of forage management in acow-calf operation, types of forages available and how to choose a for-age. It also will discuss fescue toxicosis, which is the most significant for-age problem in Missouri.

Forage

management

strategy

The first step in a comprehensive forage plan is to assess the forageresources and the soil resources you now have. A forage resource inven-tory includes total acreage, field locations and the forages in those fields.The inventory also should include a test for the endophyte if most ofyour pasture is tall fescue.

To assess soil resources, you should determine soil fertility (level ofnutrients) and soil pH (acidity). Low soil fertility and pH values willlimit the productivity of present pastures and hinder the establishment

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Forage Management 1

of new seedlings. Low fertility and pH also will reduce the persistence oflegumes. Test your soils every four years. Local extension personnel canhelp you with soil testing.

The second step in a comprehensive forage plan is to identify thelimiting forage factors in your operation. For example, if your pasturesare primarily cool-season grasses, such as tall fescue, then the limitingfactor would probably be a lack of high-quality summer pasture. In thissystem, animal gains are low during July and August. Gains can beincreased by including warm-season grasses, alfalfa/grass mixtures, annu-allespedeza or birdsfoot trefoil in your pasture system.

If your pastures are unproductive, the limiting factor could be lowsoil fertility or pH. You can remedy this by testing, fertilizing, and/orapplying lime.

A third step in developing a forage plan involves matching foragesto the animal requirements. Animal nutrient requirements are discussedin the section entitled Cow/Calf Nutrition. In this section, however, wewill discuss choosing a forage to meet requirements.

There is no universal formufa for choosing the most suitable foragefor your livestock and farm. There are, however, universal principlesthat are helpful. The most suitable forage will depend on the manager,type of operation, quality of land and economics, among other factors.You also should consider the following:

What forage system

improvements can youafford this year?

Many forages can be grown under improved management systems.Some improvements, such as a complete conversion to intensive graz,ing, are expensive. But they may be cost;'effective in the long run.

During years of limited income, you may choose to make less expen'sive improvements. These include liming, fertilizing and clipping hay atcorrect stages of maturity. MU publication M153, Marketing andFinance, includes examples of how to calculate the profitability of pas,ture improvements.

How much attention do youdevote to managing forages?

In many beef operations, pastures receive minimal attention. Thisdoes not always reflect poor management but rather a style of manage-ment.

If you devote minimal attention to pasture management, you'llprobably pay less attention to livestock rotations, clipping schedules,fertility treatments or annual reseeding. If this is the case, you shouldavoid certain species and certain intensive management systems of for-ages. On the other hand, if you devote maximum attention to pastures,you can produce virtually any of the forages adapted to your region.

Which forage speciesare suitable for your land?

Land that has steep slopes, water-logged soils, drought-prone soils orpest problems may not support a wide range of forage species. Whenchoosing forages for these fields, plant persistence is one of the mostimportant factors -any forage is better than no forage.

In contrast, highly productive land will support the higher-qualityforage species. For these fields, your primary concern is forage quality. ~

2 Beef Cow/Calf Series

The livestock you produce affects the type of forage you shouldgrow. If you are a cow/calf producer, you need to select forages that pro,vide more energy and protein during lactation. To graze steers, you needto emphasize energy input and minimize toxic syndromes. If the foragewill be harvested as hay, you should select persistent forages and vari,eties that yield more hay with extra fertilization. If you are interested inproviding wildlife habitat in fence rows, the species you select will againbe different.

Which forage is suitedto your livestock?r

Foragequality

potential

Forage

species

Requiredmanagement

Primaryuse

OtherCommentsPersistence

Cool Season Perennial Grasses

Infected KY31 tall fescue

Low endophyte tall fescueLow

High

High Most competitive forage in MissouriModerate Excellent animal results; even

yield distributionModerate Grazing Excellent animal results; needs

industry input.,

Moderate Grazing Good forage; very poor in Missouri

CAP landModerate Good in water-logged soils

Poor Uneven yield distribution

Low endophyte fescue or brome

is usually better

Beef grazing

Grazing

LowModerate

Bromegrass Moderate High

Orchardgrass Moderate High

Low alkaloid reed canarygrass Moderate

Perennial ryegrass ModerateHigh

High

Kentucky bluegrass Moderate Moderate

Grazing

Grazing

Horse grazing

Warm Season Perennial Grasses

r Bermudagrass Moderate Moderate Moderate Beef grazing

Big bluestem

Eastern gamagrassHighHigh

Moderate

High

ModerateModerate

Beef grazing

Beef grazing

Switchgrass

IndiangrassHigh

High

Moderate

Moderate

ModerateModerate

Beef grazing

Beef grazing

Caucasian bluestem Moderate Moderate Moderate Beef grazing

Requires high nitrogen, not

cold-tolerant

Later maturity than switchgrass

Fairly new interest; excellent

potential

Good warm-season grass

Grazed less than big bluestem

or switchgrass

Needs high fertility, but has long

growing season

High Very high Moderate Hay

Birdsfoot trefoil High Very high Poor Grazing

Best forage for high-quality

hay operationMost nutritional grazing

forage available

Mix into grass pasture

Arrowleaf clover

AnnuallespedezaHigh

High

Good

GoodGrazing

Grazing

Fixes nitrogen, but causes bloat; mix

with grass

Mix into grass pasture

2 types; both are excellent

on low pH soils

LowModerate

** IMPORTANT: This summary is based on general comparisons and for Missouri conditions only. In Missouri, for example, infected

KY31 tall fescue requires low management to maintain a stand and exhibits low forage quality (including anti-quality factors). In

comparison, bromegrass requires moderate management and exhibits high quality, while alfalfa requires high management andexhibits high forage quality.

r-- Table 1. Summary of common Missouri forages.

Forage Management 3

Table I, page 3, should help you make these decisions. The chartgives rules of thumb, not absolute guidelines. It summarizes the manage-ment, quality, persistence and typical uses of these forages as they appearin Missouri.

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Basic establishment principles

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The establishment period extends from seeding to the first harvest.There are many ways to establish forage grasses and legumes for hay orpasture. Improved varieties, improved equipment and the proper use ofherbicides and insecticides greatly increase the chances for a successfulplanting. While this technology continues to change, the basic princi-ples of establishing forages have not:

1. Se1ect species, varieties and/or mixtures that are adapted to thesoil, climate, season of production and yield goal.

2. Add fertilizer and lime according to soil test.

3. Prepare a seedbed to allow adequate distribution and place-ment of seed, plus good seed-to-soil contact. Seedbed require-ments vary with species.

4. Select high-quality seed. Seed quality is indicated by purity,germination and whether it is a certified variety.

5. Inoculate legumes with fresh inoculant specific to the species.It is not effective to use alfalfa inoculant on other legumessuch as lespedeza or birdsfoot trefoil.

6. Select proper seeding method. This will be influenced byspecies, seed purity, seedbed, available equipment and sitecondition. Broadcasting can be used for most forage species.However, the proper use of a drill adapted for forage plantingwill usually give better results.

7. Seed at the proper time according to species (Table 2). Thisallows the species to take advantage of its prime growth peri-od, giving it better seedling survival during the followingstress period -hot summer or cold winter. Several MUAgricultural Guides cover specific forage species. See theaddress in the back of this manual to obtain a list of these

publications.8. Use the proper seeding rate (Table 2). This varies with the

species selected and is generally based on pure live seed, seedsize and seedling vigor.

9. Plant shallow, one-fourth-inch to one-half-inch maximum.Deep plantings cause more poor stands than all other factors.

10. Control weeds. This is necessary to reduce competition forlight, moisture and nutrients.

Other production factors Evaluate the soil type and other characteristics of the field. Whatare its strong points and limitations for the desirable forage species?Take a good soil sample to determine soil fertility corrections needed.Determine the kind and amount of plant competition growing on thefield. This will help you to determine the seedbed preparation andestabli~hment method to use.


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SeedingRate

Ibs. PLS1/A

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Species

Grasses

Tall fescue

Orchardgrass

5-10

3-6

10

1-5

6

2

227

654

143

2,177

533

1,230

3/15-4/15

3/15-4/15

8/15-9/15

8/15-9/152

D

D

D

D

D

D

H

H

M

H

M

M-H

M-H

M

M-H

M

y

y

N

y

y

y

y

N

y

y

y

y

y

y

y

G I E

VG G

Smooth bromegrass

Kentucky bluegrass

3/15-4/15

3/15-4/15

8115-9115

8115-9115

G

p

VG

p

Reed canarygrass

Timothy

3/15-4/15

3/15-4/15

8/15-9/15

8/15-9/15

Perennial ryegrass

Sudangrass

15

8

12

10

8

(Fall) 4

(Spring) 2

20-25 10 240

54

36

389

165

175

3/15-4/15 8/15-9/15 D,B H H y y y p

Forage Sorghum

Switchgrass

20-30

4

7

7

NR 411-6115

3115-4115

NR

NR

NR

NR

D I H

D,B & R L

H

L-M

L

L

y

y

N

N

y

y

y

y

p

G

G

G

VG

F

F

y

y

y

y

Big bluestem

Indiangrass

3/15-4/15

3/15-4/15

D,B&R

D,B&R

L

L

Caucasian bluestem3 2.5-3

Bermudagrass (sprigs) 15-20 bu

(seeded) 6-8 bu

F-G4

G, Ns

G,N

860

N/A

1800

4/1-5/15

4/1-5/15

4/1-5/15

NR

NR

NR

D,B & R I L

S H

D,B M

L

M-H

M

N

N

N

y

y

y

y

y

y

",-.

Legumes

Alfalfa

Birdsfoot trefoil

Red clover

Ladino clover

Alsike clover

Sweet clover

Annuallespedeza

15

10

10

2-4

6

12

25

200

375

272

872

680

259

236

8/15-9/15

8/15-9/15

D,B,F

D

D,B,F

D,B, F

D,B,F

D,B, F

D,B, F

M-H

L

H

L-M

L-M

M-H

M

N

y

y

y

y

y

y

N

y

y

y

y

N

y

VG I G

G G

N

y

y

y

y

y

y

10

5

5-8

112-2

2

10

10-15

8/15-9/15

8/15-9/15

M

L

M-H

M-H

M-H

M

H

F

p

VP

G

G

G

G

8/15-9/15

8/15-9/15

~

G

3/15-4/15

3/15-4/15

3/15-4/15

3/15-4/15

3/15-4/15

3/15-4/15

3/15-4/15 NR

6 H=High, M=Medium, L=Low,

Y=Yes, N=No,

E=Excellent,

VG=Very Good, G=Good, F=Fair,

P=Poor, VP=Very Poor

1 PLS = pure live seed

2 Planting methods: D = drill; B = broadcast; B&R = broadcast then roll; F = frost

3 Not recommended for nor1hern third of Missouri.

4 Some winter kill in nor1hern Missouri.

5 Only winter-hardy in southernmost four tiers of counties.

Table 2. Characteristics, adaptation, fertility needs and seeding information for many Missouri forages.

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Forage Management 5

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Q) 0

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~Determine your production needs from the field. Will it be used for

hay or pasture? Evaluate how the field will fit into the grazing or hayproduction systems for your livestock operation.

Select a forage species or mixture based on species suitability to thesoil type and your forage production needs (see Table 2, page 5). Varietyselection should be made from improved strains best adapted to yourarea. (see Table 3, page 7).

The kind and amount of seedbed preparation will be influenced bythe field characteristics, the species to be planted and the seedingmethod to be used.

Steps for interseeding

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Interseeding is the process of adding a legume to a grass stand inorder to improve production and forage quality. Table 4 lists some com-mon legume and grass pasture mixtures. You should prepare for inter-seeding at least six months prior to seeding.

1. Apply lime, phosphorus and potassium based on soil testrecommendations.

2. Control broadleaf weeds by clipping, flash grazing or applyingappropriate herbicides.

3. During the growing season before interseeding, clip grass orgraze it close to prevent seedhead production. This limitscompetition from grass seedlings.

4. Graze closely to retard the grass plants and remove plant litter.

5. Kill about 50 percent of the grass stand by light disking orwith a band or broadcast application of herbicide. Legumescan be seeded into thin grass stands without tillage or herbi-cides. However, you'll obtain a better legume stand wheninterseeding follows light cultivation.

6. Seed the legume into the retarded grass during an appropriateperiod for the legume species. Late summer and spring seed-ings should be no-till drilled if possible. The broadcastmethod of adding legumes is usually more successful whendone during January or February.

Following interseeding, grass regrowth should be controlled toreduce competition with the legume seedlings. When the grass regrowthreaches about 6 inches, graze or clip to the height of the legume.

Table 4.Common seeding

mixtures forpasture and hay

10 Ibs

6 Ibs.

10 Ibs10 Ibs

151bsSibs.% Ib.

,-,

Beef Cow/Calf Series6

,Table 3.Top varieties bylocation in Missouri

Yield of top-performing varieties by location in Missouri.

(1990-92 yield average given in tons/acre)

Brand-Variety Ozarks Southwest NorthExtension personnel and seeddealers should have the name andaddress of the originator of eachvariety. Yields ranked by dry matteryield at each location.

Note the small amount of yielddifference between the listedvarieties, indicating an excellentgroup of varieties to select fromeach location.

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Other Forages

Annuallespedeza-

Korean type

Striate type

Birdsfoot Trefoil

KoreanSummitKobeMarion

KoreaArk. & Mo. AES (Public)

Japan (Public)USDA/Univ. of Mo./Univ. of Ark.

Univ. of Mo.and USDANorth Central Regional Release

New York AES (Public)Iowa AES (Public)Pa. AES (Public)

Crownvetch Chemung

Emerald

Penngift

Red Clover Kenland

KenstarFFR 1004RedlandRedland II

Kentucky AES (Public)Kentucky AES (Public)FFRUniv. of llI./Rudy-Patrick Seed DivisionNAPS

,...Table 3 continued on page 9

Forage Management 7

Renovation

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If the existing grass stand is weak and is severely infested with uncle,sirable grasses or weeds, renovation may be necessary. Renovationincludes destroying present plants, preparing the field and planting adesirable forage species. Use steps 1 and 3 listed for interseeding for soilamendments and for control of undesirable grass seedlings.

When fields are plowed, the seedbed must be firmed to the depth ofthe plow layer. This firming takes a considerable amount of expensivetillage and can lead to erosion.

Killing the old sod An alternative is to kill the sod with proper herbicides in the fallbefore a spring seeding is made. In spring, lightly till the sod with adisk, harrow and packer. This re,tains enough old sod residue to reduceerosion.

When a clean, firm, fine-textured seedbed has been prepared, seedmay be drilled, broadcast and packed, or seeded with a packer seeder.

Using companion crops To renovate sloping fields, consider a companion crop of winterwheat, rye or oats to control erosion. Wheat or rye are good companionsfor forages seeded in the fall.

For spring seeding of forages, the forage can be planted with a springoat seeding. You also can drill the forage directly into fall~seeded wheator rye crops before jointing begins. The companion small~grain cropshould be grazed or removed for hay when it reaches the early headstage. This reduces competition for light and moisture as the heat andstress of summer approaches. Forage species can also be broadcast seededin standing small~grain crops during late winter (Feb.-March) to takeadvantage of frost incorporation.

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No~till renovating No~till renovation of existing grass stands has been highly publi~cized throughout the fescue~producing area. Missouri research has foundthat herbicides labeled for fescue eradication are not always effectivewhen fescue seed is drilled directly into "killed" fescue sod. A morepromising method is using a no-till rotation: planting a summer interimcrop, such as sudangrass, after the herbicide application to increase thefescue kill.

Many new no-till drills can seed forage species when they are prop-erly equipped and adjusted. Some drills will not work properly withbearded seed of the warm-season grasses, so select equipment carefully.Controlling grass and seed competition is especially important in warm-season grass seedlings.

Soil insects are a possible hazard of no-till plantings made in sodfields. To control these insects, check with your local UniversityExtension office for the latest recommendations and insecticides.

Proper management prior to seeding will enhance survival and vigorof the new seedlings. After seeding, you need to control competition forlight, water and nutrients. Clipping, grazing down weeds to the heightof the seedlings or applying selective herbicides will help control

seedling competition.

Management

during the

critical first season

Table 3.(Continued from page 7)r- Other Forages

Kentucky Bluegrass

Univ. of Ky. (Public)

Orchardgrass HallmarkPotomac

SterlingDartCrownJustusShiloh

FFR CooperativeUniv. of Maryland AES (Public)Iowa State Univ. AES (Public)Land O'LakesNAPSUniv. of Mo./InternationalGreen Seeds, Inc.

Low-alkaloidReed Canarygrass Palaton Research Seeds

Venture Iowa State Univ. AES (Public)

High-alkaloidReed Canarygrass Rise NAPB

loreed Iowa State Univ. AES (Public)Flare Land O'Lakes

Smooth Bromegrass

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Land O'LakesLand O'LakesS. D. State Univ. (Public)

BartonBeacon

RegsSouthland

Tall Fescue Kentucky 31Fawn

ForagerMozarkMartinMO-96

Kenhy

Univ. of Ky. (Public)Oregon State Univ. (Public)FFRUniv. of Mo./lnternat. SeedUniv. of Mo./lnternat. SeedUniv. of Mo.(Public)Univ. of Ky. (Public)

Clair

Itasca

Pronto

Toro

Univ. of Kent. (Public)Univ. of Minn. AES (Public)

Northrup KingNAPB

Timothy

Kansas AES (Public)Neb. AES (Public)

SCS, Mo.(Public)

Big Bluestem KAWPawneeRountree

Indiangrass Holt Neb. AES (Public)Rumsey SCS (Public)Oto Kansas AES (Public)Osage Neb. AES (Public)

Switchgrass Blackwel\Cave-In-Rock SCS (Public)Caddo Okla. AES (Public)KanlowPathfinder Univ. of Neb. (Public)Trailblazer Univ. of Neb. (Public)

Univ. of Neb. (Public)Univ. of Neb. (Public)

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9Forage Management

Read and follow all manufacturer's label instructions when usingpesticides. Pay close attention to label restrictions for required intervalsbetween time of treatment and time of planting, pasturing or harvesting.The applicator is responsible for conforming to label specifications forrates, target crops, grazing or harvest intervals and container disposal.For the latest herbicide information, see MU publication MP581, Weedand Brush Control Guide for Forages, Pastures and Non~Cropland inMissouri.

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Grazing

management

Grazing management refers to the system of animal allocation topasture units throughout the season. The intensity of grazing manage-ment can vary from continuous grazing (set stocking) where no pasturesubdivisions are employed, to "management intensive grazing" where apasture is subdivided into 12 or more subpaddocks.

A critical factor in grazing management is matching the availableforage to the needs of the grazing animal. This means that during thesummer, animals with high nutritional needs such as lactating cows orrecently weaned calves would graze warm-season grasses. Cool-seasonpasture species such as tall fescue and orchardgrass are in a semi-dor-mant state during the summer and produce little forage. If warm-seasongrasses like Caucasian bluestem, bermudagrass or the native bunchgrass-es are used, it is imperative that they be grazed heavily enough to keepthem in a vegetative state. Warm-season grasses, particulatly the nativebunch grasses, lose quality quickly as the stem elongates and the foragematures.

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Stocking rates Stocking rates for continuous grazing in both cool and warm seasonpastures should be chosen to assure adequate forage availability duringlow production periods but also provide enough grazing pressure to usemost of the available grass. Managing your breeding season to ensurethat maximum forage needs will fall during the season of maximum for-age production is one major consideration in setting stocking rates forcontinuous grazing. Matching forage needs precisely to forage availabili-ty is quite a challenge. This is one of the reasons that rotational grazingis receiving more attention.

Rotational grazing vs.management intensive

Rotational grazing and management intensive grazing differ in thedegree of pasture subdivision employed and the means of fencing.Generally, rotational grazing refers to a situation where a large pasture ispermanently divided into several large subdivisions that are then grazedon a fairly set schedule. In management intensive grazing, pastures aredivided into many subdivisions (from eight to 28 or more) and individu-al paddocks are grazed to a desired forage residue height. The goal is toconcentrate enough animals in the smaller pasture to achieve thedesired pasture stubble height within one to three days. The animals arethen rotated through the remainder of the paddocks while the pasturesthat have already been grazed are allowed to rest and regrow.

The advantages of management intensive grazing are the amount ofcontrol it affords the producer over forage availability, the rest it pro-vides the forage plants and the more even level of nutrition provided to

",-.

the grazing animals. Anim:;lls are rotated through the pasture in a man-ner that keeps all the forage at essentially the same stage of growth andthus of similar forage quality. This avoids the situation of having theanimals on initially high quality forage that gradually decreases in quali-ty as it matures. In essence the pasture is kept at a fairly level plain ofnutrition. Another advantage of management intensive grazing is thatmanure is more evenly spread over the entire pasture area instead ofbeing concentrated in shade and around watering facilities. Increasedflexibility is also a major benefit of this system of grazing. Producers canmonitor the amount of forage available more closely than in a continu-ous grazing system and move animals accordingly. In periods of highgrowth rate, some of the subpaddocks can be skipped and hay can beharvested from them to make better use of the forage.

r-

Fencing for pasture subdivision

, ,...

Management intensive grazing was not considered feasible or eco-nomically viable until the advent of the so-called "New Zealand-typefence." The introduction of this reliable electric fencing has revolution-ized the idea of pasture subdivision in America. The difference betweenNew Zealand-style fencing and traditional American electric fencing isin the fence energizer or charger. Whereas American energizers arecharacterized by a high voltage output with a low amperage or energyinput into the fence, the New Zealand type energizer outputs a muchlower voltage at a substantially higher energy level. The result is a pulseof electrical energy capable of maintaining the necessary voltage for ani-mal control in spite of the heavy vegetative loads that weaken mostAmerican units.

Electric fencing materials used in most pasture subdivision schemesare cheaper than conventional perimeter fences used in continuousgrazing (Table 5). Whether the set-up is temporary, semi-permanent orpermanent dictates which material option would be used. The use oftemporary fencing materials for subdivision adds to the flexibility of the

Table 5. Relative cost of fencetypes based on prevailing retailprices.

1""""

Forage Management II

system allowing the removal of cross fences to enlarge the available pas~ture area during periods of low forage growth. One of the temporaryfence options includes polywire. Remember that the fine wires woveninto polywire have high electrical resistance and are limited to a dis~tance of no more than a half mile from the energizer. Also, the usefullife of polywire averages three to five years. Another option, galvanizedcable, has about 80 times the conductivity of polywire and about 12years useful life expectancy; thus the advantage is even more than justin price.

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Management intensityaffects animal performance

~

Studies at the Forage Systems Research Center in Linneus haveevaluated the effect of different levels of management intensity on ani-mal performance. Three forage production systems, characterized as low,medium or high management, were evaluated for their effect on gain ofGelbvieh-sired calves nursing their Hereford dams. The low manage-ment system used a three-paddock rotation on orchardgrass pasture, themedium management system a six-paddock rotation on orchardgrass/redclover pasture, and the high management system was a 12-paddock sub-division of a bromegrass pasture that was interseeded with alfalfa andbirdsfoot trefoil or fertilized with N. Stocking rates were 2.67 acres percow-calf unit on the low management system, 2.0 acres/unit on themedium, and 1.33 acres/unit on the high.

The most critical decision the producer must make when usingintensive rotational grazing is when to move the cattle to the next pad-dock. Grazing selectivity is decreased, which usually results in a decreasein the quality of the forage consumed; however, this depends on howfast the cattle are rotated. In essence, rotating animals through the pad-docks on ahigh intensity system is like rationing feed for cattle.

Calf gams for the three systems described above are shown in Table6. The gains listed are for the entire grazing season and show both pro-duction per animal and per unit of land area.

Table 6. Calf gains (Ibs.) by foragemanagement system and year .

1986

(153 days)

1987

(140 days)

LQ.w.

Gain/calf

Gain/acre

266100

285107

MEDIUM

Gain/calf

Gain/acre

262131

306153

.!:tlG.!:!.

Gain/calf

Gain/acre

248186

308232

In 1986, the legumes were not well established in the high system sogains vary accordingly for the two years. The high system had about86% more gain per acre than the low in 1986 since individual animalperformance was decreased and stocking rate was doubled compared tothe low system. In 1987 higher individual animal gain coupled with the


higher stocking rate resulted in a 117% higher gain per acre on the highsystem than on the low. The results of this trial show the magnitude ofanimal performance differences which could be expected with moreintensive grazing systems. The data also point out the need to monitorforage quality and availability in high input systems to increase individ-ual calf gains. Also of importance is having cattle matched to the system

to take full advantage of the production system.

,-.

Hay making serves two vital functions in the cow-calf operation.We have noted above that hay harvests can be used as a means ofremoving excess forage during periods of rapid plant growth when graz-ing animals cannot make full use of the available fodder. Hay harvestingalso provides stored feed for periods when fresh forage availability is

inadequate to meet animal needs.Grass hays have the best combination of yield and feed quality

when harvested when the seedhead is in the boot. As grasses mature,forage quality falls rapidly as fiber content increases and protein dropsdue to leaf senescence after the seedhead emerges (Fig. 1, page 14). Asimilar situation occurs with legume hay, particularly alfalfa, with quali-ty decreasing during flowering (Fig. 2, page 15). Top quality alfalfa isbest harvested prior to the time when 10 percent of the stand is in flow-er; however, frequent harvesting of alfalfa before the flower buds devel-

op can reduce stand life.After the forage crop is mowed, decisions regarding packaging and

storage of hay are based on the forage species and the moisture contentat harvest. Precise methods of measuring the moisture are available andshould be used when deciding when to bale the crop. The method ofstorage that will be used determines to a large degree on what forage

moisture should be at baling.Swath and windrow moisture content changes rapidly with the

amount of sunshine, wind conditions, and dew formation. Moisture con-tent varies across the windrow and with position in the field. Moisturecontent of forage in the windrow can be determined by taking a sample"slice" out of the windrow, weighing it, and then drying the sample in amicrowave or ordinary oven. The sample is then weighed again andmoisture percentage is determined by weight loss. The following formula

can be used to determine moisture:

% moisture = ( weight original sample -weight of dry sample) X 100~ o ~eight of ~riginal sample -

Forage harvested as hay should be baled at a moisture content of 15to 25 percent. Forage stored as haylage ( wilted forage) at a moisturecontent of 40 to 50 percent must be stored in an air-tight storage struc-

ture, like a silo.Silage requires similar storage facilities but can be harvested at a 65

to 75 percent moisture level. Silage is usually made by direct harvestinggrain crops that have naturally dried during maturation. New develop-ments in bale wrapping technology have allowed for the production of"bale silage or haylage." Typically, this technology allows the producerto package hay in large round bales that are then sealed in air-tight plas-

Forage Management

Figure 1-a.Grass hays have the best

combination of yield and feedquality when harvested when the

seedhead is in the boot.

-."

Figure 1-b.

~,

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Figure 2. Although top-qualityalfalfa is best harvested prior tothe time when 10% of the stand isin flower, frequent harvestingbefore the flower buds develop canreduce stand life.

Effect of alfalfa maturity at harvest on forage quality

70%,

~Cr. Protein

tic bags. The success of this practice depends on the maintaining theintegrity of the air~tight seal in the bag until time for feeding.

Electronic moisture meters are also available. The latest type ofelectronic meter reads moisture content "on~the~go" as the baler is oper~ating. This type of meter, coupled with control equipment, may be use~ful for operators that apply chemical desiccants or chemical preserva~tives to hay during the baling operation.

r"'

liming is the keyto putting up quality hay

The goal of haymaking is to get the material baled and into storagein a minimum of time after it is cut. The less hay is bleached or leachedby rain, dew or sun, the less nutrients are lost. A good goal is to get hayoff the field in two days after cutting. To put up quality hay it is neces-sary to pay close attention to the weather. Rain will damage hay qualityby leaching nutrients and enhancing the growth of spoilage organisms.Rain that falls on forage that has just been cut does less damage thanrain on hay that is nearly dry. Therefore it is much less damaging to hayquality to cut hay in the rain or immediately before a rain than to havehay rained on just before it is ready to bale. Two-day weather forecastsare generally more accurate than three-day forecasts.

When legume hay is mowed without conditioning, the stems dryappreciably slower than the leaves. By the time stems are dry enough tobale, leaves are over-dry and easily shatter, resulting in high leaf lossduring the baling operation. The function of the conditioner is to crush,crack or break the stems so that they dry at about the same rate as theleaves. The result is that mower/conditioners reduce hay drying time byabout one day and also reduce leaf loss resulting in higher hay quality.

Time from cutting to baling can be reduced by the use of desiccantsapplied at the time of mowing, but this practice should be carefully con-

"...

15Forage Management

sidered before it is used. Wisconsin tests show that alfalfa that was con~ditioned and treated with potassium carbonate dried from 76 percent to49 percent moisture in a 24~hour period. Alfalfa that was conditionedonly dried to 52 percent moisture in the same period of time. Althoughthis desiccant worked about as well for clover, it does not appear to workeffectively on grasses. Chemical desiccants enhance drying best whenthe relative humidity is low, which further limits their usefulness.

Although 20 percent is considered the proper moisture level for bal~ing, forage can be baled at higher moisture if a preservative, such as pro~pionic acid, is added during the baling process. Baling hay at high mois~ture results in less leaf loss, allows baling to start sooner after cutting,and results in high quality hay. Propionic acid applied at 1 percent ofhay dry weight has been shown to reduce spoilage compared to untreat~ed hay; however, organic acids are corrosive to equipment and quality isnot "improved" by treatment. Preservatives are simply used to reducespoilage when hay is packaged at high moisture.

Losses £rom outside storage0£ large round bales varies

The introduction of the large round baler led to the increased use ofoutside storage. Dry matter losses from bales stored outside on a well;.drained site vary from 5 percent to }5 percent. Moisture penetrates thebale on its periphery with most accumulation on the bottom. Theamount of total hay lost increases with the depth of moisture penetra-tion in the bale (Table 7). In an effort to reduce outside storage losses,manufacturers have developed methods of wrapping bales with plasticnetting, sheeting, or twine. Plastic coverings need to be removed whenthe hay is fed and this has created a disposal problem. In response to thisproblem, tests at the Forage Systems Research Center have evaluatedthe effectiveness of coating bales with melted food-grade beef tallow.Approximately 13.2 lbs. of tallow is melted and sprayed or poured overeach bale and allowed to infiltrate into the outer 3A-inch of the bale.Initial tests have indicated that the tallow will remain on the balesthrough the summer regardless of rainfall. Quality hay was foundbeneath the outer 1-inch layer of hay at the end of the summer follow-ing 40 inches of rainfall. The cost of coating hay with tallow in the ini-tial trial was $3 per bale.

~~

Table 7. Hay loss from a 5~' x 5~'round bale stored outside.

6"

10"

Another preservative treatment that has potential for cattlemen isanhydrous ammonia. Ammoniation has been promoted as a means ofimproving forage quality as much as it has been as a preservative. Thereare three major effects of ammonia on hay. The additional non-protein


nitrogen can improve the nutritional value of low protein grass hay andits digestibility by meeting the N needs of rumen microbes. Fiberdigestibility is also improved through the caustic action of the ammoniaon the grass fiber. Finally, the alkaline pH produced by the addition ofanhydrous to moist hay prevents the growth of spoilage organisms. Toammoniate forage, freshly baled hay is stacked and covered with plastic.The edge of the plastic must be sealed with limestone or sand to ensureanair~tight seal.

Ammonia should be applied at no more than 3 percent of hay dryweight. Higher concentrations of ammonia can be toxic to cattle result-ing in "crazy calf syndrome." Therefore it is imperative to know the dryweight of hay that is to be treated. A standard anhydrous wagon is thenfilled with the total amount of anhydrous that is needed to treat the hay.A pipe is run under the plastic-covered haystack and the valve isopened until the anhydrous wagon is empty. The hay is left covered for7 to 10 days following treatment. Care should be taken when the coveris removed in preparation for feeding as some free ammonia will remain.Hay should be aired out a few days prior to feeding. The Sl,lccess ofammoniation is determined to a large degree by the moisture level ofthe hay being treated. Hay that is too wet (40-50 percent moisture) willbe sloppy and will still spoil. Hay that is too dry will not ammoniateproperly because ammonia binds with moisture in the hay in order tochemically react.

The production of top quality hay depends on mowing forage at theproper maturity level followed by timely storage. Preserving hay qualityis one of the biggest challenges faced by the cattle producers due to theinfluence of weather on this practice.

r

Fescue toxicosis

The endophyte problem

Fescue toxicosis refers to a group of livestock disorders caused byingestion of tall fescue infected with Acremonium coenophialum, a fungalendophyte, known by most cattle producers as "the endophyte." Thisendophyte has received a lot of attention in recent years due to thedamage it can lead to in cattle production and because of the many fes-cue pastures found in Missouri.

The endophyte itself is not toxic to cattle. Most researchers believeit produces a toxin called ergovaline, an alkaloid. Cattle become sickwhen they ingest the toxin and will exhibit symptoms known as "sum-mer slump." The name stems from symptoms that are most noticed dur-ing late spring and throughout the summer when ergovaline productionis high.

Summer slump symptoms include: poor weight gain, low conceptionrate, high body temperatures and prolactin (milk hormone) inhibition. Insummer, infected animals may stand in ponds in order to lower their bodytemperat;ure. During the winter, animals grazing infected fescue may sufferextreme fescue toxicosis, such as a sloughing of the tail, hoof or ears.These symptoms are collectively called fescue foot. See MU publicationM150, Herd Health Management, for details on these symptoms.

Because fungal endophytes grow between a plant's cell walls, theyare invisible in the field. The fescue endophyte lives near the base of the

"

Forage Management 17

Table 8.Grazing days, beef gain/acre,

average daily gain and gain/animalof steers grazing

A. Coenophialum-infected and non-infected tall fescue pastures in

studies at Marion Junction,Alabama from 1978 to 1982.

"""'\

stem and remains there until seedheads begin developing. The endo-phyte then grows up the stem and eventually infects the seedhead.

The effect of the endophyte can be seen in the summary of researchdata in Table 8. This figure lists average daily gains of steers that con-sumed tall fescue pasture, hay or seed.

Other data from these same researchers report that the endophytehas resulted in a 50 percent reduction in milk production and intake.They also report that the endophyte affects sheep and dairy cattle.Other researchers, such as West (Arkansas) and Siegel (Kentucky),report that ensiled fescue and green chop fescue retain their toxicity.

While the endophyte isn't good for grazing animals, recent data sug-gest that it is good for the plant. The endophyte may help the fescueplant survive droughts, resist insects and pathogens and help it persistunder heavy, continuous grazing. In fact, in several states in the South,the endophyte is rather important in fields that are stressed by droughtand pests. In Missouri, however, the endophyte is helpful only in areaswhere soils are drought-stressed or in pastures that are overgrazed. If youare replanting a pasture in endophyte-free fescue, remember that itshould be managed and grazed carefully. Endophyte-free tall fescue ismore persistent than orchardgrass and bromegrass, yet it is less tolerantof plant stress than is a stand of infected Kentucky 31 (KY31 ). Here areeight suggestions for dealing with fescue toxicosis:

,~

Renovate Renovation involves killing the infected KY31 with paraquat (abum-down herbicide that must be applied by certified pesticide applica-tors), seeding a smother crop and replanting endophyte-free tall fescue.For spring seedlings, the preceding smother crop should be a winterannual small grain, such as wheat. For fall seedings, the precedingsmother crop should be a summer annual, such as sudangrass.

Be cautious when renovating. If the field is drought-susceptible orheavily grazed, total renovation is not wise. Instead, renovate 10 to 20acres each season. If your land is quite productive, larger renovationswould be an excellent idea.

For several reasons, moving cattle off of fescue during the hot summermonths greatly increases animal gains. Fescue, a cool-season grass, is notproductive during the summer months; there is a lack of forage from Junethrough August. High ambient temperatures also can increase the toxiceffect of the endophyte. Missouri research suggests that gains decrease sig-nificantly after temperatures reach 88°E Research in other states show thetoxicity has a residual effect. Rotating cattle off of tall fescue for only oneto two weeks will not greatly reduce summer slump. Cattle should bemoved off of tall fescue for the entire summer when possible.

Rotate

""""'


,-

Fescue toxicosis, or summerslump, is seen most often duringsummer when ergovalineproduction is high in the plant.The toxin reaches its highestlevels in seed heads. Clippingpastures will lessen the amount oftoxin available to cows.

Infected KY31 can be diluted by interseeding the pasture withlegumes. In Missouri, the best legumes for interseeding are red clover,annual lespedeza, alfalfa and birdsfoot trefoil. Each of these legumesdiffers in its persistence, but all can be maintained by proper manage~ment. Annuallespedeza should be allowed to reseed in late August andearly September. Red clover and birdsfoot trefoil may require occasion~al reseeding. Table 9 describes an annual management program foralfalfa. Legumes should be inoculated, and pastures with these mixturesshould not receive much nitrogen (0 lbs.facre to 30 lbs.facre). If nitro~gen is applied, fescue will need to be grazed or clipped to keep it fromcrowding out the legume.

Dilute

Feeding your cattle corn or other feeds also reduces the toxic effectof the endophyte. Although feeding corn at a rate of 1 percent of thebody weight can be effective, it may also prevent efficient digestion ofthe forage fiber. Feeding corn at a rate of 0.6 percent of the body weightoffers an economic compromise -it allows the cow to efficiently usethe forage fiber, reduces feed costs and reduces toxicity. An alternativesupplement to corn would be corn gluten feed. Feed it at a rate of 1.5percent of the body weight.

Supplement

High nitrogen rates increase the production of ergovaline, thetoxin, and probably contribute to the nutrition of the endophyte. Highnitrogen rates also decrease legumes in mixed pastures. Fertilizing forthe legume is the proper way to manage infected KY31.

Fertilize properly

Infected KY31 should be heavily grazed. The fescue becomes moretoxic when it is allowed to develop seedheads because the seedheadscontain much more ergovaline than do other plant parts. Mature fescuealso contains less protein and more fiber and is therefore less digestiblethan vegetative fescue.

Graze properly


Ammoniate fescue hay

Beware of magic cures

There are two reasons to ammoniate most low,quality hay:

.Ammonia breaks the cell wall and makes hay more

digestible..Ammoniation requires hay to be covered and indirectly pro,

vides an excellent storage facility for hay.

Fescue toxicosis is not a nutritional problem. According to currentresearch, extra minerals, hormones or other animal treatments do notsignificantly improve daily gains of cattle suffering from this toxin if theanimals are receiving a balanced diet. There are currently no proventreatments on the market that improve performance of cattle receivinga well,balanced diet.

Interseeding fescue with legumes(above) will reduce summer slump,

because cattle will graze thelegumes during summer and pass

over infected fescue. Rotationalgrazing (left), where cattle grazesmall paddocks for only a short

time, will also help.

~

Jan Table 9.Alfalfa management calendar~

Feb

March

April

May

June

July

Aug

rSept

act.

Nov

Dec

.Always conduct soil test before seeding. Work lime into soil at

least six months prior to seeding if pH is less than 5.5.

,.Topdress according to soil test. If test is not available, use 0-15-60 fertilizer per ton of hay equivalent to be removed. Add 1

pound of boron per acre each year. Five pounds of medium red

clover can be seeded if alfalfa is getting thin.

.Plant alfalfa (15 Ibs./acre) alone or alfalfa (10-12 Ibs./acre) plus

orchardgrass (3-6 Ibs./acre). Use only certified, well-adaptedseed. Be sure to inoculate alfalfa seed.

.Make pure seeding of alfalfa using appropriate herbicide. Spray

for alfalfa weevil. Cut alfalfa for high-quality dairy feed.

,Cut alfalfa hay for beef cattle or for sale. No-till alfalfa into fescue

sod after using proper herbicide. Top-dress after first cutting if

not done in February. Watch for additional weevil damage and

variegated cutworms.

Cut alfalfa for second time, 30 to 35 days after first cutting. Watch

for leafhopper damage.

Graze if not worth cutting. Chance of bloat is slight if alfalfa is dry

and starting to bloom.

Plant alfalfa (15 Ibs./acre) or alfalfa (10-12 Ibs./acre) and

orchardgrass (3-6 Ibs./acre) from Aug. 15 to Sept. 15. Seedlingdepth should only be one-quarter to one-half inch. No herbicide

is needed. Spray for grasshoppers when present.

.Make last regular cutting no later than Sept. 15 or yield and stand

will be reduced for later years. Add fertilizer if hay yields

exceeded fertilizer used during the year. Plant red clover or

orchardgrass if stand is thinning.

DO NOT CUT OR GRAZE OR HARVEST IN ANY WAY.

Make dormant cutting or graze after heavy frost or freeze.

Spray for winter annual weeds. Returns can be doubled byspraying. Always read and follow label directions.

",...


"

~

University of Missouri Agricultural Guides

No. Title

04510 Crownvetch

04515 Annual Lespedeza

04562 The Potato Leafhopper in Alfalfa

04563 Grasshopper Control in Forages, Crops and Pastures

04564 The Meadow Spittlebug in Alfalfa and Red Clover

04566 Alfalfa Insect Scouting

04569 Blister Beetle in Alfalfa

04575 Making and Storing Quality Hay

04590 Corn Silage

04610 The Bluegrasses

04620 Bermudagrass

04638 Red Clover

04639 White, Ladino and Sweet Clover

04640 Birdsfoot Trefoil

04642 Establishing Birdsfoot Trefoil in Bluegrass Sod

04646 Tall Fescue

04649 Reed Canarygrass, Ryegrass, and Garrison Creeping Foxtail

04650 Establishing Forages

04651 Renovating Grass Sods with Legumes

04661 Sudangrasses and Other Crops for Temporary Forage

04670 Seed Production of Tall Fescue and Other Cool SeasonGrasses

04673 Big Bluestem, Switchgrass, and Indiangrass

04674 Caucasian Bluestem

04695 Horse Pastures

04970 Plants Poisonous to Livestock

06710 Orchardgrass

09102 Liming Missouri Soils

09110 Sampling Your Soil for Testing

09111 Using Your Soil Test Results

Special Publications

MP581 Weed and Brush Control Guide for ForagesPastures, and Non~Cropland in Missouri

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.Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension Work Acts of May 8 and June 30,1914in cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture. Ronald C. Powers,Interim Director, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Missouri and LincolnUniversity, Columbia, Missouri 65211. .An equal opportunity institution. ~UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI

COLUMBIA

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