M Stokes - Cosmopolitanism

8/13/2019 M Stokes - Cosmopolitanism

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On Musical CosmopolitanismMartin StokesTwo broad areasof consensuseign on mattersof musical globalization.One,I'll refer toas popular', the other critical'. Thepopularconsensus oessomething ike this.Advances n communication echnologiesover the last four decades by which I meanincreasesn their power, capacity and reach,coupled with their miniaturization anddistribution across he social field - have wrought fundamentalchangesn the way musiccirculates.Musics confined o locali tiesnow circulateacross he globe.Musics hatlanguishedn archivalobscuritycannow be accessed t the click of a mouse.Musicsonceperceivedas oreign andoutlandishhave become amiliar. Isolatedmusicalpracticesnow interactwith others,producingenergeticnew hybrids, global soundscapes.Cultural hierarchieshave been oppledas societies eckon with unexpectednew soundscoming from without or below. Once we were locals: now we are cosmopolitans.Nowwe have choice,agency,democraticpossibilities for exchangeand interaction.And apleasurableantagepoint on the musicalgoings-onof theworld, a feast o enjoy.This vision - one connectwith the 'world music' or 'world beat' phenomenon f themid to la te 1980s,and he publications hat continue o give it life (TheRoughGuide oWorld Music, The Virgin Directory of World Music, the Songlinesournal) - was notwithout its ambiguitiesand anxieties. raditionsand roots' need o be validated buthow, and by whom? If hybridization andmusical translationare the new creativeprinciples,how are musical intelligibility and meaning o be maintained,by whom, andfor whom? How is diversity and cultural in-between-nesso be celebrated,withouterodingcore identities?Who areto be the gatekeepers,he explainers, he interpreters,the go-betweens,he intellectuals?Who are o be the guardiansof propriety and fairnessas he recording industry and t superstars ink their teeth nto vulnerable ocalcommunities?One could continue n this vein, and chosealmost any pageof thepublicationsmentioned above o illustrate the anxietiesat play. They havea long history,from the 1960s o the presentday,at least,as he deaof 'world music' has aken oot invarious nstitutional,public andcommercialspacesn the westernworld - academia,herecordingbusiness, ublic broadcasting, tateandmunicipalarts unding.And whilst Ihavepresentedsomethingof a caricature, think they are seriousanxieties, houghtfullypursuedby many of those nvolved - people have been n conversationwith throughoutmy yearsas an ethnomusicologist.Let me quickly sketchout what I think of as he critical consensus. his will take a littlemore time, since think thepositionsheld aremore varied,and hesevariationshave abearingon what I want to say ater on. One critical ssue elates o the role of therecording ndustries n shaping andcontrolling)musicalglobalization.This is a complexmatter. n its earliestdays, he recordingcompanies TheVictor Talking MachineCompany,establishedn 1901, he GramophoneCompany, n 1898)marketeda newsound eproductionechnology.They did soglobally,using ocal sounds, n local


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languages, s a meansof developing ocalmarkets or their productr. talian operaariasby starvocalists(notably Caruso)constituted he first music to circulate n thesemarketstranslocally,supplantedby the dancebandorchestras f the I920s and30s, asdevelopmentsn recordingallowed.As therecording ndustries onsolidatedhemselvesin subsequent ecades,hey became he dominant nstitutionalsite of globalmusicalexchange, ver which they have,consequently, xercised onsiderable ontrol.For many, hen,questions boutmusicalglobalizationmust necessarilynvolve a criticaland historical analysisof how the recording ndustries unction on a global basis, andhow we are to understandhe circulation of the commodities hey produce.How do theyattempt o exploit particular regionaland diasporic marketst. Ho* havevariousgeffesbeenselected, ppropriated ndpromoted or globalcirculation3.How have hey haveconnected heir big starswith small soundsa.How haverecordedsoundsbeensampled,copied,appropriate,einventeds. ow do the activitiesof local musicrecordingcompanies elling ocalmusic for a globalmarket eproduce, r intensify, heracialorgenderedstatusquo?oHow do they participate n their own marginalizationanddependencyon metropolitanmarkets?' And how, finally, was the idea of a

'WorldMusic' developed, nd why? Was t a key moment n the transformation f the globalrecording industries as hey struggled o orient themselves o, and exploit, the rapidlychanging soundscapes f first world cities?8Or a comparativelyminor chapter n thehistory of recordedmusic dreamedup by a bunchof enthusiastsn various areasofcommercial andpublic media to pursue athermore idiosyncraticgoalsthat need o beunderstood n more local terms?eThesekind of questionsabout musical globalizationarewell-developedwithin ethnomusicology ndpopularmusicstudies, ied as hey are o

t There s a large and valuable iteratureon this topic. Here draw on GronowandEnglund2007.'On French ecordingcompanyBarclayand heirefforts o exploit the North Africandiasporicmarketand ai, seeSchade-Poulsen999,Grosset al 2003.' The caseof tango s particularlywell documented. ee n particularSaviglianol995.aPaul Simon's appropriationof South African isicathamiyaon his 1986Gracelandalbum s a causecelebren ethnomusicology. eeMeintjes 1990andErlmannl999 fordifferent interpretations.5Consider, or instance, he lullaby from the Soloman slandsoriginally recordedHugoZemp relocated n the musicof DeepForestand JanGarbarek, iscussedn Feld 2000a,or the complexcirculations of Simha Arom and Colin Turnbull's 'pygmy' recordings nthe world of westernpop androck (Feld2000b).SeeHesmondhalgh 000andTaylor2003 for othercarefullyconsidered asestudies.6On thegendered imensions f positioninga local music on a world market,seeAparicio 2000; on racial issues,see,particularly,Meintjes 2003.7SeeGuilbault's studyof Antillean zouk (Guilbault1993) or a discussion fdependency.8A position I would associate,n ratherdifferent ways, with Frith 2000 andSchade-Poulsen 999.eBrusila's2003Nordic casestudy epitomizeshis approach.


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questionsaboutthe recording ndustry and music's circulation as a commodity inmarkets.A second etof critical ssuesnvolveshow onemight conceptualizethe elationshipbetweenmusicalglobalizationandglobalcapitalism.Onechallenge asbeen o establisha properly historical framework.Globalization is often held to be a recent, or at least,later twentiethcenturyphenomenon,coinciding roughly with the demiseof classicalFordist economies, he information technology revolution, and the emergenceof theUnited Statesof America as he political superpowerafter the Cold War. Many, though,think in terms of a much longer timeline, beginning with the fifteenth centuryvoyagesofdiscoveryandEurope'searly colonialventures, stablishing olitical-economic oresandperipheriesof extraordinarydurability. For early European ravelers,missionariesandtraders, he music of native SouthAmericans, he musicof the Ottoman and, a little later,North Indian courts,were o be understood artly as ntellectualchallenge 'could this bethe music of the Ancient Greeks,or the biblical Hebrews?'),partly as exoticpleasures,andpartly as earsome oise seeBohlman 1991,Obelkevitch1977,Farrell 1997).Thecomplex ambivalences,n otherwords, Saiddescribed sOrientalismsome ime ago(Said 1977), accompanying,ustifying, and renderingnatural and unchanging anemerging structureof labor andresourceexploitationand, finally, the global politicaldominion of a handful of Europeancolonial powers.Music, a designatedspaceof fantasyin the western magination,constitutedan mportant domain in which the colonial projecttook intellecfual and cultural shape, ts constituentcontradictionsexposedand explored(Locke 1991).And one readswith fascination bout he cross-culturalmusicking hatseemed o havetakenplace n the earliestmomentsof sustainedcolonization and east-west contact, or instanceamongst he British in India or the Dutch in Java, or betweenthe easternEuropeanprincipalities andthe Ottoman court, complex struggles oassimilateandcontrol, as well as communicateacrosscultural boundariesandmaintainelite lines of communication. f globalization s to be understoodas he emergenceandslow consolidationof EuropeanandAmerican hegemonyacross he planet over half amillennium, the most current episode,one might argue let's continue o refer to it as he'world music' moment- either reiterates he sameold (colonial) story,or suggeststssubtle andpersistentpowersof self-transformation n a changedmedia environment.Many otherswould find this overly systematic nd relentlessly eleological allowinghumancultureonly one directionandsetof historicalpossibilities).Currentlywe findourselvesn a radicallynew environment, et anotherargumentgoes'".The nation-statesystemno longerordersand contains heglobal flows of finance, abor,commoditiesandideas on which nation-states epend).Thesecirculateaccording o new logicsrr(footnote:Appadurai's -scapes'),logicsnot subordinatedo somehigher evel unifyingprinciple, but which, rather,come together n complex andratherunpredictableways.Emergingpracticesof political mobilization and solidarity, new industrial andbusinesspractices,new forms violence attempt o gain footholds,win spaceand consolidatepower

toThis wouldassociateithMark Slobin'sSubcultural ounds:Micromusics f theWesrSlobin 993)rrMost nfluentiallyheorized y Arjun Appadurai. eeAppadurai2002.


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for new kinds of political andcultural actors n a complexly changingenvironment, onewhose future directionscannot simply be read from the past.And the samemight be saidof music. If the global circulation of music had,until the relatively recentpast, akenplace n a spacedefinedby colonialism and ts aftermath, n which, for instance,onemight look at the world and detect coherentand somewhatbounded British, American,French, German, Spanish,PortugueseandJapanese paces f musical encounterandexchange, colonially or quasi-colonially rderedsetof coresandperipheries,he samecannot be saidnow. Supercultural,subculturaland ntercultural musical practices, o useMark Slobin's useful terms, arenow in close and unpredictablecontact, hanks o modernmedia and movements f people.Hip-hop artistson Chicago'sSouthSide sampleBalinesegamelanand Abd al-Halim.Australiandidjeridusdronealong o taditional Irishmusic in Belfast pubs.PapuaNew Guineansplay Country music when Australianmissionariessucceed n banning the music associatedwith their traditional rituals. And soforth. This is not a situation that canbe easily or simply interpreted n terms of culturalimperialism.

A third, and final, set of issuesconcerns he theorization of the new spacesandplaces ofglobalmusicalencounter. arlier music studywas mplicitly or explicitly framedby theencompassing ation-state. more recentethnomusicology as situated tself on borderzones, n'global cities', alongpilgrimage outesandamongstDiasporiccommunities, nspaces ndplaces hat challengehe ogic of bounded ulture andpositivelydemandaffention o multivalent andmulti-directional kinds of musical circulation''. Multiple to-and-fro movementsby migrants n the Mexican/Californianborderlandsanimategenressuchas banda(Simonett2001). Global cities suchasNew York might be so defined nterms of their detachment rom their nationalhinterlands,andtheir relations with regionsbeyondthe nation-state in New York's case,notably the Caribbean) hrough themovementof finance,commodities, nformation, labor, and, of course,music (Allen andWilken 1998). t is impossible o considera singleCaribbeanmusicalgenre kompasdirek, merengue,bachata,zouh, see, espectively,Averill 1997,Austerlitz 1997, Pacini-Hernandez1995and Guilbault 1993 or English anguage ccounts)without taking ntoaccount he musical fissions and fusions hat takeplace n the regional metropolis,andthe movements f musicians o and rom. Diasporasmake a virfue out of a necessity,imaginingboth thehistorical actsof their globaldispersal swell as he culturalbondsthat continue o unite them (no matter how tenuous). n entering nto thesemusicalworlds, ethnomusicologistsmust reckon with the powerful global historical forces hathave, usually under violent andcoercive conditions, scatteredWest Africans across heNew World, Jews rom BaghdadacrossSouth-EastAsia, North Africans andTurksacrossNorth-Western Europe.Their music, aswe are now well aware rom the work of anumberof ethnomusicologistsand anthropologists,estifiesequally powerfully, as PaulGilroy puts t, to routesandroots (Gilroy 1993).Patientethnomusicological ork enablesus to interpret, n thesevariousmusicalpractices,ong historiesof accommodation ndantagonismwith host communities, swell asa collective nsistence n what is still, overcenturies n somecases, alpablyshared.Considerhe amazinglycomplex ransformation

tt Bohlman'swide-rangingaccountof contemporary uropean ilgrimagepractices(Bohlman 1996), or instance,exemplifiesa new sensitivity to circulation and spatiality.


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of the musics of WesternAfrica in the Westernhemisphere;consider, oo, how quickly'blackness'is recognized n music across he circum-Atlantic, and how mobile Africanderivedmusicalpracticesarewithin this space seeMonson 1999,Eyre 2000).I have describeda number of academicethnomusicologicalandanthropologicalresponseso globalization. n what sense o I put this forward asa 'critical consensus', sI announcedat the outset?Clearly, even f this charucterization f the field is accepted,am describingmajor tensions, swell as significantdifferencesn styleandemphasis.And the matter s complicatedby the fact that I am representingabout ten yearsofethnomusicologicalandpopularmusic scholarship, n which ideashave been chewedover andchanged,and n which the millennial anxieties hat hoveredover the topic ofglobalizationten yearsagohave somewhatdissipated.Yet, I do find significant areasofconsensus.n all of theseaccounts,globalization s usually presentedn terms of radicalunderlying political-economic transformation,effectedprimarily throughtechnologicalchange.Systems,n otherwords, hat ie largelybeyondhuman agencies, esiresandplans, hat force us, humansubjects,o reckonwith andrespond o the enorrnous hangesgoing on round about us,putting a strain on our cognitive andperceptualapparatus.'Culture' (including music, naturally) is themeansby which we do this reckoning, eitherencouragingus to retrench nto fantasiesof locality, boundedness nd authenticity, oraiding us in our struggle o graspwhat thesesystems-createdby us but now,Frankenstein-like,out of our contol - aredoing to us. Jamesonand Harvey hover overthesediscussions.l3But there s a problem with this. This analysisdivides the theoretical space nto, roughlyapolitical-economicltechnologicalbaseand a'cultural' superstructure. he first is aspace n which human agency s perceived o be absent,whilst in the latter (only) it isaffirmed. This analysisdraws on strandsof Marxian thinking which characterizemodernity in terms of a capitalismthat

'thinksus', ratherthan the reverse.As it assumestoday's gargantuan roportions,the strains t imposeson earlier habits of thoughtincreasingly how.But it sharesmuch, ronically, as somecritics (notablyTsing 2002)havenoted,with a distinctlyneo-liberalvision. For neo-liberals, lobalizations drivenby a spatially expandingand temporally contractingmarket.The political imperativesdefined by this market areunderstood,n neo-liberal circles, as being by and largebenignand a matter of technicaUadministrative ecessity.So both visions, neo-Marxian andneo-liberal, sharea view of a global market unfolding according o an nner dynamic that has,at some evel, abstracted tself from the domainof the political. And in puttingglobalizationbeyond he domainof human agency, hey both put it beyondpoliticalaccountability,dissentand,ultimately, resistance.

What arethe alternatives,and what are heir implications for music study? Well, onemight, instead, onceiveof globalizationessas a singlesystem, ncreasingly eyondourconceptual each and out of our control, andmore as a set of projectswith cultural andinstitutional specificity, projects hat construct, efer to, dream andfantasizeof, in verydiverse ways, a 'world' as heir zone of operation. n this sense,globalization' is nothing

13I have n mind, particularly,Harvey 1989and Jameson 991.


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new, thoughthe current situationaffords a greaterdegreeof sophisticationand self-consciousnessn what we might call 'scalar' thinking - in other words, how we thinkabout he relationship etweenour 'localities', our 'regions' (plusother ntermediarylevels),andour'worlds', andhow we makeconnections etweenactionsand agenciesnone level and those n others. Anna Tsing, from whom I derivemany of these houghts,demands ur attention o the "locatedspecificityof globalistdreams",which shesees smultiple, various,and often in competition with one another,but above all producedbypeople, n specifictimes,placesand nstifutional sites,acting on the world around hemwith various kinds of goals, plans,desiresand ntentions n mind (Tsing 2002).And this, in turn, pushesme away from questionsabout musical 'globalization', andtowardsquestions boutmusical cosmopolitanism',to the ocatedambitions,desiresanddreams hat situate he music we make and listen to in a 'world'. This is aterm, andsetofquestionsandproblems, hat putsat some distanceways of thinking aboutglobal musicalprocesses s a responseo, say, the space-timecompressionof late capitalism. nstead, tinvitesus to think abouthow people n specificplacesand at specific imes haveembraced he music of others,andhow, in doing so, they have enabledmusic styles andmusical ideas,musicianand musical instruments o circulate(globally) in particularways. The shift of emphasis s significant, and, n my view, highly productive.Mostimportantly, it restoreshumanagenciesandcreativities o the sceneof analysis,andallows us to think of music as a process n the making of 'worlds', rather than a passivereaction o global systems'.As Turino has ecentlysuggestedn an mportantbook (Turino 2000), he deaof musicalcosmopolitanism an sheda greatdeal of light on the well-trodden opic of musicalnationalism.Thetwo areoften held to be n somekind of tension,with nationalists t keymomentsof nation ormation reactingto henegativelyperceived cosmopolitanism'ofthe immediatelyprecedingperiod of imperial or colonial rule. And yetoas Turino showsfor Zimbabwe, ocal forms of rock andpop such as chimurenga and (later)7ir,vehicles ofnational,anti-colonialprotest,are embedded n thoroughly cosmopolitanhistories. t wasthe cosmopolitanoutlook of officials in the RhodesianBroadcastingcorporation n therelatively liberal climate of the 1950sand 1960s hat enshrined he music of the Shonambira ('thumb piano') as authenticnational culture. t was a later generationofcosmopolitan and well-traveled musicianssuchasThomasMapfumo who blended hesesoundswith the Congoleseguitar stylesandvocal protest geffes popular across he southof the continent. t takesa musical cosmopolitan, n otherwords, to developa musicalnationalism, o successfullyassert ts authenticity n a seaof competing nationalisms andauthenticities.Turino and others(seealsoRegev2007) seenationalismandcosmopolitanism smutually constructing nd reinforcingprocessesn a globalmusicalfield.The term is not without its problems,andto illustratethese, 'll turn to someMiddleEasternexamples.What does he Middle Easternmusical field look like, from acosmopolitanpoint of view? What kinds of critical distinctions anddiscriminationsdo weneed o grasp t? Turino's observations bout hecosmopolitan rocesseshatproducenational musics actually hold up well in the Middle East.The reformsproducingnational


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art musics across he entireregion were driven by people horoughly fained and schooledin westernmusic. Thus the consolidation of classical epertoriesandmodal theoreticaltraditions (notably those of dastgah and maqam/makam)proceeded,n the handsofYaziri, Arel, Darwish, Meshqata andothers, according o processeshat restedheavily onwestern(particularly Russianand French)musicalepistemologiesandmethodologies.laThis was especially so in North Africa, where such efforts took shapeunder directcolonial tutelage(Davis 2005).The art and folk music one hears oday emanating romofficial statemedia channelsowe much to theseefforts.Much lesswell known is themusic suchnationalist deologues roducedas composers,econcilingwesternconcertandMiddle Easternart musicpractice.For various easons,hesenever eally caughtonin eitherpopularor intelligentsia maginations r listeninghabits.So one might point inthe Middle East o an elite, ntelligentsia osmopolitanism, hoseprojectwasoneofgenerating ationalart and olk musics,and variousself-conscious ctsof musicalsyncretism onnectingocal contentwith 'universal'and'modern ', i.e. western,techniques.Theseprojectsdateback to the late nineteenthandearly twentieth centuries.

Onemight also abel'cosmopolitan'

a set of popularandrural practices n this period.And here, he term becomesmessy.Visiting folklorists, notably Bela Bartok on hisTurkish expeditions, aught local national ntelligentsiashow to search or and identifythe oldestandpurestarcheologicallayers' of folk practice,and o distinguish hese romurban accretionsand accumulations. n the Turkish case,Bartok was intrigued (andpassedon this senseof intrigue and mystique o his Turkish assistants) y a folk musicalprehistory that demonstrated onnectionsbetween he various groupswho had migratedtowardsEurope from CentralAsia millennia before.Their music, he argued,waspentatonic,characterized y sweepingmelodic descents, nd various quirks ofvocalization,meterand so forth. Urban influencesmediatedby local gypsiesbotheredBartok immensely, n Anatolia as n Central Europe. Generationsof folklorists in Turkeymaintain this distrust, deploring the musical cosmopolitanism read Arab influence') ofthe Anatolian cities and towns,the parasiticgypsies,and the passivity of the peasantryasthey allowed their folk heritage o drift away in the collective memory.Religiousrepertories ultivatedacross he regionamongstSufi brotherhoodswere also abeledcosmopolitann this negativesense t around his time. They were heproductofpilgrimage,slavery e.g. rom Sub-Saharan frica to the cities on the North Africancoast),settlement ndconquest e.g. he movements f Turkic and Mongolian ribes romCentralAsia to the cities of OttomanAnatolia, Safavid ran andNorthern India). Theywere also the productof ways of thinking that connected he Islamic ecumeme,deferingto antiquepoetic andmusicalmodels(qasida,medh,na'at) widely dispersedacross heIslamic world, known throughpilgrimage andtravel. The secularnationalismsof theearly twentieth century were to decry this kind of cosmopolitanismemphatically. Theclosing of the sufi lodges, andthe discreditingof their musical traditions wasenergeticallypursued n Turkey, Tunisia, and many other places.So we also need o notepopular cosmopolitanisms,historically and spiritually deeply rooted, which fell foul oftoSee, or English anguage ccounts f these igures, espectively,Nettl 1992,Stokes1992,Davis2005,and ScottMarcus' variouscontributions o Danielson,MarcusandReynolds 001.


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official statemusicalpolicies propagatedby the new conservatories nd media systems.For those associatedwith the new states,musicalcosmpolitanismwas explicitlyidentified as a problem,to be counteredby national educationaland media policy.In addition,onemustconsidermorerecent,mass-mediatedinds of musicalcosmopolitanism.Onehas nvolved musicalencountersorchestratedby prominent rockandpop stars n the west: Peter Gabriel, Brian Eno, Robert Fripp, TransglobalUnderground,Sting, NatachaAtlas and others(Stokes2002,Hesmondhalgh2000,Swedenburg2001). Though billed as exchangesandfusions,they graft exotic soundsonto a westernrock andpop musical infrastructureand assuchconstitute in my mind -a musicalprolongationof nineteenthcentury orientalism. Such s our current stateofanxiety about the Middle East, sodeeply naturalizedandunquestioneds westernIslamophobiaand the fear of Middle Easternand otherMuslim migrants n NorthAmerica andNorth Western Europethat the cultural politics of thesemusical 'exchanges'rarely attractscomment, et alonecriticism. And Gabriel, Eno, Fripp et al are seriousmusicians, fter all. Most of us are nclined o give themthebenefitof the doubt, guess.We might consider his particularkind of cosmopolitanism,hen,as appropriation ymusicalneo-orientalistsor a westernmarket n exotica.Within the Middle East,another etof cosmopolitan ultural configurations ave sprungto life in the wake of neo-liberaltransformation.Across the region this hasproducedburgeoning(but unstableand wlnerable) middle-classeswho perceive hemselvesat adistance rom the old nation-statemodernizingprojects,and search or new meansofcultural distinction.To considerTurkey onceagain, stanbul's managershave beenproudly - if with decreasing onfidence- proclaiming its statusasa global city for over adecade Keyder 1999).The ready availabllity in CD or online form of digitally re-mastered ecordings rom forgottenarchivesof art and folk music hasprovided thesemiddle classeswith new ways of articulatingtheir Turkishness,a Turkishnessnowimaginedasurbane,cosmopolitan,multi-cultural, tolerant of its minorities and(at last)on good ermswith its neighbors. his is a vision that he state's slamistmanagers avebeenable to manipulate,holding traditional and bourgeois sectors ogether n a fragileaccommodation.stanbul's multicultural musicalheritage(Muslim, Armenian, Greek,Jewish,Balkan) is being energetically ediscoveredas he city itself is, to borrow Yang'sterm, 're-cosmopolitanized'(Yang2002). Pop stars ike SezenAksu and Tarkan,blending a variety of 'global' sounds,speak o a younger generationamongst he middleclassesattunednot only to this history but a newly confident senseof Turkey's place intheworld.lsHere, too, cosmpolitanism s a contestederm. In the drabmigrant suburbsandsquattertowns hat ring this hugecity, in what Turkish sociologists ometimeseferto as he'other' Istanbul, an Istanbul oriented o the Anatolian hinterlandsand the dwindlingredistributivemechanismsof the state, he wban poor regards his cosmopolitanparfyingwith distaste.Theirs is a music - arabesk associatedwith migrant lifeways (dress,

t5On Aksu'scosmopolitanism,ecentTurkishpopularculture,andTurkey'sneo-liberalmoment, eeStokesforthcoming).


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cuisine andso forth) perceivedasauthentic,but authentic n their rootedness n ruralcultures of grief, melancholyand lament.Similar genres ook shapeacross he MiddleEast and Balkansas migrants eft their villages o seekwork in their nationalmetropolesin the 1940sand 50s,and n North WestEuropean ities n the 1960sand 70s: ai inNorth Afnca; il in Egypt, Yugoslav turbofolk andso forth. Local intelligentsias ove topoor scornon thesemusicalpractices.This is the music of identitycrisis, of diseasedmodernity, of inauthenticemotionality.Like eating ahmacun(a proletarianstreetsnack)and washing it down with whiskey, or so the Turkish intellectualssaid, arabeskmixedmusical elements particularly those of supposedArab derivation) that should not bemixed and had noplace in the modernTurkey. But cheapcassette roduction in the1970s,andthe deregulationof the massmediaby liberalizing statesmeant hat thesegenresproliferated.The intelligentsia ooked on with dismay.The musicians nvolved,though, found themselvesn positionsof unexpectedcultural prominence.So whenarabeskstar,OrhanGencebay escribed imself asa musicalcosmopolitan, e wasmocked. But he hadevery right16.He had,after all, learnedEuropeanart music fromRussianconservatory rained Crimeanrefugees n his Black Seahometown. He hadfallen in love with Elvis andthe Beatles ike most in his generation,anddevelopedhislove of jazz androck androll in the bandshe played in a studentand during his militaryservice.His knowledge of Middle Easternmusic is extensive,and impatientwith thedistinctionsand discriminations mposedby the conservatories nd the radio (Turkish orArab; folk or classical). Sowe might think of this, then, as a migrant cosmopolitanism,an oppositional osmopolitanismfrom below', in some egards.Finally, though his list of critica l distinctions s far from complete,what I would label a'Diasporic' cosmopolitanism. or example: he North African states ave consistentlyrepudiated, r, at least,downplayed, heir Saharan interlandsn establishingmodernnationaland religious dentities.All suchactsof repudiationareunstableand ncomplete,and he argeblackpopulationsof North African cities, he descendentsf slavesandpalaceservants,arecomplex sites of collective fantasy,aswell as ransmittersof sub-Saharanmusicalandritual practices. n gnawa,stambeli, andzar, for instance,Moroccans, Tunisians andEgyptians from a variety of backgrounds though often womenfrom thepoorerclasses)meetto the accompanimentof a long-necked ute, esoteric itualchantsand the chatter of theshqashiq(metalcastanettes),or the purposeofcommunicationwith troublesome pirits andhealing Langlois 1999,Iankowsky2006,Kapchan 2002).Ritual masters muallim) develop nnovative ways of imagining AfricanDiasporic musical relations,partly extending ndigenous deologies of contact,exchange,and movement(particularly as hey involve spirits and saints),andpartly reflecting theoften long-standingpresencen their lives of FrenchandAmerican world musicentrepreneurs,musicians and concert organizers.So you see he problem, I hope.On the one hand, the term cosmopolitanismdoesusefulwork for us. It helps us understandhe intellecfual formations and dispositions ofnationalist ideologuesandreformers. t points to self-consciousexercisesn musical

t6A point I argue n Stokes forthcomin ), in a chapter eviewing Gencebay'sengthyand nfluentialcareern Turkish arabesk.


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exchangeand hybridization which have absorbedmany in this musical world, and alertsus to the political work they do. It reminds us to take nto account he music of Diasporaand migrancy, which we might otherwise gnore, or dismiss, along with localintellectuals, as debased,worthless. n all cases,t alertsus to agenciesandculturalenergies, o music as an active and engagedmeansof world making not simply aresponse o forcesbeyond our control. On the other hand, t is a messy erm, onethat isusedand assertedn local struggles or prestigeandcultural authenticity. For some,cultural capital; or others,a problem to be dealtwith. Like most critical concepts, t isnot, in other words, aneatanalyticaltool.This being he case, t hasbecomedifficult to think of thecosmopolitan s alwaysandinvariably - that benign figure of liberal-enlightenmentdiscourse amiliar to us fromKant. Many would now associateosmopolitanismwith actsof acquisitiveconsumption,and the control of others.Anna Tsing puts the matter sharply: "(p)oor migrants need o fitinto the worlds of others; cosmopolitanswant more of the world to be theirs." (Tsing2002,p. 469). Our task, I think, is to assumeneither the onething, nor the other. We needto distinguishcarefully when we are using the idea of musical cosmopolitanism o define,in someanalytic sense,attitudes,dispositionsandpractices hat we might not otherwiseseeclearly from situations n which we need o seehow the term is being contestedlocally, 'on the ground'.We need o be sensitive o the subtledistinctionsanddiscriminations hat any concreteand historical situation of music world-making willgenerate.We need o be attentive o the different ways people pursuesuchprojects npositionsof relativepower from those n positionsof relativepowerlessness. learly, t isa term to be usedwith caution.To evoke 'musical cosmopolitanism' s to evoke a capacityof the musical imagination,andwith that word 'imagination', certain deas about the powers,agenciesandcreativitiesof humanbeings at this point in time. We should dwell on this idea a little,since think globalization,andmuch of what I havesaid aboutcosmopolitanismcomplicates t. The very facts that prompt us to talk about globalization oday,namelycheapdigital sound eproduction and theproliferation of small information technologies,deepen he experientialconnectionsbetweenmusic andthe broader sensoriumofglobalizedmodernity,particularly he mage still or moving). The ideaof 'the musicalimagination' derives rom an age n which 'absolute'concertmusicconstituted hecultural deal, and n which, as Walter Pateronceput it, all of the arts aspiredto theconditionof music' . That age s gone,even hough occasionally hink I hearechoes fPater's expression n the work of cultural theorists ike Paul Gilroy and Iain Chambers.The musical imagination is somethingwe necessarilyhave to think of in terms of multi-media technologythesedays, and the broad cultural prioritization of the visual, theimage,the spectacle.And yet it begs mportant questions.Do musical practices ravelacross he globe in ways unlike, say, iterary genres?Or cinema?Or cuisine? Or fashion?Or architectural ractices?Or okes?Do musicalcosmopolitans ave o account or thesedifferences,hesepeculiarities?This is a huge, but interesting,question.Sohuge, n fact, that it is hard to know where tostart.Discussionsabout the globalizationof film, literature, cinema,architectureand


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cuisinehaveusually takenplace n discretedisciplinary spaces,nvolving quite differentmethodsof study and the framing of questions.Socomparisonsarehard to make. But letme consider he upshotof some ecent debates hat haverun across he pagesof the NewLeft Review n recentyearsconcerning he globalizationof literary genres". I find themextremelythoughtprovoking. In the first instance, he focus on the novel locates n spaceand ime themovements f aparadigmatically'universal'gen-re,hough one alsohabituallyand exclusivelyconsideredn termsof national raditions thecontradictionatplay here s, of course, ital). National iteratureswere ormed on the basisof a modelcreatedn Germany ate n the eighteenth entury,Casanova uggestsCasanova 005).Since hen, habits of scholarlythought have essentializedhe forms, and assumedheircongruencewith national and inguistic boundaries.The transnationalcirculation ofliterary forms, particularly in translation,has beenhabitually ignored.Thesehabitsofthought, Casanova tatesbluntly, "screen out the real effects of literary domination andinequality" (2005, p. 78), effects that canonly be productively understood rom a globalperspective.For 'domination and nequality' therecertainly is. Casanova'sstrawman is CarlosFuentes,whose contrarysuggestion, n his Geographyof the Novel, goesas ollows:"The old Eurocentrism asbeenovercome y a polycentrismwhich... should ead us toan 'activationof differences'as he commoncondition of a centralhumanity... Goethe'sworld literafure has finally found its correct meaning: t is the literature of difference, henarrationof diversity converging n one world... A singleworld, with numerous oices.The new constellations hat together orm the geographyof the novel are variedandmutating."(Fuentes1993,cited and ranslated y Casanova, 005,p. 88)When one considers he mediatingrole of the English language "English in culture, likethedollar in economics"), hegloballynear-sovereignole of the Nobel Prize orliterature(how many peoplehad heardof Orhan Pamuk before last year,I wonder?), helong history of peripheral and semi-peripheral' innovationsbeing appropriatedandmarketedby the centers Moretti 2003 cites as examples he picaresque,epistolarynovels,captivity narratives,melodrama), he crucial role of mediators and nfluentialtranslators n the centersof political andeconomicpower (Casanova2005 mentionsHugo's championingof Scott,Shaw's of Ibsen,Gide's of Taha Hussein),sucha benignview of literary globalization s hard to sustain.The circulation of texts in the literaryworld would seem o work relentlessly o maintain its centersof power and nfluence, tsdependent eripheries nd ts zonesof mediation.

tt The debatehas nvolved, most conspicuously, rancoMoretti, PascaleCasanova,ChristopherPrendergast, frain Kristal, Francesca rsini, JonathanAtac, Emily Apterand JaleParla. refer here,specifically, o Moretti 2003and 2006,and o Casanova 005,mainly for manageability of reference,but alsobecause think they sumup the mainoutlines of the discussion,at least or my purposeshere.1 t


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This raises, hirdly, the matter of how one might relate he literary map of centers,peripheries,semi-peripheriesand sub-systemso the political and economic domain.Here, the main protagonistsof the discussionhavebeen emphatic: here s no simple,one-to-one elationship,at least, at the level of detail. Thus, the mobility of Frenchnarrative n the later nineteenthcentury,of German ragedy n the early eighteenthcentury, of the Petrarchansonnet n the late sixteenthcentury, owe little to the politicaland economicpower of France,Germanyand Italy at theseparticularmoments.Quite thereverse.Thoughquickly co-optedby the centers, emi-peripher iesRussia, reland,America) have been mportant sites of formal innovation.Literary sub-systems,ikeLatin-America, constitutean exception,with powerful dynamics all of their own, neverentirely co-opted and appropriatedby the core (for all the power of, for instance, heNobel committee n this regard).Casanova uggestswe think, then, n terms of worldliterature as a 'structure' rather than a 'system', the latter implying directly interactiverelationshipsbetween eachelement,which reinstate he hierarchy at each urn. Theformer, which sheprefers, permitszonesof relative autonomy within a global field ofliterary relationships.This debate s full of provocations eculiar o theworld of comparativeiteraturestudiesnot all of which needpreoccupy s here.And I certainlydon't want to suggest hat (asoften is the case,andnot necessarilydetrimentally)musicologists should feel the need ofollow the fashions of literary theory in this instance.Quite the reverse: iterature studieshave been slow out of the gateon the matter of globalization.Literary critical habits ofclosereading have nhibited efforts to conceptualizebroaderpatternsof movement,circulation, distributionl8.But there are hings we might ponder.Ethnomusicologicalaccountsof globalizationhavetended o focus on the circulation of African musicsaround he Atlantic, and a few otherparadigmaticcasesof musical migrancy (notably rai,on which there s a quite alarge literature). n other words, apopular and vernacular ieldof music-making.How to integrate

historicalmusicology', .e. those aditions ofstudiesdevoted o western art music into a broaderaccountof globalization?What of theglobalizationof the symphony, he sonata, he operaand he oratorio?Historicalmusicologyhasseldom to thebestof my knowledge embraced he challenge fthinking of canonical tems of repertory andparadigmatichistorical turning pointsoutside heir national domain and in a moreglobal contextle.

We might alsoponder,with our literary colleagues,how languageaffects the globalcirculation of musical geffes, and how we might think about music in a global field oftranslation The enormouscommerce n literary translationsacrossand beyond Europehas been nvisible to literary scholarsuntil relatively recently. Thepicture at the momentseemso be that they connect centersandperipheries,and only rarely peripherieswithone another.The musical picture looks very similar. The concerto orm in the Middler8Moretti (who thinks 'closereading' is a problem in this regard) and Prendergastwhothinks it is indispensable) lashsharply on this issue.leI shouldquickly register he exceptions,at least, hoseknown to me, notably in colonialLatin America (an emergentand mportant areaof study in the handsof scholarssuch asDrew Davies and Bernardo llari) and the British raj (seeWoodfield 2000).

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East to think of FeridAlnar's Kanun ConcertoandAziz al-Shawan'sPianoConcerto,roughly contemporarymid twentiethcentury compositions rom Turkey and Egyptregpectively)s the resultof parallelorientations o Europe,and not to oneanother.Tangocirculatedaround he world as a result i rstly of its being adopted n Paris, n the earlyyearsof the twentieth century, and, ater, assentimentalsong via CarlosGardelandHollywood. Colonization constitutedan important field of musical translation,circulatingsounds rom the colonial peripheriesvia the colonial metropolis. A fascinationwithHawaiian music (and the 'Hawaiian' guitar) accompanied he Japaneseand the powerfulJapaneseecording industry) in their early twentieth-centurycolonizationsandoccupations,mparting a distinctly Hawaiian sound o the textures of Javanesevoncong,a popular geffe actually connected n the minds of most Indonesians oday with urbanlife underPortugueseand Dutch colonial ru1e.20The idea hat he movementof translationss structured y colonial or neo-colonial ieldsof power, moving from peripheries o centersandfrom there o other peripheries,willprobably not surprisemost ethnomusicologistsif by 'translations'we are o understandvariouskinds of overt

'versionizing'or appropriation).But one canpursue he issueoftranslation urther. Recent iterary theory is currentlyquestioninga variety of

assumptions bout he ontologicalprimacy of 'originals' consideredn a field oftranslations. n a global market, originals may be producedwith translation n mind, andthus, n a sense, lreadybe 'translated'at thepoint of origin2l.And translations ot onlylive their own life, but impingeon theway the 'originals' are read andunderstood.Literary translationsare not simply 'versionsof an original set of meanings, hen, but indialoguewith them.Might one consider he circulationof musicalgeffes n a similar ight?The globaltranslatabilityof tango,assentimental ong n the 1920sand 30s would be a well-studiedcase n point (Savigliano1991,Taylor 1998,Collier 1986).They were, t would seem,particularly resonant n societiesalso experiencingmodernity in termsof pain,dislocation andmelancholy,also exploring populist modernisms.But these ango'translations'becameentangledwith the lives of the Argentine originals in powerful anddestabilizingways. Marta Saviglianohints at the ways in which the global circulation oftango impacted on processes nderway n Argentina, where elites were seekingways of'o I am grateful to Dave Novak for this observation.tt One would oftenhearOrhanPamuk criticized in exactly these erms in Turkey, aboutten yearsago,when his growing reputation n Europe was beginning to be noticed:it waswritten, onewould hear,with an eye and ear to translation,andwith 'foreigners'predispositions owards Turkey in mind, and thus s not really 'Turkish' literature. This isnot, actually, a goodexampleof what I am trying to describe.Pamuk's Turkish literaryantecedents re easy o establish Yahya Kemal, Ahmet Hamdi Tanpinar and many othersspring to mind), and thecritique implied is small minded, at least rom a literary point ofview. But it does ouch on an important issue.For somebody rom theperipheryattempting o establishcredentials n the literary center, he questionof translationmustbe built into the enterprise rom the outset.The translation, n a sense, recedesheoriginal.

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subordinating ts more overt African elements particularly alive, she suggestsn itsdanced orms), and orienting it towards bourgeois ather than subalternpleasures.Onecanthink of other examplesand explore the idea of musical translation n different ways,of course.But the idea that we might keep broader,global, structuresof circulation inmind when consideringversions and copies n specific local fields is, I think, animportant one,one that can be extended ar beyond he African diaspora,where t doeshave some critical purchase note, n particularFeld 2000b).We might also learn something aboutthepracticesof musical cosmopolitanism f wewere to take more note of dance.Somewherealong the line, the study of dancewasrelegated o the byways of academicmusicology.Academicethnomusicology,o itsshame, as compoundedhe problem,confining he studyof dance o special nterestgroups n its professional rganizations, nd eavingdancescholars o sink or swim. Thequestionof globalization or, as am rephrasing t, 'musicalcosmopolitanism') s onethat should, n my emphaticview, pushdance ssuesback to the center of things.For indancewe see,with a certain amount of clarity, something hat should also(but oftendoesn't) give us pause or thought when we think aboutmusical circulation. This is thecirculation of dancepractices and the music attached o them) acrosscultural boundarieswhere many other things come abruptly to a halt. Consider,briefly, the quadrille and hepolka in this regard.Therearesomeobviousvectorsof transmission,n both cases. hequadrille, a dance nvolving geometrical igures and small groups, raveled with colonialelites n the New World during the eighteenthcentury when it was fashionable nWesternEurope. From there, t radiated acrosscolonial space,assumingsubtly differentmeaningsand attaching tself to diverseperformancestyles(though, interestingly,broadly similar musical forms) amongstAfrican slavesand their descendentskompasdirek in Haiti, Averill 1997),amongstcreole elites(meretrgu,Austerlitz 1997), andamongstcolonized ndigenouspopulations(matachines,Rodriguez 1996). The polka, abroadly sharedcentralEuropeancoupledancepractice,was adoptedby westernEuropeanelites and thenpopular classes;with Central Europeansettlement n NorthAmerica it found a new home as a popular practice n the Great Lakes region, and nareasof intenseMexican/Gerrnannteraction n partsof Texas and north-westernMexico(Simonett2001).A very greatmany of this continent'spopularmusicsfylesowe theircurrentshapeand orm to one or anotherofthese dancepractices.In both cases,what strikesme is, firstly, how rapidly dance orms travel, and howunobtrusively,yet systematically,musical styles are attached.As ethnomusicologiststhinking about musical globalizationwe miss out on a greatdeal, t seems o me, whenwe ignore dance. I seeno end o thisunfortunate endency f ours.)And, secondly,I"mstruck by the somewhat imited nature of explanations hat would interpretthehemispheric spreadof quadrillesandpolkas,for instance,purely in terms of empire,colonization, migration, settlementand so forth. Obviously, thesedanceswere learnedand transmittedunder theseparticular and specific historical andpolitical conditions. Butwhy so quickly, and so deeply?And why with such acility over such ntense ines ofantagonismand conflict? Could music and dancemove, I find myself wondering,according o an nterior ogic, and not, simply, he ogic of socialmovementandpolitics?Could t be thatdancedor musical orm getspickedup by anothersocietysimply because


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of a humanfascination or the diversity of form, particularly forms that embody or indexsatisfyingandpleasurableocialprocesses? r society-constitutingontradictions e.g.asJaneCowansuggests,he 'look at me/don't ook at me' that constitutesemalesubjectivitiesn rural Greekdance;Cowan 1990XDon't thesekinds of thing alsodrawus to 'other' music and dance,more often, perhaps, han the pursuit of distinction (thoughwe frequently usemusic and dance or suchpurposes),or of identity (ditto)?Onewould need o find the right languagehere, obviously. But this formulation, clumsythough it is, opens he door to somequite challenging, and, o the best of my knowledge,hitherto unasked,questions.How are forms embodying or indexing satisfying andpleasurable ocialprocesses'dentified as suchacross ultural boundaries? ow they arebroken down into grammaticalelementsandquickly learnable and fransmissibleunits?How do they connectwith submergedor, perhaps, epressedbecausedeemedchildish,or sexually ambivalent) repertoriesof pleasureandplayfulness n the host society?According o what socialprocesses re hey sanctioned, r tolerated,or locatedas ntense(if, possibly,shameful)socialpleasures? uchquestions uickly suggest hemselveswhen we contemplate he global spreadof dance styles, rom the quadrille and the polkato the tangoand he Macarena and or a Middle Eastern ngle,consider belly dancing',raqs sharqi).Thesedances re attached o musicalstyles hat travel with them and areco-constituent f thebodily practicesnvolved.But similarquestionsmight be raisedof ahost of globallytravelingmusical echniques,hat we might alsoconsideraskinds ofmobile embodimenf:westAfrican bell-patterns, frican American and Afro-Caribbeanriffing andrapping,solo modal (maqam) mprovisation in the Balkans,MediterraneanandMiddle East, he timbre-rich droning of Australian aboriginalmusic, the colotomic(phrasemarking) practicesof Javanese amelan, he vocal breaks andyodeling ofAmericanCountrymusic,Anglo-Celtic igging and reeling.The list could be extended.

To conclude:musicalcosmopolitans reatemusicalworlds andnew musical anguages,but they do so within systemsof circulation that determine o a large extent what isavailable o them and how (and n which direction) musical elementsmove. Musicalcosmoplitanismmay well be understood,n the ight of the observations bove,as heproduct of certainkinds of intentionality and agency,which we might appropriatelyunderstandpolitically and culturally. But to neglect he element of pleasureandplay inthe global circulation of musicalpracticewould, it seems o me, also be to make a seriousmistake. f we were to embrace heseelementsmore fully, we might extendourunderstandingof 'the political' and'the cultural' in useful and interestingways. And,more narrowly,we might gainfreshangleson'world music', and he processes ndpracticesof musicalcosmopolitanism.Langlois,Tony 1999.HeardBut Not Seen:Music Among the AissawaWomenof Oujda,Morocco.Music and Anthropology4,httn //www. evi.provincia.'enezia.tlrualindexinumber4r'langloi/lan 0.htmAllen R, Wilken L, eds. t998.Island Sounds n the Global City: Caribbean PopularMusic and Identitv in New lorfr. New York: New York Folklore Society.


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Aparicio F. 2000. Ethnifying Rhythms,FeminizingCultures. nMusic and theRacialImagination,ed. R Radano,P Bohlman,95-II2. Chicago:The University of ChicagoPress.AppaduraiA.2002. Disjunctureand Difference n the GlobalCulturalEconomy. nTheAnthropolog,tof Globalization,ed. J. Inda and R. Rosaldo,46-64.Oxford: Blackwell.AusterlitzP.1997 Merengue:DominicanMusic and Dominican denti4r.Philadelphia:TempleUniversity Press.Bohlman PV. 1991.Representation ndCulturalCritique n the History ofEthnomusicology. n ComparativeMusicologt and Anthropologt of Music, ed. B. Nettland PV Bohlman.Chicago:The Universityof ChicagoPress.Bohlman PV. 1996.Pilgrimage, Politics, and the Musical Remappingof the New Europe.In Ethnomusicologt40 (3): 375-412.Broughton,S, Ellingham,M, Trillo R., eds.1999.llrorld Music: TheRough Guide,Volumes and 2 of theNew Edition. London: The Rough GuidesBroughton, S.,Ellingham, M, Muddyman D, Trillo R, eds. 1994.World Music: TheRough Guide.London: The Rough Guides.Brusila J. 2003. 'Local Music, Not From Here': TheDiscourse of World MusicExamined Through ThreeZimbabwean CaseStudies: TheBhundhuBoys, VirginiaMukweshaand Sunduzc.Helsinki: Finnish Society or EthnomusicologyPublications10.

Casanova, . 2005.Literature sa World In NewLeft Review3I: 7I-90.Collier, S. 1986.The Life, Music and Timesof Carlos Gardel. Pittsburgh: The Universityof PittsburghPress.Cowan,J. 1990.Dance and The Body Politic in Northern Greece.Princeton: PrincetonUniversity Press.Danielson,V., S.Marcusand D. Reynolds Eds).2002.TheGarlandEncyclopediaofWorld Music, vol. 6: TheMiddle Easf. New York: Garland.Davis, Ruth. 2004.Ma'luf: Reflections n theArab AndalusianMusic of Tunisia.LanhamMD: Scarecrow.Erlmann Y. 1999.Music, Modernity and the Global Imagination, Oxford. OxfordUniversity PressEyre B. 2000 n Griot Time: An American Guitarist in Mali. Philadelphia:TempleUniversitv Press.


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Farrell,G. 1997.IndianMusicand heWest.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.Feld,S.2000a. Sweet ullaby or WorldMusic. n PublicCulture12 l): 145-17lFeldS.2000b. hePoetics ndPolitics f PygmyPop. n Western usicqnd ts Others:Difference,RepresentationndAppropriationn Music, ed.G. Born andD.Hesmondhalgh,p. 280-304. erkeley:Universityof CaliforniaPress.Frith S.2000.TheDiscourse f World Music. n Western usicand tsOthers:Difference,RepresentationndAppropriation n Music, ed.G. Born andD.Hesmondhalgh:05-22. erkeley: niversity f CaliforniaPress.GilroyP. 1993.TheBlackAtlantic:Modernity ndDoubleConsciousl?ess.ondon:Verso.Gronow,P.andB. Englund.2007InventingRecorded usic:TheRecorded epertoirein Scandanavia899-1925.Inopular usic26(2):281-304.Gross ,McMurrayD, Swedenburg. 2003.Arab NoiseandRamadan ights.Rai, RapandFranco-Maghrebidentities.nTheAnthropolog,tf Globalization,d.J. ndaandR.Rosaldo:98-230.Oxford:Blackwell.Guilbault . with Averill G, BenoitE, Rabess , 1993. ouk: WorldMusic n theWestIndies.Chicago: heUniversity f Chicago ress.Harvey,D. 1989.TheConditionofPostmodernity. ambridgeMA: Blackwell.Hesmondhalgh,. 2000.nternationalimes:Fusions, xoticisms ndAnti-RacismnElectronicDanceMusic. nWesternMusic and itsOthers:Dffirence, RepresentationandAppropriationn Music,ed.G.BornandD. Hesmondhalgh,p.280-304. erkeley:Universityof CaliforniaPressJankowsky, . 2005.Music,Possessionnd heRacialized ody n Tunisia.nEthnomusicologyJameson. 1991Postmodernism,r TheCultural ogic of LateCapitalism. urham:DukeUniversityPress.KapchanD.2002. Possessing nawaCulture:DisplayingSound,CreatingHistory n anUnofficialMuseum.n Music andAnthropology ,www.musp .unibo. tlper odlma/ ndex/numb 7 ma indl .htmKeyder, C, ed. 2002.Istanbul: BetweenGlobal andLocal, LanhamLittlefield.

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Langlois T. 1999.Heardbut Not Seen:Music Among AissawaWomen of Oujda,Morocco.Music and Anthropologt 4.www. levi.provincia.venezia.itJ alindex/number4/langlois/lang0.htmLocke RP. Constructinghe Oriental Other': Saint-Saens's amson t Dalila. InCambridgeOperaJournal 3 (3): 261 302.MeintjesL. 1990.PaulSimon'sGraceland,SouthAfrica, and he Mediationof MusicalMeaning.hl Ethnomusicology4 (1): 37-73.Meintjes L.2oo3 Soundof Africa Making Music Zulu in a SouthAfrican Studio.Durham: Duke University Press.Monson, .1999. Riffs, RepetitionandGlobalization.InEthnomusicologta3 (1): 3l-65.Moretti, F. 2003. More Conjectures.n New Left Review20.Moretti, F. 2006.The End of the Beginning. n NewLeft Review41.Nettl B. 1992.TheRadif of Persian Culture: Studiesof Structure and Cultural Context nthe Music of lran. Champaign-Urbana:Elephant and Cat.Obelkevich MR. 1977. Turkish Affect in the Land of the SunKing. TheMusicalQuarterly63 (3): 367-389.Pacini-HernandezD. 1995Bachata:A SocialHistory of a Dominican Popular Music.Philadelphia:TempleUniversity Press.Regev,M. 2007 Cultural Uniqueness ndAestheticCosmopolitanism.lnEuropeanJournal of SocialTheory 10(1): 123-138.Rodriguez,S. 1996.TheMatachinesDance: Ritual Symbolism nd InterethnicRelationsin the Upper Rio Grande Valley. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.Said,E. 1.978.Orientalism.New York: Pantheon.SaviglianoM. 1995.Tangoand thePolitical Economyof Passion.Boulder:Westview.Schade-PoulsenM. 1999Men and Popular Music in Algeria: TheSocial SignificanceofRai. Austin: The University of TexasPress.Slobin,M. 1993.SubculturalSounds:Micromusicsof the West,Hanover:University ofWesleyanPress.StokesM. L992.TheArabesk Debqte: Music and Musicians in Modern Turkev.Oxford:Clarendon.

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StokesM. 2002.Silver Sounds n the Inner Citadel:Reflections on Islam andMusicology.Inlnterpreting Islam, ed.H. Donnan,London: Sage:167-189.StokesM. (forthcoming) TheRepublic of Love: Transformationsof Intimacy in TurkishPopular Music.Swedenburg . 2001. slamic Hip-Hop vs. Islamophobia:Aki Nawaz,NatachaAtlas,Akhenaton.In GlobalNoise:Rap andHip-Hop Outside he USA,ed.T Mitchell: 57-85.Middleton: WesleyanUniversity Press.Sweeney,P.1992. The Virgin Directory of WorldMusic. New York: Henry Holt.Taylor, J. 1998.Paper Tangos.DurhamNC: DukeUniversity Press.Taylor, T. 2003. A Riddle Wrapped n a Mystery: TransnationalMusic SamplingandEnigma'sReturnto Innocence". n Music and Technoculture d. R. Lysloff and L. GayJr.,pp. 64-92.Middletown: WesleyanUniversityPress.Turino T. 2000. Nationalists,Cosmopalitans, nd PopularMusic in Zimbabwe,Chicago:University of ChicagoPress.Woodfield, I. 2000.Music of the Raj A Social and Economic History of Music in LateEighteenth CenturyAnglo-Indian Society.Oxford: Oxford University Press.Yang, Mayfair Mei-Hui. 2003 Mass Media and Transnational Subjectivity in Shanghai:Notes on (Re) Cosmopolitanization n a Chinese Metropolis. In The Anthropology ofGlobalizqtion,ed.J. Inda and R. Rosaldo:325-349.Oxford: Blackwell.

Bio. Mart in Stokes s University Lecturer n Ethnomusicology nd Fellow of St. John'sCollege at Oxford University. He is the author and editor of various volumes, includingThe Arabesk Debate (OUP 1992), Ethnicity, Identity and Music (Berg 1994), CelticModern (with Phil Bohlman) (Scarecrow2003) and (forthcoming) The Republic of Love:Transformations of Intimacy in Turkish Popular Music. He is currently working on abiographyof Abd al-Halim Hafrz with Joel Gordon.

M Stokes - Cosmopolitanism

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