learning Learning and Teaching in HE (core module)

PGCAP, University of Salford

aims

To discuss how people learn

Introduce major learning theories

objectives

Discuss how people learn

Discuss major theories in education

What is learning?

Write a definition

understanding theory through boxes...

understanding theory through boxes...

learning, a definition

Driscoll (2000) defines learning as “a persisting change in human performance or performance potential…[which] must come about as a result of the learner‟s experience and interaction with the world” (p.11).

Driscoll, M. (2000). Psychology of Learning for Instruction. Needham Heights, MA, Allyn & Bacon.

4 stages of learning

•you know what you know

•you don‟t have to think what you are doing

•you know what you don‟t know

•you don‟t know what you don‟t know

unconscious incompetence

conscious incompetence

conscious competence

unconscious competence

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4 stages of learning

Unconscious incompetence - This basically means that you

don't know what you don't know.

Conscious incompetence - This is where the learner is aware

that s/he does not know something or can learn something new.

Put more plainly, you realize that you are not as expert as perhaps

you thought.

Conscious competence - This is where you have to think about a

task or exercise in order to complete it correctly.

Unconscious competence - Eventually you reach a point where

you no longer have to think about what you are doing in order to

complete it correctly. True experts often do things very well without

thinking about it.

Learning Power

What is it?

How can we nurture it in the classroom and beyond?

How does learning power relate to values?

Double Helix of Learning (McGettrick 2002)

Knowledge

skills and

understanding

Attitudes,

values,

feelings,

dispositions,

motivations

Values carried in the relationships of life

◦ with self

◦ with others

◦ with an O/other

Holding it all together

Learning Power

Curriculum and Assessment Practices

Pedagogy

Institutional Ethos

Worldviews and

Traditions

Home, Family and Community

Cultural Tools

Peer Culture

Self-regulation

Goal Orientation

Interest

Sense of Self

As Learner

Effort

Dispositions Locus of

Control

Self-efficacy

Skills and Capacities

Awareness Self Esteem

factor analysis: what impacts on learning?

the 7 dimensions of learning power

str

ength

Changing and Learning

Meaning Making

Critical Curiosity

Creativity

Learning Relationships

Strategic Awareness

Resilience

weakness

Being Stuck and Static

Data Accumulation

Passivity

Being Rule Bound

Isolation & Dependence

Being Robotic

Fragility & Dependence

facilitating/inhibiting learner centredness

facilitating Belief & professional

vision

positive classroom culture

collaborative teaching

positive relationships

professional dialogue & choice

golden moments

being empowered as a professional

inhib

itin

g Covering the

curriculum

results and targets

performance management

workload

large numbers of students

OFSTED

large numbers of classes in week

lack of time

lack of know how

about learning theories

provide the vocabulary and a conceptual framework

for interpreting the examples of learning that we

observe

suggest where to look for solutions to practical

problems

from transmission…

to constructing…

to co-constructing...

knowledge today

The “half-life of knowledge” is the time span from

when knowledge is gained to when it becomes

obsolete. Half of what is known today was not

known 10 years ago. The amount of knowledge in

the world has doubled in the past 10 years and is

doubling every 18 months according to the

American Society of Training and Documentation

(ASTD). To combat the shrinking half-life of

knowledge, organizations have been forced to

develop new methods of deploying instruction.” Source: http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism.htm

Shelf life

“The shelf life of information is now so short that knowing where to find information is more valuable than knowing any particular piece of information.” (p. 10) Source: Mason, R (2008) Chapter 1: Social networking as an educational tool, in: Mason, R, E-learning and social networking handbook: resources for higher education, Routledge, p.1-24

Trends in learning

Many learners will move into a variety of different, possibly unrelated

fields over the course of their lifetime. Informal learning is a significant aspect of our learning experience.

Formal education no longer comprises the majority of our learning. Learning now occurs in a variety of ways – through communities of practice, personal networks, and through completion of work-related tasks.

Learning is a continual process, lasting for a lifetime. Learning and work related activities are no longer separate. In many situations, they are the same.

Technology is altering (rewiring) our brains. The tools we use define and shape our thinking.

The organization and the individual are both learning organisms. Increased attention to knowledge management highlights the need for a theory that attempts to explain the link between individual and organizational learning.

Many of the processes previously handled by learning theories (especially in cognitive information processing) can now be off-loaded to, or supported by, technology.

Know-how and know-what is being supplemented with know-where (the understanding of where to find knowledge needed).

Behaviourism Cognitivism

Humanism Constructivism

Socio-constructivism

Connectivism

Gestalt Theory Communities

of practice

transmission of knowledge

filling empty buckets

Pavlov: behaviourism

Behaviourism is a theory of animal and human learning that only

focuses on objectively observable behaviours

Learning is an acquisition of new behaviour through

conditioning.

Stimulus-response

Learner is passive

Uses reinforcement techniques (positive and negative)

constructing knowledge

learner is actively engaged in the formation of ideas.

constructing knowledge

experiential, based on previous knowledge

sense-making in naturally embedded activities (active learning) and problem-solving

authentic tasks in a meaningful context

constructing and re-constructing through personal experience

Piaget: constructivism

development comes before learning focus on human cognitive development (children) through adaptation and organisation Just being exposed to something new doesn‟t mean we will change, there will be resistances Changes are conceptual Knowledge expands and widens from within Building knowledge structures through progressive internalization of actions based on previous knowledge and experience

Papert: constructionism

Building knowledge structures through progressive internalization of actions (constructivism) focus on learning through making, less on cognitive potential – „diving-in approach‟ how ideas get formed and transformed within a context worked out by individual minds through reflection on experience situated and pragmatic self-directed learning

Vygotsky: socio-constructivism

learning comes before development

co-constructing knowledge within a community or culture

learning as a dialogical process

the connection between people

collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation

Etienne Wenger: communities of practice

Old concept, new name

Communities of practice are groups of people who share a concern or a passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly.

Etienne Wenger: communities of practice, 3 characteristics

The domain: A community of practice is not merely a club of friends or a network of

connections between people. It has an identity defined by a shared domain of

interest. Membership therefore implies a commitment to the domain, and therefore

a shared competence that distinguishes members from other people.

The community: In pursuing their interest in their domain, members engage in joint

activities and discussions, help each other, and share information. They build

relationships that enable them to learn from each other.

The practice: A community of practice is not merely a community of interest--people

who like certain kinds of movies, for instance. Members of a community of practice

are practitioners. They develop a shared repertoire of resources: experiences,

stories, tools, ways of addressing recurring problems—in short a shared practice.

This takes time and sustained interaction.

Siemens: connectivism

Connectivism is the integration of principles explored by chaos, network, and complexity and self-organization theories. Learning is a process that occurs within nebulous environments of shifting core elements – not entirely under the control of the individual. Learning (defined as actionable knowledge) can reside outside of ourselves (within an organization or a database), is focused on connecting specialized information sets, and the connections that enable us to learn more are more important than our current state of knowing. Connectivism is driven by the understanding that decisions are based on rapidly altering foundations. New information is continually being acquired. The ability to draw distinctions between important and unimportant information is vital. The ability to recognize when new information alters the landscape based on decisions made yesterday is also critical.

Siemens: connectivism, principles

• Learning and knowledge rests in diversity of opinions. • Learning is a process of connecting specialized nodes or information

sources. • Learning may reside in non-human appliances. • Capacity to know more is more critical than what is currently known • Nurturing and maintaining connections is needed to facilitate continual

learning. • Ability to see connections between fields, ideas, and concepts is a

core skill. • Currency (accurate, up-to-date knowledge) is the intent of all

connectivist learning activities. • Decision-making is itself a learning process. Choosing what to learn

and the meaning of incoming information is seen through the lens of a shifting reality. While there is a right answer now, it may be wrong tomorrow due to alterations in the information climate affecting the decision.

today and tomorrow?

“The pipe is more important than the content within the pipe.

Our ability to learn what we need for tomorrow is more

important than what we know today. A real challenge for any

learning theory is to actuate known knowledge at the point of

application. When knowledge, however, is needed, but not

known, the ability to plug into sources to meet the

requirements becomes a vital skill. As knowledge continues

to grow and evolve, access to what is needed is more

important than what the learner currently possesses.”

Siemens, G. (2004) Connectivism, A learning theory for the digital age, available at http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism.htm

Learning theories

Theories are best understood in their historical context.

They reflect the social „climate‟ or current thinking at the time of their popularity.

They first developed after the industrialisation when „schools‟ appeared and „formal‟ teaching began.

Learning theories

There are two perspectives on how people learn most effectively:

Psychological Social emphasis on the emphasis on the individual social context „situated‟

Learning theories- psychological

Behaviourism

Cognitivism

Humanism

Gestalt

Behaviourism

Behaviourism

Based on stimulus response (S-R)

Dominant theory in the 19th century

Based on application of science to

Observable, measurable behaviour

Why the popularity?

Pavlov (Russian physicist 1849-1936)

Behaviourists

Pavlov – (1849-1936) Russian physicist – experiments with dogs -conditioned reflexes - conditioning

Neo-behaviourists

Skinner FB 1904 - 1990

Skinner – known for experiments with rats.

Rejected reflex as the only source of behaviour – recognised feelings as existing but not as causes of behaviour

Skinner’s box

J B Watson 1878-1958 nature v nurture debate

‘Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.’

Behaviourism: Discuss!

A scientific approach is based on structure and measurement.

What sort of teaching is a behaviourist approach likely to encourage?

How does behaviourism still influence teaching?

Main contributions

Teacher-centred Aims & outcomes Schemes of work Lesson plans Feedback and reward systems Grading seen as important –

measurability paramount

Criticisms

What do you think would be the criticisms of this approach?

„reductive‟ – humans are more complex than animals.

Cognitivism

Cognitivism

Mid 20th century - A rejection of behaviourism in favour of a theory based on the principle that learning occurs through logically presented information in which the learner organises information received and makes sense of it.

Cognitivism

Used the analogy of the brain as a computer – people are able to sort and sift information and add it to previous knowledge

Popular late 50‟s early ‟60‟s

Why?

Cognitivism

Dewey (1859-1952 Chair of Philosophy) Education is „intelligent action‟ Learning is based on meaning The classroom cannot be separated from

the environment of which it is a part. „Education is not a mere means to life.

Education is a life’

Cognitivism

Dewey

Library cataloguing system

Enquiry based learning

Problem solving

Learning outcomes which privilege thinking skills

Cognitivism

How do you feel about this theory?

What might the criticisms of this theory be?

Another example of reductionism – human beings are more complex than machines

Humanism

Humanism

Also a reaction to behaviourism

Saw learners as „whole people‟ therefore needs and feelings important to the process of learning

Popular ‟60‟s and early „70‟s

Humanism

Developed in 1960‟s America as a reaction against behaviourism

Maslow (1890-1970)(hierarchy of needs)

Carl Rogers (also influential in counselling)

Scientific approach „sterile & dehumanising‟ – people should be viewed as „whole beings‟

Maslow

Carl Rogers 1902- 1987

Teacher as „facilitator’

Concept of „readiness to learn’

How useful are these concepts in your work?

Gestalt

Gestalt

Gestalt means pattern or structure The theory is concerned with perception Also known as „insight learning‟ The „eureka‟ phenomenon Teachers must structure learning so that

learners reach an understanding and overview of the whole.

Gestalt

German word for pattern or structure

Stressed the importance of learner perception of the overall pattern.

Process:

1. Learner explores and defines problem

2. Incubates

3. Illumination – Eureka

What do you see?

What do you see?

What do you see?

What do you see?

Young girl or old woman?

Gestalt

How useful is a concept?

Learning theories

Which of the theories we‟ve looked at most approximate to yours?

Which of the theories we‟ve examined do you find most convincing?

Social learning theories

Social learning theories

This body of theorists reject the individual focus of the preceding theories.

The emphasis is on how people learn in communal or community settings.

Vygotsky Lave & Wenger

Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development:

Situated learning

Lave & Wenger‟s „Communities of practice‟ People absorb the practices, attitudes and beliefs of the community they want to join.

They learn „how to be‟ something – teacher, doctor, dancer.

Develop language, stance etc. initially through peripheral involvement.

Links to learning theories

Novice

Advanced

beginner

Competent

performer

Proficient

performer

Expert Behaviourist

Cognitivist

Rule based learning

Situated learning

Humanist

Gestalt

… education was a sieve. The weaker students were „seived out‟ and they left the classroom for the world of work, while the able students were retained for the next level. „Drop outs‟ were planned for, and seen not just as inevitable but as desirable. Put bluntly, the aim was to discover those who could not cope, and get rid of them.

Once learners were thought to have a genetic disposition for learning, or not, which was measured by their „IQ‟. This placed an upper limit on their possible achievement. Some students were thought to reach their „ceiling‟ after which further teaching would be in vain. This is no longer thought to be the case. Experts on the brain and on learning now stress that everyone can learn more, if they are taught appropriately, whatever they have previously achieved. A vivid illustration of this is provided by the work of Professor Reuven Feuerstein (theory of Mediated Learning Experience MLE).

Education is a ladder, and we expect every learner to climb as fast and as high as they are able. „Drop outs‟ are seen as a wasted opportunity, for the learners, and for society as a whole.

Once teachers taught courses, subjects and classes. But no more. Now they are teaching individuals…

flashcards: learning power

Growth-orientation v being

stuck & static I see learning as something I can get better

at, and myself as an improving learner. This

often reflects a more general interest in ‘self-

improvement’, and faith that this is possible. I

have a sense of history and of hope. I tend to

take ownership of my own learning, and like

to be responsible for what I’m learning and

how I go about it. I’m usually quite ready to

‘sign up’ to learning tasks that are presented

to me

Meaning making v Data

accumulation

I tend to look for patterns, connections

and coherence in what I am learning,

and to seek links between new

situations and what I already know or

am interested in. I’m on the look-out for

‘horizontal meaning’ I like to make

sense of new things in terms of my own

experience, and I like learning about

what matters to me.

Critical curiosity v passivity

I like to get below the surface of things and

see what is really going on. I like to work

things out for myself, and to ask my own

questions. I tend to go looking for things to

understand better, rather than just

responding to problems that come my way. I

am usually excited by the prospect of

learning, and have a good deal of energy for

learning tasks and situations. In general, I’m

attracted to learning and enjoy a challenge. I

value getting at the truth.

Creativity v Rulebound I like new situations, and will sometimes create

novelty and uncertainty ‘just to see what happens’. I’ll

spice things up to stop them being boring. I like

playing with possibilities and imagining how situations

could be otherwise. I am able to look at problems

from different perspectives. I like trying things out

even if I don’t know where they will lead. I sometimes

get my best ideas when I just let my mind float freely,

and I don’t mind ‘giving up mental control’ for a while

to see what bubbles up. I often use my imagination

when I’m learning, and pay attention to images and

physical promptings as well as rational thoughts.

Positive learning

relationships v Isolation I like working on problems with other people, especially

my friends. I have no difficulty sharing thoughts and

ideas with others, and find it useful. I am quite capable

of working away at problems on my own, and

sometimes prefer it. I don’t feel I have to stick with the

crowd for fear of being lonely or isolated, when I’m

learning. I have important people at home and in my

community who share with me in my learning. I am

ready to draw on these when it seems helpful. I feel that

I live within a supportive social context.

Strategic Awareness v

Robotic

I tend to think about my learning, and plan how I am

going to go about it. I usually have a fair idea how

long something is going to take me, what resources I

am going to need, and my chances of being

successful.

I am able to talk about the process of learning – how I

go about things – and about myself as a learner –

what my habits, preferences, aspirations, strengths

and weaknesses are.

Resilience - dependence

and fragility I tend to stick at things for a while, even when they are

difficult. I don’t give up easily. I often enjoy grappling with

things that aren’t easy.

I can handle the feelings that tend to crop up during

learning: frustration, confusion, apprehension and so on. I

have quite a high degree of emotional tolerance when it

comes to learning. I’m not easily upset or embarrassed

when I can’t immediately figure something out

I don’t immediately look for someone to help me out when I

am finding things difficult, or when I get stuck. I’m usually

happy to keep trying on my own for a while. I don’t mind if

there’s nobody around to ‘rescue’ me.

Banking model

“This model of education sees pupils or students as depositories to be filled up by teachers who have already been filled up. The contents are pre-produced as an abstract body of knowledge, by researchers whose intellectual labour is already divided by subject area, and distributed through the curriculum by teachers in schools and other institutions which are factories for filling minds.” (p. 79)

Fox, S (2002) Studying Networked Learning: Some Implications from Socially Situated

Learning Theory and Actor Network Theory, in: Steeples, C, Jones C (eds.) Networked Learning: Perspectives and Issues, London: Springer, pp. 77-91.

Banking model

“This model of education sees pupils or students as depositories to be filled up by teachers who have already been filled up. The contents are pre-produced as an abstract body of knowledge, by researchers whose intellectual labour is already divided by subject area, and distributed through the curriculum by teachers in schools and other institutions which are factories for filling minds.” (p. 79)

Fox, S (2002) Studying Networked Learning: Some Implications from Socially Situated

Learning Theory and Actor Network Theory, in: Steeples, C, Jones C (eds.) Networked Learning: Perspectives and Issues, London: Springer, pp. 77-91.

learning Postgraduate Certificate in Academic Practice (PGCAP)

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