Lowell's Use of the Bible

Ox THE BORDER between literature andtheology lies the Bible. Occupying a

scholarly no-man's land, it is frequentlyneglected; everybody's business is all toooften nobody's . Students of religion ponderits teachings but not its literary possibilities,while literary scholars have so many mat-ters to busy them that they are prone toleave the Scriptures to the theologue. Thetwo courses in the Bible as literature taughtat the University of Oklahoma indicatethat the younger generation has littleknowledge of the material in the Old andNew Testaments, a fact that is further sub-stantiated by the uniformity with whichtelling references to biblical events and say-ings in literary masterpieces fail to makeany impression upon their minds. Underthese circumstances, it is well to considerthe quantity and quality of what they aremissing. Examination of an author whosecopious biblical references are normallyfairly obvious is perhaps the best methodto find this information . Such an authorwas James Russell Lowell, in whose workscriptural passages figure frequently . Sincehe was not one of the first rank of writersin whose work the materials are so wellfused as often to defy tracing, identificationof biblical sources is seldom difficult .Although Lowell's biblical references and

allusions fail to show deep study, their ex-tent and frequency-his twenty volumescontain nearly a thousand allusions to fifty-three of the Bible's sixty-six books-provehis wide reading in the Scriptures . Theyare outnumbered only by his references,some fourteen hundred in number, to clas-sical Greek and Roman literature, and nat-urally by references to the long tradition ofEnglish authors. He felt sufficiently f.urtil-iar with the Bible to trust often (sometimesunwisely to his memory in quoting it.Though casual references abound, he work-ed not a few biblical passages into the veryfabric of his discourse ."Dante was intimate with the Scrip-

tures," wrote Lowell ; "they do even a schol-ar no harm." His reaction to them indi-cates that this was intended as ironic under-statement. One finds his references occa-sionally in genuine religious yearning ; moreoften their use is secular . They occurin parody of pedantic piety in The Biglow

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By JOHN PAUL PRITCHARD

Papers, as illumination of argument andexposition, as poetic simile and metaphor.Other allusions range from the serious toalmost the extreme of graceless puns whichseemed to some contemporaries to toppleoil the verge of irreverence . Lowell, how-ever, defended such grotesque use of theScriptures as being characteristic of god-fearing men in his region : "Will anyonefamiliar with the New England country-man venture to tell me that he does notspeak of sacred things familiarly? thatBiblical allusions . . . are not frequent onhis lips? . . . one of the things I am proudof in my countrymen is . . . that they donot put their Maker away far from them,or interpret the fear of God into beingafraid of film." Lowell did not hesitateto use a similar freedom. He would freelycombine two biblical passages, alter thesense of a passage, and even mingle in oneidea such diverse elements as the Bible,Aristophanes, Rabelais, and Montaigne. Itis a pecuriarly "tetchy" reader, however,who finds anywhere in his work the leasthint of irreverence .Having been rusticated from Harvard

to Concord in his senior year for infractionof college rules, Lowell wrote to a friendthat he had "sacrificed, perchance, too as-siduously oil that altar to the `unknownGod', which the Divinity has builded notwith hands in the bosom of every decentman, sometimes blazing out clear withflame, like Abel's sacrifice, heaven-seeking ;sometimes smothered with green-wood andearthward, like that of Cain ." The sacri-fice for which he had been exiled to Con-cord had consisted of libations to Bacchus,hardly an unknown god among Harvardstudents ; but the involved rhetoric of thisfirst recorded instance of his conflation ofbiblical passages illustrated a habit that inless orotund form he followed all his life .Other passages written during his last yearat Harvard and shortly thereafter includeechoes of Genesis, Exodus, the Psalms, Ec-clesiastes, Matthew, the Acts, and SecondCorinthians . Though most of them areconventional enough, a visit to a supposedcamp-meeting is unexpectedly character-ized . "I rode by the place last night, andwhat do you think I saw? An empty reedshaken by the wind of hypocrisy or fanati-

cism? No! a party of eight or ten gam-blers."

After his engagement in 1840 to theyoung poetess Maria White, Lowell's facul-ties seemed to [nature; his always exuberantfancy had its fullest play during this decade .One finds him using biblical matter in greatprofusion and variety of ways. In his po-ems, he was intensely serious; at this timeno poem had value in his eyes that did notconvey a "truth of philosophy." He referredto the fall of man and the flood, to theexodus from Egypt and the tables of the lawgiven at Sinai . Phrases occur from Nehe-miah, Job, and the Proverbs, along withreference to the idyl of Ruth and Belshaz-zar's feast. From the New Testament hetook episodes about John the Baptist, theman born blind, the Good Samaritan, thelast judgment, various details of the Cruci-fixion, the stoning of Stephen, Paul's speechat Athens, and the account in First Corinth-ians of the resurrection of the dead . Mostof these allusions are notable chiefly forhis facility in scriptural illustration . Inoccasional flashes, one finds unexpected andunorthodox use of scriptural story ; he re-fers once to an abandoned child who hadreverted to the beasts as

fain to glcan(More sick at heart than Ruth, and all alone)After the hars°est of the incrciless wolf,(:rim Boaz .This light-fingered borrowing and re-

modeling of scripture occurs much morefrequently in letters of the period . Hewrote to his sister-in-law that a daguerreo-type of Maria was so beautiful that "yourmother in direct contravention of one ofthe Commandments (I do not rememberwhich, but you can easily step over and in-quire of Mr. Weiss) will covet it ." ToLongfellow, taking the waters at Brattle-boro, Vermont, lie wrote : "I do not won-der at your being inspired to write a poemupon the summer rain up there, keepingas you do a sign of Aquarius (or a fac-simile) stationary over your head likeJoshua's sun." In a third letter he admitsthe imputation of slave-holding because thewomen at home insist upon waiting onhim. "Yet how avoid it? Maria laughswhen I propose to learn darning, and Ellenflies into open rebellion and snatches thepail out of my hand when I would fain

assume half of the old Israelitish drudgeryand become my own drawer of water."Though one might insist that scripturalallusions found in his poems had been care-fully selected for their purposes, the let-ters, for the most part hastily written, arefull of equally apt references .

Lowell's anni mirabiles, 1846-48, saw thepublishing of a volume of poems, the Fablefor Critics, and the first series of the BiglowPapers . He was at the same time a con-stant contributor to anti-slavery periodicalsand a busy writer of reviews . The morethan eighty biblical allusions of these threeyears comprise, in addition to poetic simileand metaphor, literary criticism, religiousand social discussion, satire, irony, humor,puns, and the pedantry of the ReverendHomer Wilbur . Humor is perhaps themost frequently met characteristic . He be-gan to write with greater ease and to in-corporate his biblical references more thor-oughly into his work .The first Biglow Paper contains a start-

ling converse of the well-known New Tes-tament statement about marriage :

Man fled ough' to but a,underThem diet God Iws nowacs jined .

The converse of a proposition is not neces-sarily true ; but Lowell used it effectively inurging that Massachusetts secede from aUnion that catered to the slave-owningstates . By December, 1846, becoming tiredof the single-track Abolitionist minds, hewrote for the Anti-Slavery Standard a versi-fied account of their Boston convention thatmust have sadly ruffled the feathers of theunto guid . One fire-eating speaker waslampooned as

A terrible denouncer he,Old Sinai burns unqucnchphlyUpon his lips ; he well might he aI lot-blazing soul from fierce Jude ;[,Habakkuk, Ezra, or Hosca .

Another, a Stephen Foster, isthe reviled and pelted Stephen,The unappcasablc BoancrgcsTo all the churches and the clergies . . .A kind of maddened John the Baptist .

As for the many who attack the Church,II ;tn\ ism should arise,They book on it with constable's eyes,Tic round its neck a heave auhc-And give it kittens' h)-droopathy .This trick with other (useful very) tricksis laid to the Babylonian meretrix,But 'twas in vogue before her clayWhenever priesthoods had their way .

The latitudinarian Church suffers in simi-lar hudibra.stics ; it

snakes one gate of heaven so wideThat the rich orthodox might rideThrough on their camels, while the poorSquirm through the scant unyielding doorWhich, of the Gospel's straitest size,is narrower than bead-needles' e\es .S t>CIAL REFORM received Lowell's zeal-ous, almost religious support . In one

poem, "Extreme Unction," he demandedthat the reapers go forth into God's ripe

harvest in greater numbers ere night comes .In "Above and Below," he skilfully com-bined several passages into one speech .Deus loquitur :

"I gave thee the great gift of life ;Wast thou not called in many ways?Arc not my earth and Heaven at strife?I gave thee of my seed to sow,Bringest thou me my hundred-fold?"Can I look up with face aglow,And answer, "Father, here is gold"?

Biblical reference served Lowell well inhis reviews . Once, in expressing the as-tounding conviction that the "palmy daysof the novel are gone forever," he lamentedthat printing, by bringing the apple ofknowledge within the reach of all, hadmade reading "a laborious curse akin tothat which ensued from the original bite ."Combining biblical with classical terms, heremarked of poetry that "the curse of Babelfell not on the muse ."

In connection witha book on current cultures, he tartly re-marked : "Civilization has made wonder-ful advances since the apostle Philip mount-ed the chariot of the Ethiopian eunuch . Itmust be remembered, however, that Ethio-pians do not keep chariots nowadays ."

It was in the Fable for Critics (1848) thatLowell first found his pace as employer ofbiblical allusion . I le remarked in the pref-ace that, taking a walk after communionwith "mystical Browne's Jacob's-ladder-likebrain," he lets the landscape "pour her wineand her oil on the smarts of the mind ." Inthe Fable itself a number of contemporaryfigures are treated . Theodore Parker, hav-ing been read out of all established church-es, "cared not a (1-n for their (hunming" ;he defended himself lustily :

He bangs and bcthwacks then,-theirbucks he salutes

With the whole tree of knowledge tornup by the roots . . .

.1!vcry word that he speaks has been fierilyfurnaced

In the blast of a life that has struggledin earnest.

Whittier, the Quaker militant, amusedLowell by his pugnacity :

Anne bace, one exclaims, on beholdinghis knocks,

Testis fitii mi, O leather-clad Fox' . . .

Preaching brotherly love and then driv-ing it in

To the brain of the tough old Goliathof sin,

With the smoothest of pebbles fromCastaly's spring

Impressed on his hard moral sense witha sling .

He declared that readers who did not en-joy Sylvester Judd's Margaret (an earlyrealistic novel) justified the biblical pro-hibition, porcos ante ne prol'iciatis mar-garitas . He also decried his own tendencyto preach in poetry :

His lyre has some chords that would ringpretty well,

But he'd rather by half make a drum ofthe shell,

And rattle away till he's old as Methu-salen,

At the head of a march to the last newJerusalem .

The Biglou , Papers continued the use ofscriptural allusion . Birdofredurn Sawin,the gullible recruit, "worn't so wise ez thetair queen o' Sheby" ; she had been wise tovisit Solonwn, who more than fulfilled herexpectations, whereas army life was farbelow the "cruetin' sarjunt's" promises .The Reverend Homer Wilbur ironicallyrecommends that American cannon-balls bewrapped in leaves of the New Testament,"the reading of which is denied those whosit in the darkness of Popery ." By suchmissionary endeavors among the Mexicans,we should become "shooters as well asfishers of men." "I have found," Mr . Wil-bur adds in a comment that explains Low-ell's anti-slavery technique, "that the Arch-Enetny loves nothing better than to betreated as a religious, moral, and intellec-tual being . . . and that there is no ,pageSathanas so potent as ridicule." To theBoston Post's irritation at the early BiglowPapers, Mr . Wilbur responds in a laternumber : "It is very clear that my youngfriend's shot has struck the lintel, for thePost is shaken (Arnos ix . I) ." Wilbur'signorance of modern languages, those re-sults of the fall of" Babel, saves him fromconfusion of mind . "For this reason," headds, "I have ever preferred the study ofthe (lead languages, those primitive forma-

APRIL, 1955

About the Author

As Professor Pritchard points out, literary referencesto the Bible are not so e9ective nowadays as they oncewere because too many readers fail to recognise theallusions . Nevertheless, the "noble English" of theBible has colored much of our speech and writing ; andthis study of the telling use which farnes Russell Lowellmade of the Bible mares a very interesting article . Dr .Pritchard, Professor of English, has recently completedthe manuscript of it book on the history of Americanliterary criticism, which will be published by the Uni-versity of Oklahoma Pros .

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tions being Ararats upon whose silent peaksI sit secure and watch the new deluge with-out fear, though it rain figures (simulacra,semblances) of speech forty days and nightstogether, as it not uncommonly happens."Hosea Biglow contributes his mite of bib-lical allusion by asserting that according tothe Democrats "Washington's mantelpiecefell upon Polk." Prophetically, Mr. Wil-bur remarks : "No ship of state was everfreighted with a more veritable Jonah thanthis same domestic institution I-slavery I ofours . . . Nevertheless, it is the unavoid-able fate of Jonahs to be cast overboardsooner or later . . . Perhaps our suspiciouspassenger is no Jonah after all, being black.For it is well known that a superintendingProvidence made a kind of sandwich ofHain and his descendants, to be devouredby the Caucasian race ." Lowell's effer-vescing humor weakened the irony of thepreceding passage, but not the followingexcerpt from the pious editor's creed:

I du believe thet I should giveWut's his'n unto Caesar,

For it's by him I move and live,Erunl him my bread an' cheese air;

I du believe thet all o' meDoth bear his superscription . . . .

In short, I firmly (In believeIn Humbug generally .

This lleth my faithful shepherd been,In pasturs sweet heth led me,

An' this'll keep the people greenTo feed ez they hev fed me .

Mr . Wilbur's comment is also biblical aswell as punning. In a reverie upon thedaily newspaper, he suddenly concludes:"The wonder wears off, and to-morrow thesheet (Acts x. 11, 12), in which a visionwas let down to me from Heaven, shall bethe wrappage to a bar of soap or the platterfor a beggar's broken victuals ." Seldomhas biblical matter better served irony andhumor.The 1850's were years of sorrow for Low-

ell. He lost his wife and three of his fourchildren, and was depressed also by dark-ening American politics . His literary out-put decreased and became more serious intone, though his normally riotous humorcould not even then be fully repressed. Wefind him adopting Emerson's belief thatthe canon of Scripture is not closed .

Slowly the Bible of the race is writ,And not on paper leaves nor leaves of

stoile ;Each age, cash kindred, adds a verse to it .

The poem is almost a lento of biblicalphrases : the broken reed, the twenty-thirdpsalm, the giving of the law froth Hor andSinai, Isaiah's lips touched with the coalfrom the altar, the wandering in the wil-derness, and the giving of manna. Lessserious by far was his reaction to Garrison'sfulminations in the Liberator: he won-

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dered whether "Boston has by this timemet the fate of Sodom ." In commendingHolmes for his attack in the Autocrat uponbigoted religion, lie wrote: "The religiouspress . . . will be at you, but after smash-ing one of them you will be able to furnishyourself with a Samson's weapon for therest of the Philisterei." One reference re-quires much enlightenment. Whilespend-ing a vacation at Newport, he wrote toCharles Eliot Norton : "What do I do?Tarry at Jericho chiefly." The crypticstatement seems meaningless until onenotes from photographs that Lowell wasengaged in growing the beard which after1854 covered his jaws . The reference con-cerns an episode in the history of David .Hostile Ammonites had disgraced David'senvoys by shaving half the beard of each ;and David had ordered them to tarry atJericho until their beards should be grown .

OR THE CENTENNIAL of Robert Burns'birth in 1859, Lowell wrote a poem

which skirted the bounds of biblical deco-ruin as closely as he ever ventured . Burns'sHoly Willie reads indictments which ifproved will bar the bard from the pearlygates. The first charge, "makin' strife wi'the water o' life / And preferrin' aquavitae," is dismissed :

Then roared a voice with lusty (]in,Like a skipper's when 'tis blowy,"If that's a sin, I'd ne'er got in,As sure as my name's Noah!"

As to his saying "hard things o' the clergy" :

Then rang a clear tone over all,"One plea for him allow me :I once heard the call from o'cr me, 'Saul,Why persecutest thou me?""

The third charge, that he hall "yearnedO'erwartnly toward the lasses," embarrassesboth David and Holy Willie .

Here David sighed ; poor Willie's faceLost all its self-possession :"I leave this case to God's own grace;It baffles my discretion!"

The summing up ambiguously gets Burnsaquitted of all charges, especially the third,on the ground that he loved much-"thatis gospel good / Howe'er the text youhandle."

At the beginning of Lincoln's presidency,Lowell was skeptical of the President'scapacities . It seemed to him that the ra-vens had gathered for the carcass of theUnion, which Lincoln was too kindly dis-posed to defend by injuring the South ."The doing good to those that despitefullyentreat us was not meant for enemies ofthe conunonwealth. The devil's angels arethose that do his work, and for such thereis a lake of fire and brimstone prepared ."Later, he came to support Lincoln whole-heartedly.

Speaking in the person of Mr.

Wilbur, he wrote of much political propa-ganda : "Whereas Job was left to desire. . . that his adversary had written a book,as perchance misanthropically wishing toindite a review thereof, yet was not Satanallowed so far to tempt him as to send Bil-dad, 1?liphaz, and Zophar each with an un-printed work in his wallet to be submittedto his censure." He deprecates popularstrictures on governmental policies : "theGood Book ascribes safety to a multitude,indeed, but not to a mob, of counsellors."He cynically asserts that the negro's re-habilitation requires first his economic in-dependence : "so soon as the Ethiopian goesin his chariot, he will find not only Apos-tles, but Chief Priests and Scribes and Phar-isees willing to ride with him ."

Lowell attacked also the pro-slaverypropaganda . Birdofredultt, now a rene-gade Yankee, attends a Southern camp-meeting.

Wal, so i went along an' liearn most allimpressive sarnlo~n

About bcsprinklin' Afriky with Iourth-proof dcw o' Harnlon . .

I lam's seed lvuz gin to us in chairge, :in'shouldn' we be li'blc

In Kingdom Come, of the kep' back theirpriv'lege in the Bible?

'I'he cusses an' the protnerses make ategret chain, an' of

You snake one link out here, one there,how much on't ud be Ief'? . . .

h~a why should Caesar git his dues morc'nJuno, Potnp, an' Cuffy?

It's justifyin' Ham to spare a nigger whenhe's stuffy . .

When Satan sets himself to work to raisehis very bes' muss,

IIc scatters round onscriptur'l views re-latin' to Ones'mus.

As the preacher "bellered like all Bashan,"conviction in Birdofredum "growed an'growed like Jonah's gourd," until he gotreligion . His neighbors' persuasion nodoubt hastened his conversion ; as he re-marks, "one canter on a rail Makes a manfeel unannertnous ez Jonah in the whale."

Lowell's post-Civil-War activities pro-duced a number of critical essays as theirbest fruit. Here, too, biblical commentabounds. Carlyle's hero does not lead man-kind like a shepherd ; "Mr. Carlyle is forcalling down fire from Heaven wheneverlie cannot readily lay his hand on the inatch-box." He dismissed the Great AmericanPoet for whom the age was seeking as oneof the "shah shaggy, who have tried thetrick of Jacob upon us." Petrarch, for allhis 1ihertinism, would have flung the firststone at thewoman taken in adultery . Rome"produced but one original poet, and thatwas Horace, who has ever since continuedthe favorite of men of the world, an apostleto the Gentiles of the mild cynicism ofmiddle age and an after-dinner philoso-

Continued page 32

Lttwell's Use of the Bible . .

phy." The fiery impetuosity of Paul andthe nil admirari of the lZoman form a start-ling collocation.The letters of this period contain also

amusing biblical terms. He was "Martha-ized by many small troubles ." After sell-ing his fields in Cambridge during thepost-war boom in real estate, he wrote : "Ihave been selling my birthright for a messof pottage, and I find it so savory that Iside with Esau more than ever ." In Paris,playing cicerone to Emerson, he took him"to the top of the tower of Notre Dame, andplayed the part of Satan very well . . . . show-ing him all the kingdoms of this world ."With a contribution to the Atlantic Month-ly he enclosed a note to his successor as edi-tor, expressing his amusement "that our po-sitions should be reversed, and that youshould be sitting in the seat of the scornerwhere I used to sit .' When the publisherSampson Low sent only twenty poundsroyalty on time thousand copies of hisAmong My Nooks, lie drily remarked :"Sampson has turned Philistine and meansto let others do the grinding for him."One serious reference cannot be omitted.

"A man does not receive the statements that,two and two make four,' and that `the purein heart shall see God,' on the same terms .The one can be proved to him with fourgrains of corn ; he can never arrive at a be-lief in the other till he realize it in the in-timate persuasion of his whole being. Thisis typified in the mystery of the incarnation .The divine reason must forever manifestitself anew in the lives of men, and that asindividuals." One cannot avoid the con-viction that here the same Lowell whosehumorous use of the Scriptures often scan-dalized the godly admits us to personal,genuine religious experience .During his years as minister first to Spain

and subsequently to England, Lowell's pub-lic duties gravely curtailed his literary ac-tivity . Looking at his works, he regretsthat lie has brought in so few poetic sheaves.Iiis natural force is abated ; virtue goes outol him whenever he attempts composition ;the grasshopper has become a burden . IIefinds the Parthenon standing in a landscapethat is the abomination of desolation . Eng-land is the "incarnation of the Kingdom ofthis World ." London is "Babylon the greatcity ." Paris, though lie likes it, is a City ofthe Plain. lie is persuaded that "the D-1has been abroad in great wrath, but not be-cause his time is short unhappily." 1 lis pill,-

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Conlinued faun pare %0

lit addresses are "as cold as Saul on MountGilboa ." Such excerpts from his lettersindicate an aging, ailing, disappointed tnan,who for all his successes temporarily foundlife vanity and vexation of spirit .His depression did not, however, smoth-

er the sparks of his humor. Ile is uncertainof his tenure as minister : "Such is the lotof an American Miluster-he fleeth awayas a shadow and bath no abiding place."He would be "content with a portershipitu the House of the Lord-not only becauseit would keep me nearer earth, but becausein that office I could slam the door in thefaces of bores, critics, and booksellers." lieabhorred autograph hunters, "those per-verse persons who seek for a sign and towhom no sign shall be given."

lie braggedto an English friend that a single Ameri-can mosquito "would have prevented thecatastrophe of the Foolish Virgins." Thecasualness with which such remarks weredropped in letters indicates the facility withwhich biblical matters came to his mind .

Lowell's sportive use of the Scriptures,one must reiterate, implies no lack of rev-erence for them . When Mrs. Lowell laydangerously ill in Madrid, he wrote to afriend : "We took great comfort togetherin the twenty-third psalm. I am glad I wasborn long enough ago to have some super-stitions left . They stand by one somehow,and the back feels that it has a brotherbehind it ."

His underlining the word "su-perstitions" indicated that he meant by itnot its usual significance but the belief insomething standing over him . In his pub-lic life, too, he found resource in the Bible.At Birmingham, in defending the Ameri-can way before a manufacturing audienceunfriendly to his country, he admitted someof the charges brought against his nation ;but lie added : "The testimony of Balaamshould carry some conviction ." This seem-ingly casual remark, which lie forbore toamplify, carried the implications of hisentire address on "Democracy ." Like Ba-laam, lie could not condemn what God hadblessed ; lie could only praise the goodlyland that was obviously under God's protec-tion ; and lie foresaw, proceeding fromAmerica as Balaam saw it for Israel, theoverthrow of baser forms and principles oflife . He was not, however, proclaiming anationalistic gospel : "Our healing is not inthe storm or the whirlwind, it is not inmonarchies, or aristocracies, or democra-cies, but will be revealed by the still small

voice that speaks to the conscience and theheart, prompting its to a wider and wiserhumanity."Though unusually prolific in his biblical

allusions, Lowell is a fair sample of theauthor who competently employs the Bibleas part of his materials. The reader whoattempts to understand good writing willseldom be at case in his reading withoutmore than a nodding acquaintance with theScriptures .

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